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COMMENTARY 

ON 

THE HOLY BIBLE 

BY VARIOUS WRITERS 



EDITED BY 

The Rev. J. R. DUMMELOW M.A. 

QUEENS' COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE 



COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME 

WITH GENERAL ARTICLES AND MAPS 



NEW YORK 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1909 






I LIBRARY of CONGRESSl 
Two Copies Received ' 

FEB 18 1909 

Copyrijrnt entry 
CUSS oC IXC. No, 



Copyright, 1908, I9D9, 
Br THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1909. 



Xormooo iBrraa : 
Berwick ft Smith Co., Norwood. Mass., U.S.A. 









5? 



PREFACE 

A few words will suffice to explain the purpose and plan of the present volume, 
which has been specially written to meet the wants of the ordinary Bible reader. 

The Bible is the inspired record of God's gradual revelation of Himself, His 
Nature, Character, and Will, — a revelation made in the first instance to a people 
who were chosen to be the guardians of this treasure and to communicate it in 
due time to the rest of mankind, — a revelation consummated in the Person, Life, 
and Work of Jesus Christ. In this light it is regarded by at least a third of the 
human race, who have accepted it as a sure guide through time to eternity. It 
therefore demands and deserves constant and reverent study, which will be richly 
repaid by an ever-growing appreciation of its beauties, and a clearer perception 
of its spiritual power and truth. 

Yet it is often forgotten that 1800 years have elapsed since the last pages of 
the Bible were written, that it deals with events of the remote past, with races 
moved by ideas and influenced by a civilisation very unlike our own, and that the 
language of its larger half has ceased to be a living speech for more than two 
thousand years. Even the translation which is in common use — the Authorised 
Version — was made 300 years ago, at a time when Christian scholars had only 
just become conversant with Hebrew, and when no one thought of employing for 
critical purposes those ancient Versions, such as the Septuagint, which throw so much 
light on both text and interpretation. It is also only within recent years that 
travellers have familiarised themselves and others with Eastern scenes and customs, 
and have become acquainted with the literature, history, religion and archaeology 
of the nations connected with Israel. 

It is therefore evident that the student who possesses only the text of the 
Bible is greatly hampered by ignorance of the circumstances under which the 
various books were originally composed, the mental habits of the people to whom 
they were addressed, and the actual needs which they were designed to meet. 
Oftentimes he fails to realise that the prophecy, psalm, or epistle was sent 
forth in response to contemporary circumstances, as urgent and vital as any 
we experience. Hence arises an inadequate apprehension of the intense reality 
of the message delivered. Spiritual help may, no doubt, be derived from its 
perusal — that being the main purpose for which God's providence has preserved 
it, — but even this will be less efficacious than if there had been caught a more 
distinct echo of the original bearing and significance of the record. 

The One Volume Commentary is an attempt to meet such needs as have been 
indicated, and to provide, in convenient form, a brief explanation of the meaning 
of the Scriptures. Introductions have been supplied to the various books, and 
Notes which will help to explain the principal difficulties, textual, moral or 
doctrinal, which may arise in connexion with them. A series of Articles has, 
also, been prefixed, dealing with the larger questions suggested by the Bible as a 
whole. It is hoped that the Commentary may lead to a perusal of many of the 
books of Holy Scripture which are too often left unread, in spite of their rare 
literary charm and abundant usefulness for the furtherance of the spiritual life. 



PREFACE 

The Authorised Version has been commented on as being still in general use, 
but pains have been taken to indicate the innumerable passages where the Revised 
Version leads to a better understanding of the original. 

In recent years much light has been thrown upon questions of authorship and 
interpretation, and the contributors to this volume have endeavoured to incor- 
porate in it the most assured results of modern scholarship, whilst avoiding 
opinions of an extreme or precarious kind. Sometimes these results differ con- 
siderably from traditional views, but in such cases it is not. only hoped, but 
believed, that the student will find the spiritual value and authority of the Bible 
have been enhanced, rather than diminished, by the change. 

The Editor desires to express his gratitude to the many well-known biblical 
scholars who have responded so readily to his appeal for help, and by their 
encouragement and contributions have made the production of the Commentary 
possible. He regrets that the problem of space, which has confronted him from 
beginning to end, has allowed him to assign to them only sufficient room for 
the briefest and simplest treatment of their several books. 

For the conception and methods of the work the Editor is alone responsible. 
He has been induced to undertake the task from a belief that, notwithstanding the 
many commentaries in existence, there is still room for another more suited to the 
needs and means of the general public. To treat so vast a subject in so small a 
space must inevitably evoke criticism, but he trusts that even within the limits 
of a single volume, much will be found to remove difficulties, to strengthen faith, 
and to lead to a wider study and fuller comprehension of the Word of God. 



CONTMBUTOKS 



OLD TESTAMENT 



Ayles, Rev. H. H. B., D.D., Rector of Barrow, 

Suffolk. 
Curtis, E. L., Ph.D., D.D., Professor of 

Hebrew Language and Literature, Yale 

Divinity School. 
Davison, Rev. W. T., D.D., Professor of 

Theology, Richmond, Surrey. 
Dummelow, Rev. J. R., General Editor. 
*Edie, Rev. W., M. A., B.D., formerly Examiner 

for the Degree of B.D., St. Andrews. 
Green, Rev. E. T., M.A., Professor of Hebrew, 

St. David's College, Lampeter. 
Jordan, Rev. W. G., B.A., D.D., Professor of 

OT. Criticism, Queen's University, Ontario. 
Kennett, Rev. Canon R., B.D., Regius Pro- 
fessor of Hebrew, Cambridge. 
Kent, C. F., Ph.D., Professor of Biblical 

History and Literature, Yale University. 
Lofthouse, Rev.W. F., M. A., Professor of OT. 

Languages and Philosophy, Handsworth 

College, Birmingham. 
McFadyen, Rev. J. E., M.A., Professor of OT. 

Literature and Exegesis, Knox College, 

Toronto. 
♦Moulton, Rev. W. J., M. A., Professor of OT. 

Languages and Philosophy, Headingley 

College, Leeds. 



Paton, Rev. L. B., D.D., Professor of OT. 
Exegesis, Hartford Seminary, Conn. 

♦Patrick, Rev. J., B.D., B.Sc, formerly 
Examiner for Degrees in Divinity, St. 
Andrews. 

*Ragg, Rev. Canon L., M.A., sometime 
Warden of the Bishop's Hostel, Lincoln. 

Robinson, G. L., Ph.D., Professor of OT. 
Literature and Exegesis, McCormick 
Theological Seminary, Chicago. 

Sanders, F. K., Ph.D., President of Wash- 
burn College, Topeka, Kansas. 

*Stott, Rev. G. G., M.A., B.D., Examiner for 
Degrees in Hebrew and Theology, St. 
Andrews. 

Streane, Rev. A. W., D.D., Fellow of Corpus 
Christi College, Cambridge. 

♦Taylor, Rev. J., Litt.D., Yicar of Winch- 
combe. 

Wade, Rev. G. W., D.D., Professor and Senior 
Tutor, St. David's College, Lampeter. 

Welch, Rev. A., B.D., Glasgow. 

Woods, Rev. F. H., B.D., Rector of Bainton, 
Yorks ; sometime Fellow and Tutor, St. 
John's College, Oxford. 



NEW TESTAMENT 



♦Adeney, Rev. W. F., D.D., Principal of the 
Lancashire College, Manchester. 

Campbell, Rev. J., M.A., B.D., Monquhitter. 

Curtis, Rev. W. A., B.D., Professor of Sys- 
tematic Theology, Aberdeen. 

♦Findlay, Rev. G. G., D.D., Professor of 
Biblical Literature and Exegesis, Heading- 
ley College, Leeds. 

Fulford, Rev. H. W., M.A., Fellow and Dean 
(formerly), Clare College, Cambridge. 

♦Harris, Rev. C, D.D., Yicar of Claverley; 

Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of 

Llandaff. 
Meyrick, Rev. F., M.A. (the late), Rector of 

Blickling, Norfolk. 

Nairne, Rev. A., M.A., Professor of Hebrew, 
King's College, London ; Examining Chap- 
lain to the Bishop of St. Albans. 



Palmer, Rev. F., M.A., Rector of Andover, 

Massachusetts. 

Peake, A. S., D.D., Dean of the Faculty 
of Theology in the University of Man- 
chester. 

Plummer, Rev. A., D.D., sometime Master of 
University College, Durham. 

Ropes, Rev. J. H., D.D., Bussey Professor 
of NT. Criticism and Exegesis, Harvard 
University. 

Slattery, the Rev. C. L., D.D., Rector of 
Ch. Ch., Springfield, Massachusetts. 

Smith, Rev. G. Abbott, D.D., Professor of 
OT. and NT. Literature, Diocesan Theo- 
logical College, Montreal. 

Smith, Rev. H., M.A., Lecturer at St. John's 
College, Highbury. 

Sturges, Rev. M. C, M.A., sometime Lecturer 
in Theology, Cavendish College, Cambridge. 



CONTRIBUTORS, ETC. 



ARTICLES 



Conder, Colonel, E.E., D.C.L., LL.D. 

Frew, Rev. D., B.D., formerly Black Theo- 
logical Fellow, Glasgow University. 



Paterson-Smyth, Rev. J., LL.D., Litt.D., 

Rector of St. George's, Montreal. 

Pullan, Rev. L., M.A., Fellow and Tutor, 
St. John's College, Oxford. 



And other Contributors marked thus * on previous page. 



ABBREVIATIONS 



AV = Authorised Version. 
RV — Revised Version. 
RM = Margin of RV. 
OT. = Old Testament. 
NT. = New Testament, 
cp. = compare, 
f . = following. 
Heb. = J2ebrew. 



Gk. = Greek. 
MSS = Manuscripts. 
VSS = Versions. 

WH. = Westcott and Hort's text. 
LXX = The Septuagint, an ancient Greek 
translation of the Old Testament. 
HDB. = Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, a 
valuable work of reference. 



COLLECT 



Blessed Lord, who hast caused all holy Scriptures to be written for our 
learning ; Grant that we may in such wise hear them, read, mark, learn, and 
inwardly digest them, that by patience, and comfort of thy holy Word, we 
may embrace, and ever hold fast the blessed hope of everlasting life, which thou 
hast given us in our Saviour Jesus Christ. Amen. 



CONTENTS 

GENERAL ARTICLES 

PAGK 

General Introduction to the Bible ....... xi 

Hebrew History to the Exile ........ xvii 

Introduction to the Pentateuch xxiv 

The Creation Story and Science xxx 

Genesis and the Babylonian Inscriptions. xxxii 

The Laws of Hammurabi ......... xxxv 

Heathen Religions referred to in the Bible xxxvii 

Introduction to Hebrew Prophecy ....... xli 

The Messianic Hope xlv 

The History, Literature, and Religious Development of the Jews 

in the Period between the Testaments ..... xlviii 

The Life of Jesus Christ lxxiy 

The Teaching of Jesus Christ ........ lxxix 

The Synoptic Problem lxxxiii 

The Dynasty of the Herods lxxxvi 

The Life and Work of St. Paul lxxxviii 

Survey of the Epistles of St. Paul ....... xci 

Belief in God xcix 

The Person of Jesus Christ cvi 

The Trinity . cxiii 

Miracle ............ cxv 

The Resurrection cxxiii 

The Atonement cxxviii 

Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxxi 

The Study of the Bible cxxxiv 

The Elements of Religion cxxxix 

Palestine cxlv 

Bible Antiquities cxlviii 

Hebrew Calendar, Coins, Weights and Measures .... cli 

Bible Chronology clii 



CONTENTS 



The Old Testament 
The New Testament 



COMMENTARY 



PAGE 

1 

617 



MAPS 

(At end of Volume) 

The Holy Land as allotted by Joshua to the Twelve Tribes of Israel 

Egypt, Sinai, and Canaan 

Lands of the Jewish Captivities 

Palestine in the time of Christ 

Ancient Jerusalem 

Plan of (a) Solomon's Temple, (b) Herod's Temple 

St. Paul's Journeys 



a a 

;v 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE 



The Bible is the source as well as the result 
of inspiration. The utterances of the men of 
old, at the suggestion or under the guidance 
of the Holy Spirit, live and move again, with 
informing, uplifting, redeeming power, under 
the blessing of the same Spirit, in the hearts 
and lives of men. Every detail regarding it 
therefore is interesting. 

i. Titles. The Bible is not one book, but 
many. The original form and meaning of the 
word itself bear this out. Billos in Greek 
means ' book,' so called from byblos, the inner 
bark of the papyrus reed on which early 
writings were inscribed. Blblos is used in 
Mtl 1 , but in Lk4 17 a diminutive form biblion 
is used with the same meaning. The early 
Greek Christians called their Scriptures Ta 
Biblia, i.e. the books par excellence. So they 
were called for centuries. Later, however, 
the Latin form biblia, although plural, was 
mistaken for a feminine singular, this idea 
being doubtless helped by the increasing view 
that the Scriptures were a complete whole — 
the unique Word of God to the world. In 
this way the word as a singular acquired popular 
vogue, and ultimately the Jewish and Christian 
sacred books, which had been known at first 
chiefly as ; the Scriptures ' (hai graphai), became 
familiar in all the languages of Europe as 
' the Bible.' 

The term 'Testament,' familiar to us in 
the phrase, ' Old and New Testaments,' is 
due probably to some misunderstanding of 
the Greek word diatheke. This term is used 
by the Greek translators of the Old Testa- 
ment to render the Hebrew word Berith, 
' covenant,' which originally had a very general 
significance, and referred to decisions or judg- 
ments and agreements of different kinds. As 
these, however, were usually accompanied by 
religious observances and sanctions, the word 
' covenant ' came to have a specially religious 
sense, and was applied to the decisions or 
judgments of God, and His agreements with 
His chosen people, or their outstanding repre- 
sentatives. Thus we have His 'covenant' 
with Noah, Abram, etc., and the new ' cove- 
nant' which He made with men in Christ. 
Under the former the patriarchs of Israel and 
tL-eir descendants came under obligation to 
ren der God obedience and service ; while He, 
on If^s part, undertook to requite them with 
His blessing and favour. Israel's failure to 
keep the covenant of works necessitated the 
covenant of grace under which forgiveness and 



righteousness are secured through faith in 
Christ. It is in this sense the word is used by 
St. Paul (2 Cor 3 6). Only once (Heb 9 ™> ") is 
it possible that it may refer to a disposition or 
will. But this is the sense of the Latin word 
testamentum used to render it, viz. a will, or 
disposition (of property). An attempt was 
made to supplant this word testamentum 
by another word, instrumentum, meaning an 
authoritative document. But the former sur- 
vived and gave to us the familiar words, ' the 
Old and New Testaments,' meaning the cove- 
nants or agreements made by God with His 
people in the Jewish and Christian times 
respectively. 

2. Language. The Bible was written in 
the language of the people among whom it 
first appeared. The language of the Old 
Testament is Hebrew. 

Hebrew is written from right to left. In a 
modern Hebrew Bible the pages run also from 
right to left, and the writing is in square 
characters (consonants), with small signs and 
dots attached variously for vowels. Originally 
Hebrew had no vowels, and the difficulty of 
reading it must have been to a beginner very 
great. Thus DBR might be ddbhdr, ' a word,' 
or dibber, 'he spoke,' or dobher, 'a speaker,' 
or dobher, ' pasture,' or debher, ' pestilence.' 
The vowel system, as will be seen hereafter, 
was only introduced in the sixth century a.d. in 
order to preserve the correct pronunciation. 
This explains one of the difficulties still experi- 
enced in the interpretation of the OT. Scrip- 
tures. It is sometimes doubtful whether the 
correct vowels have been added to the con- 
sonants of the original text, and, if not, what 
others should be substituted for them. 

Hebrew includes Aramaic, a kindred dialect 
with distinctive peculiarities. Parts of the 
Old Testament, viz. Ezr48-6 18 7 12 - 2 <5 JerlO 11 
Dan2 4 -7 28 , are written in Aramaic, while 
isolated words and phrases occur in many 
other parts of the Old Testament, due either 
to the local peculiarities of the original writer, 
or more probably to careless copyists. The 
common speech of our Lord and His disciples 
is generally believed to have been some form 
of Aramaic, and a more careful study of this 
dialect has already thrown much light on their 
teaching. The allusions to Hebrew in the 
New Testament (Jn5 2 19 13 - 17 Ac 21 40 22 2 , 
etc.) are mainly to Aramaic. 

The term ' Chaldee,' sometimes applied to 
the Aramaic portions of the Old Testament, 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE 



is a misnomer. Chaldea is Babylonia, and 
Chaldee is the language of the Babylonian 
inscriptions. 

In the second century B.C. there began to 
be made at Alexandria a Greek version of the 
Old Testament. It is called the Septuagint 
version from the traditional belief that seventy 
scribes (Lat. Septuaginta) were employed in 
its production. This version was probably 
completed some time before the Christian era, 
and is of great value in the study of the Old 
Testament (see art. ' Literature of the Period 
between Old and New Testaments '). 

The language of the New Testament is 
Greek, a particular form hitherto known as 
Hellenistic Greek. Recent discoveries have, 
however, proved conclusively that, in form and 
in substance, it was simply the language of 
the Greek-speaking world of New Testament 
times. The modes of expression in the 
Septuagint, in the Epistles of St. Paul, and in 
the Gospels are not peculiar to Christianity or 



its message, but are due to the style of s^ 
common in that age. Some parts of 
Gospels may have been originally in Aram 
but this is disputed. 

3. Divisions. We have already seen ti it 
the two main divisions of the Bible are the 
Old and New Testaments. As it stands in onr 
English Bible, the Old Testament consists of 
thirty-nine books, but these are only reckont I 
as twenty-four in the Hebrew Bible 1 ar ' 
2S, 1 and 2K, 1 and 2Ch, Ezra, Neh, ai 
the twelve (so-called) Minor Prophets, being 
each reckoned as one book. The Hebre 
divisions are on large lines. The first fi> 
books are known as the Torah (i.e. ' Law : . 
then come the Nebhiim (i.e. ' Prophets '), sud- 
divided into Earlier (four books) and Later 
(four books) ; while the third great division 
is the Kethubhim (i.e. ' writings/ called in the 
Septuagint, ' Hagiographa '). The following 
table shows the grouping of the various boot 
in the Hebrew Bible : — 



I. Torah 



II. Nebhiim 



(Genesis. 
Exodus. 
Leviticus. 
Numbers. 
Deuteronomy. 
rJoshua. 
J Judges. 
I Samuel. 
vKings. 
r Isaiah. 
J Jeremiah. 
j Ezekiel. 
I Twelve Minor Prophets. 



Earlier- 



Later 



III. Kethubhim 



r Psalms 
Proverbs 
Job 



(Canticles 
Ruth 
Lamentations 
Ecclesiastes 
Esther 
Chronicles 



Called the five Megilloth 
(i.e. Rolls). 



Hagiographa means 'sacred writings,' a 
paraphrase of Kethubhim. The five Megilloth 
were so called because each was written on a 
separate roll. They were read yearly at the 
Jewish festivals : Canticles at the Passover ; 
Ruth at Pentecost ; Ecclesiastes at the Feast 
of Tabernacles ; Esther at the Feast of Purim ; 
Lamentations on the anniversary of the 
destruction of Jerusalem. 

A later grouping of the Hebrew books 
given by Josephus enumerates twenty-two, 
being designed to correspond with the twenty- 
two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This was 
accomplished by reading Ruth as part of 
Judges, and Lamentations as part of Jeremiah. 

4. Arrangement. From the grouping of 
the Hebrew Hible given above, it will I < 
that not only the divisions, but also 



xn 



arrangement of the books differs cons 
from those adopted in our Englisl 
The latter follows the Latin Vulgat 
in turn is based on the Septuagint. 
division is according to subject-matt 
(five books), History (twelve books' 
(five books), and Prophecy (seventee : 
This arrangement proves, however, c 
nation to be superficial and inadequa 
even less satisfactory than the ord 
Hebrew Bible. Modern scholars have striven 
rather to obtain some historical arrangement, 
of the books ; their aim being to enable students 
to read the various writings in the ligh^ of 
contemporary events. A sketch of the pro- 
phetical books in their historical ordr.r, given 
by the late Prof. A. B. Davidson, illu strates at 
once the advantages and the dimc-ul 



! 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE 



.1 an arrangement. ' (1) Prophets of the 

iyrian Age — Amos, Hosea, Isaiah (740-700), 

\! cah, Nahum, Zephaniah ; (2) prophets of 

1 I Babylonian age— Habakkuk, Jeremiah 

o 46-580), Ezekiel (593-576) ; (3) prophets of 

tl j Exile and Restoration — Isaiah xl-lxvi (550), 

Haggai, and Zechariah (520), Malachi (420) ; 

t v e age of Joel and Obadiah is uncertain ; 

while Jonah is late.' In the case of the other 

,vo great divisions of the Old Testament the 

ifficulties would be much greater (see under 

Janon,' § 5). 

■ The arrangement of the New Testament, 
I i the other hand, is easily explained. The 
^oks, twenty-seven in number, fall readily into 
: groups : (1) The Gospels, (2) The Acts of 
Ue Apostles, (3) The Epistles of St. Paul, (4) 
The Epistle to the Hebrews, (5) The General 
sties, (6) The Book of the Revelation, 
inis order fits in, more or less, to a com- 
prehensive scheme showing the origin of 
Christianity in Jesus Christ, its progress under 
the Apostles, early Christian letters unfold- 
'ng its doctrines and ideals, and finally its 
onsummation in apocalyptic vision. This 
arrangement, however, is not chronological — 
St. Mark being probably the earliest of the 
Gospels, while some of the Epistles of St. 
?aul were written still earlier. 

It is necessary to add that the arrangement 
of chapters and verses has nothing to do 
with the original book. It was an artificial 
invention of the middle ages. The first 
printed Bible with chapters appeared in 1525, 
and the first Bible with verses in 1661. While 
very convenient for reference, this arrange- 
Iment often obscures the sense and needlessly 
interrupts the narrative. The chapters and 
verses have therefore by the Revisers of 1885 
j been relegated to the margin. 

5. The Canon. Every introduction to the 
3ible uses the phrase 'Canon of the Old 
J Testament,' or ' Canon of the New Testament,' 
or ' canonical books.' What is meant by these 
I phrases ? The word ' canon ' is Greek, and 
I denoted originally a measuring-rod or line. 
Later it came to mean a standard of measure- 
' ment, and last of all the space covered by such 
a measure. The term ' canon ' came to be 
used in connexion with the books of the Bible 
I about the fourth century of our era, to indi- 
! cate either that these books were the standard 
of faith, or that they occupied a special place, 
where they were marked off from all other 
books. Usually the Canon means the collection 
of books in the Old and New Testaments as 
opposed to those books (see Apocrypha) which 
were left out, and on this subject two ques- 
tions are suggested. (1) Why were such 
collections made ? (2) What principles guided 
the choice of book ? 

Taking the first question as it applies to the 



Old Testament, we find the subject involved 
in some obscurity. As early at least as the 
days of Samuel there existed the ' schools of 
the prophets,' where the training was not only 
religious but scholastic. In these schools were 
preserved the first records of Israel's history. 
The compilation and arrangement of these 
records would be the work of later generations, 
and how this was done we cannot now say for 
certain. We may, however, take the great 
divisions of the Old Testament as indicating 
how the Canon was formed. The process was 
gradual. In all likelihood the Pentateuch was 
the only part recognised as canonical when 
Ezra read the Torah to the people (Neh8). 
This is supported by the fact that the Samari- 
tans, who formed themselves into a separate 
community about that period, possess only 
the Pentateuch. The work of Ezra answers 
the first question asked above. Ezra and 
Nehemiah were social and religious reformers. 
They desired clear and definite guidance for 
the people, and so they set up the Pentateuch 
as the standard of faith and morals. Mean- 
while the works of the various prophets would 
be preserved along with the histories, and 
these would be added to the Pentateuch at a 
later date. Later still, and only after much 
discussion, was the third great division, the 
Kethubhim, added. The claim of the pro- 
phetic books to a place in the Canon would 
readily be admitted in an age when the living 
voice of the prophet was no longer heard. 
The purpose of the Kethubhim would vindicate 
a place for the Psalms, so necessary for the 
service of the second Temple, and for the 
Megilloth as read at the various festivals. 

The general principles on which the books 
were chosen to form the Canon are threefold. 
(1) They were books that had been in exist- 
ence for a considerable time and were well 
known ; or, (2) they were books associated 
with some great name, e.g. the books of Moses, 
the Psalms of David, the Proverbs of Solomon ; 
or, (3) they were books closely connected with 
national history or with national festivals. 

In all the books admitted into the Canon, 
it was of course believed that the voice of God 
was to be heard, as He had spoken to the 
fathers, saints, and prophets of the Hebrew 
race, that is to say, as He had at no time 
spoken to men of other lands : or that His 
power was to be realised as it had been ex- 
hibited not only in the experiences of individ- 
ual lives, but in the general history of the 
nation. This presence of God in the books, 
or the inspired element as we would call it, 
rendered them unique and sacred in their eyes. 
The exact date of the fixing of the Old Testa- 
ment Canon is uncertain. It could hardly have 
been earlier than the end of the second century 
B.C., while even as late as the second century 



> 



xm 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE 



A.D. the Jewish rabbis were still discussing 
the claims of such books as Ecclesiastes and 
Canticles to a place in the Canon. 

The history of the New Testament Canon 
is somewhat different. It is now generally 
admitted that all the books of the New Testa- 
ment as we know them, were in existence 
before or soon after the end of the first cen- 
tury a.d. But not for many years did the 
New Testament, as a complete whole, receive 
recognition. So long as the Apostles lived 
there was no apparent need of any written 
word concerning Jesus Christ and the gospel. 
The first Christians believed that the Spirit of 
God descended upon them to lead them into 
all truth. They further believed that the end 
of all things was at hand. And these two 
beliefs made needless the setting up of any 
written standard of authority. So late as 
the middle of the second century a Christian 
leader, Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, expresses 
in writing his preference for the spiritual gifts 
as superior to any written testimony. But 
when the fervour of the Apostolic age began 
to lose its first glow, and when Christianity 
went forth to do battle with pagan philosophy, 
the early Christian records became more pre- 
cious. Justin Martyr about 150 a.d. tells how 
' Memoirs of the Apostles ' — doubtless the Gos- 
pels — and the prophets of the Old Testament 
were read on the Lord's Day. By the end of 
the second century the Syriac Version of the 
New Testament included all the books in our 
( 'anon, except 2 and 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and 
Revelation; while in the West, by this time, all 
the books found acceptance within the Canon, 
except Hebrews, James, and 2 Peter. Euse- 
Itins, writing about 325 a.d., divides the books 
of the New Testament into three classes: 
those universally acknowledged as authorita- 
tive (Homologoumena), those whose authority 
was disputed (Antilegoumend)^ spurious books 
(Notha). The disputed books were James, 
Jude, 2 and 'A John, 2 Peter, Hebrews, and 
Revelation. The spurious books were the 
Gospel of Peter, the Acts \}f Paul, and various 

other I loepelfl and Apocalypses, most of which 

are HOW lost. It is well to point out that in 

regard to the disputed hooks the question at 

issue was their authority as standards in the 
Church. Opinions were divided. In the Mast 
opposition to Revelation Lingered even in the 
fourth century; while in the West the hook 

Whose authority WSS Longesl disputed was the 

Bpistle to the Hebrews. The Bubjeoi was 
much discussed a1 man} oouncils of the Church, 

and it was not till the third council of Carthage 

in 397 that the ( !anon of the New Testament 
was finally settled in its pr o s on l form. 

6. The Text of the Bible. A oomparisou 
of an BuglUh Bible in the Revised Version 

With one in the Authorised Version reveals at 



once many changes. Some are due to the 
progress of the English langaage, but many 
others are due to what scholars call various 
readings in the text. The text is the original 
Hebrew of the Old Testament and the original 
Greek of the New Testament. Formerly an 
idea largely prevailed that this text was an 
unchanging, unchangeable thing, preserved 
miraculously from ancient times. The preser- 
vation of the Bible is certainly one of the 
greatest miracles. "When we reflect that the 
Bible had existed for a thousand yearb before 
printing was invented in Europe, that all 
copies had to be made laboriously by hand, 
and that thousands of copyists must have been 
employed, the wonder is not that there art 
various readings of the text, but that these 
are comparatively few and unimportant. Th 
text of the Bible was preserved by hu on 
hands, working under human limitations, n 
the hand of God is in it too. 

7. The Text of the Old Testament. One of 
the old arguments against the authenticity of 
the Old Testament was, that writing could not 
have been known so early ; but this argument 
has vanished. We now possess tablets written 
in the fifteenth century B.C. by governors 
of cities in the south of Palestine to their 
masters, the kings of Egypt ; while inscrip- 
tions in Egypt itself carry us back at least 
five thousand years before the Christian era- 
Scholars now agree that parts of the Old 
Testament may have existed in writing a thou- 
sand years before the Christian era. These 
were probably copied at first on skins in the 
form of rolls — meg Moth. Early Hebrew dif- 
fered considerably in form (as seen in the 
Moabite Stone — a 1 \ it 850 B.C.) from modern 
Hebrew, in which Jne characters are square. 
In the work of transcription through all these 
centuries down to the age of printing many 
slips would undoubtedly be made. For many 
centuries no vowel signs were used at all, and 
the consonants were written without any 
spaces between words. The scribes who 
copied were undoubtedly very careful, but 
sometimes the same consonant was written 
twice. Sometimes, of two consonants of the 
same form one was omitted ; or a word might 
occur twice in one verse, and the scribe going 
on to the second as he copied the first would 
omit the intervening words. About the third 
century a.d. certain consonants began to be 
used to express unchangeably long vowels. 
This was called s<>ri/>/i<> plena, i.e. full writing. 
A I m Hit the middle of the sixth century, when 
the dews were much scattered, the danger 
arose th;it the proper pronunciation of Hebrew 
would be lost. A set of scribes called Mas- 
Boretes, i.e. Traditionists, introduced a com- 
plete system of points to indicate the vowels 
as traditionally pronounced Lcr" before 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE 



that time the consonantal text had come to be 
regarded by the Jews as absolutely sacred in 
every jot and tittle. The Massoretes were 
most careful to change nothing in this text — 
where change was obviously necessary they 
placed notes to that effect in the margin. So 
sacred was the text that every thing was repro- 
duced : letters written large were written 
large, those small were kept small ; even signs 
unknown, some of them probably due to acci- 
dent, were faithfully copied. Thus thousands 
of copies of the Hebrew Scriptures must have 
been made, at first on skins, and later on 
papyrus. But thousands perished in these 
early centuries. The Jews themselves in 
superstitious reverence hid away many copies 
that were thus lost for ever. They also de- 
stroyed all worn copies lest the sacred text 
should suffer. In the early persecutions of 
the Christians under the Roman emperors the 
most strenuous attempts were made to stamp 
out Christianity by destroying its literature, 
which included both Old and New Testaments. 
Even more zealous were the followers of 
Mahomet, in their mad career of conquest, to 
extirpate all religious books except the Koran. 
The result is that the oldest part of the He- 
brew Bible now in existence is a section of the 
prophetical books made in 916 A.D., while the 
oldest complete MS of a whole Bible belongs to 
the eleventh century A.D., and we have very few 
MSS to guide us as to readings of various texts. 
We can, however, get much help from the 
versions. 

(a) There is Aquila's Greek version. Aquila 
was a learned Jewish proselyte who made 
a word-for-word translation of the Hebrew 
text in the second century a.d. 

(b) Symmachus, an Ebionite, also made- a 
translation into Greek in the same century. 

(c) Theodotion revised the Septuagint ver- 
sion about the same time. 

(d) Very important too, for comparison, is 
a version of the Scriptures in Syriac made 
from the Hebrew and Septuagint probably 
as early as the second century, and known as 
the Peshitto, i.e. the plain version. 

(e) We have also fragments of an old 
Latin version made mainly from the Septuagint. 

(/) More important than the old Latin is 
the translation of the Old Testament made 
by St. Jerome. This was made mainly from 
Hebrew into Latin about the end of the fourth 
century a.d., and is now universally known as 
the Yulgate. 

It must be noted, however, that although 
many various readings exist, the vast majority 
are of small importance, and bear testimony 
both to the marvellous accuracy of the Jewish 
scribes, and to the miraculous preservation of 
these Scriptures through many vicissitudes. 
In recent years much patient and laborious 



study has been given to the Old Testament 
towards what may be called the reconstruction 
of the text, wherein scholars making abundant 
use of Hebrew, Targums (i.e. the marginal 
explanations given in Aramaic by early Jewish 
rabbis), and versions, and even going behind all 
these, have sought to reproduce more accur- 
ately the various books of the Old Testament. 
8. The Text of the New Testament. The 
story of the text of the New Testament may 
be told more briefly, although the subject is 
more complicated. The New Testament was 
written in Greek, and when we want to get at 
the original words of any text our materials 
are threefold. 

(1) Early MSS in Greek. Of these the most 
famous are the following : (a) The Sinaiticus 
(known as M, Aleph), found by Tischendorf in 
the Convent of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai 
in 1859. It was made, probably, not later 
than 350 a.d., and contains the Old Testament 
(Septuagint) and whole of the New Testament. 
It is now in the Imperial Museum at St. Peters- 
burg, (b) The Alexandrinus (known as A), 
presented to Charles I by the Patriarch of 
Constantinople in 1627. It belongs to the 
fifth century, and contains the Old Testament 
(Septuagint) and nearly all the New Testament. 
It is now in the British Museum, (c) The 
Vatican (known as B) containing the Old 
Testament (Septuagint) — not complete — and 
the New Testament down to Heb9 14 . It is 
now in the Vatican at Rome, and includes the 
General Epistles ; but the Pastoral Epistles, 
Philemon, and Apocalypse are wanting. These 
are the three chief MSS ; while almost equally 
important are the MSS known as C, D, and D 2 . 

(2) Quotations from the Early Fathers. 
These include Clement of Rome, Tatian, 
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Origen in Greek, 
and Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Augus- 
tine in Latin. The difficulty with such quota- 
tions is that the writer often quotes from 
memory, and gives the sense rather than the 
words. These quotations are also as liable to 
error in transcription as the New Testament 
itself. 

(3) Versions of the New Testament. The 
most important of these is the Diatessaron of 
Tatian, a harmony of the Four Gospels inter- 
woven with texts (the word diatessaron means 
'according to four') made about 170 a.d. 
Tatian was a disciple of Justin Martyr, and 
his work survives both in an Arabic version, 
and also in a commentary on the Diatessaron 
by Ephraim the Syrian. In addition we have 
the Peshitto version, the Old Latin, and the 
Vulgate, all mentioned in connexion with the 
Old Testament ; while, as in the case of the Old 
Testament, there are less important versions in 
Armenian, Egyptian, and Gothic. 

The Hebrew Scriptures were printed in 1488, 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE ^x 



but no edition of the Greek New Testament ap- 
peared till 1514. This was the work of editors 
acting under Cardinal Ximenes. Erasmus 
produced a different version in 1516, and the 
1 received text,' as it is called, was the work of 
R. Stephens, and was printed by the Elzevirs 
at Leyden in 1624. Since that time great pro- 
gress has been made in collating MSS, and 
several noteworthy editions have been issued, 
including those of Tischendorf (1860), West- 
cott and Hort (1881), and Nestle (1901). 

The work of the scholar who seeks to know 
the mind of the New Testament writers is 
much more difficult than similar work in the 
Old Testament. To begin with, the writers 
of the Gospels report in Greek (although they 
may have had some Aramaic sources) the say- 
ings of Jesus Christ, who for the most part 
probably spoke Aramaic. Nor is it likely that 
these writers or their copyists had any idea 
that their records would go beyond the early 
Churches, with which they themselves were 
familiar. 

The same applies to St. Paul. His letters, 
now so valued, were messages intended only 
for the Churches to which they were addressed. 
Those who first copied them would not regard 
them as at all ' sacred ' in our sense of the word. 

Nor even in later centuries do we find that 
scrupulous regard for the sacred text which 
marked the transmission of the Old Testament. 
A copyist would sometimes put in not what 
was in the text, but what he thought ought to 
be in it. He would trust a fickle memory, or 
he would even make the text accord with the 
views of the school to which he belonged. 
Besides this, an enormous number of copies 
are preserved. In addition to the versions 
and quotations from the early Christian Fathers, 
nearly four thousand Greek MSS of the New 
Testament are known to exist. As a result 
the variety of readings is considerable. 

But while we can see how intricate and 
difficult is the task of the New Testament 
scholars, we must remember, on the one hand, 
that the vast majority of the differences are 
unimportant, and, on the other hand, that 
where they are important we have in the 
providence of God such range of material as 
no age has ever possessed for learning the 
truth. We can still search the Scriptures in 
perfect confidence that they will testify of 
Christ, and that their testimony is true. 

9. English Versions. The first attempts to 
render the Scriptures in English are repre- 
sents! by sonn extant translations and para- 
phrases of the I'sahns and other books dating 
from a very early time. About the end of 
the fourteenth century (1382) the complete 
version of \Vy<lif was made from the Latin 
Vulgate, the Gospels being his own work, and 



the rest of the Bible (including the A "ypha) 
being done by some of his The 

Reformation and the inventi iting 

together stimulated the product ons, 

and the following appeared d> six- 

teenth century : Tyndale's Ne\ nt, 

Pentateuch, and other books c le 

(1 525-1 535) ; Miles Coverdale's co 
lish Bible (1535) ; Matthew's B. 
made up out of the earlier versiom 
lished as an ' Authorised Version 
Royal licence ; the Great Bible (153. 
sion of Matthew's ; the Geneva Bibl 
published by the exiled reformers in 
during the reign of Queen Mary, an 
popular with the common people, bein 
known as the ' Breeches ' Bible from its rt 
ing of Gn3 7 ; and the Bishops' Bible (1 
produced by episcopal scholars, mostly bish 
and vulgarly termed the ' Treacle ' Bible, fi 
its rendering of Jer 8 22 . In 1 604 a conf erei 
was convened by James I at Hampton Com 
to set in order things amiss in the Church, an 
one result was a new translation of the Scrip- 
tures, done by six committees of divines, two 
sitting at Westminster, two at Cambridge, and 
two at Oxford, the whole work being finally 
revised by a general committee. This version 
appeared in 1611, and gradually displaced the 
previous versions, winning its way with learned 
and unlearned alike by its faithfulness to the 
original languages and its peculiar felicities of 
English style. It is the version still generally 
used, and known as the ' Authorised ' version. 
In the latter half of the last century it became 
increasingly felt that the new materials which 
had accumulated upon the Bible in the way of 
early MSS, versions, and quotations from 
ancient writers necessitated a fresh translation 
of the text, and on the suggestion of the Con- 
vocation of Canterbury, this was undertaken by 
two companies of translators, one for the Old 
Testament and the other for the New. With 
them were associated two similar companies of 
American scholars, and the result of their 
joint labours was the Revised Version, of 
which the New Testament was published in 
1881, and the Old in 1885. It retains so far 
as possible the character and style of the 
Authorised Version ; but it corrects its mis- 
translations, substitutes modern English words 
for words that have become obsolete or archaic, 
arranges prose matter in paragraphs and poetry 
in lines according to modern usage, and intro- 
duces such changes in the text as are required 
by the new sources of information that have 
come to light. It is thus of great value, not 
to scholars only, but to all who desire to get 
olceer to the original language of the Scriptures 
than the limited range of authorities used by 
previous versions could render possible. 



xvi 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



1. The unique value of Hebrew History. In 

every record of human progress the story of 
the Hebrew people must always take the fore- 
most place. Whilst other peoples have ruled 
over vaster empires, and left behind them far 
greater monuments in literature or in art, it is 
to this race that we owe the Christian religion. 
If it is true that on the secular side our intel- 
lectual life is rooted in Greece and Rome, on 
the religious side it is rooted in Israel. So 
long as men recognise the abiding value of 
religion as the answer to their deepest need, 
they will turn with inexhaustible interest to 
the story of the first beginnings and the gradual 
development of the people whose faith has 
conquered the civilised world. 

2. Need of a Special Statement. There are 
special reasons why a separate sketch of the 
history of the Hebrews is required. The Bible 
narratives differ from secular history in that 
all other interests are entirely subordinated to 
the religious one. Hence public events of the 
utmost importance are lightly passed over, 
whilst whole chapters are devoted to the re- 
cords of spiritual experience. Moreover, as 
the detailed expositions of this volume show, 
books from widely differing ages lie side by 
side with very slight indications of d ate . Further 
still, recent archaeological discoveries have en- 
abled us to understand, as never before, the 
place that Israel filled among the surrounding 
nations. In this brief sketch a twofold aim 
has been followed : — (1) The exhibition of the 
history of the Hebrews in its relations to 
the great world-movements of other peoples. 
(2) The setting forth of the emergence and 
growth of the great ideas which culminated in 
Jesus Christ. 

3. Origin of the Hebrews. The Hebrews 
belong to the Semite branch of the human 
race, a branch whose original home, in all 
probability, was in Arabia. Pressing north 
and west these peoples established themselves 
in Western Asia, above all in Mesopotamia, 
between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Here, 
in the third and fourth millenniums B.C., the 
earliest records show them as settled nations, 
highly developed both in civilisation and in 
religious beliefs and practices. About 2400 B.C. 
the rulers of the ancient city of Babylon suc- 
ceeded in establishing their supremacy over 
the greater part of this region, and founded a 
dynasty of which Hammurabi was the most 
famous member (see art. 'Laws of Hammu- 
rabi '). Seeing that Hammurabi is now gener- 
ally identified with Amraphel (Gn 14 1 ). we are 

b xvii 



thus able to fix the date of Abraham, circ. 
2250 B.C. Some scholars incline to bring Ham- 
murabi's date down as low as 1900 B.C. We 
are safe in saying that the Patriarchal period 
reaches back to the beginning of the second 
millennium B.C. 

For a discussion of the historicity, in broad 
outline, of the Bible narratives about Abra- 
ham, reference must be made to the intro. to 
Gn 12-25. The fact there emphasised that we 
have a right to see in Abraham the founder 
of the distinctive religion of Israel makes the 
question as to the religious influences amongst 
which he grew up one of vital interest. Were 
there present in the world before his day any 
tendencies towards a pure faith ? 

We find that all the records of this period 
are permeated with religion. Religion was the 
mainspring of intellectual activity, priests were 
the leaders in all departments of thought. This 
religion, at first sight, offers a picture of hope- 
less confusion. Gods of the sky, gods of the 
earth, gods of the deep, families of gods, fathers 
and mothers, sons and daughters, local gods of 
cities and hills, gods directing and involved in 
all the powers of nature confront and bewilder 
us. The whole effect is that of a crass poly- 
theism, full of degrading superstition. Yet 
when we look a little closer higher thoughts 
are not wanting. Looking upwards to the sky, 
familiar to Orientals in a degree altogether un- 
known to us, the Babylonian thinkers watched 
the movements of the heavenly bodies and saw 
in them the seats of the great gods. To them 
the whole universe was divided into three 
regions. First came the northern heavens, in 
which the pole-star burned continually ; then 
the broad belt of the zodiac spanning the 
skies, within which all the movements of sun, 
moon, and planets were confined ; lastly, the 
southern depths. Over these regions the three 
great gods, Anu, Bel and Ea presided. Simi- 
larly in the zodiac itself there was a threefold 
division, ruled over by moon, sun, and Venus 
the evening star. Again and again it seemed 
as though the thought of one supreme God, of 
whom all others were manifestations, was about 
to break forth. So Sin the moon -god is hailed 
in lofty strains — 



Lord, the ordainer of the laws of heaven and 

earth, 
Whose command may not be broken. 
In heaven who is supreme ? Thou alone, thou art 

supreme ! 
On earth who is supreme ? Thou alone, thou art 

supreme ! ' 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



Similarly as the local deities became more 
and more absorbed into the conquering Marduk 
of Babylon ; or, as in the ' penitential psalms,' 
the worshipper seems led out far beyond the 
limits of his creed, we come again to the very 
verge of a new revelation. Yet the step across 
that verge was never taken. In the highest 
thoughts of Babylonia the gods seem rather 
pale abstractions than living persons with dis- 
tinctive characters. It is here that the Bible 
narrative of Abraham finds its place. Living 
in the midst of all this movement of thought 
he heard in his own conscience and heart a 
deeper voice speaking to him, found that he 
could enter into real communion with a God 
who was indeed a Person, and for the sake of 
that intercourse forsook his home and wandered 
out into Canaan. The strange figure of Mel- 
chizedek suggests that there may have been 
others who found something of the same truth. 
Yet Abraham alone was able to pass on his 
faith to those that followed him. If so he was 
the first to understand that religion means 
personal communion with God. We have no 
means of judging how far his faith led him 
into a theoretical monotheism, nor how high 
his conceptions of morality were. But if he 
was led to make the great step that has been 
described, then he was truly ' the father of the 
faithful,' and we understand why the course of 
subsequent revelation followed the line of his 
descendants, rather than any other. Here the 
Father who had always been seeking those who 
would worship Him ' in spirit and truth ' found 
at last one who could understand His message. 

4. Israel and Egypt. After an indefinite 
period, during which the Hebrews lived as 
nomads in the pasture lands between Hebron 
and Beersheba, in the district afterwards known 
as the Negeb, or south-country of Judah (Gn 
22 M 28 10 ), they passed od to Goshen, an allu- 
vial region on the border of Egypt. Egypt at 
this time was under tin- rule of the Hyksos, or 
Shepherd kings, probably themselves of Semitic 
origin, who had established a dynasty there 
which lasted till the sixteenth century n.c. 
The favour with irhich the Bebrewa were 
received is easily explained by their racial 
affinities with the ruling house. When the 
Hyksos had been expelled, not later, probably, 

than 1530 B.C., 8 new king arose who knew not 
Joseph ( K\ 1 ! ). and the oppression began. Tt 
is now burly well established thai the Pharaoh 
of the oppression irai Etamsea ll. who has 
been identified ai the builder of the treasure 
city Pithom (Ei 1 ")• 

5. The Exodus. Converging lines of evi- 
dence make it probable thai the date of the 

exodus Was no1 later than 1180 B.C. ; it may 

have Keen as .ally as 1260 B.C. Before that 

time Palestine had been, as the Tel-el Amarna 
tablets show, an Egyptian province, and the 

XV 



control of Egypt was too strong to admit of 
the Hebrew conquests. Afterwards came a 
time of royal weakness and general anarchy, 
when the hold on the outlying parts of the 
empire was greatly relaxed. The reign of 
Ramses III (1180-1148 B.C.) has been sug- 
gested as the most likely period for the desert 
wanderings. Merenptah, son of Ramses II, 
is most probably the Pharaoh of the exodus. 

For a discussion of the plagues and of the 
route from Goshen, reference must be made 
to the Commentary. The Passage of the Red 
Sea, however explained, left an abiding mark 
on the national memory. As Cornill says : 
' This overwhelming moment created the people 
of Israel ; they never forgot it. Here they 
recognised the God of their fathers, who with 
strong hand and outstretched arm had saved 
His people, and brought them out of the house 
of bondage, out of Egypt.' 

6. The Religious Teaching of Moses. For 
some time after this deliverance Israel remained 
in the neighbourhood of Sinai, and here the 
great work of Moses, the religious reorganisa- 
tion of the people, was achieved. After all 
the critical discussion of the various sources 
of the Pentateuch, it remains abundantly clear 
that under the guidance of Moses a covenant 
between Jehovah and the people of Israel was 
concluded at Sinai (Ex 34 10 , etc.). This covenant 
was no merely national bond. It was the out- 
come of the free moral choice of the God of 
their fathers, who, moved by pity, had rescued 
them from Egypt, and was ready to save them 
in the future. As the Commentary states, there 
is no reasonable ground for denying the Deca- 
logue in its primitive form to Moses ; hence it 
is possible to summarise the faith of Moses as 
follows : 

(a) He believed in a personal God, who had 
revealed Himself in former days to the fathers, 
and who was once more manifesting Himself 
to His people. This God, whose sacred name 
was Jehovah, was not bound to the Hebrews 
because of any blood relationship or any external 
necessity — the relationship between Him and 
them rested upon His own free determination ; 
hence Israel was the people of Jehovah because 
He had chosen them. No other nation had 
ever had such a thought about its god. 

{/>) He believed in a God whose fundamental 
at tri hides were righteousness and mercy. The 
strength of this God was greater than that of 
the mighty power of Egypt; but it was not 
brute force — it was always used to serve moral 
ends. 

(c) He taught that this God, having con- 
cluded His covenant with the people, demanded 
on their side righteous conduct, justice, and 
brotherly kindness between man and man; 
hence he insisted on the indissoluble bond 
between religion and morality. 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



So whilst for the time of Moses, and for 
long after, the religion of Israel remained a 
national one, there were hidden in his teaching 
the germs of a universal religion. His great 
fundamental ideas were often forgotten, and 
sometimes buried beneath the corruptions of 
heathenism ; yet it was these truths that en- 
abled the religion of Israel to resist the in- 
fluences of Canaan, and to outlast even the 
nation itself. The victory of his teaching 
is the sufficient proof of the justice of his 
claim to be the specially chosen messenger of 
God. 

7. The Conquest of Canaan. Much of the 
wilderness period was spent in Kadesh-Barnea, 
in the desert S. of Canaan, out of reach of the 
Egyptians (Nul3 26 Dtl 4t5 ). But meanwhile 
events had been making possible the invasion 
of Canaan. Many alien races, amongst them 
the pirates from the West known to us as the 
Philistines, had been sweeping down on Pales- 
tine. Ramses III, in a great expedition, re- 
asserted the Egyptian power, but this was the 
last intervention of Egypt for some centuries. 
Egypt lost Syria, which now became the home 
of many independent city states, and the way 
was open for a resolute assault upon the Land 
of Promise. The first campaigns were on the 
E. of the Jordan, where an Amorite kingdom 
had been established, with its capital at Hesh- 
bon. Its king, Sihon, was defeated and slain, 
and his territory occupied (Nu 2 1 21-25). Moses 
having now died was succeeded by Joshua, and 
with the passage of the Jordan opposite to 
Jericho the invasion was begun (Josh 1-3). 
Combining the accounts in Joshua with those 
in Jg 1 (see the Commentary), we gather that 
the people, by united victories under Joshua, 
gained a foothold in the land. After his death, 
since much remained unconquered, expeditions 
were undertaken by separate tribes, Judah and 
Simeon, Joseph, Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, 
and Dan (Jgl). In the end the maritime 
cities of Phoenicia and Philistia remained 
independent, and strong fortresses such as 
Taanach, Megiddo, Bethshean (1 27 )> secured 
to their former inhabitants the richest inland 
plain, the valley of the Kishon, while such 
citadels as Ajalon (l 35 ), Jebus (1 21 ), and G-ezer 
(l 29 ) shut off Judah and Simeon almost com- 
pletely from the rest of the Israelites. The 
recent explorations of Palestine have proved 
conclusively the truth of this representation, 
since they make it clear that the development 
of these Canaanite cities went on unbrokenly 
for nearly two centuries after the invasion. 
Proofs of this statement must be sought in the 
many publications of the Palestine Exploration 
Fund. 

8. The Period of the Judges. The date as- 
signed to the exodus reduces this period to less 
than 200 years, seeing that it closes about 1050 



B.C. (see Intro, to the book of Judges). The 
deliverances achieved by Deborah and Barak 
(Jg4, 5) and by Gideon (Jg6-8), show that 
the people still rallied to the name of Jehovah. 
Nevertheless the religion of the conquered 
country exercised a powerful influence over 
the victors. Many altars standing on high 
places, formerly consecrated to local deities, 
were now adapted to the worship of Jehovah. 
This became the fruitful source of many later 
evils, as the writings of the prophets so clearly 
show. Still, on the whole, Ewald's statement 
remains true : ' The people learned by per- 
petual struggle to defend valiantly their new 
home and the free exercise of their religion, 
and were thereby preparing for coming genera- 
tions a sacred place, where that religion and 
national culture might unfold itself freely and 
fully.' Deborah's Song (Jg 5), admitted gener- 
ally as a product of this age (see Commentary 
in loco), is a striking proof both of the national 
consciousness of unity, and of the vigour of 
the true faith in Jehovah. The period closes 
with the oppression of the Philistines. This 
bold and warlike race, much resembling the 
Danes in the early history of England, were 
greatly superior in military art to the Hebrews. 
They seem to have conceived the idea of 
subduing to their sway the whole of Israel. 
Shamgar (3 31 ) and Samson (12 f.) were popular 
heroes who by single-handed deeds of daring 
destroyed many marauding bands. But the 
Hebrews were quite unable to resist an organ- 
ised attack. With the loss of the sacred ark 
at Aphek near Mizpah (1 S4), the doom of the 
nation seemed sealed. The Philistine rule 
was extended over the whole centre and south 
of Israel, their head-quarters were established 
at Geba in Benjamin, even the use of military 
weapons is said to have been forbidden to the 
Israelites (IS 13 3 . !9- 23 ). 

9. Samuel and the Founding 1 of the Kingdom. 
In this crisis there arose a man who has a double 
claim to honour, as the first of the order of 
prophets, and as the founder of the monarchy. 
The narratives about Samuel are, as the Com- 
mentary shows, derived from sources of un- 
equal value. His victories (1S7 13 ) cannot 
have been nearly so decisive as one source 
represents them. In a time of great national 
humiliation he was led to see that a king was 
needful to weld the disorganised tribes into a 
whole, so as to enable them to face their 
enemies. In his patriotic aims he was seconded 
by the wandering bands of prophets, who were 
enthusiastic adherents of Jehovah. This re- 
sort to a monarchy, though not ideal (IS 8), 
was in the situation the only wise choice. In 
Saul, a Benjamite of great personal prowess, 
the destined leader was found. After a bril- 
liant feat of arms, by which Jabesh-Gilead 
was rescued from the Ammonites (IS 11), he 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



succeeded in rallying to himself all the tribes 
(1114,15), Saul's reign was an almost continu- 
ous struggle against the Philistines. Starting 
from the E. he gradually regained the high- 
lands of Judah and the centre of Palestine 
(IS 14, 17, etc.). At the close of his reign, 
weakened by his quarrel with David, and with 
his mind clouded by his recurring melan- 
cholia, he died in battle on Mt. Gilboa, in the 
plain of Jezreel, a fact which shows that 
the Philistines had again penetrated into 
central Israel (1 S31). The date of this battle 
is about 1017 B.C. 

i o. The Reign of David. After a seven years' 
interval, during which David reigned as king 
of Judah at Hebron, and Saul's adherents made 
Mahanaim, across the Jordan, their centre (2 S 
24.8.H), the murder of Ishbosheth (2 S 4 5-7) 
opened the way for David's accession as king 
of a united people (2 So 1 " 3 ). His reign is 
marked by the complete conquest of the Phil- 
istines, who henceforth play little further part 
in the history (2 S 5 17 * 25 8 *), by conquests over 
the surrounding peoples, which marked the 
real foundation of an Israelite empire (8 2 ' 14 
and c. 10), and by the capture of Jerusalem, and 
the transference thither of the ark (2S5 6-10 
612-19), ^ this time Assyria was weak, the 
northern empire of the Hittites had dis- 
appeared, and Egypt was divided and power- 
less. All this explains the rapid growth under 
David and Solomon. 

ii. Solomon. Solomon's reign was marked 
by the building of the Temple, and great com- 
mercial prosperity ; but his attempts to reduce 
the free yeomen of Israel to the status of the 
subjects of an Oriental king caused deep dis- 
snt is faction, and was one main cause of the 
disruption as soon as his strong hand was 
removed ( 1 K 4^-38 513 H26 ? e tc). 

12. Religion in the Early Monarchy. The 
religious conditions of this period may be 
gathered from many scattered notices. The 
strict law of the central sanctuary, which after- 
wards concentrated all sacrificial worship at 
Jerusalem. \v;is unknown. Samuel sacrificed at 
Mi/.pah (1878), built an altar at Han. ah (717), 
sacrificed on the high place there C. 1 '-). also at 
Gilgal (ll 1 '). and at Bethlehem (16 a ). We 
may gather from 11"" that Saul built more 
than <>ne altar to .Jehovah in token of his 
loyalty. So in 20* there is a most natural 

reference to the yearly sacrifice for Jesse's 

family at Bethlehem. The simple ami mi 

forced way in which these notices are given 
.hows that they are nol dealing with excep- 
tions, hut relating the normal practice : see on 

I'.\ 20 9 *. At the game time prophets such as 

Nathan maintained the moral character of the 
claims of Jehovah, and were treated with the 
utmost respect (2812 1 * 1 *). With the Pounding 

of David's kingdom tin- hope wa> raised of the 



perpetual kingdom of Jehovah, which plays 
so great a part in the writings of the later 
prophets (2 S 7 1-!7). 

13. Disruption of the Kingdom, 937 B.C. "With 
the disruption of the kingdom after Solomon's 
death Judah was left relatively small and in- 
significant, and was further weakened by the 
invasion of Shishak of Egypt (IK 14 25, 26). 
Egyptian lists in the temple of Amon at Karnak 
record this raid. From the fact that Ephraim- 
ite cities also are said to have paid tribute, 
it is supposed that for a time both Israel and 
Judah became tributary to Egypt ; but there 
is no record of any warlike operations against 
Northern Israel. For a time the two king- 
doms were at war, Israel being the stronger. 
A fateful step was taken when Asa, king of 
Judah, invited the help of Benhadad, king of 
Syria, against Baasha (1K15 18 - 21 ), circ. 900 
B.C. The condemnation of this action (2 Ch 
I6 7 - 9 ) is fully justified, as it resulted in the first 
invasion of Israelite territory by Syrian armies. 
After repeated revolutions, a strong dynasty 
was founded by Omri, 889 B.C. (IK 1623-28). 
Omri built Samaria as his capital. Under him 
peace was made between Israel and Judah, 
and the royal houses were afterwards allied by 
marriage. The Moabite Stone, with Mesha's 
inscription, shows that he subjugated Moab. 
References to him on Assyrian monuments 
prove that he was regarded as the founder of 
the kingdom of Israel. The silence of the 
Bible narratives as to the more brilliant ex- 
ploits of his reign is a striking illustration of 
the indifference of the Hebrew writers to 
purely secular interests. 

14. Jehovah or Baal. In the reign of 
Ahab, Omri's son, came the great conflict 
between Elijah and the priests of Baal. As 
a matter of state policy Jeroboam had erected 
golden bull-shaped images of Jehovah at 
Bethel and at Dan. The official religion of 
the Northern Kingdom was therefore a cor- 
rupted form of the worship of Jehovah. It 
is precarious to argue, as is often done, that 
Elijah's silence, so far as our records go, as to 
this bull-worship, is a proof that he found 
nothing offensive in it. The higher conscience 
of Israel was always against any form of 
image-worship. Even in Northern Israel there 
were probably altars where the purer worship 
of .Jehovah was maintained : cp. Elijah's com- 
plaint IK 19™, and his action 1K1*8 30 . But 
when Ahab's Phoenician wife Jezebel, princess 
of Zidon, sought to establish the worship of the 
Tvrian Baal and persecuted the adherents of 
.Jehovah (1 K l<;:n-33 18 4), Elijah came forward 
as the champion of Jehovah. The question 
was no Longer that of a pure or debased 
worship of Jehovah, but the life and death 
alternative .Jehovah or Baal. This explains 
the relentless severity with which Elijah 



XX 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



pushed home his victory (1K18 40 ), and the 
part taken by Elisha in instigating the revo- 
lution which resulted in the overthrow of 
Omri's house and the accession of Jehu (2 K 9). 

15. The Syrian Wars. This time of reli- 
gious conflict was marked by long-continued 
wars with Syria, which had lasted since the 
invasion referred to during the reign of 
Baasha. The kings of Israel appear to have 
been reduced to the position of vassals (1 K 20 3 ), 
and in 854 B.C. Benhadad of Syria, with Ahab, 
who is said by the monuments to have fur- 
nished a contingent of 2,000 chariots and 10,000 
men, was defeated at Karkar, near Hamath, 
by Shalmaneser II of Assyria. Afterwards 
Ahab succeeded in asserting his independence 
against Syria, and won several victories (IK 
20). Syria at this time was weakened by 
successive Assyrian campaigns against Damas- 
cus, in 850, 849, and 846. In 842 Shal- 
maneser received tribute from Jehu (see the 
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser in the British 
Museum), and in 839 again defeated Hazael 
of Damascus. At this point an insurrection 
in Assyria, headed by Shalmaneser's son, who 
drove that king to take refuge in North Baby- 
lonia, gave Syria a respite and enabled the 
kingdom to recover its strength. Repeated 
invasions of Israel followed, reducing the 
people to the last extremity (2K10 32 13 ^ 
1 4 26 ). Then, under Ramman-Nirari of Assyria 
(812-783), Damascus was once more subdued, 
and under Joash and Jeroboam II the lost 
prestige of Israel was recovered, and all the 
captured territory regained (2K13 25 14 25 " 28 ). 
In these victories Elisha appears as a watchful 
and fearless patriot (2K13 14 - 2 0). Thus in 
the reign of Jeroboam II (782-741) Israel 
enjoyed a period of prosperity which had had 
no parallel since the days of Solomon. 

The legitimate succession in the Southern 
Kingdom, which had acted as the ally of 
Israel both against Syria and Moab (IK 22 
2K3), was interrupted by the usurpation of 
Athaliah (2K11), but restored through Jehoi- 
ada (ll 4f ). Amaziah, breaking the alliance 
with Israel, was disastrously defeated by 
Joash (1 4 s- 14 ). But under Uzziah (790-749) 
Judah recovered her position, and defeated 
the Philistines (2Ch27 6 ), whilst the army 
was reorganised (27 13 » 14 ), and frontier towers 
built as barriers against the desert nomads 
(2710). 

16. The Decadence of Israel. With the 
death of Jeroboam the Northern Kingdom's 
brief period of prosperity passed away. Re- 
peated revolutions weakened the strength of 
Israel (2K15 10 " 14 ). Meanwhile, under Tig- 
lath-pileser III (called Pul in 2K15 19 ), 
Assyria resumed her aggressive policy, and 
Menahem of Israel became tributary to him 
(lS 1 ^). In 734-3 Pekah of Israel, in alli- 



ance with Rezin of Syria, invaded Judah, 
apparently to coerce Judah to join a coalition 
against Assyria (2K15 37 16 5 Isa7). Judah 
was saved by the intervention of Assyria, and 
Northern Israel devastated (2 K 15 29 ). Pekah's 
murderer, Hoshea, was recognised as a vassal 
king by Tiglath-pileser (so the monuments). 
But Hoshea's intrigues with So of Egypt (17 4 ) 
brought speedy retribution. Shalmaneser IV 
marched into Israel, but died during the siege 
of Samaria. His work was completed by his 
successor, Sargon, and in 722 Samaria was 
captured and the Northern Kingdom finally 
destroyed. 

17. The Teaching of the Prophets. A 
bright light is thrown on this period by the 
utterances of Amos and Hosea. Amos, ap- 
pearing in Jeroboam's reign, reasserted with 
tremendous force that the moral claims of 
Jehovah extended not only over Israel, but 
over the surrounding peoples. Utterly re- 
pudiating the ritual worship of Bethel, he 
declared the approaching ruin of the nation. 
The one hope that he saw for the future was 
in the restoration, after heavy chastisement, 
of the kingdom under a Davidic king (9 n : see 
Commentary in loco). 

Hosea, whose ministry lay in the dark days 
after Jeroboam's death, and whose tragic per- 
sonal history is the key to his message (see 
Commentary), sounds another note, but repeats 
Amos's prophecy of doom. He treats the bull- 
worship as sheer idolatry : ' of their silver and 
their gold have they made them idols ' (8 4 ). 
The fact that it is the love rather than the 
righteousness of God which Hosea emphasises 
only makes his threatenings more terrible ; yet 
beyond the storm he also sees the abiding 
kingdom of God, and believes in its permanence 
(35, etc.). 

The importance of the testimony of these 
two prophets is supreme. They come forward 
not as innovators, but as restorers of the 
ancient faith. Their teaching is in essence 
one with that of Moses ; but the boldness with 
which they present Jehovah as the God of the 
universe, and their unwavering conviction that 
no past privileges can save Israel from the 
consequences of her breaches of the law of 
righteousness, broaden and deepen the founda- 
tions of the true religion. It must be said 
that it is extremely hard to believe, as is sug- 
gested, that Hosea was the first to denounce 
the image-worship of Jehovah. At any rate, 
he shows not the slightest consciousness that 
he is making any new declaration when he 
says of the calf in Samaria, ' The workman 
made it, and it is no god ' (8 6 ). 

18. Judah during the Assyrian Period. With 
the fall of Northern Israel Judah was left de- 
pendent for its existence on Assyria. Despite 
the protests of Isaiah, Ahaz freely imitated 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



both the customs and religion of the conquerors 
(2 K 1610-18). His son, Hezekiah (720-692 B.C.), 
succeeded to a troubled inheritance. In the 
south the Ethiopian kings of Egypt were grow- 
ing in strength, and sought alliance with him. 
This policy was strongly denounced by Isaiah 
(30 1" 7 , 31 1 -4 ), who counselled entire absten- 
tion from world-politics and simple trust in 
Jehovah. Hezekiah, however, pursued the 
policy of alliances. He carried on negotiations 
with Merodach-Baladan (2 K 20 12 ' 19 ), who from 
721-710 B.C. had succeeded in establishing 
himself in Babylon, formed a league against 
Assyria with Tyre, Sidon, Ashkelon, and 
Ekron, and looked for help from Egypt. The 
victorious advance of Sennacherib, Sargon's 
successor, broke up this coalition. Egypt was 
defeated at El-tekeh, near Ekron, and Heze- 
kiah, after the loss of forty-six -cities and many 
subjects, only secured the safety of Jerusalem 
by the payment of a huge, ransom (2K18 14- ! 6 ). 
The Bible narratives that follow are extremely 
confusing. In the monuments nothing is said 
of any disaster to Sennacherib's army, and 
some have conjectured that this happened in a 
later, unrecorded campaign ; yet the fact that 
Jerusalem remained untaken needs explanation. 
The most probable explanation is, that after 
receiving Hezekiah's ransom, a section of the 
Assyrian army returned and treacherously de- 
manded the surrender of the city ; then the 
main body, lying on the borders of Egypt, was 
smitten with plague, and Sennacherib retired 
to his own land. This deliverance (701 B.C.) 
was foretold by Isaiah (31 5 37 33 " 35 ), who held 
that Jerusalem, God's own city, could not be 
taken. 

19. The Religious Teaching of Micah and 
Isaiah. Two prophets throw light on this 
period. Micah the countryman, denouncing 
fiercely the social wrongs of the peasantry, 
prophesied the downfall of Jerusalem (3 i2 ) ; 
yet he believed in the permanence of the 
divine rule, and looked for another king like 
David to come from the heart of the people 
and restore the ruined state (5 2f ). 

Isaiah looked for repeated punishments, from 
which only a remnant should escape (6 H -13 , etc. : 
cp. the name of his son Shear- jashub = 'a rem- 
nant shall return,' 7 3 ). Yet his hope of a better 
kingdom is borne witness to by his prophecy 
of Immanuel (7 1:Mt '), and the magnificent 
promise of the Prince with the four names 
(9 6 > 7 ), who will reign in an age of millennial 
peace and blessing, and who is called 'a shoot 
out of the stock of Jesse' (ll 1 - 10 ). 

In Hi'/.ekiah's reign partial attempts were 
made to destroy the high places and concen- 
trate the worship at Jerusalem, but the 
work must have been very incomplete (2K 
18 4 - 2 2, etc.). 

20. The Reaction under Manasseh. Manas- 



seh's long reign (692-641 B.C.), though for the 
most part externally prosperous, was marked 
by a recrudescence of heathenism, in which 
much of Isaiah's work was undone (2K 21 1-1 7 ). 
Towards the close of his reign he appears to 
have become involved in the revolt against 
Assyria of the viceroy of Babylon, and to 
have been taken to Babylon to expiate his 
crime before his suzerain, Assurbanipal (2 Ch 
33H-1 3 ). 

The survival of the true faith is witnessed 
to by the book of Deuteronomy, probably com- 
piled during this reign, and possibly "by the last 
two chapters of Micah (see Commentary). 

21. The Reign of Josiah. Josiah (639-608), 
succeeding his murdered father Amon, began 
his reign under unfavourable auspices. The 
invasion of Western Asia by hordes of Scythians 
probably gave rise to the gloomy anticipations 
of Zephaniah, who looked for the coming of 
the day of universal judgment. But these 
invasions, seriously shaking the power of 
Assyria, really left Judah free to follow her 
own destiny. The first prophecies of Jeremiah 
belong also to this period (see Commentary). 
An earnest attempt at religious reform was 
greatly helped by the providential finding of 
the Book of the Law, 621 B.C., almost certainly 
Deuteronomy (2K22 8 , etc.). On the basis of 
this book all the high places where Jehovah 
was worshipped with semi -heathenish accom- 
paniments were destroyed, and the Temple at 
Jerusalem made the one central sanctuary 
(2 K 234-15). 

Meanwhile Assyria was tottering to its fall, 
and, while Nineveh was besieged by Babylonians 
and Medes, Pharaoh-Necho of Egypt marched 
northwards to make his bid for the empire of 
the world. In resisting his progress Josiah 
was defeated and slain at Megiddo, 608 B.C. 
(2 K 23 29 . 3 0). In the following year Nineveh 
fell, and by his defeat of the Egyptians at 
Carchemish, on the Euphrates, Nebuchadrezzar 
of Babylon became master of the world, 605 B.C. 
During the brief period of Egyptian supremacy 
in Palestine Jehoahaz was deposed and Je- 
hoiakim made king (2K24 31 " 35 ). Eebelling 
against Babylon three years later Jehoiakim 
was deposed and carried to Babylon (2 K 24 1 
2Ch36 6 ). Three months later his successor 
Jehoiachin was taken after him, together with 
the flower of the nation, including Ezekiel, 
597 b.c. (2 K 248-16). 

The prophetic teaching during this period 
is found in Nahum, with his fierce exultation 
over the doom of Nineveh, and Habakkuk, who 
looking out over a ruined world and finding 
each successive conqueror equally guilty, yet 
declares with invincible assurance, ' the just 
man shall live by his faithfulness' (2 4 ). The 
central part of Jeremiah's heroic ministry also 
falls here. 



xxu 



HEBREW HISTORY TO THE EXILE 



22. The Fall of Jerusalem. Rejecting 
warnings of Jeremiah, Zedekiah, the last king of 
Judah, involved himself in many plots against 
Babylon ( Jer 27 m Ezk 1 7 15 ). The inevitable 
result followed. Jeremiah had long since 
foretold the destruction of Jerusalem and 
almost paid the price of his daring with his 
life (Jer 26). Now, after a siege of nineteen 
months, from January 588 to July 586, the city 
was taken and destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar, 
and the Temple burnt (2K25). 

Jeremiah's noble personality is the chief 
glory of these closing years. Despite his re- 
peated declarations of the ruin of Jerusalem, 
he looks forward to the time when once more 
it shall be 'the throne of Jehovah' (3 17 ). De- 
spite his word about Jehoiakim, ' no man of 
his seed shall prosper, sitting upon the throne 
of David, and ruling any more in Judah ' 
(22 30 ), he can still hope that Jehovah will 
raise up a righteous branch unto David (23 5 ). 
His hope in the kingdom of God was deeper 
than his despair. But his grandest word of 
all came, as it seems, from his prison. There, 
while the Babylonian armies surrounded Jeru- 
salem, he was inspired to speak of the new 
covenant, which God Himself would write on 
the hearts of the people, when all from the 



least to the greatest should know Him, and, 
pardoned and restored, enjoy His favour 

(3131-34). 

Thus this great history closes with a note 
of hope, and a conception of religion that, far 
below all externalism, rests on the personal 
and intimate relationship between the indi- 
vidual soul and its God. Though the hopes 
of the prophets of a glorious kingdom in 
Jerusalem under a righteous Ruler were never 
realised, they have been fulfilled in a far 
deeper sense than those who uttered them ever 
dreamed by the King whose kingdom is ' not 
of this world,' who sealed the new covenant 
with His own blood. So we claim that the 
faith of the prophets, embodied in many forms 
and figures, has outlived them all and is tri- 
umphant in the world to-day. Jesus took the 
faith which they held, ennobled it and purged 
it, and through His life and death established 
a kingdom which will never pass away. Look- 
ing backwards we see that all history is one, 
knit together by the guiding, inspiring con- 
trolling Spirit of God. Looking forward we 
believe still, with more assured faith than ever, 
in the perfect establishment of that kingdom 
so long desired, so wistfully looked for, against 
which the gates of hell shall not prevail. 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH 



I. Divisions and Contents. Pentateuch is a 
Greek word meaning the 'fivefold volume,' 
and has been used since the time of Origen 
(third century a.d.) as a convenient designation 
for the first five books of the Old Testament. 
It serves to remind us that these constitute 
really one volume in five parts. In the Old 
Testament itself this is called ' The Law,' or 
'book of the Law,' to which is sometimes 
added ' of God ' or ' of Moses ' : see e.g. Neh 
8i,2f. 93 131. Later Jewish writers call it 
the ' book of the Law,' or the ' Five Fifths of 
the Law.' In Hebrew manuscripts the division 
into five books is not so strongly marked as in 
the English Bible, the Pentateuch being treated 
as one and divided into a number of larger 
and smaller sections, which are numbered 
consecutively from Genesis to Deuteronomy. 
The five larger sections are usually named by 
the first word or first important word in each. 
Thus Genesis is called B'reshith, i.e. ' In the 
Beginning' ; Exodus is Shemoth, i.e. ' Names ' ; 
Leviticus is Vayyikra, i.e. ' And He called ' ; 
Numbers is Vaydabber, i.e. ' And He spake,' 
or, Bammidbar, i.e. ' In the Wilderness ' ; and 
Deuteronomy is D'barim, i.e. ' Words.' Some- 
times titles more particularly descriptive of 
their contents are applied to the books ; thus 
Leviticus is styled the ' Law of the Priests,' 
Numbers the ' Fifth ' (part) ' of Numberings,' 
and Deuteronomy the ' Second Law.' The 
English titles are taken from the Yulgate 
Latin Version, which again derived them from 
the Septuagint. The fivefold division of the 
Pentateuch is thus shown to be earlier than 
the origin of the Septuagint, and is prob- 
ably as old as the time of Nehemiah. It is 
older than the division of the Psalter, which 
was arranged in five books on the model of 
the Pentateuch. 

As the book of Joshua displays a certain 
affinity with the Pentateuch both in spirit and 
literary style, and forms its natural continua- 
tion and complement, modern scholars speak 
of a Hexateuch, or ' sixfold volume,' and re- 
gard the books from Genesis to Joshua as six 
parts of a complete whole. 

For details of the Contents of the Pentateuch 
reference Bhould be made to the introductions 
prefixed to the separate books in the Commen- 
tary. It will suffice here to say that they are 
made up of two elements, history and legislation. 
The theme is the Kingdom of God upon the 
earth, and its gradual revelation and embodi- 
ment in Israel as the chosen people, both in 



its external (historical) and intes-nal (legislative) 
aspects. The Song of Moses (Dt 32) and such 
Psalms as 105, 106 may be regarded as giving 
a summary of this history. From the way in 
which the Pentateuch opens it might have been 
supposed that its aim was to outline the his- 
tory of the whole human race. But it soon 
appears that the account of the creation of 
the world, the entrance of sin, and the rise 
and spread of the races, is only preliminary 
to the main subject. Little by little the his- 
tory is narrowed down till at Gn 1 2 we come 
to Abraham, who is chosen as the progenitor 
of the people to whom God will specially 
reveal Himself. From this point the Penta- 
teuch, and indeed the entire Old Testament, 
becomes a history of the Hebrew nation. In 
the third generation from Abraham his de- 
scendants to the number of seventy, with their 
households, migrate from Canaan to Egypt. 
There they increase in spite of all obstacles 
till they become a great nation. The book of 
Exodus tells of their deliverance from Egypt 
by the hand of Moses. They come into the 
Sinaitic peninsula on their way to the pro- 
mised land, and there they enter into a solemn 
covenant with Jehovah on the basis of the 
Law given to them at Mount Sinai. Practically 
the whole of Leviticus is occupied with legis- 
lation, the purpose of which is to mark this 
nation off from all others as the ' peculiar 
people ' of Jehovah, a ' kingdom of priests ' 
and a ' holy nation.' The book of Numbers 
continues the history of the sojourn in the 
wilderness, until they come to the borders of 
Canaan, and is interspersed with numerous 
laws. Deuteronomy contains the discourses 
addressed to the people by Moses before his 
death. It consists largely of laws, and closes 
with an account of the solitary death of the 
great leader and Lawgiver. The book of 
Joshua relates the entrance into Canaan, and 
its conquest by the Israelites under the leader- 
ship of Joshua, the successor of Moses. 

2. The Mosaic Authorship. The question 
of the authorship of the Pentateuch, or rather 
of the Hexateuch, has been the subject of 
much discussion in modern times, and scholars 
are still carefully investigating the subject. 
The traditional view was that Moses was the 
author of the five books which bear his name 
in our Bibles ; and until comparatively recent 
times this belief was accepted without ques- 
tion or inquiry regarding its grounds. A 
thorough study of these books, however, has 



xxiv 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH 



led many to the conclusion that this view of 
their authorship does not fit in with the 
facts, and that another view is necessitated 
by the evidence which the books themselves 
present. 

Two arguments are often brought forward 
for the Mosaic authorship which demand some 
notice, (a) One is the fact that our Lord when 
quoting the Pentateuch refers to it as the 
work of Moses: cp. Mtl9« Mk7i° 1226 Lk 
24 44 Jn 5 45-47 7 19 . Regarding this it has 
sometimes been pointed out that these refer- 
ences by our Lord do not compel us to believe 
that Moses wrote the whole of the Pentateuch, 
but only that certain parts of it were derived 
from him, which indeed many of the foremost 
scholars admit. But another answer may be 
given, and that is that our Lord did not come 
to deal with questions of literary authorship, 
but to bring men salvation ; that He appeals 
to the Pentateuch entirely for the practical 
purposes of quickening men's consciences and 
reproving their sins ; and that He called it the 
Law of Moses because that was the name by 
which it was commonly known. It may be 
accepted as a guiding principle in the study of 
the Scriptures, that the subjects of divine re- 
velation are not matters such as biblical author- 
ship or physical processes, which men can dis- 
cover by the exercise of their faculties, but 
only those truths of God's love and His purposes 
of salvation ' which the angels desire to look 
into.' The force of our Lord's teaching, it is 
hardly necessary to add, is not affected by the 
view taken of the authorship of the Pentateuch. 
(b) The other argument for the traditional 
view is, that Jewish tradition consistently 
ascribes the composition of the Pentateuch to 
Moses. With reference to this point it must 
be remembered that there is no trace of the ex- 
istence of this tradition until a comparatively 
late period, and that it is unsupported by any 
strong evidence. It must also be noted that 
as a whole the Five Books are anonymously 
written, and that there is no passage in the Old 
Testament which claims Moses as their author. 
The ' Law of Moses ' indeed is frequently 
spoken of, and it is unquestionable that Israel- 
itish law did originate with him ; but this ex- 
pression is not evidence that Moses was the 
writer of the Pentateuch as we have it, or 
that the laws which it contains represent 
throughout his unmodified legislation. On the 
other hand, there are parts of these books 
which are expressly ascribed to him ; e.g. (1) 
the account of the defeat of Amalek(Exl7 14 ); 
(2) the book of the Covenant, Ex 20-23 (Ex 
24 4 .7) ; (3) the Renewed Covenant, Ex 3410-26 
(cp. Ex34 27 ) ; (4) the Lists of Stations on the 
March in Nu33 (33 2 ) ; (5) the law spoken of 
in Dt 31 9 >n, 24-26 . (6) the Song of Moses, Dt 
32 : cp. also Josh 1 7, 8 8 si, 35 236 2426. These 



passages indicate that Moses wrote and laid 
up for preservation records of certain important 
events and laws. 

It is also to be kept in view that many of 
the laws preserved in the Pentateuch relate 
to circumstances which imply a nomadic life 
in tents, pointing to a period contemporary 
with Moses: cp. e.g. Lvl4 3 with 14 34 1620-22 
NulOi-7. 

There is no difficulty in understanding the 
rise of the belief in the Mosaic authorship or 
in sympathising with the feelings which sug- 
gested it. Apart from Moses it would be 
impossible to account for the religion of the 
Old Testament. It was to him that the de- 
cisive creative revelation of Jehovah's nature 
and His relation to Israel came. It was he 
who laid the foundations of the ideas, laws, 
and institutions, which made Israel the nation 
in which all the families of the earth have 
been blessed. The later developments of 
faith, custom, and ritual require him at the 
beginning as their primary explanation. And 
if he was thus under God the originator of the 
beliefs and practices which lie at the root of 
Old Testament religion, it is difficult to avoid 
the conclusion that he put into writing some 
of its laws and some narratives of leading 
events to guide the conduct and inspire the 
patriotism of the people whom he had welded 
into a nation. 

On close examination, however, it must be 
admitted that the Pentateuch reveals many 
features inconsistent with the traditional view 
that in its present form it is the work of 
Moses. For instance, it may be safely granted 
that Moses did not write the account of his 
own death in Dt 34 . The statement in Dt 1 1 
that Moses spoke these words ' beyond (RV) 
Jordan in the wilderness ' (see note there) is 
evidently made from the standpoint of one 
living in Canaan, which Moses never did ; and 
when we read that the ' Canaanite was then in 
the land ' (Gn 12 6 13 7), and that ' these are the 
kings that reigned in Edom before there 
reigned any king over Israel' (Gn36 3 i), it is 
difficult to resist the impression that the 
speaker was living in the one case after the 
conquest, and in the other after the establish- 
ment of the monarchy. In Gnl4i4 and Dt34 
mention is made of Dan ; but the territory did 
not receive that name till it was conquered by 
the Danites, long after the death of Moses 
(Josh 1 9 47 J g 18 29). Again, in Nu 21 14. is there 
is quoted as an ancient authority ' the book of 
the "Wars of the Lord,' which plainly could 
not have been earlier than the days of Moses. 
Other passages which can with difficulty be 
ascribed to him are Ex 6 26, 27 H3 1635,36 
Lv 18 24-28 Nu 123 Dt2i2. 

Of course such things do not amount in 
themselves to a disproof of the Mosaic author- 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH 



ship, but they naturally lead to the question : 
' On what authority does this belief rest, that 
Moses is the author of the Pentateuch in 
its present form ? ' And it appears that no 
authority could be cited except the late tradi- 
tion of the Jewish Church. Therefore men 
have thought themselves at liberty to investi- 
gate the matter, and a careful examination has 
led many scholars to the conviction that the 
writings of Moses formed only the rough 
material or part of the material, and that in its 
present form it is not the work of one man, 
but a compilation made from previously exist- 
ing documents. In this connexion it must be 
remembered that editing and compiling is a 
recognised mode of authorship in Old Testa- 
ment history. Just as St. Luke tells us (Lk 1 *) 
that, before our Four Gospels were written, 
there were many earlier accounts of our Lord's 
life already in existence, so the Old Testament 
writers tell us of similar accounts already 
written of the facts which they record. And 
not only so, but they distinctly indicate that 
they used these earlier accounts in composing 
their own books. It is most interesting to 
find embedded in the existing books fragments 
of the old literature of ancient Israel, as 
geologists find the fragments of the lost animal 
life of early ages embedded in the rocks of 
to-day. See, for example, ' the book of the 
Wars of Jehovah' (Nu21 14 ), 'the book of 
Jasher ' (2 S 1 18 ), ' the books of Gad and Nathan ' 
(1 Ch29 29 ), ' the books of Shemaiah and Iddo ' 
(2Chl2 15 ). Here we have evidence of the 
existence of sources of information to which 
editors and compilers of later days had 
access. We find also several ancient poems 
incorporated in the sacred text, e.g. Gn4 23f - 
Ex 15, 17 16 Nu21 1 7»i8.27f. J g 5 ? etc., and it is 
probable there were other early writings avail- 
able besides those which can now be traced. 
There is thus nothing strange in the suggestion 
that the books of the Pentateuch were based 
on preexisting materials. 

3. Composition. The following are the 
main grounds of the conviction that the Pen- 
tateuch is not the original work of one man, 
but a compilation from previously existing 
documents. 

(1) In the historical parts we find duplicate 
accounts of the same event, which do not 
always agree in detail. Sometimes the two 
accounts are set down side by side ; sometimes 
they are fused together more or less com- 
pletely ; but in many instances no attempt 
has been made either to remove or to reconcile 
tluir differences. Thus two distinct and 
independent accounts of the Creation are 
given, one in Gnl-2 4 , the other in Gn2 4 -25. 
Two accounts of the Flood may be detected 
on a careful reading of Gnfi-9. Again, 
we find two sets of instructions for the ob- 



servance of the Passover in Ex 12, one in 
vv. 1-13, the other in vv. 21-27. We may 
also instance the contrasts between such 
passages as Gn27 x " 45 and 27 46 -28 9 , where 
Rebekah is actuated by one motive in the 
former and by quite another in the latter ; 
Gn28 19 and 35 9-15 , where the name is given 
to Bethel in very different circumstances ; 
Gn35 10 and 3228. Compare also EX31-6 1 
with 6 2 -7 13 , where the latter section takes no 
account of the former, but begins the story 
of the mission to Pharaoh anew, as if 3 x -6 1 
had never been written. 

(2) Similarly in the legislative portions of 
these books we find apparent contradictions, 
and these not in minor or insignificant details, 
but in fundamental enactments ; and the only 
way in which we can solve the problem thus 
presented is by understanding that in these 
books (especially Exodus to Deuteronomy) we 
have the records of laws laid down at various 
periods of the national history, and dealing 
with radically different conditions of life. In 
Ex 20-23, e.g., we have a set of laws which 
are evidently suited to the circumstances of 
an agricultural and pastoral community scat- 
tered over a considerable tract of country 
with their flocks and herds. This legislation 
is of a very simple and practical nature, based 
on the fundamental principles of truth and 
righteousness, and having reference to a primi- 
tive state of society. Thus the worship is 
very simple ; altars are to be built of earth or 
of rough stones at any place where God has 
blessed them (20 24-26). firstlings and first fruits 
are to be offered on the eighth day (2228-30). 
the law of injuries is ' eye for eye, tooth for 
tooth, life for life' (21 1 " 21 ); murder is to be 
atoned by the death of the culprit, but the 
altar gives refuge to the homicide by accident 
(2112-14). special reference is made to oxen 
and sheep, to vineyards and fields of corn, and 
restitution for damage done to these is com- 
manded (21 33 -23 7 ). Again, the poor are 
provided for by the produce of the fields 
every seventh year (23 10 . 11 ); the seventh day 
is appointed as the sabbath — a day of rest for 
man and beast (23 12 ); three feasts are to be 
kept — two of them agricultural — the feast of 
unleavened bread in memory of the exodus, 
and those of harvest and ingathering. The 
laws are suited to the conditions of life ex- 
perienced by the Israelites in the wilderness, 
and in their earlier days in Canaan. 

In the book of Deuteronomy we find a more 
advanced type of legislation, applying evidently 
to different circumstances. Many injunctions, 
indeed, are repeated, but many others are 
changed. The principles are the same as in 
the older legislation, but the rules are largely 
modified. Deuteronomy is the Mosaic Law 
applied to the altered conditions of a later 



xxvi 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH 



and more complex age. Thus the worship is 
to be centralised in one place, and local altars 
are to be abolished (Dtl2 4 " 6 » 13 ' 28 ), because of 
abuses that had sprung up in connexion with 
them ; firstlings are to be offered once a year 
instead of on the eighth day, and in place of 
the local altars cities of refuge are provided 
for ' him who killeth his neighbour unawares ' 
(Dt 1 9 2 ). The conditions of life are different 
from those in Ex 20-23 ; the people dwell in 
cities, not in the camp (Dtl3 12 " 15 17 2 21 6, 
etc.) ; a commercial element has entered into 
the nation (23 19 > 20 25 13 - 16 ), and intercourse 
with foreigners has brought new dangers to 
religion (136,7 173,4). 

Again, in the book of Leviticus, with parts 
of Exodus and Numbers, we find another type 
of legislation, founded still upon the same 
Mosaic principles, but more elaborate, more 
priestly, more rigid than that of Ex 20-23 
or that of Deuteronomy. Here we find 
detailed rules for the ritual of the Temple, 
for the consecration of priests, for many 
points in ordinary life and conduct. Many of 
these are found in the other codes ; but many 
are new (e.g. the feasts in Lv 23), and in- 
dicate the result of a long process of develop- 
ment. The worship is highly developed and 
centralised in the Temple ; the altar is an 
elaborate structure (EX27 1 ' 8 ) ; the duties of 
priests and Levites are carefully detailed, and 
the Levites are distinguished from the priests 
as their servants (Nu8 19 18 l ' 7 ). 

(3) Different parts of the Pentateuch ex- 
hibit marked differences of vocabulary and 
literary style. Many of these differences, 
especially of vocabulary, can only be appre- 
ciated by those acquainted with Hebrew ; but 
any one can see that the book of Deuteronomy 
is written in a much more rhetorical style 
than, say, the book of Leviticus, and can 
appreciate its lofty and inspiring eloquence. 
Again, in one set of passages, of which Gn 1-2 4 
is a type, the Almighty is called God (Hebrew 
Elohim), while in another set, of which Gn 
24-26 i s an example, He is designated Lord 
(Hebrew Jehovah) ; and there are many 
other points of difference which are most 
satisfactorily explained by the theory that the 
writer of the Pentateuch, as we have it, made 
use of and incorporated into his work docu- 
ments originally separated. 

Following up the clue given by these 
differences, scholars have endeavoured to dis- 
entangle the separate documents from which 
it is suggested that the Pentateuch was com- 
piled, and we shall now give a brief outline of 
the results of their investigations. 

4. Sources. 

(a) There is first what we may call the 
Primitive source (itself resting upon older 
written authorities), usually denoted by the 



symbol JE. It has sometimes been called 
the Prophetic document, because it reflects 
the same ideas found in more developed forms 
in the writings of the prophets, especially 
their religious and moral teaching. By some, 
again, it is styled Pre -prophetic, as earlier in 
date than the prophets, and simpler in its 
outlook. 

It begins at Gn2 4 , and may be said to 
supply all the more detailed and picturesque 
narratives in Genesis, and Exodus, part of 
Numbers, and the first twelve chapters of 
Joshua. To it we owe entirely the narratives 
of the Fall and Cain and Abel, the details of 
Abraham's trials and wanderings, of Sodom and 
Gomorrah, of Isaac and Rebekah, of Jacob's 
fraud, his journey to Haran and his successful 
career, and of the life of Joseph. A feature 
in this Primitive source is its fondness for 
antiquities. It reaches back into a remote 
past, and delights to record the traditions and 
history that centred round the great figures 
of the race. It is this document that pre- 
serves the early legislation already referred 
to (Ex 20-23) with its permission of local 
sanctuaries ; that gives us the ten command- 
ments, and that records the ancient songs of 
Lamech, of Moses, and of the conquering 
Israelites (Nu 21 14 -!5, 1M8, 27-30). it ma kes use 
of the term ' Jehovah ' for God from the very 
outset of its narrative. Plausible attempts 
have been made to analyse it into two com- 
ponents, J and E ; but for these reference 
must be made to larger works. In any case, 
the parallel threads are closely allied, and may 
for our purpose be treated as a unity. 

This source presents a very simple, vivid, 
and picturesque narrative, and is characterised 
among other things by its naively anthropo- 
morphic conception of God, i.e. it speaks of 
God in language that is strictly appropriate 
to man only. For example, it represents 
God as planting a garden and walking in it in 
the cool of the day (Gn 2 8 3 8 ), as coming down 
in order to see what men are doing on the earth 
(Gnll 5 18 21 ), as shutting the door of the ark 
behind Noah (Gn7 16 ), as smelling the sweet 
odour of sacrifice (Gn8 21 ), and as experi- 
encing the emotions to which men are subject 
(cp. e.g. Gn6 6 ), etc. This bold way of 
speaking about God, it may be remarked 
here, is not due to any irreverence or familiar- 
ity, but is the outcome of an intensely religious 
spirit that is completely possessed by the con- 
sciousness of God's immediate presence and 
power in the world. The Primitive narrative, 
too, is not careful to conceal the moral faults 
of the patriarchs. The English reader will 
form an idea of its style and characteristics 
from such passages as Gn2 4b -3 24 9 2 °- 2 ? 11^ 
18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, and practically the whole 
of the history of Joseph. 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEU( 



It seems probable that the older written 
authorities underlying this Primitive or Pro- 
phetic narrative were drawn up not later than 
750 B.C., and perhaps even a century earlier ; 
they themselves in their turn being founded 
on writings like ' the book of the Wars of the 
Lord,' and ' the book of Jasher,' as well as on 
traditions handed down from generation to 
generation in the tribes of Israel. The early 
prophets make frequent and confident appeals 
to events of past history and to promises of 
God to the fathers which are recorded in this 
Primitive narrative : cp. Hos^H 1 123,4,9,12 
Am29 3i 525. 

(6) There is, secondly, the Priestly docu- 
ment (usually designated P), This work is 
so called because it regards the history of 
Israel from the priestly point of view, and 
because it contains the greater part of the 
priestly and ceremonial legislation in Exodus, 
Leviticus, and Numbers. It is written in a 
somewhat dry and formal style, with little 
descriptive colour or poetic grace ; but in 
parts (e.g. the story of Creation) its diction is 
dignified and worthy of the subject. It gives 
an outline of the history of Israel from the 
earliest times ; though this is usually of the 
slightest, many incidents detailed at length in 
the Primitive document receiving a bare men- 
tion, and long periods being passed over with 
little more than a list of the names of the leaders 
who lived at the time : cp. Gn 1 1 10 . It is only 
when the writer comes to some epoch-making 
event or to the origin of some well-known 
institution that he enters into particulars (e.g. 
GnH 1 - 27 Exl2!-20). This writing, however, 
gives a systematic account of the rise and 
progress of Israel as a theocracy, paying 
special attention to the laws and institutions, 
and showing great interest in everything 
pertaining to the Ceremonial Law, the division 
of the nation into tribes, and the partition of 
the promised land among them (cp. e.g. Nu 
1-4 Joshl3 15 -14 5 15 1 - 18 . 2 °- (52 , and most of 
17-22). It abounds in genealogies (e.g. Gn5 
69-22 46«-27), inventories (e.g. Ex 25-31), and 
chronological details (e.g. Gn 1 1 10f -). A favour- 
ite expression, usually beginning a list, is 
'These are the generations of..' (Gn2 4 5 1 
G» 10i 11102512 361). 

This Priestly document avoids all anthropo- 
morphic representations of God, and in this 
respect is in striking contrast to the Primitive 
writing JE, which represents God as thinking 

and acting Like a man : op, (Jnl8, 19 Ex24* f . 

In P God's revelations take the form. QOl of 
visible appearances, but of speech (Gn 1 - s 6 18 
Ivxi',' 12 1 ); except on the one occasion of 
the supreme revelation on Mount Sinai ( Ex 
24 " ; 25--'). A feature of its references to 
<;<><1 is that it makes use of the name Klohini 

(God) for God almost exclusively (El Shaddai, 



Gnl7i 283 3511 483) ui re God 

reveals His name Jeh> rd) to 

Moses. The writer of sat evi- 

dently belonged to the p*xcsiiy class ; his aim 
was entirely a religious one ; he sought to show 
from a sketch of Israel's history that ' God 
was in the midst of her.' 

Scholars are of opinion that this document 
was drawn up, in the form in which it is 
embedded in the Pentateuch, for the guidance 
of the priests and others after the return 
from the captivity in the days of Ezra. The 
worship is regarded in it as completely cen- 
tralised in Jerusalem; the priests are exclu- 
sively the descendants of Aaron, and the 
Levites are distinct from them ; the system 
of sacrifices and feasts is much more de- 
veloped than even in Deuteronomy (see under 
(c)); the idea of God is purer and less akin 
to that of a magnified man. The Priestly 
document thus exhibits signs of the disci- 
pline and purification which the nation ex- 
perienced in the exile and is appropriately 
dated at the close of that event. 

(c) The third document underlying the Pen- 
tateuch (or rather the Hexateuch) is the book 
of Deuteronomy, usually cited as D, and iden- 
tified in its main parts with the Law-book dis- 
covered in the Temple by Hilkiah in the 
eighteenth year of King Josiah, 621 B.C. 
(2K22). This book has a strongly marked 
literary style, being smooth, redundant, and 
rhetorical: cp. e.g. Dt 11, 12. It insists on the 
worship of the one God at the one sanctuary, 
and is characterised by a lofty spiritual, moral, 
and humanitarian tone. In many respects it 
differs from the earlier legislation of the 
Primitive document ; but always in matters of 
detail. Its laws are suited to a later age and 
to a more complex condition of society than 
those of JE ; the worship is centralised in 
Jerusalem, because the local shrines had been 
abused ; and the centralisation of the worship 
necessitated many changes in detail. Thus 
Deuteronomy, or the Second Legislation, is 
simply the development of the first ; it is the 
Mosaic principles applied to new conditions. 
It is animated by the same spirit as the older 
law, inspired by the same desire for purity of 
worship, for singleness of heart, for holiness 
of life. 

It is supposed that these three documents — 
the Primitive writing, the Priestly writing, 
and the book of Deuteronomy — were welded 
together somewhat in this way. The first 
attempts to write a history of Israel probably 
originated in the schools of the prophets in 
tin ninth century B.C.; and in the Primitive 
wait ing JE we have the finished result. About 
tin same time as J E was composed, the Second 
Legislation (I)) was set down in writing and 
ma le public as recorded in 2K22. Tins was 



INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH 



afterwards combined with the earlier writing, 
which gave it a historic background. Then 
during, or immediately after the exile, the 
ritual law was drawn up in accordance with 
priestly traditions, and given an appropriate 
setting in a historical framework, the result 
being the Priestly writing (P). Finally a 
later historian, taking these as his author- 
ities, wove them together into a complete 
whole, connecting them by notes and ex- 
planations, where these were necessary ; 
not putting the history in his own words or 
presenting it from his own standpoint as a 
modern historian would do, but piecing toge- 
ther the sections of the sources which referred 
to the same events, and thus preserving not 
only the history, but the very words in which 
it had reached him, for all coming generations. 
In this writer's work we have the Pentateuch 
of the Old Testament Scriptures. 

This, then, is a brief outline of the views 
held by most scholars who have devoted them- 
selves to the thorough study of these books 
of the Bible. Such a theory of the compo- 
sition of the Pentateuch, while it may surprise 
us at first sight, will give us larger ideas of 
G-od's working and inspiration, and will 
strengthen rather than disturb our faith. For 



it will remove many difficulties in the inter- 
pretation of these books, and explain those 
contradictions of which we are all conscious 
when we read them. When we realise that 
God did not teach Israel only by Moses, but 
' at sundry times and in divers manners ' by 
teachers and leaders whom He inspired accord- 
ing to the work He gave them to perform, we 
shall have worthier ideas of His government 
of the world and of His watchful care over 
His people. The fact that the legislation of 
the Pentateuch was given not all at one time, 
but to different generations, according to their 
circumstances and needs, surely teaches us, 
as perhaps nothing is better fitted to teach 
us, that ' He that keepeth Israel neither slum- 
bers nor sleeps.' And the view of the books 
which scholars suggest to us shows us that 
His inspiration wrought not through one but 
through many, and that in every age of Israel's 
history there were men inspired by the spirit 
which animated their master, Moses, eager 
to make known to their fellows how great 
things God had wrought, and longing to 
win them to loyalty and devotion to Him 
who was the God of Abraham and Isaac 
and Jacob, and who desired still to be their 
God. 



THE CREATION STORY AND SCIENCE 



Many of the difficulties felt in connexion 
with the Bible story of creation arise from a 
misunderstanding of the bearing of modern 
science upon it. A few general considera- 
tions, therefore, may help to obviate them. 

(a) There is a vague idea in many minds 
that science demands a much greater antiquity 
for the world than the Bible account will 
allow. This impression has probably been 
gathered from the statement in the margin of 
many Bibles that creation took place in the 
year 4004 B.C. It is well, therefore, to be 
reminded that this marginal note is not a part 
of the Bible. It originated in calculations, 
both Jewish and Christian, which are now 
admitted to have been based upon imperfect 
knowledge. The sacred writer in Genesis 
does not commit himself to any definite limits 
of time, but simply speaks of the creation as 
taking place ' in the beginning,' and this 
phrase is elastic enough to cover the modern 
scientific position. 

(b) Another difficulty is caused by the ap- 
parent antagonism between modern scientific 
theories and the statement of Gnl that the 
work of creation was completed in six days. 
Attempts have been made, from several points 
of view, to get rid of this antagonism, by 
taking the language of Scripture in a figurative 
sense. For example, it has been suggested 
by some that the sublime panorama of creation 
was flashed into some primeval prophet's con- 
sciousness in a series of visions that occupied 
a space of six days ; and by others that the 
days are not to be interpreted as natural days 
of twenty-four hours each, but as age-long 
periods of time corresponding to the succes- 
sive stages in the evolution of the world. 
Whatever truth there may be in these sugges- 
tions, and however helpful they may be to 
many minds, others may be able to obtain a 
more satisfactory rendering of the Bible ac- 
count of creation, by looking at it in the light 
of the three following considerations. (1) 
The story was written in the very childhood 
of our race, when human knowledge was only 
at the dawn, and men's minds were awakening 
for the first tinit t<> he problems of life and 

the world. It was inevitable, therefore, that 

it should be cast in a simple and childlike 
form, if it was to heat all intelligible to those 
among whom it appeared ; and the wisdom of 
giving it such a setting has been more than 
justified by the impression it has left, and 
still continues to make, upon the thought of 



the world. (2) It is now widely admitted 
that the Genesis account of creation contains 
elements of belief which existed, perhaps 
thousands of years before the book of Genesis 
was written, among the peoples of Babylonia 
and Assyria. The connexion between the 
traditions of these early nations and the story 
of Genesis is still a matter of discussion, but 
one thing has emerged clearly from their com- 
parison. Whatever elements the sacred writer 
in Genesis may have in common with the 
Babylonian and Assyrian beliefs, he has been 
able to redeem and purify them from their 
baser form, and invest them with the presence 
and power of a Sovereign God, the one only 
Creator of heaven and earth. (3) The pur- 
pose of the writer in Gn 1 is not scientific 
but religious. His scientific knowledge may be 
bounded by the horizon of the age in which 
he lived, but the religious truths he teaches 
are irrefutable and eternal. To put the 
matter in another way : The scientific account 
of creation has been written by the finger of 
God upon the crust of the earth, and men are 
slowly spelling it out ; but the religious ac- 
count of creation is written in the firstchapter 
of Genesis, in letters that all can read. Both 
accounts are from God, and should be received 
accordingly. As Dr. Marcus Dods has said : 
' The greatest mistake is made when men seek 
in the one record what can only be found in 
the other, when they either refuse to listen to 
the affirmations of nature because they seem 
to disagree with what is found in the Bible, 
or when they are content -with the teaching of 
nature, as if nature could tell us all we need 
to know about ourselves, about the world, and 
about God.' What was necessary in the 
primitive world to save men from grovelling, 
debasing polytheism was the knowledge that 
it was God, holy and good, who made all 
things, and that the crown and summit of His 
work was man ; and this is the knowledge set 
forth in the book of Genesis. The real 
question for us is then: 'Does the story of 
(ic m sis so accomplish what seems to be its 
purpose, that only inspiration from God can 
account for it ?' To ask : ' Is it a completely 
scientific account of creation?' is to raise an 
issue that is scarcely fair. 

(c) These considerations must be kept in 
mind, for they are equally helpful, in dealing 
with the further difficulty that has arisen in 
connexion with the theory of evolution, and 
the marvellous discoveries with which it has 



THE CREATION STORY AND SCIENCE 



been associated. Science is now teaching that 
the order and beauty of the world are not the 
result of one directly creative act, but the 
outcome of a long and gradual process, con- 
tinued probably over myriads of years ; and 
that the varied life of nature is not as it was 
fixed 'in the beginning,' but as it has been 
evolved, through age-long periods and many 
lower stages, from original germs. On the 
face of it, this teaching seems to conflict with 
the teaching of the Bible, and in particular to 
throw suspicion upon the story of creation as 
given in Genesis. It was thus it was received 
at first ; but in recent years, as men have gone 
back to the old creation story, and pondered 
it afresh, in view of the teaching of science, 
their difficulties and perplexities have largely 
disappeared. Besides making allowances for 
the considerations already urged under (5), 
they have come to see that creation would be 
just as divine and miraculous, if it were slow 
and gradual, as it would be if it were sudden 
and complete. The power necessary to 
originate and support a ceaseless and pro- 
longed process of development in the world 
would be no less than that required to bring 
it into being in a moment, and sustain it in its 
ordered course. Doubtless, God could in- 
stantaneously make a mighty oak ; but it is 
no less wonderful that He should make it 
gradually, causing it to grow out of the little 
acorn, of which we can carry a dozen in the 
hand, yet every one of which contains within 
it a germ endued with power to carry on a 
succession of mighty oaks through ages to 



come. To realise this is to advance a long way 
in the solution of the difficulty arising from 
the theory of evolution, and rob it of its 
power to disturb a genuine faith in the Bible. 
A further reflection, however, may be called 
in to support the mind of the biblical believer. 
Not only is evolution itself only a theory, 
which may in the future undergo modification, 
and may possibly be displaced by some other 
theory, but even if it is a true and final 
account of the origin of created things, the old 
creation story of Genesis is, to say the least, 
not incompatible with it. The process of 
creation, as unfolded in Genesis, when viewed 
in the light of the new scientific teaching, 
reveals a law of continuous development, 
which is at least a foreshadowing of the 
process of evolution. And so the apparent 
irreconcilability between them becomes largely 
reduced, if it does not indeed altogether dis- 
appear. ' These,' we read, ' are the genera- 
tions of the heavens when they were created.' 
' The inspired historian saw no Almighty hand 
building up the galleries of creation : he heard 
no sound of hammer nor confused noise of 
workmen : the Spirit of the Lord moved upon 
the face of the deep : chaos took form and 
comeliness before his inspired vision : and 
the solar system grew through a succession of 
days to its present order and beauty.' At 
last, when all things were ready — after how 
many myriads of years we know not — man 
came forth, the summit of the whole creation, 
for ' God breathed into his nostrils the breath 
of life, and he became a living soul.' 



xxxi 



GENESIS AND THE BABYLONIAN INSCRIPTIONS 



During the last thirty years a considerable 
amount of light has been thrown on the first 
few chapters of Genesis by the recovery and 
interpretation of an extensive Babylonian 
literature. The Assyrian king, Assurbanipal, 
who reigned in the middle of the seventh cen- 
tury B.C., caused copies of immense numbers 
of documents from other libraries in the 
country to be made for his library at Nineveh, 
some of these writings dating from many hun- 
dred years earlier. They comprised works on 
religion, history, mathematics, law, magic, and 
astronomy. The copies, like the originals, 
were on tablets of fine clay, inscribed, whilst 
in a soft state, with wedge-shaped (cuneiform) 
characters, and then burned in a furnace till 
they became hard and dry. These clay tablets 
are of all sizes, from an inch to more than a 
foot long, and the museums of Europe and 
America now possess thousands of them, de- 
rived from Assurbanipal's library and other 
places. Excavations are still being carried on, 
with the result that every year sees a large 
addition to the recovered treasures. In 1872 
Mr. George Smith discovered on some of the 
tablets, which may now be seen in the British 
Museum, accounts of the Creation and the 
Flood, written from the religious standpoint 
of the Babylonians. Many similarities were 
at once observed between them and the early 
chapters of Genesis. This will not cause sur- 
prise, for the Hebrew and Babylonian peoples 
were allied branches of the great Semitic race, 
and it was natural that their ideas respecting 
the origin of the world, and their traditions as 
to its primitive history, should have much in 
common. But these Babylonian records, which 
have thrown bo much light on the character of 
the early narratives of Genesis, have at the 
same time done more than anything else to 
confirm the real divine inspiration of the 
latter, and their peculiar religious worth. The 
biblical narratives, when compared with these 
kindred legends, present differences which are 
even more striking than the resemblances. 
And it is these differences which reveal their 

spiritual value. The Babylonian stories ;in 

full of grotesque and polytheistic Ideas, while 
those of the Bible speak only of the one 

living and true God. Compared with the 

former, the Scriptures are incomparably truer 
and grander from b religious point of view. 

They conveyed to the Hebrews, and they still 
convey to us. the worthiest conceptions of 
God and of His relation to the world and 



men. They are a standing witness to the fact 
that the nation of Israel enjoyed a peculiar 
revelation of the true God. If the ' folk-lore ' 
of the Hebrews, like that of all other peoples, 
was inconsistent at many points with our 
modern knowledge of nature and history, yet 
it was so purified among them, under the 
guidance of the Spirit of God, from all taint 
of heathenism, that, as it stands in the open- 
ing chapters of Genesis, it contains nothing 
inconsistent either with the religion of Jeho- 
vah or with the fuller revelation of Jesus 
Christ. 

i. The Babylonian Account of the Creation. 
Two Babylonian legends of the Creation are 
known. The longer and more important is 
inscribed on seven tablets, some of which are 
imperfect. According to it, all things were 
produced at the first from Tiamat, a personi- 
fication of the primeval chaos, represented as 
a huge dragon. The gods came into being in 
a long succession, but at length enmity arose 
between them and Tiamat, who created mon- 
sters to oppose them. Merodach, a solar 
deity, known also as Bel, and regarded as the 
supreme god and patron deity of Babylon, 
was chosen as the champion of the gods. He 
vanquished Tiamat, cut her body in two, and 
with one half of it made a firmament sup- 
porting the upper waters in the sky : see on 
Gn 1 6 " 8 . Merodach then fixed the signs of the 
zodiac in the sky as the stations of the great 
gods, and also placed the moon in the heavens 
to determine the months. The next part of 
the tablets is mutilated, but describes the 
creation of the heavens. The seventh tablet 
contains a hymn to Merodach. 

The following are a few passages from the 
Babylonian Creation epic, extracted mainly 
from T. G. Pinches' translation — 

' When, above, the heaven was not named, 
Beneath, the earth did not record a name, 
The ocean (Apsu) the primeval was their begetter, 
The tumult Tiamat was mother of them all, 
Their waters in one united together. 
Then were the gods born, 
Lilmiu Lahamn came forth, 
Ansar, I he god Aim 

The rest is fragmentary. 

The second, third, and fourth tablets de- 
Bcribe the conflict between Merodach and 
Tiamat. The victory of the former appears 
to signify the conquest of light and order 
over darkness and chaos. Then follows the 
formation of the firmament from the body of 



xxxli 



GENESIS AND THE BABYLONIAN INSCRIPTIONS 



Tiamat and creation of the heavens, as a 
habitation for the gods — 

' He cleft her like a fish into two parts, 
The half of her he set up and made a covering for 

the heaven, 
Set a bar before it, and stationed a watchman, 
Commanding him not to let the waters escape.' 

'Then Bel (i.e. Merodach) measured the extent of 

the abyss, 
A palace he founded in its likeness, Esarra ; 
The palace Esarra which he made (is) the heavens, 
A habitation for Ami, Bel, and Ea.' 

The fifth tablet describes the creation and 
arrangement of the heavenly bodies. 

' He (Merodach) made stations for the great gods, 
Stars their likeness — he set up the Zodiac, 
He ordained the year, denned divisions, 
Twelve months, each with three stars, he ap- 
pointed, 
He caused the moon to shine, ruling the night : ' etc. 

In spite of certain obvious parallelisms of 
thought, the first chapter of Genesis, it will be 
be seen, is greatly superior to the Babylonian 
account of the beginning of the world. It has 
a striking symmetry of arrangement, and a 
simple dignity which contrasts favourably with 
the childish and grotesque elements of the other 
narrative. But, above all, its religious teach- 
ing differs from that of the Babylonian story 
as day from night. Here we have no multitude 
of divinities, but one living and true God. 
Here we have no primeval matter from which 
the gods arise, but ' In the beginning, God.' 
Here the heavenly bodies are not deities to be 
worshipped, but the handiwork of God. Here 
man is at the head of creation, because he shares 
the image of God. 

2. The Babylonian Flood Legend bears more 
directly upon the narrative of Genesis. One 
version of it has been preserved by Berosus ; 
but it is now known to us in a fuller and more 
authentic form, from the series of cuneiform 
tablets discovered in the library of Assurbani- 
pal. These tablets contain an ancient Baby- 
lonian epic, the hero of which is Gilgamesh, 
whose adventures are related in twelve books. 
The eleventh book tells how Gilgamesh visited 
the deified hero Ut-napistim (or Pir-napistim), 
and heard from him the story of the flood 
and of his deliverance from it. The four gods, 
Anu ('Lord of the ocean of heaven'), Bel 
(' Lord of the air '), Ninip (' the god of man '), 
and Ennugi resolved to destroy mankind with 
a deluge. The god Ea (' Lord of the earth ') 
warned Ut-napistim, who worshipped him, to 
escape by building a ship, and told him what 
to say to those who should ask him what he 
was doing. Ut-napistim built the ship, made 
it watertight with pitch, stored it with food 
and drink, and brought into it all kinds of 
living creatures along with his family, his 
workmen, and a pilot. The sun-god Shamash 
c xx 



fixed the time of the flood. A wild storm of 
wind and rain raged for seven days and caused 
the gods to flee to heaven and to cry out in 
alarm. Istar (Ashtoreth = ' Venus ') interceded 
for men, and the rain ceased. Ut-napistim 
looked out from his ship and saw land in the 
distance. The ship grounded on a mountain 
in the land of Nizir, E. of the Tigris, and 
after seven days Ut-napistim sent forth in 
succession a dove, a swallow, and a raven. 
The first two came back, but the latter did not 
return. Ut-napistim thereupon sent out all the 
animals and offered a sacrifice on the mountain 
top. The gods gathered around it like flies. 
Istar came and held up the ' signets ' which 
Anu had made. She took an oath by her 
' necklace ' that she would always remember 
this time, and asked that Bel might not be 
allowed to come to the sacrifice. Bel came, 
however, and was angry at Ut-napistim for 
his escape. But Ea reproached Bel for having 
caused the flood, and advised him to take some 
other means (lions, hyaenas, famine, pestilence) 
for checking human population in future. Bel 
was appeased, conferred immortality on Ut- 
napistim and his wife, and gave them an abode 
' afar at the mouths of the rivers.' 

A few extracts from the tablets will show 
the parallelism of ideas in the Babylonian and 
Hebrew accounts. 

' Surippak, the city which thou knowest, 
Lies (upon the bank) of the Euphrates, 
That city was old, and the gods within it. 
The great gods decided in their hearts to make a 

flood, 
There was their father Anu 
Their counsellor, the warrior Bel ' . . . 



Ea warns Ut-napistim to save 



The god 
himself — 

' Surippakite, son of Umbara-Tutu, 
Forsake thy house, build a ship, 
Leave what thou hast, see to thy life, 
Take up the seed of life into the midst of the ship.' 

A vivid description of the storm is given — 

' At the appearance of dawn in the morning 
There arose from the foundation of heaven a dark 

cloud : 
Ramman thundered in the midst of it. . . 
Then came Ninip casting down destruction, 
The Anunnaki (spirits of the earth) raised their 

torches, 
"With their brilliance they illumined the land: 
Everything bright to darkness turned 
In heaven the gods feared the flood, 
They fled, they ascended to the heavens of Anu ; 
The gods kennelled like dogs, crouched down in the 

enclosures. 



Six days and six nights the wind blew, 
The deluge and flood overwhelmed the land, 
The seventh day when it came, the storm ceased, 



GENESIS AND THE BABYLONIAN INSCRIPTIONS 



The sea shrank back, the evil wind ended, 

Like palings the marsh reeds appeared. 

I opened my window, the light fell on my face, 

I fell back dazzled, I sat down, I wept. 

I noted the region, the shore of the sea, 

The ship had stopped at the land of Nisir, 

I sent forth a dove, and it left, 

But there was no resting-place, and it returned. 

I sent forth a swallow, etc., 

I sent forth a raven, and it left, 

It ate, it waded, it croaked, it did not return. 

I sent forth (the animals) to the four winds, 

I made an offering on the peak of the mountain, 

Seven and seven I set incense- vases there. 

The gods smelled a sweet savour, 

They gathered like flies over the sacrificer.' 

As in the Creation story the immense reli- 
gious and moral superiority of the biblical 
account must be manifest to every reader. 
There is no multitude of gods, divided in 
counsel, crying out in fear, wrangling like 
children, and changing from capricious hate 
to capricious favour. The unity of God, His 
hatred of evil, His love of righteousness, His 
mercy and faithfulness appear instead of the 
vain conceptions of the heathen. 

One or two interesting questions arise as to 
the general relationship between the biblical 
and the Babylonian accounts of the Creation 
and the Flood. Was the one set of traditions 
directly derived from the other, and if so 
which was the original one, and when did the 
borrowing take place ? Or must both sets be 
traced to a common source which was prior 
to either of them ? That the Babylonian 
accounts were derived from the Hebrew ones 
is most unlikely. The Creation and Flood 
tablets discovered in 1872 were taken from 
the library of the Assyrian king Assurbanipal, 
who lived 668-626 B.C. This date shows that 
the traditions recorded on the tablets were 
current in Babylonia almost a century before 
the exile. Further, the literature preserved 
in A^surbanipal's library consists almost en- 
tirely of copies of Babylonian documents, 
belonging in all likelihood to a time before 
the beginnings of the Hebrew nation. The 
local colouring of the narratives, too, points 
clearly to Babylonia as their original home. 
If. on the other hand, the Hebrews obtained 
the traditions from the Babylonians, it can- 



not have been during the exile, since the 
Primitive document, which has an account of 
the Flood, was drawn up before that time. 
As the Tel-el Amarna tablets show that Pales- 
tine was under the influence of Babylonian 
culture in the second millennium B.C., it is 
possible that the traditions in question may 
have passed from the Babylonians to the 
Canaanites, and from them to the Hebrews 
after the Conquest. But as Abraham, the 
ancestor of the Hebrews, himself came from 
Babylonia, it is in every way more natural to 
suppose that the biblical narratives are to be 
traced to their source through some such direct 
channel. There still remains the question as 
to how the difference between the Hebrew and 
the Babylonian traditions in their present form 
is to be explained. Were the polytheism and 
superstition of the Babylonian stories present 
in them from the first, and simply eliminated 
among the Hebrews before the narratives 
passed into the Bible ? Or have the present 
Babylonian legends degenerated from a purer 
original, of which the Bible has more faithfully 
preserved the religious tone ? Probably the 
truth lies midway between these two views. 
On the one hand, both the evidence of the 
Babylonian records and the analogy of other 
religious systems, suggest that the gross poly- 
theism reflected in the Babylonian stories, as 
we have them, was preceded by a higher and 
simpler belief, approaching to monotheism. 
On the other hand, we cannot assume a primi- 
tive religion so exalted as to do away with the 
reality of the revelation in the after history of 
Israel which the Old Testament records. The 
Hebrew nation was set apart not merely to 
preserve or revive ancient truth, but to receive 
a progressive unfolding of God's character and 
will. The Babylonian and biblical accounts of 
primitive times are best regarded as two streams 
of tradition flowing from one source (itself 
Babylonian) — each in its own direction. The 
former has lost whatever religious value the 
tradition originally had ; while the latter has 
preserved whatever truth the source contained, 
and has developed it still further under the 
guidance of God's Spirit, in the course of 
the revelation which has been completed in 
Jesus Christ. 



xxxiv 



THE LiWS OF HAMMURABI 



In Grn 14 we read of a certain ' Amraphel, 
king of Shinar,' who was contemporary with 
Abraham. It is generally agreed that this 
Amraphel is identical with Hammurabi, the 
sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, 
under whom the kingdom was first united, 
with Babel as its capital. It has long been 
known that a code of laws existed in ancient 
times bearing the name of the ' Judgments of 
Hammurabi.' Fragments of the code had been 
discovered on tablets dating from the reign 
of Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus : ? Asnapper, 
Ezr4!0), king of Assyria, 668-625 B.C., and 
now preserved in the British Museum and the 
Berlin Museum. But our knowledge of this 
most ancient code of laws was enormously 
enhanced by the discovery made by the French 
Exploration Society in Dec. 1901- Jan. 1902 
at Susa (Shushan, Esthl 2 , Gk. Persepolis, 
capital of an old Elamite kingdom, and rival of 
Babylon) of a block of black diorite about 
8 ft. high, containing on one side 16 and on 
the other 28 columns of writing, amounting 
in all to 3654 lines. When deciphered this 
monument was found to contain the long-lost 
Code of Hammurabi. At the top there 
is a fine representation of King Hammurabi 
receiving his laws from the Sun-god Shamash. 

The value of this Code of Laws lies in its 
antiquity. It is the ' oldest (known) code of 
laws in the world.' It is perhaps a thousand 
years older than the time of Moses, and the 
laws themselves must have been in operation 
long before their codification and promulgation 
by Hammurabi. Old as it is, it discloses a 
very highly advanced state of civilisation. We 
find a central government with organised local 
administration. We find professional men, 
priests, lawyers, and doctors, business men and 
tradesmen, farmers, brickmakers, builders, 
carpenters, tailors, merchants, boatmen, as 
well as a host of slaves. The duties of each 
class are determined, and. fees, wages, rents, 
and prices are regulated by statute. Over 
and over again we are impressed by what 
seems the curiously ' modern ' spirit of many 
of these ancient regulations. To the student 
of the Bible this code is particularly interest- 
ing. Abraham came from Ur of the Chaldees, 
and if the identification of Hammurabi with 
Amraphel is correct, the ancestor of the 
Hebrew people in all probability not only 
knew these laws, but may have found them to 
some extent in operation in Canaan, where 
Babylonian influence was preponderating. 
The Laws of Hammurabi, therefore, may 
have formed part of the original tradition of 



the Hebrew race. Already the question of 
the relationship between the Mosaic legisla- 
tion and that of this great Oriental ruler, and 
the possible dependence in parts at least of 
the former upon the latter, have been much 
discussed, and given rise to a considerable 
literature. 

In the space at our disposal we can only 
refer to a few of the more interesting features 
of this ancient code, particularly those to 
which a parallel may be traced in the Law of 
Moses. 

Curiously enough, considering that Baby- 
lonia is the home of magic and witchcraft, 
the code opens with two judgments directed 
against sorcery. ' If a man weave a spell and 
put a ban upon a man and has not justified 
himself, he . . shall be put to death.' With 
this we may compare Ex22 18 . The next 
section prescribes an ordeal by water. ' If a 
man have put a spell upon a man and has not 
justified himself, he upon whom the spell is 
laid . . shall plunge into the holy river, and if 
the river overcome him, he who wove the 
spell shall take his house. If the holy river 
makes that man to be innocent and has saved 
him, he who laid the spell upon him shall be 
put to death.' The same ordeal is prescribed 
in § 132 in the case of a wife suspected of 
infidelity, with which should be compared 
Nu 5 12 f . Then follows a long series of offences 
punishable by death, including the intimidation 
or bribing of witnesses, housebreaking, theft, 
and reset of stolen property, etc. Of these 
we may cite § 21, 'If a man has broken into 
a house, one shall kill him before the breach 
and bury him in it (?)' ; cp. Ex22!-*. § 14, 
' If a man has stolen the son of a freeman, he 
shall be put to death': cp. Ex 2 116. The 
same penalty is prescribed against harbouring 
a runaway slave. An interesting series of 
sections follows dealing with the duties and 
rights of officers or constables employed on 
active service as royal or public messengers, a 
kind of postal system. The laws relating to 
agriculture are most explicit. The rent of a 
garden is a tithe of the produce, the crop of 
the fifth year being divided between the owner 
and the tenant. § 54 reads, ' If a man has 
neglected to strengthen his bank of the canal 
. . and the waters have carried away the 
meadow, the man in whose bank the breach 
has been opened shall render back the corn 
which he has caused to be lost.' In § 57 we 
find a law similar to that in Ex22 5 , 'If a 
shepherd has caused the sheep to feed on the 
green corn . . without the consent of the owner 



THE LAWS OF HAMMURABI 



of the field . . he shall give 20 gar of corn per 
gan to the owner of the field.' In § 112 a law- 
dealing with deposits is laid down similar to 
that in Ex22 7f> , the penalty being in some 
cases fivefold, in others threefold. § 125 
reads, ' If a man has given anything of his on 
deposit, and where he gave it, either by house- 
breaking or by rebellion, something of his has 
been lost along with something of the owner 
of the house, the owner of the house . . shall 
make good and render to the owner of the 
goods, and the owner of the house shall seek out 
whatever of his is lost and take it from the 
thief.' § 128f. deal with marriage, divorce, 
adultery, etc. § 128, 'If a man has married 
a wife and has not laid down her bonds, that 
woman is no wife.' A woman taken in adul- 
tery is to be drowned along with the man : 
cp. Lv20 10 Dt2222. Incest is, in general, 
punishable with death. 

The law of retaliation and restitution 
exhibits close analogies to that in Exodus. 
Thus, ' If a man has caused the loss of a 
gentleman's (i.e. noble's) eye, his eye one 
shall cause to be lost.' ' If a man has made 
the tooth of a man that is his equal to fall 
out, one shall make his tooth to fall out ' : cp. 
Ex 21 24-27. Injury in the case of a poor 
man is compensated with a money payment. 
Again, ' If a man has struck a man in a 
quarrel and has caused him a wound, that man 
shall swear, " I do not strike him knowingly," 
and shall answer for the doctor ' : cp. Ex 
2118, 19. 'if a man has struck a gentleman's 
daughter and caused her to miscarry, he shall 
pay ten shekels of silver. If that woman has 
died, one shall put to death his daughter ' : cp. 
Ex21 22,23. §§ 215-223 prescribe the fees 
which a doctor is entitled to charge for opera- 
tions, and the penalties, amounting to the 
cutting off both hands, in the event of the opera- 
tion proving fatal. The following are closely 
analogous to enactments in the Mosaic Law. 
1 If a builder has built a house for a man and 
has not made strong his work, and the house 
lie built has fallen and he has caused the 
< Icntli of the owner of the house, that builder 
shall be put to death' : cp. Dt22 8 . If it is 
tin' son or slave who lias been killed, then the 
sou or slave of the builder is put to death. 
• If a wild bull in His charge lias gored a max] 
and caused him to die, that case has no remedy. 
If tin; ox has pushed a man, by pushing has 
made known his vice. :tn<l he has not blunted 
his horn, has not shut up his OX, and that OX 

has gored a man of gentle birth and caused 

him to (lie, he shall pay half a mina of silver. 

If a gentleman's servant, he shall pay one 
third of a mina of silver': cp. K.\ 2 r~ s - ;: ~. 

' If a man has caused an o\ OT sheep which 

vras given him to be lost, ox for ox, sheep for 
sheep, he shall render to their owner.' 'If 



in a sheepf old a stroke of God has taken place 
or a lion has killed, the shepherd shall purge 
himself before God and the accident to the 
fold the owner of the fold shall face it ' : with 
this cp. Ex22 9 " 13 . 'If a man has struck his 
father, his hands one shall cut off ' : cp. Ex 
21 15 . Lastly, there maybe cited, as giving 
an interesting glimpse of the police regula- 
tions in those early days, § 109, 'If a wine 
merchant has collected a riotous assembly in 
her house and has not seized those rioters and 
driven them to the palace, that wine merchant 
shall be put to death.' 

Such are a few examples culled from this 
most interesting and wonderful code of laws, 
4000 years old, and yet in many ways so 
modern in spirit. To read it is to be im- 
pressed with a feeling of reverence for this 
old-world ruler, who with justifiable pride 
says in the preamble of the code that he 
' established law and justice in the land and 
made happy the human race in those days.' 
' In that day I, Hammurabi, the glorious 
Prince, the Worshipper of my God, decreed 
justice for the land, for witness, plaintiff, and 
defendant ; to destroy the wicked tyrant and 
not to oppose the weak, like unto the Sun-god, 
I promulgated.' 

With regard to the relationship existing 
between this code and the laws promulgated 
by Moses at Sinai, reference may be made to 
what is said in the Introduction to the book 
of Exodus, § 2. In the present state of our 
knowledge it is hazardous to dogmatise. 
There are resemblances, but there are also 
differences. The resemblances do not neces- 
sarily imply direct derivation, for most of the 
enactments which exhibit them are such as 
might be promulgated by any lawgiver 
possessed of a high sense of justice and 
humanity. On the other hand, when all due 
allowance has been made for the possibility of 
suggestions being received from the earlier 
code, the differences are decided, and numer- 
ous enough to argue the independence and 
originality of the Law of Moses. On the 
whole, it is more merciful than that of Ham- 
murabi ; it takes less account of the social 
distinctions between the ' gentleman,' the 
'poor man,' and the 'slave'; it bases its 
demands upon the sense of indebtedness and 
responsibility to the Most High God. It is 
true, Hammurabi ascribes his legislation to 
the Sun-god ; and he whom he ' ignorantly 
worshipped' under this symbol may in reality 
have been 'the true light which lighteth every 
man that eonieth into the world.' In that 
case, his code of laws is simply another illus- 
tration of the greal truth thai God 'in times 
past suffered all nations to walk in their own 
ways ; nevertheless he left not himself with- 
out witness.' 



HEATHEN RELIGIONS REFERRED TO IN THE BIBLE 



Every careful reader of the Bible notices 
the number and variety of the forms of idolatry 
with which the Israelites came into contact. 
Nor was it a mere external contact. Idolatry 
and the pollutions attendant on it appealed 
with too much force to something in the 
people's own character. Nothing short of the 
great calamity which destroyed their national 
life in the year 586 B.C. could have rid them 
entirely of the taint. 

There has been much diversity of opinion 
as to the origin of those forms of heathenism 
which prevailed amongst the races with which 
the Hebrews were related. Some have found 
their main root in the worship of dead ances- 
tors. Others have discerned many tokens of 
the adoration of animals supposed to be related 
to the communities which worshipped them. 
Others, again, have found, most deeply seated 
of all, the belief in a world of spirits, sug- 
gested by dreams and uncanny experiences, 
spirits manifesting their power in nature, 
dwelling in trees or animals, animating springs 
and rivers, moving in wind and storm. But 
the beliefs of each race must be studied sepa- 
rately, and when this is done more than one 
cause may perhaps be found to have been at 
work. 

Joshua is represented (24 2 ) as reminding 
the Israelites that their fathers ' dwelt of old 
time beyond the River, even Terah, the father 
of Abraham, and the father of Nahor : and 
they served other gods.' That carries our 
thoughts to the religion of the land from 
which Abraham was believed to have emi- 
grated. And there, in Babylonia, two types 
of faith and practice may be noted. First, 
the recognition of an immense number of 
deities, each with a distinct name and indi- 
viduality. There is a clay tablet still in 
existence, inscribed on each side with six 
columns of writing, each column containing 
more than one hundred and fifty lines, and on 
almost every line the name of a deity ! These 
deities were conceived of as possessing human 
form and human attributes. The greater of 
them were exceedingly mighty, but were 
actuated by the same passions as ordinary 
men, and performed, on a larger scale, the 
deeds which a Babylonian would have wished 
to emulate. They were magnified men. On 
the other hand, they were impersonations of 
the forces of nature. To one of them the 
motions of the sun were ascribed, to another 
the changes of the moon, to another tempests. 



Every city had its patron god, and when one 
city acquired mastery over its rivals their 
deities had to take a lower rank. The three 
who stood first were Anu, the god of heaven ; 
En-lil (afterwards called Bel), god of the 
earth and of mankind ; Ea, who presided 
over the abyss of waters. Next came the 
moon-god, Sin ; the sun-god, Shamash ; Ram- 
man, god of the atmosphere. The rise of 
Babylon to supreme power gave to its local 
deity, Marduk, the headship of the gods. He 
was then identified with the older Bel, and 
Nebo, the god of Borsippa, became his minister 
because Borsippa sank into a kind of suburb 
of the capital (Isa46 1 ). With the exception 
of Ishtar the Babylonian goddesses were 
utterly devoid of importance. She presided 
over love, magic, and battle. At Erech, where 
her principal shrine was situated, she was 
served by a community of unmarried priest- 
esses, who sacrificed their chastity for her glory. 
Originally Ishtar was the goddess of the morn- 
ing and the evening star. In this connexion 
we may notice the worship offered to the 
heavenly bodies. This spread from Babylonia 
westwards. ' The chariots of the sun,' 2 K 23 n , 
remind us of the chariot of the sun, to which 
sacrifices were brought, at Sippara in Baby- 
lonia : see also 2K23 5 Ezk8 16 . 

The other, gloomier strain in the religion 
of Babylon was probably derived from an 
older stratum of the population. It came 
from the belief in a vast world of spirits, 
unnamed and unidentifiable, mostly hostile 
to man and easily provoked by unwitting 
offences. These demons were hideous in 
shape and features. An ill-omened word was 
sufficient to bring down their wrath. Charms 
and incantations were needed to avert or 
remove their displeasure. Hence the majority 
of the clay tablets from the buried libraries 
of Babylonia, so far as they have hitherto 
been read, are covered with formulas of in- 
cantation. The populace was deeply impressed 
by this darker side of their religion, and must 
therefore have been made very gloomy and un- 
happy by it. And there is much in the history 
of religion amongst the Hebrews to remind 
us of these superstitions. The teraphim were 
images representing dead ancestors, from whom 
counsel was sought (R V of Gn 3 1 w. 34 l S 1 9 13 > 16 
Ezk21 21 ; in all which passages AV has the 
inadequate word ' images '). The ephod (cer- 
tainly an image at Jg8 26f -) was consulted as 
an oracle (1 S 14 is RM, 23 9 30 ?)• The necro- 



HEATHEN RELIGIONS REFERRED TO IN THE BIBLE 



mancers plied their unholy trade of raising 
the dead (Dtl8" IS 28 7 Isa8i9 f -). The 
wizards and sorcerers found many dupes (Lv 
1931 206 2K216 2324). 

As a whole the religion of Assyria closely 
resembled its parent in Babylonia. But 
there was a strong tendency to concentrate 
faith and devotion on the one god Asshur, 
who represented the State, who is glorified by 
the kings in terms which a Hebrew might 
have applied to Jehovah, whose predominant 
qualities, however, are martial ones, for he is 
praised above all else for the victories he 
gives to the king, his son and servant. 

The student of Egyptian religion finds it 
composed of three tangled threads which are 
so closely and so confusedly interlaced that it 
is most difficult to separate them, and impos- 
sible to keep them apart. The highest element 
is that connected with the name of Osiris, who 
appears to have been originally a deified 
human king. He was the god of the other 
world and of the resurrection. The require- 
ments for admission to that happy world were 
such as a Christian moralist would have no 
hesitation in subscribing to. But their effect 
was sadly marred by the value ascribed to 
amulets, spells, words. And the inveterate 
habit of deifying the Pharaoh involved a pain- 
ful servility which lowered and degraded every 
subject. The letters written to him from 
governors of distant cities begin after this 
fashion : ' To the king, my lord, my god, my 
sun, the sun who cometh from the heavens . . 
I fall down before the feet of the king my 
lord seven times and twice seven times, back and 
breast.' Secondly, there was the adoration of 
the sun-god Ra, which, so far as the official 
cult was concerned, swallowed up the rest ; all 
the other deities coming to be regarded as 
forms and manifestations of him. This has led 
some modern scholars to write as though the 
Egyptians believed firmly and always in One 
Almighty God. But there was a vagueness 
about the belief which rendered it quite unlike 
what we mean when we speak of the unity of 
God, a changefulness, a phantasmagoric char- 
acter which must have made it hard to grasp 
the truth. On the whole, it chiefly meant the 
adoration of the forces of nature. Attention 
was called to the lower, not the highest, in 
God. The power displayed in the universe, 
even if it be almighty, is not so high a thing 
as righteonsneM and love. Thirdly, origin- 
ating no doubt in the least cultivated stra- 
tum of the population, but adopted perforce 
by the priests, there was the deification of 
animals — cats, lions, bulls, jackals, crocodiles, 
and the rest. The educated may have looked 
on these as symbols of the deity: to the un- 
learned they were actually divine. It seems 
most probable that Aaron's golden calf (Kx 



32 1 * 6 ) and the two set up by Jeroboam (1 K 
1228,29) W ere uet suggested by the worship of 
the bull Apis at Memphis, orMnevis at Heliopo- 
lis. To many primitive peoples the bull has been 
an apt emblem of creative power : Aaron and 
Jeroboam intended that Jehovah should be 
worshipped by means of this image. In later 
days, however, when the Hebrews were anxious 
to gather materials for their religion from 
every quarter, Egypt contributed the forms 
' of creeping things and abominable beasts ' 
which Ezekiel in his vision saw portrayed on 
the walls of the Temple (Ezk8!°). 

Every Phoenician town had its divine lord, 
who was in many cases called Baal, which 
means owner, possessor. Thus there are in- 
scriptions bearing the names Baal of Tyre, 
Baal of Sidon, Baal of Tarsus, Baal of Lebanon, 
Baal of Heaven. There are also such desig- 
nations as Eshmun, Tanith (goddess of Car- 
thage, Melkarth (of Tyre). The sun, certain 
springs, rivers, mountains, and trees were held 
sacred. Sacrifices were offered on elevated 
spots — the ' high places ' of the Bible — as being 
nearer heaven. Two foul enormities were 
perpetrated. First, the sacrifice of children. 
The image of El at Carthage (the most famous 
of Phoenician colonies) was of metal, and was 
heated inside : the child placed -in its arms 
rolled into the flames below. In days of gloom 
and fanaticism the Hebrews were only too 
ready to make the same dread sacrifice (Dt 
1231 2K 163 2310 Jer 19 * Mic 6*)- More loath- 
some still was the sacrifice of honour. Refer- 
ence has already been made to the licentious- 
ness practised at Erech in Babylonia. The 
goddess of that place, Ishtar, was welcomed 
by the Phoenicians under the name Ashtoreth. 
She was the chief deity of Sidon (IK ll 6 . 88 
2K23 13 ), and was regarded as the patroness 
of sexual passion. The ceremonial weeping 
for Adonis, which is one of the outstanding 
features of Phoenician worship, came from the 
same source, and resembled it in character. 
In Babylonia, Tammuz (the god of spring 
vegetation, slain by the fierce sun of summer) 
was mourned by Ishtar. In Phoenicia, Adonis, 
the husband of Ashtoreth, killed by the wild 
boar's tusk, was annually lamented. All the 
women of the town of Byblus went in a mad 
procession to Aphaka in the Lebanon, where 
rites of so shameful a nature were celebrated 
that Constantine the Great eventually abolished 
them by force. Similar unholy customs found a 
footing in Israel. The women wept for Tam- 
muz (Ezk 8 14 Zech 1 2 U). See also 1 K 1 4 24 1 5 12 
2K237 Gn 3821,22 rm, Hos4i*, etc. Dt 
23 17 » ls shows how deeply such practices were 
resented by the representatives of a better 
faith. 

In Canaan itself the conditions closely re- 
sembled those in Phoenicia. The local gods 



xxxvin 



HEATHEN RELIGIONS REFERRED TO IN THE BIBLE 



were entitled Baalim, Baals of the several 
towns and districts ; each of them credited 
with the fertility of his own domain (Hos 2 5 " 8 ). 
There were also many Ashtoreths (1K7 4 Jg 
2 13 10 6 ). High places abounded, and the He- 
brew immigrants succumbed to the fatal fas- 
cination which hung around them. At the 
high place, near the altar, stood an asherah — 
wrongly translated 'grove' in our AY, — a 
sacred post, fixed in the ground to represent 
the tree which in earlier times had been be- 
lieved to be animated by the life of the Deity. 
There was also a mazzebah, or pillar, wrongly 
translated ' image ' in such passages as Dt 1 6 21 
Hos3 4 10 l > 2 . At first the pillar would be a 
natural stone (G-n28 18 > 22 ), in which the divine 
being was supposed to dwell. Afterwards it 
was shaped into the form of an obelisk. A 
still later development of the mazzebah, de- 
rived from Phoenicia and connected with sun- 
worship, is the sun-pillar of Isal7 7 27 9 2Ch 
14 2 , etc. Grave immoralities were common 
at the high places (Hos4 13 Am2 7 ). 

Little is known about the religions of Syria 
on the one hand, or the smaller nations by 
which Israel was surrounded on the other. 
The Syrians of Damascus recognised Hadad as 
their greatest god. He seems to have been 
considered a sun-god, but was frequently iden- 
tified with Ramman, the god of the atmo- 
sphere, whom the Assyrians greatly venerated. 
Besides him were Shamas, El, Resheph (god 
of fire), Rekeb-el, etc. The main object of 
worship to the Moabites was Chemosh, and 
it would appear from 2K3 27 that he was 
thought to be most surely moved by human 
sacrifices. On the Moabite Stone, which con- 
tains an inscription of Mesha (2K3 4 > 5 ), a 
contemporary of Ahab, Ishtar- Chemosh, as 
well as Chemosh, is mentioned. This points 
to an identification of the two, and although 
Chemosh was a male deity there was nothing 
to prevent the identification, seeing that in 
Babylonia itself Ishtar was sometimes re- 
garded as of both sexes, and in Arabia was 
masculine — so shifting and uncertain were 
these shadowy products of the imagination ! 
The Ammonites served Milcom, which is but 
another form of the word for ' king,' or of the 
name Molech which meets us so often in the 
Old Testament. But we are not warranted 
in asserting that the children burnt in the 
valley of Hinnom (2 K 23 10 ) were immolated 
to the Ammonite god : in v. 13 he is a distinct 
being ; in v. 10 Molech is a name for Jehovah. 
Yet the strong expression, ' Milcom the abomi- 
nation of the children of Ammon,' indicates 
that there were most objectionable details in 
the ritual of his worship. The Edomite deities 
of whom we read bear foreign names. Hadad 
came from Syria, A from the farther East. 
Dagon was supreme in Philistia. He was the 



god of agriculture, and also gave his people 
victory over their enemies (Jgl6 23 , etc.). At 
Ekron Baal-zebub (lord of flies) was revered 
and consulted (2 K 1 2 > 3 ) : why this title was 
given him remains uncertain. Ashtoreth also 
had a temple in one of the Philistine cities 
(IS 31 10). 

This is not the place for discussing the 
voluminous subject of the Greek and Roman 
religions. When Israel first felt the impact 
of the former, it had become a mixed pro- 
duct, imbued with many elements drawn from 
Oriental sources. Antiochus IV, the Greek 
monarch of Syria, attempted to force it on 
the Jews (168 B.C.). No wonder that they rose 
in revolt. The Temple at Jerusalem 'was 
filled with riot and revellings by the heathen, 
who dallied with harlots within the sacred 
precincts ' (2 Mac 6 4 ). Again, at a later period, 
when we come across the name of a Greek 
goddess, Artemis, or, as our Bible calls her, 
Diana of the Ephesians (Acl9 28 ), she is 
Oriental rather than Greek in character. Her 
image, with its numerous breasts, symbolises 
the sustaining and reproductive forces of 
Nature : her worship is defiled by wild and 
immoral orgies. At Daphne, too, near 
Antioch in Syria, where the Greek god 
Apollo was honoured and oracles from him 
were sought, ' all that was beautiful in nature 
and in art had created a sanctuary for a per- 
petual festival of vice.' It is not a Christian, 
but one of the worthiest of the heathens who, 
in the fourth century of our era, writes con- 
cerning the great annual festival at Antioch, 
that it ' consists only of the perpetration of 
all that is impure and shameless and the 
renunciation of every lingering spark of 
decency.' 

It is hardly too much to say that when the 
Jews came under the yoke of Rome the reli- 
gion of Rome might be summed up as being 
the worship of the Roman State. The city 
was deified, so was the emperor. And so it 
was that all the munificent charities of Herod 
the Great towards his subjects could not 
atone in their eyes for the insult he offered 
to their religion by building at Caesarea a 
temple to Rome and another to Augustus. 
Thousands of Jews were ready to die rather 
than acquiesce in Pilate's placing the standards 
of the legions with the image of the emperor 
on them in the Holy City. They knew that 
the soldiers worshipped those images. The 
distinctive feature in the religion of their 
rulers was worship of self, reverence for 
power, a consecration of human pride. 

The unpopularity of the Jew in and about 
the Christian era was largely due to the un- 
compromising intolerance with which he bore 
himself towards the faiths and rituals of his 
neighbours. This had been aroused in him 



HEATHEN RELIGIONS REFERRED TO IN THE BIBLE 



by the sad lessons of experience and the 
teachings of his sacred hooks. It may be that 
a modern reader sometimes wonders whether 
the Lawgiver! and prophets of the old Testa- 
ment are not too bitterly contemptuous or too 
fiercely severe in their Language concerning 
idolatry. But it is to he remembered that 
they were engaged in a life and death Btruggle. 

If Monotheism, the faith in One Only God, 
had not made unyielding resistance, it would 

have been submerged in the floods of 'gods 

many and lords many.' Then the soul of 
man would have known no settled peaee. 
There is no security for him who has propi- 
tiated one god, hut with whom another per- 
chance is angry. Think of the confusion 

and uncertainty implied in the Babylonian's 
prayer : 

' May the god whom I kjiow not be appeased ! 

May the goddeSS whom I know not. lie appeased | 

May both the god 1 know and the god I know not 
be appeased I ' 

And confusion of the intellect also follows. 
An intelligent grasp of the order of the 
Universe cannot coexist with a belief that the 

universe has been made and sustained by a 
plurality of independent powers. The uni- 
formity of Nature depends on the unity of 
God. The adoration of the forces of Nature 
which underlies so much ancient idolatry also 
distracts attention from the highest elements 



in the Nature of God. The best we can learn 
of Him is that He is a living Person, holy, 
just, and good. And, as we have sufficiently 
seen, the worship in question led directly to 
licentiousness. If pictorial representations 
of the reproductive forces of Nature were 
constantly depicted on the walls of heathen 
temples ; if the Higher Beings were unchaste ; 
if impurity was part of their service, what 
chance was there for morality ? Rightly does 
the Wisdom of Solomon assert (14 27 ) : 

1 For the worship of those nameless idols 
Is a beginning and cause; and end of every evil.' 

Again, when a man — king or emperor, king 
of Babylon or Assyria, Pharaoh of Egypt, 
Antiochus Theos (God) of Syria, or the irre- 
sponsible ruler of Rome — is held as divine, 
and temples are dedicated to his honour when 
dead, or even whilst still alive, this is an im- 
pregnable barrier to liberty and progress. The 
religion of the Old Testament has conferred 
an inestimable boon on humanity by insisting 
on the unity and unapproachable majesty of 
Him before whom all mankind are equal, and 
by repudiating in His name all that is impure 
and cruel. The religion of the New Testament 
has softened down all harsher features and 
satisfied all legitimate cravings for One higher 
than man, yet in closest touch with him, by its 
revelation of the God-Man, the Mediator, the 
Way, the Truth, and the Life. 



INTRODUCTION TO HEBREW PROPHECY 



1. Place of the Prophetic Books in the 
Canon. The second, or prophetic, division of 
the Jewish Canon of the Old Testament com- 
prises the books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 
Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings (' the Earlier Pro- 
phets '), as well as the more strictly prophetic 
books (' the Later Prophets '). The second of 
these groups forms the special subject of this 
Introduction, in the course of which, however, 
it will appear why the historical books above 
mentioned were also placed in the prophetic 
portion of the Canon. The l Later Prophets ' 
include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 
book of the Twelve Prophets. The last- 
named collection consists of the books from 
Hosea to Malachi, which, on account of their 
comparative brevity, are generally known as 
the ■ Minor Prophets.' Daniel is not among 
the prophetic books, but belongs to the third 
division of the Canon. 

2. Early History of Prophecy. The pro- 
phetic books of the Old Testament may all be 
placed in the period between the middle of 
the eighth and the end of the fifth cen- 
tury B.C. But prophecy in Israel dated 
from much earlier times. The prophetic gift 
is ascribed to Moses (Dt34io Hosl2i3), to 
Miriam (Exl5 20 ), to Deborah (Jg4 4 ), and to 
Samuel (IS 3 20 ). From the time of Samuel 
onwards there was a succession of prophets, 
like Nathan, G-ad, Ahijah the Shilonite, She- 
maiah, Jehu the son of Hanani, etc., who 
appeared as the counsellors and monitors of 
David and the subsequent kings. In the 
beginning of the eighth century Micaiah, 
Elijah, and Elisha played a prominent part as 
prophets, though they have left no books 
bearing their names. In early times the 
prophet was called a 'seer,' and was consulted 
in times of perplexity, even upon matters of 
practical interest, receiving a present in re- 
turn for his services (1S9 6 " 9 ). In those days 
we find also companies of prophets, who were 
the subjects of a sort of ecstasy, which appears 
to have been contagious (lSlO 1 ^ 2 1918-24). 
It would seem that Samuel organised these 
enthusiasts, placing himself at their head, and 
making Naioth in Ramah their centre. In 
later times there was a prophetic guild, known 
as ' the sons of the prophets,' with branches 
in various places, such as Bethel and Jericho 
(2 K 2 2 > 3 < 15 ). The canonical prophets, however, 
had little direct connexion with these profes- 
sional communities, which became in the end 
the nurseries of false prophecy. Amos in 



particular affirms his independence of them 
(Am7 14 ). 

The ' seer ' of early Israel performed func- 
tions somewhat akin to those of the sooth- 
sayers of other nations. Divination, however, 
and all allied practices were sternly discouraged 
by Jehovah's revelation of Himself to Israel; 
and as time went on the work of the true 
prophets became more and more ethical and 
spiritual. There were prophets of heathen 
gods, who worked themselves into frenzy by 
various physical means (1K18 19 " 29 ), and there 
were also false prophets who claimed to speak 
in the name of Jehovah. But though pro- 
phecy in its beginnings had elements found 
also in the superstitious institutions of Israel's 
neighbours, and though even in later times it 
had its heathen parallels and its native counter- 
feits, yet in its genuine and fully developed 
form it was a unique phenomenon, and a 
channel of the loftiest and most direct divine 
revelation. 

3. Arrangement of the Prophetic Books. 
These books are not placed in our Bibles 
according to their order of time. The three 
longer books come before the twelve shorter 
ones, and even the latter do not form a strictly 
historical series. Further, the books of Isaiah 
and Zechariah each contain the work of more 
than one author, and belong to more than 
one period. The table on the following page 
indicates how the canonical prophets may be 
historically grouped. 

The books of Joel and Obadiah are of un- 
certain date. Some place them among the 
earliest prophets, and others after the exile. 
The same is true of Zech 9-14. The 
prophet Jonah lived in the eighth century 
B.C. (2K14 25 ), but the book which bears his 
name is now regarded as post-exilic. 

4. The Prophet's Inspiration and Work. 
The popular definition of a prophet is ' one 
who predicts the future.' This was the con- 
ception which heathen nations had of their 
inspired oracles, and it has very largely pre- 
vailed in the Christian Church regarding the 
Old Testament prophets. But such a view is 
narrow and misleading. The prophet is 'one 
who speaks for God ' — a fo7ih-tel\er rather 
than a mere /ore-teller. This is seen from 
EX7 1 , where Aaron's relation to Moses as his 
spokesman is compared with the prophet's 
relation to God. The prophets were men who 
claimed to have received from Jehovah the 
truths which they spoke in His name. The 



xli 



INTRODUCTION TO HEBREW PROPHECY 



Period. 


Israel. 


JtJDAH. 


Century. 


Assyrian 


Amos, circ. 760-750 B.C. 
Hosea, circ. 750-737 


Isaiah, circ. 740-700 B.C. 
Micah, circ. 724 and onwards 
Zephaniah, circ. 627 
Nahum, circ. 610-608 


Eighth 


Seventh 


Chaldean 


T T , ( Habakkuk, circ. 605-600 
In Jerusalem ....-< T . , ' . eoc KO/ . 
( Jeremiah, circ. 626-586 

T -d , , f Ezekiel, circ. 593-573 

in isaoyion j Igaiah 13 _ u ^ ^ ^ 4Q _ 6 ^ ^ 54Q 


Sixth 


Persian 


Haggai, I . , 2 
Zechariah, 1-8 J CirC ' ^ 




Malachi, circ. 460-450 


Fifth 



bestowal of their prophetic gift is described in 
the phrase ' The word of Jehovah came.' The 
standing formula with which they prefaced 
their messages was, ' Thus saith Jehovah.' The 
prophet's inspiration was the process by which 
the truth was brought home to him by the 
Divine Spirit. Though inscrutable by us it 
was an undoubted reality to his consciousness. 
God's word to him was distinct from his own 
thoughts and desires (Jerl4, 15), as well as 
from the illusions of dreams (Jer23 28 ). It 
came with a self- attesting and irresistible 
power (Jer23 29 - 30 Am3 8 ). It compelled the 
prophet to utter it in spite of all natural 
hesitation and fear (Jer20 9 ). The divine 
message might be presented in visionary form 
(Isa 6 Ezk) ; or suggested by some sight of 
everyday life (Jerl8 5 > 6 ); or by some special 
circumstance to which God's inspiration gave 
a new meaning (Jer32 8 ). It might be uttered 
in plain words, or in parables, or in symbolic 
actions, but in every case it was a declaration 
made in God's name. 

The work of the prophets was threefold. 

(1) They were first of all, and chiefly, 
preachers to their contemporaries. They ad- 
dressed themselves to the political, social, and 
religious conditions among which they lived. 
A great part of their writings, which is unintel- 
ligible without a knowledge of these conditions, 
becomes in the light of this knowledge full of 
living interest and meaning. Each book, and 
each prophecy, must be placed in its historical 
setting. This may be done by the aid of the 
historical books of Scripture, taken along with 
the allusions to dates and events which the pro- 
phecies contain, and with the internal evidence 
they furnish as to the state of things they 
have in view. The prophetic books often sup- 
plement the historical ones, so that a complete 
picture of the state of Israel at any period 



can be got only by combining the particulars 
obtained from the two sources of information. 
When their writings are read in this way the 
prophets appear in their true light as preachers 
of righteousness, whether as political counsel- 
lors, or as advocates of social or religious 
reform. 

(2) They were also interpreters of the past. 
They reviewed the earlier history of Israel, 
and showed the divine meaning which their 
countrymen were slow to discern in it. Thus 
Jeremiah drew a moral from the desolation 
of Shiloh (Jer7 12 " 15 ), and Ezekiel repeatedly 
told the story of Israel's past rebelliousness, 
and of God's patient love (Ezk 16, 20). This 
prophetic interpretation of the past was neces- 
sary, because the popular one was often greatly 
at variance with it. Thus in Jer44 the pro- 
phet traces the fall of Jerusalem to Israel's 
idolatry (vv. 2-6), while the people ascribe 
their troubles to their discontinuance of the 
worship of the queen of heaven (v. 18). The 
great lesson which the prophets drew from the 
history of Israel was the connexion between 
sin and calamity on the one hand, and between 
obedience and prosperity on the other. And 
as the historical books of the Old Testament 
emphasise the same truth above everything 
else they are simply an expansion of this side 
of the prophets' work. They were written 
from the point of view of the prophet rather 
than from that of the mere historian. The 
title ' the Earlier Prophets,' which has been 
given to some of them, expresses their true 
character. 

(3) The prophets were, lastly, predictors of 
the future. While this has often been wrongly 
regarded as their sole function, it was a real, 
though subordinate, element of their work. 
Prophetic prediction was of two kinds. 

(a ) Some predictions were definite, and related 



xii 



INTRODUCTION TO HEBREW PROPHECY 



to the near future. Thus, when the Assyrian 
power appeared in Western Asia, Amos and 
Hosea foretold that it would be the instrument 
of Israel's downfall. When Sennacherib's in- 
vasion of Judah took place, Isaiah predicted 
that king and people would be brought into 
great peril through their trust in earthly alli- 
ances, but that in the end they would be 
humbled, would seek God's help, and would 
obtain deliverance . When Nebuchadrezzar be - 
sieged Jerusalem, both Jeremiah and Ezekiel 
announced that the capture of the city was 
inevitable, and that the exile, though certain, 
would only last for a limited time. When 
Cyrus had begun his career of victory, the 
author of Isa 40-46 foretold that he would 
conquer Babylon, and would deliver the Jews 
from captivity. Such predictions related to 
persons already alive, to nations already exist- 
ing, to the issues of movements already in pro- 
gress. They cannot be explained as triumphs 
of mere human foresight and sagacity, and 
must be traced to the prophets' divine inspira- 
tion. At the same time they were not wholly 
unintelligible and miraculous revelations of 
isolated future events. They were the infer- 
ences which the prophets were enabled to draw 
from the great truths about G-od's character 
and God's purpose with Israel which had been 
revealed to them. The essence of the prophets' 
inspiration lay in their grasp of these princi- 
ples, and in their power of applying them to 
the situations in which they lived. 

In the view of New Testament writers, some 
definite predictions of the prophets extended 
much further than has been indicated, and in- 
cluded references to particular events of the 
remote future. Thus Hos ll 1 , which is pri- 
marily a description of the deliverance of 
Israel from Egyptian bondage, is interpreted 
as a prediction of our Lord's flight into Egypt 
(Mt 2 15 ). Jer 3 1 15 , which is primarily a picture 
of the grief of Rachel (viewed as the ancestral 
mother of Israel) at the departure of the exiles 
from Ramah (see Jer40 1 ), is regarded as a 
prediction of the massacre at Bethlehem (Mt 
2 18 ). And Mic 5 2 foretells, not only the coming 
of a ruler of David's line who will deliver 
Judah from the Assyrians (see vv. 5, 6), but 
the birth of Christ at Bethlehem (Mt26). It 
is scarcely to be thought that these secondary 
fulfilments of their utterances were actually 
present to the minds of the prophets : still the 
suggestiveness, and even the legitimacy, of 
interpreting their prophecies in this way — as 
foreshadowings of events in the life of our 
Lord — can hardly be denied without incurring 
the danger of setting arbitrary limits to the 
free working of the Spirit of God. 

(6) Other predictions were of a more general 
kind, and had to wait for their fulfilment till 
a more distant future. In them the prophets 



presented their inspired ideals of a perfect 
king (Isa 1 1 1-1° 32 1 ' 8 ), of a nation penitent and 
forgiven, united and restored (Ezk36, 37), of 
a righteous Servant of the Lord first suffering 
and then triumphant (Isa 53), of a divine Shep- 
herd (Ezk34), of a world-wide kingdom of 
God (Isa 60 Mic4 1 " 7 ), of a new and spiritual 
relationship between G-od and His people (Jer 
31 31-34). Such prophecies are usually termed 
' Messianic,' because they point forward to 
Jesus Christ, and to the religious conditions 
of New Testament times. 

In our Lord's day the expectation of a great 
deliverer, known as the Messiah (or the Christ), 
was current among the Jews, and was undoubt- 
edly based on Old Testament prophecy. It 
is true that none of the prophets applied the 
term Messiah to a single distinct figure in the 
future. This was rather done by Jewish writers 
in the period between the Old and the New 
Testament. But the ideals of the prophets 
furnished the basis of the conception of the 
Messiah, which was adopted by our Lord as 
true, and which, according to His own teach- 
ing, was realised in Himself and His work 
(Mtll2-6 Lk 4 17-21 J n 425,26). The argument 
from prophecy in defence of the truth of 
Christianity has lost none of its value, though 
it can no longer be stated in the terms which 
were formerly used. Its force depends not on 
isolated predictions of single occurrences in 
the far future, but on the many converging 
lines of spiritual anticipation along which the 
prophets gazed into the coming time, and which 
all meet in Jesus Christ. 

5. The False Prophets. The nature of true 
prophecy receives additional illustration when 
it is compared with the spurious form of pro- 
phecy which accompanied it like a shadow. 
The professional prophets appear to have 
largely degenerated into this 'false' class. 
Their peculiar garb became a symbol of decep- 
tion, and their self -mutilations made them ob- 
jects of suspicion (Zechl3 4 > 6 ). The phrase, 
' the burden of the Lord,' was on their lips 
conventional and misleading (Jer 23 ss-40). The 
false prophets spoke in the name of Jehovah, 
but without any real inspiration from Him 
(Jer 23 21 Ezkl3 6 ). In some cases they may 
have been conscious impostors, or deliberate 
time-servers, but in most cases they were prob- 
ably sincere in believing their own words. Yet 
their messages were often in direct contradic- 
tion to those of the real prophets. Thus 
Ahab's prophets foretold the success of his 
expedition against Ramoth - gilead (1K22 6 ). 
Hananiah foretold the speedy return of the 
Jewish exiles from Babylon (Jer 28 1A ). Pro- 
phets in Babylon said the same thing (Jer 29 8 > 9 
Ezkl3i 6 ). How, it may be asked, were the 
people to distinguish between the false pro- 
phets and the true ? Yarious tests are indi- 



xliii 



INTRODUCTION TO HEBREW PROPHECY 



cated in Scripture. When predictions were in 
question, the simplest test was that of fulfil- 
ment (Dt 18 21, 22 ), but this could not be applied 
until the ^ilfilment had taken place. A deeper 
principle is suggested in Jer28 8 > 9 . True pro- 
phets, as a rule, had messages of warning to 
deliver. One who foretold peace was therefore 
to be regarded with suspicion, and was not to 
be believed until the event justified his pre- 
diction. Thus the nature of the message was 
to be taken into account in judging of its 
truth. This principle is furthc developed in 
Jer23 22 . The true prophet is the man who 
denounces sin, and seeks to turn men away 
from it. The conflict between the false pro- 
phets and the true really arose from the dif- 
ferent conceptions which they had about God's 
character and His relation to Israel. The 
false prophets held that He was a purely 
national God, and so was bound to protect and 
favour His people in all circumstances ; while 
the true prophets knew Him as the one living 
God, ruling the whole world in righteousness, 
who had chosen Israel to be a righteous nation, 
and could not but punish them if they fell 
into sin (Am3i> 2 ). 

6. Interpretation and Fulfilment of Prophecy. 
Though the test of fulfilment could not always 
be applied to a prophet's predictions by his 
contemporaries, it can be applied by us, and 
we can see that in a great many cases, and, 
indeed, on the whole, the words of the 
prophets about the future have come true. 
Yet there are some predictions which have 
not been, and cannot now be, literally ful- 
filled, and there are certain principles of inter- 
pretation which have a special bearing upon 
these, and which also hold good of the 
prophetic writings in general. 

(1) The language of the prophets is often 
poetic and figurative. The picture of the 
transformation of nature, for example, in Isa 
11 6_8 , is an imaginative description of universal 
peace, and is not to be understood in a literal 
sense. The same thing is true of a great 
many other passages. 

(2) The predictions of the prophets were 
conditional. They were made to enforce the 
appeal for righteousness in the present. They 
for. told the consequences of sin on the one 
hand, and of righteousness on the other. 
Judgments might be averted by repentance. 
Blessings might be forfeited by disobedience. 
This principle is clearly laid down in Jer 
is" 10 , and is of universal application. The 
'if' is implied wvn when it is not expressed. 
Thus Jonah's prediction that Nineveh would 



be destroyed in forty days was not fulfilled, 
yet Jonah was not a false prophet, because 
the threat was only made on the supposition 
that Nineveh remained impenitent. Such 
predictions, it has been said, were made not 
that they might, but that they might not, be 
fulfilled. 

(3) The prophets' view of the future was 
limited by the circumstances of their own 
time. As Perowne justly remarks, ' Prophecy 
never seems wholly to forsake the ground of 
history. However extended the vista which 
stretches before him, that vista begins at the 
prophet's feet. The present is his home^ and 
starting-point, though he may make " all ages " 
his own.' Hence the prophets conceived of 
God's kingdom as continuing under the 
national form in which they knew it. Their 
descriptions of the future are often expressed 
in terms of a state of things which was destined 
to change and pass away. Thus Micah speaks 
of Jerusalem as the centre of God's kingdom 
of Peace (4i> 2 ). Ezekiel conceives the future 
divine kingdom as a restored Israel, with its 
Temple and sacrifices (chs. 40-48), and of its 
enemies as the same nations that have vexed 
Judah in the past (28 25 > 26 ). Even Jeremiah's 
new covenant is to be made with the House 
of Israel and the House of Judah (31 31 ). 
Much that was literal in the minds of the 
prophets themselves can therefore be only 
figurative for us. The permanent spiritual 
meaning has to be separated from the transient 
external form in which it is expressed. 

(4) It follows from this that the prophets' 
view of the future often takes no note of 
what may be called historical perspective. 
That is to say, their view of the future king- 
dom of God is so vividly present to their 
mind that any intervening stretch of time is 
disregarded. For all of them the Golden 
Age lies just beyond the horizon of their own 
times. Isaiah's pictures of it are attached to 
his predictions of deliverance from Assyria. 
Ezekiel and the author of Isa 40-66 represent 
it as following th% return from Babylon. 
Messianic prophecy of an ideal kind is con- 
stantly combined with more definite predictions 
regarding the near future. Thus the King 
whom Isaiah describes as Immanuel is one 
who is to appear in the prophet's own time, to 
share the hardships of the Assyrian invasion, 
and finally to conquer the oppressor ; but he 
is spoken of in exalted language, which was 
not applicable to any king of Judah, and has 
only been truly realised in Jesus Christ. See 
also art. ' Messianic Hope.' 



xliv 



THE MESSIANIC HOPE 



Strictly speaking the Messianic hope is 
Israel's expectation of a Messiah, the confident 
assurance of men of faith, inspired in them by 
the prophets, that a king and deliverer of the 
line of David would be sent by God to save 
them from their oppressors, to roll back the 
overwhelming tide of calamities that had 
swept over the nation, and to usher in an era 
of peace and prosperity such as the world had 
never seen before. But in a wider application 
of the term we may take it to indicate the be- 
lief in future divine deliverance and blessed- 
ness apart from the specific kingly idea. The 
whole subject is vague and various in its earlier 
appearances. The hope takes first one form, 
then another. While one school of religious 
teachers — that of the prophets — cherishes it, 
another school, consisting of the authors of 
the Wisdom literature, ignores it. But then 
this school has its ideal in the conception of 
wisdom, not itself a Messianic idea, but a 
thought which Christians have seen to be real- 
ised and consummated in Jesus Christ quite 
as much as that of the kingly deliverer. To 
put the case another way, our Lord gathers up 
into Himself a number of scattered hopes and 
ideas of Israel, fulfilling them all in His own 
way, which if it is not always the way ex- 
pected by the earlier dreamers, differs from 
that only by being more complete, more per- 
fect, more lofty. 

With this general notion of the whole sub- 
ject we shall be prepared to map out its dis- 
tinct branches, and trace the development till 
the scattered rays of the earlier revelation are 
drawn together and focussed in the Gospel 
history. 

In the first place, we have a sacred character 
in the early Israelite kingship. This is brought 
out very vividly by the primitive account of 
Samuel's anointing of Saul (1S9 16 ). Here 
we see the king chosen by God, to be anointed 
by God's prophet in sign of the divine ap- 
pointment, and so commissioned to deliver 
the nation from its enemies. Thus the throne 
was established with high hopes. But those 
hopes were doomed to a speedy disappoint- 
ment. Saul went his own way, and Samuel 
in anger told him that God had rejected him. 
Then the same process was repeated in the 
selection and anointing of David, and with 
happier results. The second king of Israel, 
from being first a great warrior, became also 
in course of time a great monarch. The nation 
was not only saved from the ravages of petty 



marauding neighbour-tribes, it extended its 
boundaries, and seemed to promise to become 
a great world-empire. For a time men's eyes 
were dazzled by the glamour of this secular 
imperialism. But before long they were un- 
deceived. Solomon's reign was even more 
magnificent than his father's. But it proved 
to be costly and burdensome. The issue was, 
that under his ill-advised and obstinate son 
there was a fatal revolt, and the Israelites be- 
came two nations. The subsequent history of 
these two kingdoms is of the usual mixed 
character. Some kings were good and great ; 
others were bad and mischievous. By the 
time of Isaiah people had come to look back 
on the golden glory of a splendid past, mag- 
nified by the sentiment of antiquity. The 
ideal David was now a much greater personage 
than the real David had been. The dreadful 
crimes with which the national hero had 
stained his career were forgotten. Only his 
successful achievements were remembered. 
Then there appeared the hope that a second 
David would come, and do for the later 
age what the founder of the kingly line had 
done in his day. Since Assyria was a more 
powerful and menacing foe than Philistia had 
been, a greater David would be needed to 
overthrow the Assyrians than the warrior 
king who had mastered the Philistines. At 
this stage the prophets came to the aid of the 
nation with inspired utterances that met the 
popular need, but elevated the popular hope 
above its merely political outlook. Isaiah 
cried, ' And there shall come forth a shoot out 
of the stock of Jesse, and a branch out of his 
roots shall bear fruit : and the spirit of the 
Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom 
and understanding, the spirit of counsel and 
might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear 
of the Lord ; and his delight shall be in the 
fear of the Lord,' etc. (Isall 1 ^). This great 
oracle is the earliest clearly expressed, defi- 
nite prophecy of the Messiah as the Son of 
David. Hints and suggestions of coming de- 
liverance have appeared earlier, and mystic 
thoughts have gathered about promising sove- 
reigns ; but now at length we have the distinct 
promise of a Second David. The religious 
value of this prophecy is seen in its elaborate 
portraiture of the moral and spiritual cha- 
racter of the Messiah. He is more than a 
conquering ruler. He is the righteous ruler, 
just, merciful, pacific, because he is possessed 
by the fear of the Lord. 



xlv 



THE MESSIANIC HOPE 



Now in the light of this great utterance, 
which is the key to the Messianic ideas of 
Israel, we can go back to two earlier obscure 
oracles. The first is in Isa 7, where we read 
of the promised birth of Immanuel. The 
difficulty about this passage is that it is deeply 
embedded in contemporary history ; it plainly 
indicates a near approaching birth. Some 
have thought the reference is to a coming son 
of Isaiah himself, some to a young prince to 
be born in the palace. But when we go on 
to the second of these earlier oracles we find 
the mysterious child acclaimed with the most 
magnificent titles as, ' Wonderful, Counsellor, 
Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of 
Peace ' (Isa 9 6 ). These are the greatest things 
said of the Messiah anywhere in the Old Testa- 
ment. Can they be applied to a child of 
Isaiah's day ? Yet the oracle of c. 9 seems to 
refer back to that of c. 7, which is plainly 
contemporary. 

The solution of the difficulty that here 
emerges will be found in an explanation of 
an important feature of Messianic prophecy. 
We have to distinguished between its ideas 
and the local, temporal, personal application 
of them. The prophets were inspired to per- 
ceive the ideas which shone out on them as 
luminous stars in the firmament. But it was 
not given them to know ' the times and the 
seasons.' Even our Lord confessed that He 
did not know the divinely appointed day or 
hour of His Second Advent. Much less is it 
to be supposed that Old Testament prophets 
were endowed with an exactness of foresight 
in this matter that was denied to the Son 
of Man Himself. Accordingly, it should be 
no surprise to us that they looked for the 
Deliverer much earlier than He appeared. 
Being men of large enthusiasm, some of them 
were ready to hail one young promising prince 
or another as the very man in whom God's 
rich promises, that they saw so clearly and 
believed in so truly, were to be fulfilled. In 
this way Isaiah may have dreamed that the 
child to be born in the Syrian crisis, described 
in c. 7, would possess all the high qualities 
named in c. 9, and therefore appear as the 
victorious and pacific ruler portrayed in c. 11. 
History did not verify the dream. God was 
educating His people, even His prophets, 
through the illusions due to their own limited 
vision. Hut there was no illusion in the ideas 
of the prophecy ; the illusion was confined to 
their historical sitting and personal embodi- 
ment. 

Here we come to the wonderful vitality of 
the Messianic hope. Disappointment <li<l Qot 
kill it. did not even permanently damp its 
ardour. Various persons were supposed t<> 

realise the idea — Hezekiah, Zerubbahel. even 
the pagan Cyrus, and later the patriot Judas 



Maccabaeus. They all did some good things 
in accordance with it. But the idea was too 
great for any of them. So it had to be con- 
fessed in the end with every case that the 
expectation had been disappointed. Still it 
survived ; it moved on ; it hovered above 
the prophets and the people — a divine idea, 
trying patience by its tardy tarrying, still 
firing hope by its invincible vitality. 

It is in view of this remarkable combina- 
tion of faith and disappointment that we must 
view many of the passages of Scripture that 
are commonly reckoned Messianic, although 
they are not prophetic in form. For instance, 
the second Psalm has been assigned by scholars 
to various personages — David, Solomon, Jeho- 
shaphat, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Alexander Jannaeus. 
Its glorious divine kingship was never fully 
realised by any of these men. Yet we cannot 
set it down to the adulation of a courtier. This 
is not the language of flattery ; it is an utter- 
ance of faith. The Psalmist is not merely 
trying to express exuberant loyalty. Trusting in 
God he sees clearly that what he here portrays 
must be accomplished in the person of God's 
true king. When he describes the king as 
God's Son, he has not attained to a vision 
of the mystery- that St. Paul and St. John 
perceived in the incarnate Christ, but he is 
carried forward on luminous clouds of hope 
that will some day descend in the blessings of 
the definite Christian revelation. Similarly, 
Psalm 72 has been applied to Solomon, to 
Hezekiah, to others. It is fully true of none 
of them. These great kings partially realised 
its ideas, but the full realisation awaited a 
Christ who was never seen till Jesus was born. 
Sometimes what perhaps we may call the 
Messianic hope shrinks to little more than an 
assurance of an unending line of kings in 
the family of David. Psalm 89 seems to be 
written in this spirit. Even here it is remark- 
able that the hope clinging to the stock of 
David should be so persistent and confident, 

On the other hand, there is a large class of pro- 
phecies that have no connexion with the idea 
of a personal Messiah, but still predict redemp- 
tion and deliverance. Some of these pro- 
phecies centre in 'the day of the Lord.' 
Here it is God Himself who is the Deliverer. 
There seems to be no room for any human 
agent, nor does beseem to be needed. A prince 
of the House of David, who was no more than 
(Ins, could not accomplish all that was needed. 
The evils of the times were too vast and the 
hopes of the golden age of the future too 
brilliant for any man, even the greatest 
king, though chosen and anointed by God, to 
master or achieve. The Jews had been dis- 
illusioned with regard to the confidence they 
had placed in the throne of David. It had 
cost them much, and it had not secured them 



xlvi 



THE MESSIANIC HOPE 



the boons they had been promised with it. 
Accordingly, they turned from it in weariness 
and despair, till their hopes were kindled in 
another quarter. God and God alone was to 
be the Redeemer of Israel. This is the domi- 
nant note of the second Isaiah, after the 
captivity, when Zerubbabel had proved a dis- 
appointment. Then we read, ' Fear not, thou 
worm Jacob, and ye men of Israel ; I will help 
thee, saith the Lord, and thy Redeemer is the 
Holy One of Israel ' (Isa41 ** RY). The idea 
of the day of the Lord is much earlier than this. 
Amos warns of God's coming to judgment ; 
Zephaniah sees a day of God's vengeance. 
The common thought is that the enemies of 
Israel will be smitten, and God's people rescued 
and exalted. That is the most elementary 
idea of redemption. But a deeper note is 
frequently struck by the prophets. The judg- 
ment is on Israel ; God's own people will be 
sifted and tried ; only a remnant will be spared. 
Then the great hope of the future goes on 
with the remnant. 

These two ideas — the idea of David's glorious 
son, and the idea of God's direct interference 
and rectification of affairs — are never united 
in the Old Testament. They are two broken 
lights that await their combination in the full- 
orbed Christian revelation. 

Three other important ideas that were not 
reckoned at the time to be Messianic may here 
be noted. The first is the conception of the 
prophet of the future (Dtl8 18 ). This is never 
connected with the Messiah in the Old Testa- 
ment, as it is in the New, where Jesus first 
appears as a prophet, and is afterwards hailed 
as the Christ. 

The second of these associated ideas is the 
great thought of the suffering servant of the 
Lord in the second Isaiah. The prevalent 
judgment of scholars, after very much dis- 
cussion of the subject, is that whoever this 
strange personage may be — whether Jeremiah, 
or Israel, or the pious remnant of Israel — it is 
scarcely probable that he was thought of in 
the first instance as the Messiah. A late tra- 
dition, little heeded by the Jews, makes men- 
tion of two Messiahs — the triumphant Son of 
David, and the suffering Son of Joseph. But 
this cannot be traced back to the authorship 
of the prophecy. Here, however, we have to 
apply the principle that has been our guide all 
along. The idea is great, and true, and in- 
spired by God. It matters little what was 



the prophet's original application of it, except 
as a question of history and literary inter- 
pretation. The vital fact is that we have the 
idea. 

In the third place, we have Jeremiah's pre- 
diction of the new covenant : see Jer31 31 " 34 . 
This is not associated with the Messiah by the 
prophet himself. But it is the most typical 
anticipation of the spirit and character of 
Christianity anywhere to be found in the Old 
Testament ; and it is a promise of the good 
time coming, that is to say, the Messianic era. 
As such it was adopted by Jesus in the insti- 
tution of the Lord's Supper, and applied to 
the gospel by the Apostles. 

When we consider the fulfilment of Mes- 
sianic prophecy by Jesus Christ, we must see 
that He did not attempt to do this in the out- 
ward way of the earlier expectation any more 
than to satisfy the hopes of contemporary 
Jews for a new and greater David, a later 
Maccabaeus, to break the yoke of the pagan 
oppression. But He came as the king, because 
He introduced the kingdom of God as a rule 
over society by means of inward influences ; as 
the Deliverer, because He came to save from 
the sin that was worse than its chastisement, 
and at the same time as the supreme Prophet or 
Revealer of God's will, the Suffering Servant 
of the Lord, and the Founder of the new 
covenant. That Jesus claimed to be the 
Messiah cannot be denied without tearing the 
gospel story to threads. Wrede was the most 
conspicuous scholar to make the denial ; but 
he has been amply answered. That our Lord 
was in fact the Messiah will be admitted by 
those who perceive that the spiritual essence 
of the Messiahship is its vital element, and 
note how, while He cast aside the trappings of 
its external form, He added to it the great 
ideas of the Day of the Lord and the divine 
Redeemer, as well as the prophetic, suffering, 
and covenant element, none of them joined to 
the Messiah in the Old Testament, but all 
enriching it in His fulfilment of that hope. 

This subject is discussed in Drummond, 
' The Jewish Messiah ' ; Stanton, ' The Jewish 
and the Christian Messiah' ; Briggs, 'Mes- 
sianic Prophecy,' ' The Messiah of the Gos- 
pels,' and ' The Messiah of the Apostles ' ; 
Schiirer, ' Jewish People in the Time of 
Christ ' ; Castelli, ' II Messia secondo gli Ebrei ' ; 
Dalman, ' Der leidende und der sterbende 
Messias.' 



xlvii 



THE HISTORY, LITERATURE, AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOP- 
MENT OF THE JEWS IN THE PERIOD BETWEEN 
THE TESTAMENTS 



1. SUMMAKY OF JEWISH HISTORY 



From the Captivity to the Fall of 
Jerusalem, 70 a.d. 

i. Introductory. Some account of Jewish 
history is necessary to bridge the gap between 
the two Testaments, and throw light upon 
allusions of New Testament writers and the 
state of affairs in their time. The starting- 
point is the disruption of the Davidic kingdom 
after the death of Solomon. That event was 
keenly felt in Judah, which could not forget 
the glories of the undivided monarchy nor 
cease to hope for their revival. Except for a 
short alliance in the time of Jehoshaphat, a 
relation of hostility was maintained with the 
revolted tribes ; and, as the years passed, both 
kingdoms wasted their strength, not only in 
warring with the Syrian kings, but in mutual 
aggressions and internal revolutions. 

2. Fall of Israel. The northern kingdom, 
whose growing idolatry and moral declension 
had provoked the denunciations of Amos and 
Hosea, was the first to fall before the foreign 
invader. In 738 B.C. the great Assyrian power, 
which had long menaced their independence, 
' came into the land,' and in 722 B.C. captured 
Samaria, the capital from Omri's time. The 
leading inhabitants (27,290) were exiled by 
the Assyrian king, Sargon, to Mesopotamia 
and Media, and their places filled by foreigners 
from the Euphrates plain, from whom were 
descended the Samaritans of later times. 

3. Captivity of Judah. Though subjected to 
tribute, Judah escaped a similar fate through 
the action of Hezekiah, prompted by the pro- 
phet Isaiah. In 701 B.C. Sennacherib, the 
successor of Sargon, sent an army against 
Jerusalem, and demanded its surrender; but 
it was successfully held against him. For a 
while political opinion was divided in Judah — 
one party advocating alliance with Assyria or 
Egypt, another, which included the prophets, 
seeking to foster national sentiment and keep 
clear of foreign complications. Manassch was 
of the former persuasion, and, as a docile tri- 
butary of the Assyrian king, corrupted the 
people by the introduction of strange worship 
and customs. .Josiah. however, reversed this 
policy, and by the promulgation and enforce- 

xlv 



ment of the Deuteronomic laws accomplished 
a national reformation. In his time the 
Assyrian empire began to break up before 
the growing power of the Babylonians, and 
Necho II of Egypt seized the opportunity to 
annex southern Syria. In the hope of achiev- 
ing the independence of his country, Josiah 
gave him battle at Megiddo, in the plain of 
Jezreel (608 B.C.), but fell on the field. Shortly 
afterwards the victorious Babylonians, under 
Nebuchadrezzar II, advanced against him, and 
putting him to rout at Carchemish, on the 
Euphrates (605 B.C.), asserted their supremacy 
over Judah and the rest of Syria. Twice 
thereafter the Jews, encouraged by Egypt, 
rebelled against their new masters. On the 
first occasion, Nebuchadrezzar invested Jeru- 
salem, and, compelling the young king Jehoia- 
chin to submit, sent him captive to Babylon 
with the noblest of his people. Among the 
exiles was the prophet Ezekiel, who reckons 
from this event (597 B.C.) the years of the 
1 Babylonian captivity.' On the second occa- 
sion (586 B.C.) more severe measures were 
taken. Jerusalem, which had withstood 
Nebuchadrezzar for a year and a half, was 
given to the flames, and its walls destroyed. 
Seventy of the leaders were executed, and 
king Zedekiah, with some 15,000 of the prin- 
cipal inhabitants, deported to Babylon ; while 
the vacant lands were given to the poorer 
classes left behind. To escape the troubles of 
the time many of the remaining Jews, including 
the prophet Jeremiah, migrated to Egypt. 

Judah was left in a forlorn condition, but 
the indomitable spirit of the people soon 
evinced itself in an attempt at reorganisation. 
An old system of division into families and 
clans was revived, and to the heads of these, 
as elders, was entrusted the administration of 
affairs. Among the pious-minded submission, 
penitence, and the desire of amendment be- 
came the prevailing feelings, from which new 
confidence sprang that God would arise for 
the judgment of the nations and the vindica- 
tion of His people (Lam 2-5, Zech 7 f .), Of the 
exiles in Babylonia, many accommodated them- 
selves to their new surroundings, and, becoming 
immersed in commerce, were lost to the nation, 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



like the northern tribesmen whom Sargon had 
deported, and of whom no more is heard. 
Others, however, remaining faithful to their 
ancient traditions, cherished the love of Zion 
and the memories of their native land. So 
far as possible they maintained the worship 
and customs of the past — not sacrifice (for 
they were dwellers in an unclean land), but 
circumcision, fasting, the observance of the 
sabbath, and prayer (Ps 137, Isa"40 31 55 6 - 7 
582,3,13,14 Jer29 4 -9 Ezk36 Dan 3, 6*0). At 
the same time, they gave themselves increasingly 
to the study and multiplication of their sacred 
books, so that the order of the Scribes grew into 
great importance. Adversity, accepted as a 
chastisement of God, served to deepen and 
purify their patriotic and religious feelings 
(Psol). 

4. The Persian Dominion. In 538 B.C. the 
Babylonian empire fell before the irresistible 
prowess of Cyrus II of Persia. The change 
of dominion was hailed with delight by the 
devout Jews, and proved the prelude of better 
things to them. The religion of Cyrus (Zoro- 
astrianism) permitting him to respect and safe- 
guard other religions, he at once despatched 
Sheshbazzar — a prominent Jew — to Jerusalem, 
with a company of his compatriots, and au- 
thority to rebuild the Temple. The work was 
opposed and obstructed by the Palestinian 
Jews and their neighbours, the Samaritans, 
but eventually completed in 515 B.C. Associ- 
ated with it were the prophets Haggai and 
Zechariah, Zerubbabel, the Persian governor 
of Judah, and Joshua the high priest. It was 
found impossible, however, to order and main- 
tain the Temple worship satisfactorily, and 
the situation in Jerusalem became worse than 
before. Not until the time of Nehemiah and 
Ezra (circ. 446-430 B.C.) was the deliverance 
of the people completed, and their life and 
religion organised upon a stable basis. Then 
a large number of Babylonian Jews returned 
to Jerusalem ; the walls were rebuilt ; the 
people put definitely under the Divine Law, 
with the Temple as the centre of worship ; 
and the charge of affairs, so far as permitted 
by the Persian satrap at Damascus, given to 
the elders or heads of families, with the high 
priest at their head. The improvement in their 
condition was so manifest, that the Samaritans 
copied their constitution, adopting the Penta- 
teuch, and establishing a rival temple with 
a high priest on Mount G-erizim ( Jn 4 20 ). 

The next hundred years are involved in con- 
siderable obscurity, but it may safely be inferred 
that the regulations of Nehemiah and Ezra 
remained in force, and that the office of high 
priest grew in dignity and importance. Com- 
paratively few in numbers, and limited to a ter- 
ritory of 10 or 15 m. radius round their capital, 
the Jews preserved their exclusiveness, and 



kept up the worship and customs of their 
fathers. 

5. Alexander the Great and his Successors. 

The conquests of Alexander the Great (334- 
323 B.C.) put an end to the Persian dominion. 
By successive victories at the Granicus (334 B.C.) 
and Issus (333 B.C.), and a series of campaigns 
in Egypt and the East, he made himself master 
of Asia. Jerusalem seems to have come peace- 
ably into his possession. Josephus, in his 
' Antiquities,' tells a story of Jaddua the high 
priest, and the leading inhabitants, going forth 
in pomp to meet him, and being received with 
reverence and emotion ; but this is generally 
regarded as a romance of later years. In any 
case, he showed himself favourable to the Jews, 
and settled some of them, with special privileges, 
in his new capital, Alexandria, where they after- 
wards grew into a large and prosperous colony. 
With Alexander, it must be noticed, came a 
body of new ideas and Western ways of life, 
which eventually permeated the thoughts and 
habits of the peoples whom he conquered. 
The Greek language and literature became 
widely known, and the arrangements and con- 
stitution of the Greek cities were generally 
adopted. At first these Hellenistic tendencies, 
as they were called, were resisted at Jerusalem ; 
but in course of time they gained a footing 
there as elsewhere, and exerted considerable 
influence upon the current of events. 

After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., a period 
of fierce fighting ensued amongst his generals 
for the possession of his dominions. Out of 
the confusion two new kingdoms emerged, 
Egypt and Syria, between which Palestine lay, 
as a debatable land, and was the cause of pro- 
tracted contention. After the battle of Ipsus, 
however, in 301 B.C., it passed finally to Egypt. 

6. The Ptolemies. The founder of the 
Greek dynasty in Egypt being Ptolemy, it 
became a rule with his successors to bear that 
name and a surname added for the sake of dis- 
tinction. Under the first three Ptolemies, the 
Jews were contented and prosperous, and ex- 
tended their settlements in Egypt, where they 
were freely permitted to build synagogues, and 
practise their religious rites. The result was 
to bring them into closer touch and sympathy 
with Hellenism. The Jewish emigrants, for 
social and religious reasons, kept themselves in 
communication with Jerusalem, and occasion- 
ally resorted to it for the great feasts ; conse- 
quently they could hardly avoid transmitting 
Greek tendencies and influences to their own 
people. To this period belongs the original 
nucleus of the Septuagint version of the Holy 
Scriptures, the Pentateuch at least having been 
translated into Greek by Egyptian Jews, in 
the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284- 
247 B.C.). 

Peace, however, was broken, and the con- 



xlix 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



tention over Palestine renewed, when Ptolemy 
IV Philopator filled the throne of Egypt. The 
weakness and dissoluteness of this king seemed 
to offer a favourable opportunity to Antiochus 
III of Syria, commonly called the Great, and 
he opened war upon him. To the joy of the 
Jews, Antiochus was signally defeated at Ra- 
phia (217 B.C.), and for a time had to relin- 
quish his plans. On the death of Philopator, 
and the accession of his infant son Ptolemy Y 
Epiphanes, the Syrian king resumed the war, 
and in 198 B.C. gained a decisive victory over 
the Egyptians at Panium, near the sources of 
the Jordan. The Jews, now suffering from 
the degeneracy and misgovernment of Egypt, 
welcomed the change of dominion, and assisted 
Antiochus to oust the Egyptian garrison from 
Jerusalem. 

7. The Seleucidae. The first Greek king of 
Syria, one of the best of Alexander's generals, 
had been Seleucus ; and his successors for a 
while took either his name or that of Antio- 
chus, while the dynasty as a whole is known 
as the Seleucidae. Antiochus the Great, the 
new overlord of Palestine, was the fifth in suc- 
cession from the founder. He made no attempt 
to interfere with the privileges which the Jews 
had enjoyed under the rule of Egypt, but on 
the contrary, conferred further favours upon 
them, and allowed them the free exercise of 
their religion. The effect, however, of the 
Syrian supremacy was to introduce disunion 
among the Jews, and involve them in troubles 
such as they had not yet experienced. Antioch, 
the Syrian capital, was a great centre of Hellen- 
ism ; and the intercourse with it, of which the 
new conditions admitted, opened fresh channels 
for the entrance of Hellenising principles into 
.Judah. Soon there arose a powerful Greek 
party in Jerusalem, and conflicts ensued with 
those who still cherished the national ideals, 
and contended for the righteousness of the 
law. After the death of Antiochus the Great, 
his son Seleucus IV Philopator (187-175 B.C.) 
accentuated bhe situation in Jerusalem by re- 
pressing the patriotic party, and attempting to 
plunder the Temple. In the time of his suc- 
cessor Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), 
matters came to a head Onias,the high priest 

and lender of the orthodox party, drove the 

sons of Tobias and their Hellenising adher- 
ents oui oi Jerusalem ; Epiphanes intervened, 
and replaced Oniaa with creataret of his own, 

first Jason, thru M cnclans ; Onias retired to 

Egypt, with many others of the devout, and 

at Leontopolis founded a aew Jewish temple 

(170 b.c). Jerusalem now seethed with dis- 

COntenl ; and. a report obtaining ground that 

Epiphanes had died campaigning in Egypt, a 

rising took place, in which many of the Bup 
porters of IVfenelana were put to death. Epi- 
phanes, on his return from Egypt, set himself 



not only to extinguish the revolt, but to pre- 
vent its recurrence. Besides treating the in- 
surgents with merciless severity % he entered 
the Temple and despoiled it of its treasures 
and sacred vessels, recast the service according 
to the forms of the Greek religion, and set up 
an image of the Greek god Zeus, probably 
bearing his own features. At the same time, 
he remodelled the little state after the pattern 
of a Greek republic, and appointed over it a 
royal commissioner. Not so much, perhaps, 
from real hostility to the Jewish religion, as 
from the desire to extirpate the cause of dis- 
affection and rebellion, torture and death were 
decreed against those who persisted in their 
Jewish practices, and refused to sacrifice to the 
heathen god. 

At this point we come upon what is gener- 
ally considered the most sublime moment in 
Jewish history. Many of the old patriotic 
party, now called the Hasidim, or ' righteous 
ones,' willingly gave up their lives, rather 
than betray their principles, thus setting a 
noble example for the martyrs of future 
ages. 8ome of them escaped to the wilder 
parts of the country, and, if taken on the 
sabbath, refused to defend themselves, lest 
they should desecrate the holy day. Passive 
submission was their answer to the hatred 
and cruelty of their persecutors. Human 
endurance, however, is not unlimited, and at 
length they stood at bay, and made a brave 
struggle for freedom. The first blow was 
struck at Modin, between Beth-horon and 
Lydda, by Mattathias, an old country priest, 
and head of the house of Hashmon. His 
anger rising at the sight of a Jew offering 
heathen sacrifice, he cut him down, as well as 
the Syrian officer, Apelles, who was with him. 
Fleeing to the wilderness, with his five sons, 
he gathered others round him, and raised the 
standard of revolt. 

8. The Maccabees. On the death of 
Mattathias in 166 B.C., his son Judas, known 
as Maceabaeus, or i the hammer,' took over the 
Leadership, and in less than two years, by a 
series of remarkable victories, at Beth-horon, 
Emmaus, and Beth-zur, cleared Judah of the 
Syrians, except for the garrison in the citadel 
(Acra) at Jerusalem. On 25 Dec. L65 B.C., 
the Temple was rededicated, and its worship 
restored — an event commemorated in the 
Feast of the Dedication, still observed by the 
Jews. In 163 B.C. Lysias. the regent of Syria 
for the young king, Antiochus V Enpator, 
advanced with an overwhelming force to re- 
lieve the garrison in the Acra, but Judas was 
uble to make honourable terms with him, 
according to which the fortresses of Judah 
were to be dismantled, but the rights of the 
Jewish religion conserved. This settlement 
deprived the war of its religious character, 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



and many of the Hasidim laid down their 
arms ; but Judas was not content with it, and 
determined to continue the struggle, till 
political liberty was achieved. Resisting the 
elevation to the high priesthood of Alcimus, 
a flagrant Helleniser and nominee of the 
Syrian king, he gained a further victory over 
the Syrian general Nicanor, but in 161 B.C. 
was himself defeated by Bacchides, and fell 
in battle, at Eleasa. 

Jonathan, the brother of Judas, succeeded 
to the leadership, and, after the death of Al- 
cimus (160 B.C.), had full charge of affairs. 
An adroit and vigorous man, he made good 
use of the opportunity, offered by the troubles 
that thickened round the Syrian government, 
to win advantages for the Jewish state. 
Treacherously done to death in 144 B.C. by 
the Syrian general Trypho, he was followed 
by Simon, another son of Mattathias, who 
forced the Syrian garrison to withdraw from 
Jerusalem, and thus delivered his country 
from the last vestige of foreign control. 
With great solemnity, he was appointed by 
the people to the threefold office of high 
priest, commander-in-chief, and ethnarch ; 
and the first Jewish coins were struck in his 
name (141 B.C.). 

9. Independence. In the breaking up of 
the Syrian kingdom, Simon was able to con- 
solidate the new Jewish state, extend its 
influence, and secure for it the friendship of 
the Romans. In 135 B.C. he, and two of his 
sons, were murdered at the castle of Dok 
near Jericho, by his ambitious son-in-law, 
Ptolemaeus ; and his third son, John Hyrcanus, 
took his place. In spite of the attempts of 
the Syrians to regain their supremacy, Hyr- 
canus maintained the independence of the 
state, and extended its narrow limits by the 
conquest of (1) Samaria, where he destroyed 
the temple on Mount Gerizim, and (2) Idumaea, 
whose inhabitants he compelled to accept the 
Law, and submit to circumcision. In his 
time, the Hasmonaean house began to lose the 
confidence of the orthodox, patriotic party, 
now called the Pharisees, and to cultivate 
closer relations with the Sadducees, the party 
of cosmopolitan ideas and worldly ambition. 

Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son Aristo- 
bulus I, who assumed the title of king, and 
imitated the style of a foreign court. He 
only reigned a year (103 B.C.), but managed 
to annex Iturea (the Galilee of the Gospels) 
and compel its people to embrace Judaism. 
His brother, Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 
B.C.), a fierce and warlike king, extended still 
further the frontiers of the kingdom, and 
made Judaea the dominant power in Palestine. 
With him the house of Hashmon reached its 
greatest height, and began that downward 
course, which ended in its complete collapse. 



His character and conduct, ill-suited to a high 
priest, made him hated by the Pharisees, on 
whom he inflicted many cruelties, and some 
3,000 of whom sought safety in flight. At 
his death he bequeathed his high priesthood ±0 
his son Hyrcanus, and his political power to 
Alexandra his wife, whom he is said to have 
urged to peace with the Pharisees. Under 
her the Pharisees controlled affairs, and the 
kingdom, which equalled in power and extent 
the old Davidic dominion, had peace and rest; 
but at her death (67 B.C.) a fierce and pro- 
longed contest for supremacy ensued between 
her sons, Aristobulus and Hyrcanus : the 
former, an active and daring man ; the latter, 
feeble and irresolute, and almost entirely in 
the hands of a prominent Idumaean called 
Antipater. The Romans having now estab- 
lished themselves in Asia, both parties sought 
by presents and promises to enlist them in 
their favour. In 63 B.C. appeals were made 
at Damascus to the Roman general Pompey, 
who promptly marched upon Jerusalem, and, 
installing Hyrcanus as high priest, with a 
small territory subject to tribute, sent Aristo- 
bulus and his two sons to Rome. Thus, after 
eighty years of freedom, Judaea again came 
under foreign domination. 

10. The Roman Dominion. (1) The 
Herods. For the next twenty years Hyr- 
canus (II) was high priest, but Antipater 
really exercised the power accorded under 
the Roman governor of Syria. During this 
time certain towns on the coast and in Pe- 
raea were released from Jewish control, and 
formed themselves into a league, under the 
name of the Decapolis (Mt 4 25 ). The attempts 
of Aristobulus and his sons, on escaping from 
Rome, to recover the crown, only added to the 
authority of Antipater. On his death by 
poison at the hands of a Jewish notable in 
43 B.C., the government was divided between 
his sons Herod and Phasael, who received the 
titles of tetrarchs. Shortly afterwards the 
Parthians invaded Syria, and driving the Ro- 
mans before them put Antigonus, son of Ari- 
stobulus, on the Jewish throne. Phasael was 
captured and killed ; Hyrcanus had his ears 
cropped, to disqualify him for the high 
priesthood ; Herod fled to Rome, where he 
was favourably received, and nominated by 
the Senate king of the Jews. Returning to 
Judaea with Roman help, Herod soon re- 
captured Jerusalem, and had Antigonus put 
to death (37 B.C.) ; thereafter maintaining his 
position till the dawn of the Christian era. 

The material splendours of the reign of 
Herod have gained him the name of ' the 
Great,' but he was unscrupulous and cruel in 
his character, and dissolute in his life. To 
secure his power, he ingratiated himself 
adroitly with successive parties at Rome ; and, 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



on one pretext or another, killed out the 
survivors of the Hasmonaean house, including 
his own wife Mariamne and her two sons. 
Political intrigue and brutal murder were 
leading characteristics of his reign. At the 
same time, he aimed at magnificence, and exe- 
cuted many public works, besides restoring 
order and encouraging intercourse through- 
out the kingdom. Posing as a Hellenistic 
king, he built new cities upon Greek lines, 
such as Sebaste (27 B.C.), on the site of the 
old Samaria, and Caesarea (22-10 B.C.), which 
became the second city of the kingdom. He 
also added a theatre and amphitheatre to Je- 
rusalem, and built temples, porches, and baths 
in foreign cities. One of his greatest works 
was the rebuilding of the Temple at Jeru- 
salem, which was begun in 20 B.C., and was 
not quite finished in the time of our Lord 
(Jn 2 20 ). In other ways he tried, but without 
success, to conciliate his Jewish subjects, re- 
specting their traditions, and using his influ- 
ence to protect their settlements abroad. To 
the end he was hated, especially by the 
Pharisees, who gave themselves more than 
ever to the minute observance of the Law, 
the study of the prophecies, and the hope of 
the Messianic kingdom. 

On the death of Herod in 4 B.C., his domin- 
ions were divided, with the consent of the 
Romans, between his three sons : Archelaus 
becoming ethnarch of Judaea and Samaria ; 
Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea ; 
and Philip, tetrarch of the region beyond 
Jordan. In 6 a.d. Archelaus was removed for 
misconduct, and his principality put under the 
charge of a Roman Procurator — so called 
from the original function of collecting the 
imperial taxes. 

(2) Procurators. The following were pro- 
curators of Judaea and Samaria (6-41 a.d.): 
Coponius, M. Ambivius, Annius Rufus, Vale- 
rius Gratus (15-26), Pontius Pilate (26-36), 
Marcellus (36, 37), and Marullus (37-41). 
Wittingly and unwittingly, they often offended 
the susceptibilities of the Jews ; and, apart 
from the extortion which they generally prac- 
tised, the duties and taxes which they were 
authorised t<> exact were a continual grievance. 
l'( m tins Pilate, whose condemnation of Christ 
has covered him with lasting infamy, aroused 
such exasperation otherwise that he was 
summarily recalled. The seat of the pro- 
curators was at CsSSarea, DUl Pilate happened 
t<. be at Jerusalem for the great feast, when 

the outburst against Christ took place. The 

Outcome Of tin- prOCUratoriaJ system was wide- 
spread discontent, which was fomented by the 
Zealots- a new party aiming at revolution, 
and the establishment of the Messianic king 
dom by force. 

(3) Herod Agrippa. For a short time, a 



reversion took place to the old monarchical 
form of government, as it had existed in the 
time of Herod the Great. In 34 a.d. Philip, 
the tetrarch of the north, died ; and in 37 A.D. 
his dominions were given to Agrippa, a grand- 
son of the Great Herod, with the title of king. 
To these were added in 40 a.d. the tetrarchy 
of Herod Antipas, the murderer of John the 
Baptist, whose misdoings and ambition were 
punished by his banishment to Gaul. A year 
later, the procuratorship of Judaea and Samaria 
was abolished, and Agrippa's dominions were 
extended to include these provinces, so that he 
now held sway over the whole of his grand- 
father's kingdom. His policy was to please 
the Pharisees, without offending the Romans ; 
consequently he conformed to Pharisaic prac- 
tices, respected Jewish prejudices and tradi- 
tions, and persecuted as schismatic the early 
Christian Church (AC12 1 - 19 ). After a reign 
of three years, he died suddenly at Caesarea 
(Acl2 23 ); and, his son Agrippa II being set 
aside as too young for rule, the whole kingdom 
was placed under procurators, subordinate to 
the governor of Syria. 

(4) Palestinian Procurators. The order of 
these was : Cuspius Fadus (44-46 a.d.), Tibe- 
rius Alexander (46-48 a.d.), Ventidius Cuma- 
nus (48-52 a.d.), Felix (52-60 a.d.), Porcius 
Festus (60-62 a.d.), Albinus (62-64 a.d.), and 
Gessius Florus (64-66 a.d.). Under them the 
condition of things that had prevailed under 
the former procurators was accentuated ; mis- 
understanding, oppression, and extortion ripen- 
ing the hatred and disaffection of the Jews. 
Alexander, though of Jewish descent, was an 
implacable tyrant ; Felix was so cruel and 
intolerant that lawlessness grew rampant, and 
the Zealots, increasing in numbers and daring, 
and now called Sicarii, from the weapon (aica) 
which they carried, kept the country seething 
with revolt ; Florus strained the patience and 
endurance of the people to the breaking point. 

Caesarea was the scene of the first outbreak. 
In that Gentile city there was a large colony 
of Jews, who at this time had settlements all 
over the civilised world, in Babylonia, Asia 
Minor, Upper and Lower Egypt, Greece, and 
Italy. The Jews of Caesarea, having been 
deprived of their civil rights, were insulted and 
maltreated in the streets, and forced to quit 
the town. Florus chose this critical moment 
to plunder the Temple treasure and the upper 
city of Jerusalem, and put many of the in- 
habitants to death. Retaliations followed, and 
soon throughout the country Jew and Gentile 
were locked in deadly strife. The procurator 
appealed for help to the Governor of Syria, 
Cestus Gallius, who marched to his relief with 
23,000 men, and, quickly subduing Galilee, 
appeared before Jerusalem. Forced to retreat, 
he was followed by the Jews, and defeated at 



lii 






HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



Beth-horon with heavy loss. Rome now sent 
her most experienced general, Vespasian, with 
a large increase of forces, to carry on the war. 
During the summer of 67 a.d. he brought the 
country districts into subjection, and took 
many of the smaller towns, Josephus, the his- 
torian, being one of the prisoners captured. 
Jerusalem he let alone for the time, as panic and 
fanaticism were there doing their deadly work, 
and thinning the ranks of the defenders. With 
the help of 26,000 Idumaeans, the Zealots had 
secured complete control, and the consequent 
feuds and murders, aggravated by pestilence 
and famine, were fast bringing the city to a 
terrible pass. In the summer of 69 a.d. Ves- 
pasian was proclaimed emperor at Rome, and 
his son Titus took over the conduct of the 
war. Jerusalem fell to him in August of 
70 a.d., after a four months' siege of terrible 
suffering and almost incredible orgies of rage 
and bloodshed. Titus would have spared the 
Temple and city, but they were set on fire by 
his soldiers, and burned to the ground. Most 
of the inhabitants were massacred ; those who 
survived were sold into slavery, or reserved 
to grace the conqueror's triumph at Rome. 



Thus was fulfilled the warning of Christ forty 
years before (Lkl9 42 " 45 ). 

Three fortresses held out for a while, but 
were ultimately taken : Machaerus, to the E. 
of the Dead Sea, Herodeion and Massada to 
the W. The last-mentioned, which stood on 
an almost inaccessible mountain-top, was only 
captured after a prolonged siege (73 a.d.), and 
then the besiegers found to their horror that all 
the defenders had committed suicide together. 

(5 ) The end. Judasa became a colony under 
a Roman governor, the condition of the in- 
habitants resembling that of their brethren 
of the Dispersion. Without political rights, 
without their Sanhedrin, without their Temple 
and priests, they were like strangers in a 
strange land. Once again, in Hadrian's time, 
they rebelled and, under the leadership of 
Simon Bar-Kocheba, resisted the Roman power 
for over three years (132-135 A.D.) ; but the 
revolt was stamped out in blood, and Jeru- 
salem turned into a Gentile city, under the 
name of iElia Capitolina, into which the Jews 
were forbidden to enter. Here their history 
closes, so far as their association with the land 
of their fathers is concerned. 



LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE OLD 
AND NEW TESTAMENTS 



According to the theory of the Jewish 
Church, direct revelation ceased with the pro- 
phets ; hence no books were admitted into the 
Old Testament Canon which were known to 
have been produced after the time of Ezra 
and the Great Synagogue. A considerable 
body of religious literature is extant, belong- 
ing to the period that supervened before the 
rise of the New Testament Canon. Emanat- 
ing from centres so widely diffused as Egypt, 
Palestine, and Babylonia, it is not only inter- 
esting in itself, but an indispensable source 
of information upon the course of contem- 
porary thought and events. The books of 
which it is composed vary in character, from 
the narrative and legendary to the didactic 
and prophetic, but as a whole reflect the later 
developments of social and religious life 
among the Jews, their national vicissitudes, 
and the foreign influences to which they were 
subjected. They thus help to bridge the 
chasm between the Old Testament and the 
New, and throw light upon the preparation 
proceeding in the world for the advent of the 
Christian faith, and the environment in which 
it originally found itself. 

Many of them are distinguished from the 
canonical Scriptures by their manifest infe- 
riority of thought and style, which betrays 
itself in a want of freshness and originality, 
and a tendency to rhetorical and artificial ex- 

li 



pression. Reverence for the past is a prevail- 
ing feature of these books ; and this appears, 
sometimes, in the modification and enlarge- 
ment of Old Testament narratives and the 
imitation of books like Proverbs and Job : at 
other times, in exaggerated accounts of the 
doings of Jewish heroes, and fulsome esti- 
mates of their characters. Not infrequently, 
however, they rise to a higher level ; and not 
only, as in 1 Maccabees, contain reliable, 
historical matter of the utmost importance, 
but also, as in Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, ex- 
hibit a felicity of diction and grasp of religious 
truth which put them on a level with some of 
the books of the Canon. The higher elements 
of their teaching, the hopes they originated 
or sustained, and their anticipations of New 
Testament thought and phraseology, will be 
indicated in the review of the development of 
Jewish religion that follows this article (p. lxvi). 

i. The Apocrypha 

1 Esdras. Song of the Three Holy 

2 Esdras. Children. 
Tobit. History of Susanna. 
Judith. Bel and the Dragon. 
The rest of Esther. Prayer of Manasses. 
Wisdom. 1 Maccabees. 
Ecclesiasticus. 2 Maccabees. 
Baruch. 

This is a collection of books important 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



enough to have had canonical authority claimed 
for them. They have never, however, been 
able to secure more than the general approval 
of the Jewish or the Christian Church. Among 
the Alexandrian Jews they were held in 
such high repute as, with the exception of 
2 Esdras, to be embodied in their (Greek) ver- 
sion of the Old Testament Scriptures. Some 
of the early Christian Fathers, notably Au- 
gustine, accepted and used them as sacred 
literature, thereby establishing a tradition in 
the Roman Church, which led to the recogni- 
tion of their canonicity at the Council of 
Trent. In connexion with this view, the 
term deutero-canonical is sometimes applied 
to them : it indicates that they belong to a 
second canon of Scripture only slightly, if at 
all, inferior to the first. On the other hand, 
the Palestinian Jews rigidly excluded them 
from the Hebrew Canon, and were followed 
in their unfavourable estimate by the great 
Christian scholar Jerome. Generally speak- 
ing, his position with respect to them is that 
which prevails in the modern Reformed 
Church : they may be read for edification, as 
they contain valuable lessons for the conduct 
of life, but they are not to be used as a basis 
of doctrine. 

The term, ' Apocrypha,' by which they are 
known, is derived from the Greek, and means 
1 secret ' or ' hidden.' It used to be applied 
to the doctrinal writings of religious and 
philosophical sects, which were concealed from 
the world, and even withheld from many of 
their own members. Originally, therefore, 
there was nothing objectionable about it : it 
simply implied that the books so designated 
were confined in their use to a limited circle ; 
but, as some of them were found to assume 
an authorship to which they were not entitled, 
and as all of them had their claims of canon- 
icity rejected, the word acquired a disparaging 
sense, and ' apocryphal ' came to be an equi- 
valent for spurious or false. This no doubt 
has affected the estimate put upon these 
books, and the treatment they have received ; 
though their uncertain origin and uncanonical 
authority ill QO way detract from their historic 
significance and usefulness. Some of the 

hooks of the Canon are in similar case so far 

as uncertainty <>(' origin is concerned. Like 
them, the 'apocryphal' books must be con 
sidered on their merits, when it will be found 
that they arc of great value both from the 
religious and historical point of view. They 
are the oldest and most important witnesses 
t,, the period that succeeded the Captivity; 
they help to bring its great movements of 
thought and activity before us; they provide 
an independent testimony to the place and 
influence which the canonical hooks of Scrip 
ture had already acquired among the Jews ; 



and they show us, in actual operation, that 
fusion of Hellenistic language and culture 
with Jewish speech and modes of thought, 
which is reflected in the New Testament, and 
which prepared the way for the expansion and 
development of the Christian religion. 

(1) The First Book of Esdras 

Esdras is. the Greek form of 'Ezra,' the 
name of the great Jewish scribe, with whom 
two of the canonical books are intimately con- 
cerned. These are frequently conjoined in 
a sequence with the two apocryphal books, 
which then become 3rd and 4th, 1st and 4th, 
or 1st and 3rd Esdras respectively. The 
English usage, however, which follows the 
method of the Geneva Bible, is to give the names 
of Ezra and Nehemiah to the canonical books, 
and call the apocryphal 1st and 2nd Esdras. 
This arrangement is sufficiently convenient, 
and is warranted by the fact that the apo- 
cryphal books exist only in Greek and Latin 
versions, not in Hebrew or Chaldaic. 

For the most part, 1 Esdras is a compilation 
from the canonical Scriptures, probably done 
by various hands. The passages transcribed, 
with unimportant alterations, are the last two 
chs. of 2 Chronicles, considerable portions of 
Ezra, and Nehemiah 7 73 -8 13 ; all dealing with 
the destruction and rebuilding of the Temple, 
and the promulgation of the Law by Ezra. 
There is, however, an original section (chs. 
3-5 6 ), in which a striking incident or legend 
is introduced. Zerubbabel, at the Persian 
court, gives such an exhibition of wisdom, as 
to secure the favour of king Darius, and the 
return of the captive Jews. In a contest of 
wits, he carries off the palm by his eloquent 
praise of truth, and vindication of the superi- 
ority of its power over that of wine, the king, 
or woman. ' Great is the earth,' he says, 
' high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his 
course. . . Is he not great that maketh these 
things ? therefore great is the truth, and 
stronger than all things. . . With her there is 
no accepting of persons or rewardsj . . Neither 
in her judgment is any unrighteousness ; and 
she is the strength, kingdom, power, and 
majesty of all ages. Blessed be the God of 
truth.' To this all the people answer, 'Great 
is Truth, and mighty above all things ' ; which, 
with some Blight variation, has passed into a 
proverbial expression (4 88-41 ). 

The date of this hook cannot be determined 
with certainty, as there is no external evidence 
of its existence earlier than Josephus (100 a.d.). 
It is supposed, however, to have been written 
in Alexandria, about the end of the second or 
the beginning of the first century B.C. Its 
emphatic representation of the favour shown 
to the dews by the Persian kings would sug- 
gest, as the aim of the author, the desire to 



liv 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



obtain similar benefits from the king of Egypt, 
but there is hardly support for the view that 
the occasion was the building of the Temple 
of Onias for the Jews of Alexandria in 170 B.C. 

(2) The Second Book of Esdras 

As cast in a prophetic rather than a historic 
mould, this book differs widely from the fore- 
going, and used to be called ' the Revelation 
of Ezra.' It is a combination of three distinct 
writings, or an original writing supplemented 
by two considerable additions from different 
hands. There are 16 chs. in all, but the first 
and last pairs form sections by themselves, and 
are evidently of later date than the main body 
of the work. Their affinities with New Testa- 
ment thought and phraseology suggest for each 
of them a Christian source : cp. ] 30-33 w j T .h 
Ht2337l 213 with Mt2o- 4 , 15 * with RevG lf J, 
and 16 54 with LklG 15 . The burden of these 
chs. is the rebuke of Israel for her rebellions, 
and the summoning of the Gentiles to the 
enjoyment of the blessings forfeited by her, 
with denunciations of judgment, quite in the 
vein of the Old Testament prophets, upon the 
nations that provoke and withstand God. They 
are probably as late as the third century a.d. 

Chs. 3-14, which form the larger section of 
the book, are of purely Jewish origin, though 
they were known from early times to the 
Christian Church. They describe a series of 
revelations and visions purporting to have 
been communicated to Ezra in the thirtieth 
year of the Babylonian captivity. Depressed 
with the sorrows of his people and doubts of 
the righteous government of God. he is visited 
by the angel Uriel, who reproves his sadnes^ . 
and throws light upon the moral mysteries of 
the world. In three revelations and five 
visions Uriel shows him that, though the pur- 
poses of God are unsearchable, his Providence 
is surely working for the defeat of evil and 
the triumph of good. Iniquity may succeed 
for a time, but it has its appointed limit, and 
when the signs indicated in the visions are 
fulfilled, the Son of God. the Anointed One. 
shall appear and reign. The powers of the 
heathen shall be broken, and the lost tribes of 
Israel gathered together again into their city 
of Zion. Meantime Ezra is to have the Law 
written out for the people, and seventy books 
of mysteries prepared for those worthy to par- 
ticipate in the secret things of God. In several 
there are noteworthy references to the 
h (7271 12311 1332,37, 52} anfI m one 

passage (7 2 ^) a curious statement regarding 
His death : ' after these years shall my son 
Christ die. and all men that have life.' 

A clue to the date of the book is afforded 
by the vision of the eagle (11 l -l2 rA ). the wings 
and heads of which are evident allusions to 
successive emperors of Rome. The last to 



1- 



whom reference is made is Dornitian ; in his 
reign accordingly the composition of the book 
is generally placed (81—96 a.d.). The destruc 
tion of Jerusalem by Titus, and the consequent 
troubles of the Jews, may account for the 
melancholy of the writer and his choice of 
subject. Some remains of a Greek version are 
extant ; but since the discovery of a missing 
fragment by Professor Bensly, m 1875, the 
whole exists in a Latin translation, and on this 
account is sometimes called the Latin Esdras, 
as distinguished from the other or Greek 
Esdras. 

(?j) The Book of Tobit 

This is a religious tale, cast in very pleas- 
ing form. It may have had a historical basis. 
but that would be of little importance in com- 
parison with its purpose. The scene is laid 
in Nineveh, in the time of the Assyrian cap- 
tivity. Tobit, a pious, God-fearing man, of 
the tribe of Naphtali, loses his eyesight, and 
falls into such other grievous misfortunes as 
cause him to pray for death. Calling to mind 
ten talents of silver which he had left with a 
kinsman in Media, he sends his son Tobias for 
them, accompanied by a stranger hired for the 
journey. At Ecbatana they lodge in the house 
of Raguel, whose daughter Sara is in great 
distress and desirous of death, owing to the 
slaying of her seven successive husbands on 
the wedding night by the evil spirit Asmodeus. 
Tobias marries her, and she is delivered from 
the power of the evil spirit. The ten talents 
of silver are recovered, the eyesight of Tobit 
is miraculously restored, and both households 
enjoy renewed prosperity — all through the 
instrumentality of the travelling companion 
of Tobias, who proves to be the angel Raphael, 
sent by God in answer to the prayers of Tobit 
and Sara. 

The story was doubtless intended to en- 
courage and comfort the Jews of foreign lands, 
and stimulate their observance of the Law. 
Incidentally, considerable emphasis is laid 
upon almsgiving (e.g. 4 7 ' 11 12M), and the 
marriage of Tobias may be introduced to point 
the advantages of Jews mtermarrying with 
their own people. 

It is difficult to assign a date to the book, 
but various indications suggest either the 
second or the beginning of the first century 
B.C. It seems to have had a Hebrew original, 
but there is no Hebrew text extant earlier than 
the LXX version. 

(4) The Book of Judith 

This is another historical romance, though 
different in kind from that of Tobit. Judith, 
the heroine, a pious and beautiful widow, per- 
forms a deed of daring for her people not 
unlike that of Jael in the book of Judges. 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



Her native city of Bethulia (said in 4 6 7 3 to 
be over against Esdraelon, though identified by 
some modern scholars with Jerusalem, on the 
interpretation of the name as w House of God '), 
being besieged by Holofernes, the general of 
Nebuchadnezzar, she determines to effect its 
deliverance. Making her way with a single 
attendant into the camp of Holofernes, she 
captivates him with her beauty, and secures 
his favour ; then, when he is filled with wine, 
she cuts off his head, and returns with it to 
the city. The courage of the besieged is 
roused to such a pitch that they rush out upon 
the enemy, and put them to complete rout. 

The story has been a frequent subject of 
art, and may have had its origin in some actual 
occurrence ; but as it stands, it can hardly be 
historical. Its general features are improbable, 
and it contains many historical and geographical 
misconceptions. Its purpose evidently is to 
animate the patriotic zeal of the Jews, and 
confirm them, not only in the observance of 
their own Law and customs, but in their re- 
sistance of foreign oppression. The time of 
the Maccabean struggle would accord well with 
its spirit, and many are disposed to ascribe its 
composition to that period, about the middle 
of the second century B.C. Others bring it 
down a century later — to the time of Hyr- 
canus II — and find veiled allusions in the high 
qualities with which the heroine is credited to 
queen Alexandra, a strong supporter of the 
Pharisees (76-67 B.C.). It probably belongs 
to one or other of these periods. 

(5) The rest of the Book of Esther 

In the LXX version of the canonical book 
of Esther a number of passages appear which 
are not in the Hebrew text. These interpola- 
tions were probably introduced in the Jewish 
schools of Alexandria, in which it was not un- 
usual to work up traditional narratives into 
longer form and embellish them with striking 
details. Collected together by Jerome, and 
placed at the end of his translation of Esther, 
they now form the apocryphal book. Besides 
amplifying the scriptural story, they evidently 
aim at giving it a more distinctly religious 
turn, by ascribing the deliverance of the Jews 
from their G-entile enemies to the intervention 
of Q-od in answer to the prayers of Mordecai 
and Esther. In the six and a half short chap- 
ters of which the supplement consists these 
prajen are given, as well BS a dream of 

Blordecai, and two letters of Artaxerxes the 

king — one commanding a wholesale destruction 
of the dews, and another revoking that order 
and enjoining the thirteenth day of the twelfth 

month Adar to be kepi as B memorial feast. 

These additions arc generally supposed to 
belong to the first or second century B.O. It 
is easy to see why the Alexandrian Jews 



would admit them into their Canon. They 
illustrated the care of God over His people in 
foreign lands, and made up by the frequent 
mention of His name for the marked absence 
of it in the older book. 

(6) The Wisdom of Solomon 

This is a book of great interest and import- 
ance. As its title indicates, it belongs to the 
class of ' Wisdom ' literature, of which it is one 
of the most striking examples. In it may be 
seen the stream of revealed truth coming into 
contact with the current of heathen specu- 
lation, and the ' wisdom ' idea of Old Testament 
times passing into the later Logos doctrine. 
The ascription of its authorship to Solomon 
is, of course, an example of a common literary 
device of the period, and implies no intention 
of imposing upon the readers. The adoption 
of Solomon's name is only meant to suggest 
the character and scope of the work. It was 
quite in accordance with ancient usage, to 
affix to an original production the name of a 
great predecessor, in whose spirit it might be 
presumed to be written, or whose work it 
professed to continue. In the present in- 
stance, neither the author's contemporaries 
nor his future critics were likely to be deceived 
by the sponsorship assumed. 

The book is a hymn in praise of Wisdom, 
and falls naturally into two parts. (1) Chs. 
1-9. Wisdom is regarded in a speculative 
aspect ; its origin and effects are discussed, 
and the pursuit of it is earnestly commended 
to men. Beginning with an exhortation to 
seek Wisdom, these chapters then lay down 
the conditions of success — purity of thought, 
truthfulness of speech, and uprightness in 
deed. The position of the Materialist is can- 
vassed, and shown to be the result of voluntary 
ignorance of God, and the introduction of 
death and sin into the world through the 
envy of the devil. This leads on to an 
elaborate contrast of the righteous with the 
wicked, in regard to their families, their 
length of life, and fate in the world to come. 
Wisdom is then eulogised as the true guide of 
life ; her properties are represented under 
the figure of a bride, and men, especially 
rulers, are enjoined to seek and pray for her 
after the example of Solomon. 

(2) Chs. 10-19. Wisdom is discussed in its 
historical aspect, as exhibited in the history 
of Israel. First, a sketch is given of the 
lives of the fathers from Adam to Moses, 
to illustrate the effects of the guidance of 
Wisdom ; this is followed up by warnings 
against the neglect of it, drawn from the 
punishments that overtook the Egyptians and 
the Canaanites ; then the revolting character 
and results of idolatry are described, and a 
comparison is instituted between the Israelites 



lvi 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT 



and the Egyptians, greatly in favour of the 
former, which is kept up to the end of the 
book. 

Its apparently abrupt termination has sug- 
gested the idea that part of it has been lost, 
and a supposed difference of manner between 
the two sections has been taken to betray a 
difference of authorship ; but it is doubtful 
whether there are sufficient grounds for either 
surmise. The book is generally regarded as 
complete, and the work of one person — a Jew 
of Alexandria, probably writing about the 
period 217-145 B.C., though the date of his 
composition is sometimes put considerably 
before and after that period. The style 
throughout is in keeping with the sustained 
loftiness of its thought, and both alike are 
influenced by the fusion of Hebrew and classi- 
cal learning that took place in Egypt before 
the dawn of the Christian era. On the one 
hand, the point of view is Jewish, and the 
more valuable elements of the ancient faith 
are justified and enforced. Occasional Hebraic 
phrases are also used, and expressions and 
ideas borrowed from the Old Testament, as 
well as the name of Solomon, and the manner 
of the canonical writings previously assigned 
to him. On the other hand, the language is 
Greek, of a pure and polished character, some- 
times rising into strains of great eloquence ; 
and there are frequent allusions to Greek 
customs and ideas, which could only come 
from one intimately acquainted with the cul- 
ture of the West. Thus in 2 8 , the revellers 
crown themselves with garlands ; in 4 2 , con- 
querors in a strife are rewarded with a wreath ; 
in 13 15 , every household has its gods ; in 14 1 , 
every ship has its protecting deity ; and in 
19 21 , manna is termed 'ambrosial food. 1 
Again, there are evident references to Platonic 
and Stoic philosophy, in the ' formless matter ' 
(1 1 17 ) out of which the world is created ; in 
the application of the phrase ' understanding 
spirit ' to Wisdom (7 22 ) ; in the enumeration 
of the four cardinal virtues (8 7 ), and else- 
where. There are many compound words 
peculiar to the book, such as ' infant-slaying ' 
(117), 'child-killing' (1423), 'ill-labouring' 
(15 8 ), and ' sounding-around ' (17 4 ) ; and the 
word ' Protoplast,' now used as a scientific 
term, probably appears in it for the first time 
(7 1 10 1 ). There are, also, some felicitous ex- 
pressions that have now become current in 
religious speech ; for example, ' a hope full 
of immortality ' (3 4 ), and l the souls of the 
righteous are in the hand of G-od ' (3 1 ). 

The purpose of the book was to vindicate 
the essentials of the Jewish faith against 
materialism, idolatry, and speculative philoso- 
phy, and encourage the Alexandrian Jews to 
adhere to the religion of their fathers, in spite 
of the seductions of heathenism, and the ad- 



verse circumstances in which they were placed. 
That it had its effect in this direction, even 
to succeeding generations, may be seen from 
the influence it has exerted upon the New 
Testament. Some of the books, such as the 
Gospel of John and Hebrews, show consider- 
able affinities of thought with it, while most 
of them reflect its phraseology. The com- 
bination ' grace and mercy ' (3 9 4 15 ) reappears 
in 1 Tim 1 2 and elsewhere ; the expression ' for 
truly they perhaps err while they seek after 
G-od, and have the will to find Him' (13 6 ) is 
almost the same as ' that they should seek the 
Lord if haply they might feel after Him, and 
find Him ' (Ac 17 27 ) ; and the likeness between 
517-20 a nd Paul's description of the Christian 
armour in Eph6 13_17 is too exact to be acci- 
dental: cp. also 3 5 with Eev3 4 16 6 , 7 26 with 
Heblis, 13 2 with lCor8 5 , etc. 

(7) The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, 
or Ecclesiasticus 

The former of these two titles is the more 
ancient, being that of the LXX version, and 
indicates the character and authorship of the 
book. The latter, which means ' pertaining to 
the Church' or * Churchly,' is the title given to 
it from the fourth century onward, on account 
of the use made of it in the worship and 
instruction of the Western Church : it ap- 
pears in the Latin and English versions. The 
shorter forms ' Proverbs ' and ' Ben-Sira ' are 
also found. 

It is a book of the same class as the preceding, 
having for its subject the praise and inculca- 
tion of Wisdom ; but it is written upon more 
practical lines, and from a more distinctively 
Hebraistic point of view. In style and thought 
it stands between the Wisdom books of the 
Old Testament Canon and the book of Wisdom 
in the Apocrypha. Its closest affinities are 
with the book of Proverbs. It starts from 
the same general conception of Wisdom, and 
follows a similar method in applying it by 
means of short, pithy sayings, to moral con- 
duct and behaviour. It broadens and develops 
the standpoint of Proverbs, but not to the 
same extent as the Wisdom of Solomon, nor 
does it exhibit the same speculative bias and 
admixture of Greek philosophical notions. 
The one is the native, Palestinian type of later 
Wisdom thinking : the other is its cosmopoli- 
tan, Alexandrian expression. 

There is no apparent plan in the book of 
Ecclesiasticus. It is a series of reflections 
upon life, some doubtless original, some simply 
gathered, rather than a reasoned treatise. Its 
contents, however, may be roughly divided into 
two unequal sections. (1) Chs. 1-43. This 
section opens with a chapter in praise of Wis- 
dom, and closes with a sublime and powerful 
passage upon the works of Nature. The inter- 



lvii 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



vening chapters are devoted to the discussion 
of Wisdom, mostly in its practical bearings, a 
great variety of topics being introduced, such 
as obedience to parents, regard for the poor, 
friendship, prudence, envy, pride, boastful- 
ness, women, and money. These are sometimes 
called the Sayings of the Wise. They repre- 
sent the kind of instruction that was needed 
in the circumstances of the time. The decay 
of the national idea, consequent upon the exile, 
had given rise to questions of individual be- 
haviour and responsibility, which had not been 
pressing at the time the older canonical books 
were written. Something was needed to sup- 
plement the word of revelation, and this the 
son of Sirach undertakes to supply. Many of 
the sentiments are exalted enough, but others 
merely worldly wise, and some rather repellent 
to the modern mind. Even at their lowest, 
however, they seldom fail to be interesting for 
the light they shed upon contemporary life and 
thought. 

(2) Chs. 44-51. This section passes in re- 
view the great names of Hebrew history, and 
eulogises the bearers of them for their faith- 
fulness to God and the Law. The names of 
Ezra, Daniel, and Mordecai are omitted from 
the list, and in a kind of Epilogue the feeling 
of the time to the Samaritans is shown in a 
passing reference to them as ' a nation which 
my heart abhorreth ' (50 25 > 26 ). It closes with 
an appendix in the form of a prayer or 
thanksgiving, the genuineness of which has 
been disputed, but which is perhaps the author's 
own afterthought. 

If there are any traces of Greek influence 
in the book, they are confined to a few general 
conceptions, such as the identification of virtue 
with knowledge, and the emphasis laid upon 
moderation in action. These may quite well 
be accounted for by the Hellenistic atmosphere 
that prevailed even in Palestine itself. The 
thought is predominantly Jewish, and of a 
period antecedent at least to the rise of the 
Maccabees. Wisdom is viewed in its later 
scriptural significance, as the knowledge of 
God, and the guide and inspiration of life ; 
God is regarded as the universal Lord, the 
Creator and Governor of the whole world of 
men and things ; no account is taken of inter- 
mediate beings, except in quotations from the 
Old Testament ; prominence is given to the 
Law, but there is no indication of a belief in 
the resurrection, and no definite Messianic 
anticipation ; the rewards of a good life are 
still to be found in temporal prosperity and 
posthumous fame. 

This is quite in agreement with the author- 
ship which the book itself claims, and the date 
which is accordingly assumed for it. Unlike 
the real of fche A.pocrypha, it carries its real 
author's name with it. In 50 27 , he calls him- 



self ' Jesus the son of Sirach of Jerusalem ' ; 
and there is a preface to the book containing 
further details. According to it, the book was 
composed by Jesus, in Hebrew, and translated 
into Greek by his grandson (the writer of the 
preface), in the thirty-eighth year of Euergetes, 
king of Egypt, in which country the translation 
is also stated to have been made. This is 
generally understood to refer to Ptolemy VII 
Physcon (170-116 B.C.), the thirty-eighth year 
of whose reign would give 132 B.C. as the date 
of the translation. Going back two genera- 
tions, we come to the first quarter of the 
century, in which accordingly the composition 
of the original must be placed. Corroboration 
of this date is found in the fact that the list 
of great men mentioned in the book closes 
with Simon the high priest, understood to be 
Simon II (218-198 B.C.) ; and the account given 
of him is so circumstantial as to suggest most 
strongly actual knowledge on the part of the 
author. This interpretation of the preface is 
sometimes disputed, on the strength of an 
ambiguity in the Greek, and the references ap- 
plied to a previous Euergetes and Simon ; but 
the probabilities are all in favour of it. Nearly 
one -half of the original Hebrew text, it may 
be mentioned, has been discovered in recent 
years. 

The preface of the translator, besides help- 
ing to solve the questions of date and author- 
ship, throws a valuable light upon the authority 
and contents of the Old Testament Canon in 
his day. He speaks of it as the Law, the 
Prophets, and the rest of the books. 

There are no direct citations from Ecclesi- 
asticus in the New Testament ; but various 
passages seem to show an acquaintance with it : 
cp. 29* 2f - with Lkl2i9 f -, 2™ with Jasl 2 -*, and 
5 n with Jasl 19 . Later writers, however, 
frequently appeal to it ; and John Bunyan, in 
his i Grace Abounding,' relates how he was 
' greatly enlightened and encouraged ' by the 
passage : ' Look at the generations of old, and 
see ; did ever any trust in the Lord, and was 
confounded ? or did any abide in His fear, and 
was forsaken ? or whom did He ever despise, 
that called upon Him ? For the Lord is full 
of compassion and mercy, longsuffering, and 
very pitiful, and forgiveth sins, and saveth in 
time of affliction ' (2 1( >,ll). Here, as at 18 10 " 13 , 
the conception of God's forbearance approaches 
very close to the thought of Psl03. 

(8) The Book of Baruch 

In this book, which is not to be confounded 
with the Apocalypse of Baruch, several docu- 
ments are brought together under the name of 
Baruch, the faithful friend and secretary of 
the prophet Jeremiah. Most of it professes 
to have been written by him, at Babylon, five 
years after Jerusalem was destroyed by the 



lviii 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



Chaldeans ; but linguistic and historical con- 
siderations alike preclude this. It consists at 
least of . two distinct sections and a supple- 
mentary chapter, each in all probability eman- 
ating from a different hand. (1) 1-3 s . After 
a short historical introduction, a confession of 
sin is put into the mouths of the captive Jews, 
and a prayer that God will forgive them their 
offences, especially that of disregarding the 
prophets. (2) 3 9 -5 9 . A discourse is "addressed 
to the Israelites scattered among the nations, 
ascribing their afflictions to their disobedience 
to God the fountain of Wisdom, and comfort- 
ing them with the hope of a glorious restora- 
tion. There is no organic connexion between 
these two sections, and they even appear to 
have been originally written in different lan- 
guages — the one in Hebrew, and the other in 
Greek. Both of them, however, adopt the 
prophetic style of utterance : the first being 
largely modelled upon Jeremiah and Daniel, 
the second upon Job and Isaiah. It is difficult 
to assign dates to them. If, as seems most 
probable, the mention of the fall of Jerusalem 
is an allusion to its destruction by the Romans, 
and not, as is sometimes supposed, to its cap- 
ture by Antiochus Epiphanes, the former section 
would require to be placed after 70 A.D. On 
the other hand, the latter section may be some- 
what earlier. Its closing verses bear some 
resemblance to a passage in the Psalms of 
Solomon, which are usually referred to the 
middle of the first century B.C., so that it is 
generally put subsequent to that, or about the 
beginning of the Christian era. The combina- 
tion of the two sections, as we have them in 
the book of Baruch, could not take place much 
before the end of the first century a.d. It 
does not seem to have been held in much 
esteem by the Jews. 

The supplementary chapter (6) purports to 
be a letter written by Jeremiah, the prophet, 
to the Jews about to be led captive to Baby- 
lon. It, too, is unauthentic, being most likely 
the production of an Alexandrian Jew of the 
first century B.C. It is a curious piece of 
writing, and deals chiefly with the folly of 
idolaters and the impotency of idols. Pro- 
bably it was suggested to the writer by the 
letter mentioned in Jer29 1 , and offered a safe 
medium for the conveyance to his fellow- 
countrymen of a warning against the dangers 
and temptations which surrounded them in 
Egypt. 

(9) The Song of the Three Holy Children 

This and the two following pieces, each 
of a single chapter, appear in the Greek Bible 
as additions to Daniel. They illustrate the 
tendency of the Jewish schools, especially in 
Alexandria, to weave moral and religious 
legends round the striking names of sacred 



history. Nothing is known of their origin, 
which may have been quite independent of the 
canonical book : in any case, they were incor- 
porated with it before the beginning of the 
Christian era. 

The Three Holy Children are Shadrach, 
Meshach, and Abed-nego, under their Hebrew 
names of Ananias, Misael, and Azarias (Dan 
1 6 > 7 ). Their Song is inserted in the Greek 
Daniel between vv. 23 and 24 of the third 
chapter, at the point where they ' fell down 
bound into the midst of the burning fiery 
furnace.' It consists of (a) (vv. 1-22) a 
prayer of Azarias, which is quite general in 
its terms, and makes confession and suppli- 
cation for Israel as a whole, after the manner 
of Dan 9 and Ezr9 ; (b) (vv. 23-27) a con- 
necting narrative which, in its description of 
the preservation of the three Hebrews from the 
flames that consume some of the Chaldeans, 
seems to give the answer to the prayer ; (c) 
(vv. 28-68) a thanksgiving or invocation to 
creation in all its different orders to praise 
and bless the Lord. 

The last section, which is the Song proper, 
has only one reference to the deliverance 
which purports to be the occasion of it. It is 
largely dependent upon such thanksgiving 
Psalms as 10320*, 136, 148, and Ecclus 43. 
Under the name of ' The Benedicite,' or ' The 
Song of the Three Children,' it was sung in 
the Christian Church as early as the fourth 
century. It is still used in the Anglican 
Church at morning service as an alternative 
canticle to the ' Te Deum.' 

(10) The History of Susanna 

In the Greek Daniel, this story stands as a 
supplement to the twelve canonical chapters. 
It tells how Daniel, in his youth, by his great 
wisdom, delivered the chaste and beautiful 
Susanna from condemnation to death upon a 
shameful charge. The story recalls Ahab and 
Zedekiah, the two evil prophets of Babylon, 
who roused the anger of Jeremiah (29 20 " 23 ), 
and who are frequently mentioned in later 
Jewish writings. It may have been intended 
to reprobate iniquity in high places, or simply 
to glorify the wisdom of Daniel. Shakespeare 
must have had it in mind, when he made Shy- 
lock exclaim, ' a Daniel come to judgment ' 
(' Mer. of Yen.' IY, 1). 

(11) The History of the Destruction of Bel 
and the Dragon 

Here are given two further stories of 
the wisdom and piety of Daniel. They are 
attached to the Greek text of the canonical 
book as a concluding or fourteenth chapter. 
In the first (vv. 1-22), Daniel exposes the 
deceit practised by the priests of Bel, in pre- 
tending that the god devours the large daily 



lix 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



offerings of food and wine, while they and 
their wives and children steal in by a secret 
entrance, and consume them during the night. 
The result is that the priests and their families 
are put to death, and Daniel is permitted to 
destroy Bel and his temple. The second 
story (vv. 23-42) tells of the destruction of a 
sacred dragon, to which the Babylonians paid 
divine honours. The Jewish hero feeds it 
with indigestible materials, which cause it to 
burst, and he is thrown into a den of lions 
at the instigation of its enraged worshippers. 
There he remains unharmed for six days, and 
is supported by food brought miraculously 
from Judaea by the prophet Habakkuk. On 
his release, his enemies are given to the lions, 
and at once devoured. This was supposed by 
the later Jews to be quite a different incident 
from that preserved in the canonical book. 

The Greek title of the double narrative is, 
' From the prophecy of Habakkuk, the son of 
Jesu, of the tribe of Levi.' Its aim is to 
contrast the impotence of idols with the 
omnipotence of God, and expose the futility 
and absurdity of worshipping them. It may 
have been suggested by the references of 
Jeremiah (10 14 51 34 ) to the falsehood of 
images, and the dragon-like voracity of Nebu- 
chadrezzar, king of Babylon. 

(12) The Prayer of Manasses 
This is a short confession of personal sin, 
and fervent supplication for the divine forgive- 
ness, cast in a very beautiful form. It purports 
to be the prayer of the penitent Manasseh, 
king of Judah, during his imprisonment in 
Babylon (2 ChSS 11 -^) ; but, with the excep- 
tion of one expression, ' I am bowed down 
with many iron bands,' there is nothing that 
applies distinctively to him. There is no 
mention of specific sins that might have been 
expected to form the chief burden of his con- 
fession. The ascription of the prayer to him 
was probably suggested by 2 Ch33 ls > 19 , which 
slates that his prayer was written, along with 
his acts, 'in the book of the kings of Israel,' 
and 'among the sayings of the seers.' 
Already in existence, it may have had the 
name of Manasseh affixed to it, on the strength 
of this passage ; or it may have been expressly 
composed for insertion ill the canonical Scrip- 
tures at litis place. It is largely dependent 
upon biblical phraseology and ideas, and is 
poetical in form, It is supposed to have had 
a Hebrew or Aramaic original. 

(13) The First Book of the Maccabees 
There are four hooks of the Maccabees in 
all — so called from the name of the family 
that rose to supreme power in Judaea during 
the second century i;.c. — but only two of them 
are in the Apocrypha and claim consideration 
in this section. 



1 Maccabees is a history of the forty years 
(175-135 B.C.) during which, under the famous 
family, the Jews carried on their struggle for 
religious freedom and political independence. 
Its general reliability, fulness of detail, and 
accuracy in regard to dates, render it of the 
highest value for the knowledge of the period. 
After a brief introduction upon the conquests 
of Alexander the Great and the origin of the 
Syrian empire, it follows the course of events, 
almost in strict chronological order, from the 
persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, to the 
death of Simon, the third of the Maccabaean 
brothers, (a) (1 10 -2) An account of the suf- 
ferings of the Syrian persecutions is given, and 
the revolt described which Mattathias initiated 
at Modin. (b) (3-9 22 ) The heroic efforts 
and achievements of Judas Maccabaaus are 
detailed (167—161 B.C.), including his recovery 
of the Temple and dedication of a new altar 
to God. (c) (923-16) The further fortunes 
of the nation are followed, through the reign 
of Jonathan (160-143 B.C.), to their climax 
under Simon (143-135 B.C.). A. brief mention 
of John Hyrcanus, Simon's successor, brings 
the book to a close. 

The narrative hardly ever fails to be interest- 
ing, being written in simple, succinct style, 
with due proportion observed throughout, and 
numerous graphic touches that suggest a con- 
temporary knowledge of places and events. 
The only exceptions that have been taken to 
its general trustworthiness are, the statement 
in l 6 that Alexander parted his dominions 
among his generals while yet alive, the refer- 
ence to the Roman Senate in 8 15 > 16 , and a 
tendency to exaggerate the numbers of the 
Syrians in the various battles opposed to the 
Jews. Except in the wonderful successes of 
the Jews, in view of the statements of the 
odds against them, there is no appearance of a 
miraculous element ; and seldom, as in other 
books of the kind, is the flow of the narrative 
interrupted by the personal reflections of the 
author. One outstanding feature of the book 
is the method of dating events from the begin- 
ning of ' the kingdom of the Greek ' ; that is 
to say, from the foundation of the Seleucid 
dynasty in Syria (312 B.C.). There is no such 
accurate reckoning upon the line of a recognised 
era in previous Jewish literature. 

The composition of 1 Maccabees is usually 
assigned to the beginning of the first century 
B.C. On the one hand, it is said, the terms of 
friendliness and admiration in which it refers 
to thi" Romans (c. 8) necessitate the dating of 
it some years before the capture of Jerusalem 
by Pompey (63 B.C.), and, on the other hand, 
the last verses of the book (16 2 3,24) 7 m w hich 
it asserts that 'the rest of the acts of John 
(Hyrcanus) are written in the chronicles,' imply 
that his reign (135-105 B.C.) was concluded 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



before it was composed. The latter inference, 
however, is sometimes disputed, on the ground 
that the verses quoted embody a stereotyped 
formula, with which the author merely rounds 
off his book, and which he might quite well 
have used, though he wrote in the time of 
Hyrcanus. The tone of the book, it is argued, 
its remarkable accuracy, and certain specific 
references, require an earlier date, and so it 
is placed at the beginning of the reign of 
Hyrcanus, or between 135 and 125 B.C. 

There is little doubt that it was originally 
written in Hebrew by a Palestinian Jew. This 
was the opinion of Origen and Jerome, and it 
is confirmed by the number of Hebrew idioms 
in the Greek text and occasional evidences of 
mistranslation and transliteration of proper 
names. The interest, too, of the author in 
Palestine, and his minute acquaintance with 
its topography go to corroborate it. Other 
facts regarding the author may be gathered by 
inference from his book. It is plain that he 
was a patriotic Jew, devoted to the customs 
and religion of his country. He was also in- 
timately acquainted with political affairs, being 
probably a man of rank, who moved in the 
highest circles. At the same time, he must 
have been a loyal adherent of the Hasmonasan 
family, whose deeds he extols, and to whom he 
ascribes the prosperity and glory of Israel. 
That he refrains from the mention of the name 
of God, generally substituting for it the term 
• heaven,' is only in accordance with the prac- 
tice of his time, arising from the growing view 
of God's transcendence ; but his silence upon 
the resurrection, coupled with his uniform 
reverence for the Jewish priesthood, suggests 
that, of the two rising parties, he belonged to 
that of the Sadducees. He has no references 
to the Messianic hope, unless we count as such 
the remark that follows the statements of the 
laying up of the stones of the old altar (4 46 ), 
and of the appointment of Simon as governor 
and high priest for ever (14 41 ) : 'until there 
should arise a faithful prophet.' 

(14) The Second Book of the Maccabees 

This book also purports to be a Maccabsean 
history, but is in no way related to the first 
book ; on the contrary, though covering part 
of the same period, it seems written in entire 
ignorance of it, and is quite unlike it in char- 
acter and style. Its narrative begins shortly 
before the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes 
to the Syrian throne (175 B.C.), and ends with 
the defeat and death of Nicanor, and the 
triumph of Judas Maccabasus (161 B.C.). In 
the intervening chapters are related, with con- 
siderable detail, the unsuccessful attempt of 
Heliodorus to plunder the Temple treasury, 
the intrigues of the leaders at Jerusalem for 
the high priesthood, the desecration of the 



lxi 



Temple by Antiochus, the subsequent calamities 
of the great persecution, and the wars by which 
Judas achieved the freedom of his country. 

The author makes no pretence to originality, 
but asserts that his book is merely an abridge- 
ment of an earlier work in five volumes by 
Jason of Cyrene (2 23 ). Of Jason and his 
history nothing certain is known, though the 
probabilities are that he wrote in Greek, some- 
where about the end of the second century B.C., 
and drew his materials from oral sources. The 
method of his abridger seems to have been to 
leave out large sections of the original work, 
and embody others very much as he found 
them. Of him we may almost certainly con- 
clude, from the style of his Greek, and the 
earliest allusions to his compilation, that he 
was a Jew of Alexandria ; and certain char- 
acteristics, in which he differs from the author 
of 1 Maccabees, suggest that he belonged to 
the Pharisaic party. Besides his unhesitating 
mention of the divine name, he has clear re- 
ferences to the belief in a resurrection (7 9 > 14 
12 43 ), and the practice of prayers for the 
dead ; and he loves rather to exalt the glory 
of the Lord, who uses all men as His instru- 
ments, than dwell upon the prowess of the 
Maccabaean heroes. The date of his work is 
uncertain ; but, as it was known to Philo and 
the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (cp. 
2 Mac 6 ^-7 42 with Hebll^f.), it cannot be 
placed later than the beginning of the Christian 
era. 

Prefixed to the history proper, which only 
begins at 2 19 , are two letters which profess to 
have been sent by the Jews of Palestine to 
their brethren in Egypt. 

ii. Apocalyptic Writings 
Baruch. Testament of Twelve 

Enoch. Patriarchs. 

Ascension of Isaiah. Psalms of Solomon. 
Jubilees. Sibylline Oracles. 

Assumption of Moses. 

The name Apocalypse, which is derived from 
the Greek word for ' revelation,' is applied to 
a number of Jewish and early Christian works, 
to mark their distinctive character. The aim 
of these works is to solve the problem in- 
volved in the apparent discordance of events 
with the moral government of God. The 
Jewish thinker, who believed in the righteous- 
ness of God, and the rewards promised to the 
keeping of the Law, could not rest in the 
actual condition of things, when the servants 
of God were subjected to calamity and op- 
pression, and the heathen enjoyed prosperity 
and power. A method had to be sought of 
reconciling the sufferings of the righteous with 
the demands of the religious conscience. This 
was found by the Apocalyptists in a moral and 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



religious interpretation of the history of the 
world as a whole. Contact with the great 
empires of East and West had broadened their 
minds, and made them acquainted with the 
larger movements of human history : through- 
out it all, in the fate of individuals as in the 
rise and fall of nations, they saw the gradual 
unfolding of a divine purpose, of which the 
future held the complete fulfilment. The 
righteousness of God would be abundantly 
justified, and His faithful people vindicated 
in the eyes of the heathen. In a series of 
visions or revelations, generally attached to 
the name of an ancient prophet, they gave a 
rapid sketch or outline of the world's history, 
and depicted the glorious consummation to be 
confidently expected. 

The variety of style and contents in these 
writings is considerable. Some are addressed 
to the Gentiles, by way of showing the 
excellence of the Jewish faith, and the danger 
of neglecting its claims ; others are written 
for the comfort and encouragement of the 
author's co-religionists. Some are almost 
entirely mystical and apocalyptic ; others are 
largely taken up with the exposition and en- 
forcement of the Law. Some point generally 
to a revival of the glory and dominion of 
Israel ; others anticipate more definitely a 
world-wide Messianic kingdom, and a resur- 
rection life, while the nature and duration of 
these are also differently conceived by different 
writers. As a whole, they had an undoubted 
influence upon the development of Jewish 
life and thought, and so have an appreciable 
value for the historian. On the one hand, 
they helped to prepare the higher minds of 
Judaism for the reception of the gospel, with 
its world-denying precepts, and its glorious 
outlook upon the future. On the other hand, 
they stimulated the patriotic zeal of those 
who strove time after time to throw off the 
Roman bondage, and ultimately brought 
destruction upon the Jewish nation. 

Two examples of apocalyptic literature 
have been admitted into the Canon — the book 
of Daniel in the Old Testament and the 
Revelation of John in the New. In the 
Apocrypha, 2 Esdras comes under the same 
denomination ; but there are many others of 
which those cited above are the more im- 
portant. 

(1) The Apocalypse of Baruch 

In points of doctrine, ;is well as in other 
characteristic features, this hook hears a strong 
resemblance to 2 Esdras. It purports to be a 
prophecy of Barneh. son of Neriah, uttered 
shortly before the Chaldean invasion of 586 
B.C., and foretelling tin; destruction of Jeru- 
salem, and its subsequent restoration. There 
are seven distinct sections in it, mostly com- 

1: 



posed of prayers and visions, with connecting 
narrative portions, and separated from each 
other, except in one instance, by the observ- 
ance of a fast. The concluding chapters em- 
body a letter of Baruch to the tribes in 
captivity. This letter has been known for a 
considerable time, but the book, as we now 
have it, was only discovered in a Latin version 
so late as 1866. It seems to have come, 
through Syriac and Greek versions, from a 
Hebrew original. Besides the fact that part 
of it appears to have been written before the 
fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in 68 A.D., 
and part of it afterwards, there are other 
grounds for concluding that it is a composite 
work, by various hands, produced at intervals 
between 50 and 100 a.d. It has a strongly 
Pharisaic cast of thought, and its language is 
occasionally reminiscent of the New Testa- 
ment. 

(2) The Book of Enoch 

The assumption of Enoch's name for 
apocalyptic purposes was probably suggested 
by the statement of Gn5 24 . His supposed 
intercourse with God would furnish sufficient 
reason for ascribing to him revelations of 
things present and future, of things on earth 
and in heaven. A considerable body of 
apocalyptic literature seems to have been put 
forward in early times as proceeding from 
him, and portions of it that have been pre- 
served now form the book called by his name. 
These are generally believed to have been 
written in Palestine during the last two cen- 
turies B.C., but the Hebrew or Aramaic 
original has disappeared, and the complete 
text is only known in an Ethiopic version. 

The contents of Enoch are supposed to fall 
into five sections, all by different hands, and 
varying in date from 170 B.C. almost to the 
beginning of the Christian era. Interspersed 
through these are passages purporting to be 
written by Noah, and evidently interpolated 
by the editor from another Apocalypse circu- 
lating under that patriarch's name. The 
general theme is the overthrow and judgment 
of the enemies of God and His people, and 
the final establishment of the divine kingdom 
in righteousness and power. In one vision, 
seventy angels or shepherds are commissioned 
to watch in turn over Israel, but proving un- 
faithful to their trust, as the national history 
is adduced to show, they are cast with their 
adherents into an abyss of fire. Enoch visits 
heaven, and learns much of the destiny of 
men and angels ; he also penetrates the re- 
cesses of nature, and discovers its secret 
processes. In the middle of the book there 
is a series of three allegories (chs. 37-70), 
belonging, as some think, to the period 90-60 
B.C., and certainly not later than the reign of 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



King Herod. With the usual apocalyptic 
matter, there is in them a striking and original 
presentation of the person of the Judge, who 
is to redress the oppressions and injustices of 
the world. He is no mere descendant of 
David, but the Elect or Righteous One, the 
Christ or the Anointed, and still more ' the 
Son of Man who hath righteousness, with 
whom dwelleth righteousness, and who reveal- 
eth all the treasures of that which is hidden, 
because the Lord of Spirits hath chosen him ' 
(46 1_3 ). All four titles were subsequently 
applied to Jesus by Himself or His early 
followers. In addition to this, however, there 
are many other indications of the esteem in 
which the book of Enoch was held in the 
primitive days of Christianity. The language 
of the New Testament reflects it in quite a 
number of passages, and in one place it is 
directly quoted (Jude vv. 14f.). Its doctrine, 
too, bears distinct traces of its influence, espe- 
cially in connexion with the belief in the resur- 
rection, the rewards and punishments of the 
future, the ministry of angels, and the nature 
and activities of demons. Among the earliest 
Fathers of the Church, the book of Enoch 
was quoted with approval, and the Epistle 
of Barnabas even ascribes to it canonical 
authority. 

A few years ago, a book came to light, called 
' The Secrets of Enoch,' which contains further 
fragments of Enochic Apocalypse. From the 
language in which it is written it is called the 
Slavonic Enoch, to distinguish it from the 
older Ethiopic book. Some of it seems to 
have been drawn from Hebrew originals, but 
the greater part of it has evidently been com- 
posed in Greek, about the beginning of the 
Christian era. It describes the mysteries re- 
vealed to Enoch during his wanderings in the 
seven heavens, and is chiefly valuable for. the 
light it sheds on the New Testament, some 
of the ideas of which, such as the millennium 
and the sevenfold division of the celestial 
regions, appear in it for the first time. 

(3) The Ascension of Isaiah 

This book, of which an Ethiopic version 
is the only complete text, comprises (a) an 
account of the martyrdom of Isaiah, (b) a 
short Apocalypse, in which the history of the 
early Church (50-80 a.d.) is outlined, and (c) 
a vision of Isaiah, in which he visits the seven 
heavens, and learns amongst other things of 
the coming advent, crucifixion, and resurrec- 
tion of the Saviour. The first part was 
probably written by a Jew about the be- 
ginning of the first century a.d.; the other 
two parts are of Christian authorship, and 
belong to the second half of the century. 
Hebll 37f - is probably a reference to this 
book. 



(4) The Book of Jubilees 

This Apocalypse is cast in the form of a 
homiletic commentary upon the book of Gene- 
sis, after the manner of the Jewish Haggadic 
teaching. Passing in review the period from 
the creation of the world to the institution of 
the Passover, it gives a rendering of . the 
patriarchal history from the standpoint of the 
Jewish theologian of the century before the 
Christian era. The leading aim of the author 
is to emphasise the antiquity of the Law and 
the Levitical ordinances by carrying back 
their observance, even with heightened strict- 
ness, to the earliest times. At the same time 
he seeks to excuse or smooth over statements 
and facts that were calculated to give offence 
to the Hellenic mind ; for example, the ex- 
pulsion from Eden, the curse upon Cain, the 
deceit of Abraham and Jacob, and the severi- 
ties inflicted upon the Canaanites by the 
Israelites on their entrance into the Promised 
Land. There is no doctrine of the resurrec- 
tion taught in the book, though there are 
evident references to the immortality of the 
soul. The title of Jubilees is given to it 
from its system of time-reckoning, which is 
based upon Jubilee cycles of forty-nine years 
each. It is also called, from its subject-matter, 
' The Little Genesis ' ; not because it is 
shorter than the canonical book, which it is 
not, but on account of its inferior authority. 

Though the only entire text extant is the 
Ethiopic version, it has evidently been written 
originally in Hebrew, and by a Pharisee. 
The date cannot be fixed more definitely than 
within the period of fifty years on either side 
of the birth of Christ. On the one hand, it 
assumes the existence of the Temple, and so 
must have been written before the fall of 
Jerusalem in 68 a.d. ; and on the other hand, 
it quotes largely from a section of the book 
of Enoch, which is regarded as not later than 
60 B.C., and may have seen the light any time 
thereafter. It is of considerable value, not 
only for the study of Pharisaism and the New 
Testament, but also for the determination of 
the Hebrew text of Genesis. 

(5) The Assumption of Moses 

In this book, Moses, knowing that he is 
about to die, entrusts to the care of Joshua 
a collection of prophecies. These relate to 
the history of Israel, and subsequent chapters 
work over that history, from the apocalyptic 
point of view, down to the time when Judaea 
became a Roman province. A statement by 
the author (c. 6) is significant for the deter- 
mination of the date. He says that the sons 
of Herod should reign for a snorter time than 
their father ; and as three of them reigned 
for longer periods, the book must have been 



lxiii 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



written during their lifetime, and therefore 
not later than 30 a.d. The author was pro- 
bably a Pharisee, and wrote in Hebrew, 
though the book is chiefly known to us in a 
Latin version. 

(6) The Testament of the Twelve 
Patriarchs 

Here the twelve sons of Jacob are repre- 
sented as delivering their dying instructions 
to their descendants. Each in turn goes 
over the story of his life, and points the 
moral of it ; exhorts his children to emulate 
his virtues and shun his vices ; and utters a 
prediction of the calamities and oppressions 
that will come on account of sin. The mixed 
nature of the contents favours the theory that 
the book is based upon an original Jewish 
writing, largely interpolated by later Jewish 
and Christian hands. The oldest portions 
probably belong to the second century B.C., 
but the interpolations extend from that date 
well into the Christian era. Our chief author- 
ity for it is a Latin translation of the 
thirteenth century. It has the same system 
of time-reckoning as the book of Jubilees, 
and agrees with it in many of its biographical 
details. 

(7) The Psalms of Solomon 

These eighteen Psalms, fictitiously ascribed 
to Solomon in the usual literary sense, evi- 
dently emanate from one, or possibly two, 
of the later Pharisees. It is certain that they 
were originally written in Hebrew, though they 
are known to us now only in versions. In fig- 
urative language which is easily interpreted, 
they depict the course of events in Jerusalem 
from its capture by Pompey in 63 B.C. to his 
death fifteen years afterwards. The Has- 
monaean princes who welcomed him to the 
city are denounced as usurpers of the throne 
of David ; the defeat and massacre of the 
party of Aristobulus (II) are described, and 
the subsequent calamities depicted ; while 
Pompey is portrayed as a dragon, who would 
assume divine power and rule the world, but 
dies miserably on the shores of Egypt, with 
none to bury him. Not only in his rendering 
of events, but in his religious views and refer- 
ences, the author betrays his affinities with 
the Pharisees rather than with (he Sadducees. 
The former are the ' saints ' and ' righteous ' ; 
the latter are •proud sinners' and 'trans- 
g re s sors . 1 Tlx- theocratic view of the Jewish 
state is emphasised, and righteousness chiefly 

presented as fulfilment of the Ceremonial 
Law. Throughout the book there are the 

usual warnings of judgment, but there are also 
distinct anticipations of a resurrection of the 
dead bo rewards and punishments. The Mes- 
sianic h"pe is clearly denned onlj in the last 



two Psalms, which suggests the necessity of 
ascribing them to a different author than the 
others ; but the whole collection may be 
safely assigned to the period with which it 
deals, 70-40 B.C. 

(8) The Sibylline Oracles 

Sibyls in the ancient world were supposed 
to be inspired prophetesses, unconnected with 
any official order, through whom the gods re- 
vealed their thoughts and indicated their will. 
Their utterances were held in great esteem, 
especially at Rome, where upon momentous 
occasions they were consulted by the authori- 
ties. It is not surprising that the Jews of 
Alexandria, and after them the early Christians, 
sought to gain attention to their distinctive 
principles and beliefs by adopting a Sibylline 
style and guise. These were more likely to 
attract the notice of the Gentile world than 
the assumed authorship of one of their own 
prophets or patriarchs. 

The writings thus put forth as Sibylline 
Oracles form a heterogeneous collection, ex- 
tending pver several centuries and by many 
different hands. Originally they consisted of 
fourteen books, but only twelve now exist. 
The third book probably contains the nucleus 
round which the rest of the collection was 
gathered, and which may have been produced 
as early as the middle of the second century 
B.C. It gives an apocalyptic review of the 
history of Israel from the building of Babel 
to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and closes 
with a prediction of the coming glory and 
prosperity of the Messiah's kingdom. The 
other books pursue a similar vein, with a large 
admixture of Christian elements and frequent 
veiled allusions to the Roman power. They 
are of varying dates, some of them being 
supposed to be even as late as the second and 
third centuries of the Christian era. ' 

Besides the above there are other apocalyptic 
writings, bearing the names of Adam, Abraham, 
Moses. Elias, Zephaniah, etc. ; but these are not 
of sufficient importance to require separate 
treatment. 

in. The Septuagixt 
References have already been made to the 
ancient Creek version of the Old Testament, 
which originated among the Jews of Alexandria. 
It is called ' The Septuagint ' (LXX), from a 
tradition that persisted in Egypt regarding its 
inception. The story is told in a fictitious 
Jewish letter of the Ptolemaic period, pur- 
porting to have been written by Aristeas, a 
courtier of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-247 
B.O.). It relates how that Egyptian king sent 
to Jerusalem for seventy-two learned men — 
being six from each of the tribes — and set them 
to work upon a translation of the Hebrew 



lxiv 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



Scriptures for the great library of Alexandria, 
and how, without collusion, they agreed upon 
their renderings and completed their version 
in seventy-two days, which thereafter became 
the authorised Scripture of all the Greek- 
speaking Jews. In part, no doubt, the story 
is apocryphal, and in later years it received 
still further embellishments ; but the main 
elements of it may be perfectly true. It is 
highly probable that the Pentateuch at least 
was translated at the instigation of Philadel- 
phus, who was a great patron of learning, and 
had the laws of all nations collected for his 
library. In that case, his Jewish subjects 
would readily receive the new version as 
supplying the want that had arisen from their 
general adoption of the Greek tongue. The 
remaining books (which, as we have seen, in- 
cluded most of the Apocrypha) were translated 
at different times by various hands between 
the reign of Philadelphus and the beginning of 
the Christian era. The translator of Ecclesias- 
ticus (132 B.C.) refers to a Greek version of 
' the Law and the Prophets and the rest of the 
Books,' but does not specify the writings com- 
prised under the last -mentioned section. Philo, 
the Jewish philosopher of Alexandria, about 
the time of Christ, shows an acquaintance with 
the whole of the Old Testament Scriptures, 
with the exception of three or four books. 
About the end of the third century a.d. three 
recensions or critical revisions of the Septua- 
gint appeared, which were the work of Eusy- 
chius. Lucian, and Eusebius. These form the 
basis of the manuscripts from which our text 
is derived. 

The diversity of hands employed upon the 
Septuagint is patent from the contents, which 
exhibit great variety of style and merit. On 
the whole, the Pentateuch reaches the highest 
degree of excellence, being a careful and 
scholarly rendering of the original : among 
the other books, the historical generally stand 
upon a higher level than the poetical. Some 
of the translations are done in very good 
Greek ; others are faulty, and abound in 
idioms carried over from the Hebrew. Some 
evince considerable capacity, but omit, alter, 
or expand, from mere arbitrariness, or the 
desire to avoid irreverence and the wounding 
of Jewish or Egyptian susceptibilities ; others 
are more conscientious, but frequently mis- 
read, mistranslate, or merely transliterate the 
original. Some aim at a correct reproduction 
of the Hebrew text ; others are more of a 
paraphrase or commentary than a translation. 
The order of the books, too, and in some in- 
stances even the order of the various chapters, 
differs from that in the Hebrew text known 
to us ; and the Apocryphal additions inter- 
spersed throughout accentuate the divergence. 

In spite of these discrepancies, and the 



problems which they raise, this ancient trans- 
lation of the Old Testament Scriptures is of 
great interest and value. It is supposed to be 
the earliest translation of any considerable 
extent from one language into another ; and 
that alone would render it remarkable. Apart 
from that, however, it is of immense service, 
if it is not indeed indispensable, for the de- 
termination and elucidation of the text both 
of the Old and the New Testament. As evi- 
dently the translation of an ancient text of 
the Old Testament, now lost, it not only cor- 
roborates but enables us to correct the received 
text. On the other hand, as the Authorised 
"Version circulating in Palestine, in the time 
of our Lord and the New Testament writers, 
it helped to shape their language, and affords 
a key to its interpretation. There is no doubt 
also, that in making the Hebrew Scriptures 
known to the Gentile world, it had its influ- 
ence in preparing the way for the reception of 
the gospel. 

iv. Other Remains 
3 Maccabees. Logia. 



4 Maccabees. 
Josephus. 



Didache. 



(1) 3 Maccabees 

The only justification for the title of this 
book is that, like the genuine Maccabaean 
writings, it deals with the sufferings of the 
Jews under foreign persecution. The scene 
of its story is not even laid in the Mac- 
cabaean age, but in the reign of Ptolemy IV 
Philopator (222-204 B.C.). The Egyptian 
king is miraculously prevented from entering 
the Temple at Jerusalem, and afterwards 
frustrated by successive divine interpositions, 
from wreaking his vengeance upon his Jewish 
subjects. A similar story is related by Jose- 
phus of Ptolemy YII Physcon, and it may 
have had a foundation in fact. All that can 
be said of the date of the book is that it was 
written between 100 B.C. and 100 a.d. 

(2) 4 Maccabees 

This book derives its title from the fact 
that the greater part of it is taken up with 
reflections upon the story of the martyrs in 
2Mac6 18 -7 41 . The purpose of the author, 
according to his own showing (1 J ), is to prove 
that ' the pious reason is absolute master of 
the passions.' His work falls into two parts, 
(a) a discourse upon the general philosophic 
question, and (b) a restatement of the story of 
the Maccabaean martyrs, with the lessons to 
be drawn from it. Evidently he is a devout 
Jew, desirous of fortifying the faith of his 
brethren against the seductions of pagan phi- 
losophy. Incidentally he evinces his belief 
in universal immortality, and a state of future 



lxv 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



rewards and punishments. It is presumed 
that he belonged to Alexandria or some other 
Hellenistic city, and wrote about the begin- 
ning of the Christian era. 

(3) The Works of Josephus 

Flavius Josephus was born at Jerusalem in 
37 a.d., and lived at least to the end of the 
century. He received a superior education, 
and rose to such esteem among the Pharisaic 
patriots that, on the outbreak of the war with 
Rome, he was appointed governor of Galilee. 
In the subsequent operations he distinguished 
himself by his wisdom and courage, but was 
taken prisoner by Vespasian, and ultimately 
retired to Rome, where he devoted himself to 
literary pursuits. His works are (1) ' The 
History of the Jewish Wars,' giving an out- 
line of events from the time of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, and a full account of the struggle 
in which he himself had been engaged ; (2) 
1 Jewish Antiquities,' relating the story of his 
country from the earliest- times to the close of 
Nero's reign ; (3) a ' Treatise against Apion,' 
which is chiefly valuable for its copious extracts 
from profane historical ■writers ; and (4) his 
1 Autobiography,' which is an elaborate vindi- 
cation of his defence of Galilee during the 
war. 

For centuries the works of Josephus were 
almost the only source of information possessed 
by the Christian world upon Jewish history, 
and even yet they are of great value in this 
respect. They are written in good Greek 
style, with a wonderful freedom from bias, 
though occasionally they may soften down 
statements and facts in deference to the 
Roman audience they were expected to secure. 

(4) The Papyrus Logia 
Several papyrus fragments have come to light 
in recent years, containing short collections of 



the sayings (logia) of Jesus. The first was 
published by Bickell in 1885 from the collec- 
tion of the Archduke Rainer, and is simply a 
parallel to Mkl4 26 " 30 . The second was pub- 
lished in 1897 by Grenfell and Hunt, who had 
discovered it at Oxyrhynchus. It gives six 
sayings and the first word of a seventh ; 
three of them being parallels to Lk6 42 4 24 
Mto 14 , and three new and distinctive. Har- 
nack supposes the second group to be extracted 
from the ' Gospel according to the Egyptians,' 
but there is no definite agreement yet as to 
the origin of either of them, and the same 
may be said of those still more recently dis- 
covered. 

(5) The Didache 

The 'Didache (Teaching) of the Twelve 
Apostles ' was first printed in 1883 from a 
Greek manuscript of 1056, discovered at 
Constantinople. It consists of two distinct 
parts : (a) a number of moral precepts, called 
1 The Doctrine of the Two Ways,' which does 
not refer to any of the Gospels, and may have 
had a Jewish origin ; and (b) a collection of 
Church rules for discipline and worship, in 
which use has probably been made of the 
Gospel of Matthew. It is generally assigned 
to the period 80-110 a.d., but in its present 
form may be as late as the middle of the 
second century. 

In addition to the above, the names, and 
sometimes a few fragments of Apocryphal 
Gospels, Acts, and Epistles, have come down 
from the early days of the Christian Church. 
Of these it may be sufficient to mention : the 
Gospels according to Peter, the Hebrews, and 
the Egyptians ; the book of James usually 
called ' Protevangelium ' ; The Acts of Pilate, 
and of Paul and Thecla ; the Abgarus Letters ; 
the Epistles of Paul to the Laodiceans, the 
Alexandrines, and the Corinthians (the third). 



3. DEVELOPMENT OF JEWISH RELIGION IN THE PERIOD BETWEEN 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 



Though founded on divine revelation, and 
essentially conservative, the religion of the 
Jews did not escape modification from the 
ordinary human influences to which it was sub- 
jected. As encountered in the New Testament, 
it exhibits considerable variation from the pre- 
vailing type of Old Testament times. The 
intervening centuries li:i« 1 been characterised, 
not only by great political movements and 
momentous social changes, but also by a high 
degree of intellectual activity : and these have 
left their mark upon the national religion. 
Old beliefs and practices have undergone a 
change of emphasis, if not a complete trans- 
formation : new i«lt as have been introduced, 



and become the starting-points of fresh de- 
velopments. The process is reflected in the 
literature of the period (of which an account 
has been given) ; and some knowledge of it is 
necessary for the appreciation of the attitude 
of Jesus and the Apostles towards the religion 
of their day. 

i. The Doctrine or Idea of God. During 
the exile this central element of belief was 
purged of the heathen corruptions and accre- 
tions to which in former days it had been 
liable. After many warnings and chastise- 
ments, the people learned in national humilia- 
tion and personal suffering to adore the God 
of their fathers as the one supreme God of 






lxvi 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



the world, and to dissociate His worship from 
the impure rites of the heathen. Idolatry was 
abjured and never again permitted to corrupt 
their faith, or foul the stream of their devo- 
tion. Even the severities of persecution — as 
in the instance of Antiochus Epiphanes — served 
only to confirm their attachment to the unity 
and spirituality of G-od. 

As the sense of national abandonment and 
desolation increased, and the ideal methods of 
Greek thought gained ground among Jewish 
theologians, the tendency appeared to refine 
upon this idea, and remove God entirely from 
the world of material things. What is called 
the transcendent view of God became pre- 
dominant ; that is to say, He was regarded as 
so far exalted above the world as to be out of 
touch or communication with men. He who 
had formerly tabernacled with His people and 
spoken familiarly to the prophets, seemed now 
to -dwell in a far-off heaven where no personal 
intercourse could be had with Him. This con- 
ception colours the literature of the period, 
which generally abstains from expressions that 
would suggest human passions or parts in God, 
and even avoids the mention of His name. 
Strongly imbued with it, the Jews of the time 
of Jesus resented the familiarity with which 
He spoke of God as Father, and asserted His 
interest in the humblest human concerns. 

2. The Law. The sublimation of the idea 
of God was accompanied by an increasing 
reverence for the Divine Law. When God had 
retired within the clouds, and discontinued His 
communications with His people, the know- 
ledge of His will could only be obtained in- 
directly, through His actions and utterances in 
the past. No longer having the living voice 
to guide them, they could but fall back upon 
the written word ; and the more perplexing 
and painful their circumstances, the more neces- 
sary it became for them to search and study it. 
Stimulated by the exile, the regard for the 
Law was deepened and confirmed by subse- 
quent calamities, and grew to a passion with 
the Pharisaical section of the nation, as the 
chains of foreign oppression were riveted upon 
them, and the shadow of impending dissolution 
fell upon the national life. It became, not 
only the basis of the civil polity, but the 
sovereign rule and standard of private con- 
duct ; and the scribes, whose special function 
was to expound and enforce it, rose to a position 
of great power and prominence. 

In a previous article it has been shown how 
the various parts of the Pentateuch were 
probably conjoined to form a rule of religious 
practice and belief. By the third century B.C., 
the prophetic books had been gathered together 
and invested with almost equal authority. Other 
books were subsequently added which were 
believed to date from the prophetic period, 



and the Old Testament Canon was finally com- 
pleted and closed by the end of the first cen- 
tury of our era. Alongside this written standard 
of faith and practice, there was an ever-grow- 
ing body of oral tradition, which was supposed 
to have been delivered to Moses on Sinai, and 
handed down — through Joshua, the elders, and 
the prophets — to the men of the Great Syna- 
gogue (Ezra — 291 B.C.), and the schools of the 
scribes. It consisted of two parts, called 
Halakah or ' walking,' and Aggadah or ' teach- 
ing ' ; the former supplementing and defining 
the written Law, the latter explaining it and 
illustrating it with narrative matter. The 
whole was the care of the scribes, who in general 
united with the Pharisees in the scrupulous 
observance of its numerous minute and exact- 
ing precepts. It is the ' tradition of the elders ' 
referred to in the Gospels (Mt 15 2 Mk7 3 , etc.), 
and was probably in Christ's mind when He 
spoke of the sayings of ' them of old ' (Mt 5 21 ), 
and the burdens of the Pharisees ' grievous to 
be borne ' (Mt23 4 Lkll46). In the early cen- 
turies of our era, this oral Law, with the ampli- 
fications and discussions which had gathered 
round it, was gradually committed to writing 
at two different centres, and formed what are 
called the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds. 
3. Individuality. With the new conception 
and predominating influence of the Law, the 
emphasis was shifted from the national to the 
personal point of view. Hitherto the people 
as a whole had been the chief object of re- 
ligious consideration : the duties and privi- 
leges of the nation, its errors and backslidings, 
had been the main occupation of the religious 
mind : now the way of thinking is reversed, 
and the responsibilities and claims of the in- 
dividual come into prominence. The virtual 
abolition of the nation at the exile awakened 
the individual sense of sin, and stimulated in- 
dividual effort to regain the favour of God. The 
hope was still cherished that the nation would 
be restored ; indeed, as their outlook upon the 
world and mankind was widened by their Baby- 
lonian experiences, a larger vision began to 
flit before the devout — the overthrow of the 
heathen empires, and the recognition of the 
God of Israel by all the inhabitants of the 
earth. This, however, was only to be realised 
by the righteousness of individual men : it 
was to be the reward of the faithful keeping 
of God's .Law. On the return to Jerusalem, 
political claims were practically given up, and 
the community was rearranged and constituted 
upon a religious, not. a national, foundation. 
Its head was. the high priest : its centre the 
Temple worship : its members individually 
paid the Temple tax, made acknowledgment of 
sin, and promised obedience to the Divine Law. 
The result was to develop and strengthen the 
individual conscience, and make piety a per- 



lxvii 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



sonal concern (witness the narratives of Daniel 
and Susanna) ; also, as time went on, to beget 
a proselytising spirit, which encouraged and 
even compelled men of other nationalities to 
accept the Jewish faith. To understand the 
persistence of Judaism, especially among the 
Dispersed, it must be remembered that, from 
the exile onwards, except during the period 
of the Hasmonaean supremacy, the Jewish 
people were a religious fellowship, rather than 
a political combination ; a body of individuals 
held together by a common rite (circumcision), 
a common faith, training, and worship. 

4. Angels and Demons. The doctrine of 
God's transcendence and absolute supremacy 
over the world left room for a development 
of belief in the action of intermediate beings 
between Him and men. Accordingly we find 
in the later Jewish literature statements about 
angels and demons, compared with which the 
references in preexilic writings are meagre 
and obscure. In the earlier books of the 
Old Testament superhuman beings other than 
God are occasionally introduced, and even 
the name ' angels ' is applied to them ; but 
they have not the definite doctrinal signifi- 
cance of later times, which regarded them as 
helpful and harmful spirits, entering into 
close relations with men, and influencing their 
lives. To the contemporaries of Jesus they 
were real heavenly messengers, or equally real 
messengers of Satan, countless in numbers, 
but divided into ranks, and occasionally bear- 
ing specific names. The development of this 
belief was probably encouraged by the contact 
of the Jews with other nations, and especially 
with the Persians, in whose religion the hier- 
archies of good and evil spirits had been set 
forth with great elaboration. The movement, 
however, so far retained its native character 
that Satan and his hosts were never, as in 
Persian dualism, coordinated with God and 
the angels, but always relegated to an inferior 
position. The belief, as a whole, was rejected 
by the Sadducees (Ac23 8 ), but it was fully 
shared by the Pharisaic party, and among the 
Essenes had an exaggerated importance given 
to it. To some extent it was countenanced 
by Christ. He accepted the belief in the ex- 
istence of spirits, but disfavoured some of the 
notions popularly associated with it. and in 
particular claimed for Himself and the Com- 
forter, or Holy Spirit, the sole power of 

imparting divine revelation and blessing. 

5. Wisdom. Along with the belief in 
angels and 'lemons, there grew up an idea of 
the divine 'wisdom' which is closely related 
to it. This idea is responsible for the tone 
and character of b Bection <>f the contemporary 
literature, embracing the book of Job, Borne 
Psalms, Proverbs, Ben-Sira or Bcclesiasticus, 

Ecclesiastes. and the Wisdom of Solomon. 



which are hence called the Wisdom Books. 
Here again the roots were planted in the 
days before the exile, but the growth was 
stimulated and brought to fruit by the re- 
flexions and foreign influences of later times. 
The idea probably had its origin in the general 
conception of human sagacity, and the need of 
sympathy with the thought and will of God 
for its higher manifestations. Wisdom thus 
became associated with the Word of God, 
which by an easy extension of its meaning was 
applied to His whole message or revelation to 
men. In this sense it was personified in a 
kind of poetical way, and not only had divine 
attributes ascribed to it, but was regarded as 
having been seen by the prophets (Isa2 1 ). 
The Wisdom Books take up the process at this 
point, and carry forward the personification 
upon more definite and elaborate lines. Wis- 
dom is the agent or messenger of God, through 
whom He reveals His will to men, and gives 
expression in the world to His benevolence 
and power (Prov 8). She is His first creation, 
and the friend of all who love Him (Ecclus 
1 4 " 10 ) ; her thoughts are more than the sea, and 
her counsels profounder than the great deep 
(Ecclus 24 29 ). In vivid style, the Wisdom of 
Solomon describes the origin and character of 
Wisdom, recounts her praises, and expatiates 
upon her benefits (chs. 7, 8, 9). 

That this way of thinking took firm hold of 
the Jewish mind is evident from the Targums 
or Aramaic expositions of the Old Testament, 
which were current in the early Christian age. 
In them, the Word of God (Memra) appears 
almost as a real person, standing in the place 
of God Himself, as the vehicle of His self- 
expression, and the agent through whom He 
executes His purposes. Exalted above the 
world, He yet communicates with it, and acts 
upon it, through His Word. A somewhat simi- 
lar doctrine, though more largely marked by 
the influence of the Greek theory of ideas, was 
developed in Alexandria by the Jewish philo- 
sopher Philo. Accepting the Jewish concep- 
tion of the transcendence of God, he found in 
the Word (Logos) of Old Testament Scripture 
the power, or medium, through which His 
reason and energy still come into touch with 
the world. The Logos is His first-born Son, 
the highest Angel, even a second God : through 
Him the world of men and things is created 
ami preserved. The widespread currency of 
these speculations, and the allegorical method 
of Scripture interpretation by which they were 
supported, are reflected in the New Testament, 
especially in such hooks as the Epistle to the 
Hebrews and the Fourth Gospel. Tn the pro- 
logue to the latter, the author seizes an idea 
familiar to his contemporaries and containing an- 
ticipations of the truth. and applies itinhisown 
way to Him who is the Light and Life of men. 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



6. Hellenism. At various other points the 
influence of Greek thought may be traced in 
the later beliefs of the Jews. In spite of their 
exclusiveness, the Hellenistic movement which 
overspread the civilised world in the wake of 
the conquests of Alexander the Great did not 
leave them untouched ; and for centuries there- 
after, especially in the Dispersion, they were 
largely affected by the close contact into which 
they were brought with the great speculative 
nation of the West. Their knowledge of its 
language and familiarity with its customs and 
ideas inspired them with a new breadth of 
thought which appears, not only in the later 
Jewish literature, but throughout the New 
Testament. The Wisdom of Solomon, for 
instance, is largely Greek in its way of think- 
ing, and uses phraseology borrowed from the 
schools of Greek philosophy. It enumerates 
with approval the four cardinal virtues of 
Greek morality (8") ; it speaks in Platonic 
terms of a creation of the world from formless 
matter instead of from nothing (11 1T ) ; it calls 
manna ambrosial food (19 21 ), and pictures 
virtue crowned with a wreath like the victor 
in the athletic games (4 2 ). Similarly the book 
of Revelation (7 9 ), in its description of the 
saints, uses a figure taken from the Greek 
contests, and St. Paul draws illustrations of 
Christian virtues and ideas from the circus and 
racecourse, which informer times were abhorred 
and avoided by the Jews. These are indica- 
tions of a considerable interchange of thought, 
in the course of which, not only moral and 
political ideas, but philosophical and religious 
conceptions, were communicated and received. 
To the Greeks the Jews are said to have been 
indebted for the distinction between the king- 
dom of heaven and the kingdom of the world, 
and they certainly found in the Greek thinkers 
clear and definite statements of great truths, 
like the immortality of the soul and the rewards 
and punishments of the future life, which had 
been but faintly outlined and suggested by 
their own religious teachers. The greatest 
consequences, however, of the familiarity with 
Western language and thought were the under- 
mining of the old division between the Jew 
and Gentile, and the preparation of the world 
for the preaching of the universal gospel. Only 
in the light of it is it possible to understand 
the wonderful success that attended the labours 
of St. Paul and other Apostles of the Cross. 

7. The Messianic Hope. The circumstances 
of the Jews conjoined with their new thoughts 
of God and mankind to bring eschatological 
ideas into prominence : that is to say, ideas 
relating to the Last Things. So far as the 
world in general was concerned, these gathered 
round the Messianic Hope — the expectation of 
a God-sent Deliverer, who would restore the 
vanished greatness of Israel, and establish the 



rule of God's people in righteousness and 
power. The foundations of this expectation 
were laid in Old Testament prophecy, in which 
also numerous suggestions were afforded for 
the fulness of colour and detail which it event- 
ually assumed. The earlier as well as the 
later prophets had their visions of the salvation 
of Israel from all internal and external evils, 
and the complete reconciliation of the nation 
to God, with the consequent blessings of devo- 
tion and obedience. Their descriptions vary, 
according to the age in which they lived, and 
the circumstances of the people ; but the stress 
invariably falls upon the realisation of God's 
undisputed sovereignty, and the beneficent 
results of the holiness and submissiveness of 
the nation. Hints are given of a great out- 
standing figure, through whom the purpose of 
God is to be accomplished : he is ' a prophet 
like unto Moses,' ' a king of David's line,' 
' the servant of the Lord ' ; but the conception 
as often is that God will employ no inter- 
mediate personality, but intervene Himself. 
The Old Testament, indeed, has no precise 
or uniform doctrine of the Messiah's person ; 
it does not even employ the term Messiah 
(' Anointed ') in the particular sense that 
afterwards attached to it — though Jew and 
Christian alike, in later years, could find in it 
prophetic anticipations of their own beliefs 
(see art. ' Messianic Hope '). 

After the exile, the prospect of national 
greatness and prosperity was too dim and 
distant to serve as a practical religious or 
political stimulus. * The contact of the Jews 
with other nations, too, broadened their ideas 
of the world, and corrected the perspective in 
which the movements of history had appeared 
to them. As the scribes succeeded the pro- 
phets, and the sense of individuality took the 
place of the old national sentiment, the bulk 
of the people fell back upon an external 
religiosity, which lacked the confidence and 
inspiration of former days. At the same time, 
there were not wanting more reflective spirits, 
that still cherished the ancient hope, and saw 
nothing in the altered circumstances of the 
time to exclude the possibility of God's inter- 
vention. Transcendent as He was, could He 
not bend the firmament of heaven, and come 
down for the restoration of His penitent 
people ? Could He not arise for the shaking 
of the heavens and the earth, and the over- 
throw of the throne of kingdoms (Hag2 21 )? 
Side by side with the study of the Law, there 
went an anxious scrutiny of the promises and 
predictions of the prophets, with the result 
that a new and grander form of the old ex- 
pectation took possession of many minds. In 
this form it was to be fulfilled by supernatural 
power, and with a world-wide significance ; 
the heathen empires were to be overthrown ; 



lxix 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



the dispersed of Israel gathered to their own 
land ; the worship of Jehovah reestablished 
at Jerusalem, and all the inhabitants of the 
earth made to do Him reverence. This is the 
view of Daniel, and there are sufficient refer- 
ences to it in other books of the period to 
prove its persistence both before and after 
the Maccabaean struggle. So far, however, no 
symptoms appear of the prominence of the 
idea of a personal Messiah, so characteristic of 
later Jewish thought ; and during the rise and 
supremacy of the Hasmonaean family, the hope 
itself of a future ideal kingdom fell into 
almost utter abeyance. At first, the fierceness 
of the struggle for independence monopolised 
the thoughts of the Jews, and discouraged 
reflexion upon ideal eventualities ; then the 
success of their cause secured to them such 
freedom and prosperity as served to withdraw 
their minds from the future. They were con- 
tent to enjoy the good already attained, and 
postpone further questions till a new prophet 
should arise among them (lMacl4 41 ). 

A marked change is noticeable early in the 
century immediately preceding the birth of 
Christ. The Hasmonaean house was tottering 
to its fall : the excesses and feuds of its 
princes were bringing hopeless ruin upon 
themselves, and confusion and distress upon 
their country ; the Pharisees and other kin- 
dred spirits repudiated the actual government 
of the land, and turned for consolation to the 
old hope of an ideal kingship. Under the 
Hasmonaean rule, their sentiment of nationality 
had been revived and accentuated ; now that 
their confidence had been betrayed and their 
hopes disappointed, they threw themselves 
with new ardour into the old prophetic ex- 
pectations of a divinely-established kingdom. 
The feeling of the time is indicated in the 
ninetieth chapter of the book of Enoch, 
and still more clearly in the Psalter of 
Solomon. In the latter, for the first time, 
the name and person of the Messiah are dis- 
tinctly set forth. Probably the idea of a 
Messianic king had been shaping itself for 
some time in the Jewish mind ; thereafter 
it possessed it with increasing force, as the 
centre of religions hope, and the theme alike 
of theological study and devout reflexion. 
Under the tyranny of the Herods and the 
Roman Procurators, it took on almost a fever- 
ish intensity, the people praying and longing 
for the consolation <>f Israel, and eagerly 

watching the Bigns of the times for the evi- 
dencee <>f the Messiah's advent, and the 
coming of Q-od'a kingdom (Lkl, 2, etc.). The 
hold it had obtained upon the popular imagina- 
tion is abundant 1\ &\ idenced in the pages of the 
New Testament. It helps to explain the effects 
of the preaching of John the Baptist, and the 
favour with which the contemporaries of our 



Lord regarded His early ministry : it also 
throws light upon the vehemence with which 
Christ was ultimately rejected, when He failed 
to exhibit the expected characteristics of the 
Messiah, and proclaimed a spiritual kingdom 
which conflicted with preconceived notions. 
Later on, it led them to try those conclusions 
with the Roman power, which eventuated in 
their national en 2 acement. 

8. Personal Immortality. No greater ad- 
vance was made during the period than in the 
determination and development of those 
eschatological ideas which bear upon the 
future life and condition of the individual 
soul. The stimulus to this advance may be 
found, not only in the new emphasis laid upon 
individuality, and the Persian and Greek in- 
fluences already noticed, but still more, per- 
haps, in the internal condition of the country, 
which was distracted by political and religious 
factions. In the strife and commotion of 
the time, the sudden reversion of fortune, and 
the eclipse of the hopes of national power 
and greatness, it was natural for the Jews to 
turn to the thought of a life after death, in 
which all inequalities would be adjusted, and 
all wrongs redressed. Especially would this 
thought be cherished in times of persecution, 
when they were called to sacrifice their lives 
for their country and their faith. Belief in a 
future dispensation of judgment is a condition 
of the martyr spirit, and was probably found 
necessary to support the fortitude of the 
early martyrs of the Jewish faith. 

The Old Testament has little to say upon 
the subject of individual immortality. In 
some of the later books, such as the Psalms 
(16, 17, 49, 73), and Job (1413-15 1925-29), sug . 
gestive hints are given of a continued exist- 
ence beyond the grave ; and it is possible to 
see in the accounts of the translation of Enoch 
and Elijah at least the faint anticipation of 
the later view of death ; but in general the 
faith of the Hebrew people does not seem to 
have been attracted by the prospect of a 
future life. It seldom rose above the con- 
sideration of earthly things, the continued 
enjoyment of which is the blessing they 
expect from God. The salvation for which 
they long is mostly of a national and tem- 
poral kind : deliverance from the ordinary 
calamities of life, or from the fear and power 
of their enemies. When they think at all of 
the future life, it is as a state of deprivation 
and loss, compared to which their earthly 
present life is an incalculable boon. They 
can see in it only the grim shadows and terrors 
of Sheol — an uncertain state of bodiless 
existence, into which death gathers good and 
bad alike, and from which even the most 
fervent piety and trust in God will not avail 
for deliverance. 



lxx 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



Starting from this slender basis of eschato- 
logical belief, Jewish thought was now led 
to richer and clearer conceptions of things to 
come. To begin with the cardinal idea, there 
was undoubtedly a steadily-growing sense and 
assurance of personal immortality. This is a 
conclusion forced upon us by a comparison of 
the confident utterances of the Apocryphal 
and Talmudic writers with the vaguer refer- 
ences of the Old Testament Scriptures. Even 
the words ' immortal ' and ' immortality ' 
seem now to have come into general use, as 
if the ideas conveyed by them formed part of 
the intellectual furniture of the ordinary Jew. 
Men certainly looked for a continued con- 
scious existence after death as different as 
could be from the dim and shadowy condition 
expressed in the old popular conception of 
Sheol. Very soon, too, the idea of immortality 
became filled up with a wealth and intensity 
of meaning, which raised it to a prominent 
place in the regulation and government of 
life. There became associated with it, at 
least, two supplementary conceptions, which 
went to render it more tangible and effective : 
the thoughts of a resurrection of the body, 
and of a future distribution of rewards and 
punishments. Both of these, with some 
variations, have been adopted into the Christian 
system, and have exercised an untold influence 
upon modern thought. 

It seems to have been about the time of the 
Maccabaean wars that the belief in immortality 
came to be most strongly felt, and to include 
the resurrection of the body as an essential 
part. Twenty years before these wars the 
greatest teacher of the time — the Son of 
Sirach — could speak of departure from the 
world in strains of pathetic hopelessness 
(ECC1US41 1 - 4 17 27 * 32 ); but during them the 
tone is completely changed, and afterwards 
we have the most precise utterances regarding 
the resurrection (Dan 1 2 2 Ps Sol 7 16 ). In the 
second book of Maccabees (c. 7) we find the 
seven sons and their mother witnessing before 
the persecuting king to the hope of resurrec- 
tion to eternal life, and (14 46 ) Razis, at his 
death, throwing his entrails upon the people, 
and calling upon the Lord of life and spirit to 
restore him those again. Other references 
might be given (Ps Sol 13 9 14 2 1513 Enoch 
9023 91 10^ e tc.) ; but perhaps the best evidence 
of this belief, subsequent to the time of the 
Maccabees, is the fact that in the time of 
Christ it was a current popular doctrine, 
rejected apparently as an innovation by the 
Sadducees, but strenuously advocated by the 
Pharisees, and acquiesced in by the great 
bulk of the nation who held with them. 

The idea of the resurrection, as it presents 
itself in the thought of the period, exhibits 
considerable variety of form, if not a definite 



process of development. At first it seems to 
have been restricted to the godly, and antici- 
pated as an accompaniment of the establish- 
ment of the Messiah's kingdom. That king- 
dom had been delayed, but those who had 
lived in the hope of it, and had been over- 
taken by death before its realisation, would 
be raised to life again at the Messiah's advent, 
and share in the Lord's salvation. This is 
the view taken in the Psalter of Solomon. 

Afterwards there arose, as part of the gener- 
ally accepted Jewish belief, the doctrine of a 
universal resurrection to judgment before the 
divine throne and a life of eternal retribu- 
tion. Judging from 2 Esdras (7 27f -), written 
towards the close of the first century of our 
era, this view was probably current in the 
time of Christ. In some quarters it was com- 
bined with the more limited view, so that both 
a particular and a universal resurrection were 
anticipated : a resurrection of the just, at the 
coming of the Messiah, to participation in the 
blessings of His earthly reign ; and, after- 
wards, at the end of the world, a resurrection 
of the remainder of mankind to judgment and 
retribution. Evidences of this combination, 
in connexion with the Second Coming of Christ, 
are to be found in the New Testament, and 
especially in the eschatological ideas of the 
author of Revelation. As time went on, how- 
ever, the hope of the individual tended to 
dissociate itself from the national Messianic 
expectation, and become entirely independent 
of it. Reaching forward to a blessedness, of 
which after all the Messianic blessedness 
could only be the prelude, it gradually with- 
drew the thoughts of men from the Messianic 
hope, and gathered them about itself. Appar- 
ently, uniformity of belief on the nature of 
the resurrection life had not been attained at 
the close of our period ; in the time of Christ 
and afterwards questions regarding it still 
continued to be keenly agitated (Mt 22 23-33 
Ac 23 6 ITh 4 13-18). 

The other adjunct to the idea of immortality 
— the thought of a future distribution of re- 
wards and punishments — seems also to have 
come into prominence about the time of the 
Maccabaean wars. Like the belief in the re- 
surrection of the body, no trace of it is to be 
found in the book of the Son of Sirach. At 
first it meets us in the simple undeveloped 
form of a division of the future world into 
two opposite states of happiness and misery, 
corresponding to the simplest moral classifica- 
tion of men as good and bad. The book of 
Wisdom says, ' the souls of the righteous are 
in the hand of God, and there shall no torment 
touch them ' ; ' having been a little chastised, 
they shall be greatly rewarded ' ; ' but the un- 
godly shall be punished according to their own 
imaginations' (3 1 . 5 .! 51 4 - 16 , etc.). The same 



lxxi 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



conception appears in the books of the Macca- 
bees (e.g. in the words of the martyrs before 
the king, 2 Mac 7 35-37). This is the first vague 
form of the belief in future retribution ; but 
it could not have been long till it acquired 
definiteness and precision, for we find from 
the rabbinical traditions that a tolerably 
elaborate theory on the subject was in exist- 
ence by the time of Christ. The two divisions 
of the future world were called Paradise (or 
sometimes, metaphorically, Abraham's Bosom) 
and Gehenna — a name derived from the valley 
in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, which 
served as a common sewer and receptacle for 
the bodies of executed felons. To Paradise, 
the righteous were admitted without delay 
immediately after death ; but all others were 
consigned to Gehenna for longer or shorter 
periods, according to the degree of their iniquity. 
The former class was supposed to include only 
the true Israelites — those who believed the 
whole Law, and regulated their conduct accord- 
ing to its precepts ; but occasionally it was 
extended to embrace men of other creeds and 
nations who lived holy and righteous lives. 
The other class was composed of Gentiles and 
imperfectly righteous Israelites — that is to say, 
Israelites, who neglected or despised the Law 
and committed sin with their bodies. For 
them a retribution of suffering was reserved 
amid the gloom and misery of Gehenna. It 
is, however, to be noticed that the punish- 
ments of Gehenna were seldom, if ever, con- 
sidered to be of endless duration ; they were 
rather regarded as terminable in their nature 
and reformative in their effects. Between the 
two opposite states of the future world there 
was but a short space, which might be bridged 
over by the repentance and amendment of the 
sinner ; hence it was believed that the less sin- 
ful Jews confined in Gehenna — those who were 
not irredeemably bad — passed upward into 
Paradise after enduring pain for a period 
sufficient to purge them from sin and bring 
them to repentance. It is probable, also, that 
both Gehenna and Paradise were sometimes 
regarded as divisions of an intermediate state 
— the old Slicol from which the righteousand 
those who had repented of their unrighteous- 
ness passed ultimately to the blessedu 
Heaven. About the fete of the remainder 
the incurably wicked- the common opinion 
serins to have been thai they were annihilated, 
but this is not bo clearly established as to be 
beyond dispute. Certain rabbinical expres- 
sions are Bupposed to suggest a belief in end- 
less punishnu nt for the finally unrepentant. 
Km againsl this it is urged that, if such a 
belief existed, it must have been dropped in 
later years; for the teaching of the Talmud 
as a whole is decidedly againsl the idea <>f 
everlasting damnation, and in favour of a 



temporary punishment even for the worst of 
sinners. 

Christ did not dispute these current concep- 
tions of His time, but occasionally made use of 
them in His teaching ; for example, in the 
parable of the rich man and Lazarus, and in 
His promise to the thief upon the cross (Lk 
16i9f. 23 43 ). Doubtless, too, they underlie 
His sayings about ' the many stripes and the 
few' (Lkl2 4r > 4S ), 'the payment of the utter- 
most farthing' (Mt5 26 ), and 'the more toler- 
able judgment upon the sins of ignorance' 
(Mtll 22f -). (His general attitude to the 
future life is discussed in art. ' Teaching of 
Jesus Christ.') 

9. Worship and Practice. During the exile 
a more spiritual note began to pervade Jewish 
worship. Deprived of the ritual and sacrifices 
of the Temple, the better spirits of the nation, 
while maintaining the circumcision rite and the 
observance of the sabbath, betook themselves 
to more frequent prayer and meditation on the 
Law of God. It is probable, too, from the 
religious zeal afterwards exhibited by the exiles, 
that they met together periodically in local 
assemblies for mutual edification and encourage- 
ment. This, at any rate, is the origin generally 
assumed for the well-known institution of the 
Synagogue, which was already regarded as 
ancient in New Testament times (Acl5 21 ). 
In the circumstances of the exile, worship 
could only be an affair of scattered individuals, 
not of the nation as a whole ; consequently it 
lost much of its official aspect, and acquired a 
more personal character. 

After the Return, a rearrangement and 
elaboration of the Temple services took place. 
The daily sacrifices of a yearling lamb, morn- 
ing and evening, were reestablished and main- 
tained without intermission — except for a short 
period during the persecution of Antiochus 
Epiphanes — until the fall of Jerusalem. Burnt 
offerings and sin offerings were appointed for 
the sabbaths and new moons and the great 
annual feasts. In course of time several other 
festivals were added to those that had been in 
existence before the exile — of these the chief 
were the Feast of Purim, supposed to celebrate 
the Frustration of Hainan's plots against the 
Jews of Persia (Esth 9 ^-s 2 ), and the Feast of 
the Dedication, commemorative of the restitu- 
tion of the Temple worship by Judas Mac- 
caba'us in 165 B.C. The saerifiees on all these 
occasions were no longer provided by royal 
munificence, bu1 by individual contributions 
from the dews scattered over the world ; con- 
sequently they took on a more representative 
character, and became the symbols of a wide- 
spread religious fellowship. At the same time, 
as an effect of the increased study of the pro- 
])hets v a deeper religious spirit was infused into 
them ; they were regarded as well-pleasing to 



1 \ x i i 



HISTORY, LITERATURE, ETC., BETWEEN OT. AND NT. 



God, not so much for any virtue in themselves as 
in the expression they gave to pious and penitent 
feeling. It had come to be seen that G-od cared 
more for the doing of His will than for the 
blood of bulls and of goats (Pss406f- 50 * f - 
Prov21 3 EcclusS^s- 35 , etc.). Jesus, though 
He sets less value on the sacrifices than the 
Jewish teachers of His time, did not interfere 
with them, but in this, as in other respects, 
conformed to the ordinary practices of the 
Law (Lk24if- MkU^- Jn2*3f. 5 lf - 72*.). 

Other elements of worship were introduced 
or emphasised, which detracted from the 
prominence of the sacrifices, and gave the 
laity, as distinct from the priests, a larger 
interest in the services. This was partly the 
result and partly the cause of the multiplica- 
tion of synagogues as local places of worship 
apart from the Temple, one of which, and 
sometimes more, were to be found in every 
considerable Jewish community. Both in 
the Synagogue and the Temple, the Law was 
read and expounded for the popular benefit : 
in later times, the prophets also (Lk 4 17 ), and 
other Old Testament books ; while sacred 
songs (many of which are preserved in the 
book of Psalms) were chanted or sung, gener- 
ally by trained choirs, but yet as the praises 
of the congregation. Prayer was an import- 
ant element in the worship, as well as in the 
individual life ; with praise and thanksgiving, 
it accompanied every offering of incense or 
sacrifice. There were several stated forms of 
it for public use, the chief of which were 
' The Eighteen Benedictions,' a short recension 
of which is called ' The Habinenu,' and ' The 
Kaddish.' 

In keeping with the eschatological ideas of 
the time, the practice seems to have grown up in 
' the second century B.C. of making sacrifices and 
prayers for the dead. It may have been sug- 
gested by the heathen custom of making ob- 
lations at the graves of the departed ; but it 
differs from it in the fact that, according to 
the higher ideas of the Jewish religion, the 
offerings were made, not to the souls of the 
dead, but on behalf of them to God. In the 
form of prayer alone, without the accompani- 
ment of sacrifice, the practice afterwards 
1 passed into the early Christian Church. The 
• origin of it cannot be exactly determined, but 
it is easy to see how natural it was to pious 
Jewish minds, that had come to a strong and 
earnest faith in the immortality of the soul, 
'the resurrection of the body, and the purifying 
purposes of the punishments of Gehenna. 
They might well believe that the souls that 
had been benefited by their prayers in this 
world might still be helped by them in the 
world beyond the grave. An instance of such 
prayers has been supposed to occur in PS32 1 , 



assuming the post-Davidic date of the Psalm : 
4 Lord, remember David and all his afflictions ' ; 
but we cannot lay much weight upon that. 
For the first time, the usage comes clearly 
into view in the history of the Maccabaean 
wars, where a case of it is found on a toler- 
ably large scale (2Macl2 40 " 45 ). The teaching 
of the Jewish schools was quite in accordance 
with it ; and there is reason to believe that, 
during the life and ministry of Christ, though 
He is practically silent about it, prayers for 
the dead were offered in the synagogues, and 
repeated by the mourning relatives. In 
Jewish cemeteries of the first and second 
centuries after Christ, inscriptions have been 
found bearing witness to the usage ; and 
a trace of it may appear in the New Testa- 
ment in St. Paul's prayer for Onesiphorus 
(2 Tim 1 18) 

Except in small devout circles, such as those 
in which the gospel of Christ found a ready 
soil, Judaism, towards the close of our period, 
degenerated into pure legalism and formality. 
The doctrine of God's transcendence had be- 
gotten harsh conceptions of His nature, and 
arbitrary ideas of His judgments ; caprice and 
partiality, rather than love, were ascribed to 
Him ; His requirements were supposed to be 
contained in the Law and the traditions of the 
elders, which by this time had become a vast 
conglomerate of precepts bearing upon the 
minutest actions and circumstances of life. 
Only the strictest observance of the Pharisaic 
rules could make a man righteous before God ; 
but that need not be more than an external 
observance, and so the religious life came to 
be divided between the performance of rites 
and ceremonies, in which purifications played 
a great part, and punctilious attention to 
matters of outward conduct. The whole 
Pharisaic system aimed at making clean the 
outside of the cup and platter ; it tithed 
mint and rue and all manner of herbs, but 
passed over judgment and the love of God 
(Lkll 39 " 42 ). Expedients were devised to 
atone for the shortcomings of those who 
failed in their efforts to keep the whole Law ; 
exceptional suffering and works of surpassing 
merit, especially almsgiving, even the good 
works and virtues of ancestors and friends 
were regarded as compensating for personal 
deficiencies. Under such a system a healthy 
spiritual life was hardly likely to be fostered ; 
its only outcome could be, as the New Testa- 
ment shows, pride and hypocrisy on the one 
hand, and hopelessness on the other. Jesus 
protested against it till His lips were closed 
on the cross, and in striking contrast to it 
presented that pure moral teaching and pro- 
found spiritual faith which have since conquered 
the world. 



lxxiii 



THE LIFE OF JESUS CHRIST 



In the estimation of His followers, Christ's 
life is the central fact in the history of the 
world. This is indicated externally in their 
manner of computing time, and dating other 
events, with reference to it. More particularly, 
however, they regard it as the most significant 
fact for their personal lives, the basis of their 
individual thinking and behaviour in the world. 
Christianity revolves so closely round the 
person and work of Christ that a knowledge 
and understanding of His life are requisite for 
the comprehension of Christian truth. Besides, 
as a life of absolute purity and devotion to 
God, it presents not only the perfect standard 
for moral conduct, but the ideal type of re- 
ligious aspiration and devotion. It deserves, 
therefore, the closest, most reverent study ; 
and in such study the following short sketch 
may be helpful, as bringing the various details 
of the Gospels together, and arranging them 
so far as possible in chronological order. 

i. The accepted date of Christ's birth is 
wrong by several years. In reality He was 
born in B.C. G or 7, at a little village 5 m. S. 
of Jerusalem, called Bethlehem. There His 
mother gave Him birth in a stable, there being 
no room for her in the inn. His mother, Mary, 
and His reputed father, Joseph, were devout 
Jews of the tribe of Judah. They claimed 
descent from the royal house of David, but, 
like others of his descendants, were in poor 
circumstances. According to the Gospel nar- 
rative, based probably on the testimony of 
Joseph and Mary, Joseph was not in a 
literal sense the father of Jesus. Before their 
marriage Jesus had already been miraculously 
conceived by His mother, in accordance with 
an ;mgel's message. A marvel so stupendous, 
which, if alleged of an ordinary person, could 
not be credited, is rendered credible, and almost 
natural, by the extraordinary subsequent career 
of Jesus. There is no need to enlarge upon 
ili. subject in this place, as it is fully discussed 
in the Commentary upon St. Matthew's Gospel. 
.... Ml 1 ls "25. 

2. Childhood and Youth of Jesus. When 
Jesoi was born. Herod the Great ruled Judaea 
and all Palestine. Soon afterwards he died 
( i;.( . I ). and his kingdom was divided among 
his sons. Archelana received Juda-a. Samaria, 
and Idumaea ; Herod Antipas received (ialilee 
and Persa; Herod Philip received Trachonitia 
and Ituraea. These princes were not inde- 
pendent, but subject to Rome. While Jesus 
was quite young, Archelans was banished to 



Gaul for misgovernment, and Judaea was placed 
under direct Roman government (a.d. 5). An- 
tipas and Philip were allowed to retain their 
dominions. 

Joseph had intended to settle permanently 
in Bethlehem, that being the proper home of 
the Messiah (Mic 5 2 ), but the hostility first of 
Herod the Great, from which he took refuge 
in Egypt, and afterwards of Archelaus, caused 
him to alter his plans. He returned to Naza- 
reth, his own city, in the dominions of Antipas, 
and brought up Jesus to his own trade, which 
was that of a carpenter, or possibly a smith. 

Jesus did not enter a rabbinical academy, 
but doubtless received the usual education of 
a Jewish boy in the synagogue of Nazareth. 
This consisted of reading, writing, and perhaps 
the elements of arithmetic. Schooling began 
at the age of six or seven. Before this age 
Jewish fathers were accustomed to teach their 
sons the Shema (Dt6 4 ), certain proverbs, and 
certain verses from the Psalms. In school the 
children sat on the ground, and repeated the 
words of the lesson after the master until they 
knew it. Great attention was paid to pronuncia- 
tion and learning by heart. The principal 
study was the Law, of which Leviticus was 
taken first, as containing the information about 
legal observances most necessary for a boy 
approaching manhood to know. The boys were 
very anxious to read well, because the best 
readers were allowed to read the lessons from 
the Law in the synagogue services. 

The Jewish system of education was entirely 
different from the Greek. The Jewish school- 
masters were scribes, trained in the narrowest 
ideas of traditional rabbinism. They rigidly 
excluded from the curriculum all secular sub- 
jects, and every Gentile influence. Jewish 
boys had no sports or athletics like the Greeks, 
though we read that they played with one 
another in the streets (Mt 1 1 1(5 ). It may be 
safely affirmed that Jesus grew up entirely 
uninfluenced by Greek culture, although it is 
probable that, owing to the presence of so 
many Gentiles in Galilee, He found it neces- 
sary to learn the Greek language. Some have 
maintained that He was acquainted only with 
the vernacular Aramaic (called Hebrew in the 
New Testament), but it is more probable that 
He was bilingual, speaking Aramaic or Greek 
according to circumstances. 

It is donbtful whether Jesus during His 
whole life ever read any other book than the 
Bible. With this He was intimately acquainted. 



1 \ x i v 



THE LIFE OF JESUS CHRIST 



In His recorded discourses, He quotes nearly 
every book of the Old Testament, and shows a 
profound knowledge of its spirit and meaning. 

Only one incident of His childhood is 
recorded (Lk2 41 ), but it is interesting as show- 
ing that even at twelve years of age He pos- 
sessed the consciousness of His divine Sonship 
(Lk 2 4 ' J ). The childhood of Jesus was marked 
by no miracle. Like other children He grew in 
wisdom and stature (Lk2 52 ). He snowed ex- 
ceptional, but not superhuman ability (Lk 2 47 ). 
Passing through "every stage of human life, 
He showed the virtues and capacities suitable 
to each. There is no scriptural support for 
the common idea that from the moment of 
the Incarnation His human nature possessed all 
knowledge and every possible perfection. On 
the contrary, the Scripture teaches that the 
growth of His human mind in grace and 
kuowledge was real, and that He was subject 
to real temptations like other men. 

Jesus was brought up with several other 
children, who are called His brothers and 
sisters. These were either children of Joseph 
by a former wife, or children of Joseph and Mary 
born after Jesus, or, as some would prefer to 
believe with Jerome, cousins of our Lord 
(see on Mt 1 2 47 " 50 ). They appear to have been 
jealous of the superior talents of Jesus, and 
for some time refused to believe in Him 
(Jn7 5 ). After the Resurrection they were 
converted, and two of them, James and Jude, 
became prominent Christians. 

3. The Ministry of Jesus. Xo teacher ever 
achieved so much in so short a time as Jesus. 
His ministry did not exceed two years and six 
months (according to some authorities three 
years and six months), and yet in that short 
time He founded a Church strong enough to 
survive the greatest political and social revo- 
lutions, and enlightened enough to adapt itself 
to the continual advance of human knowledge. 
Christianity to-day is as new as it was two 
thousand years ago. It already embraces more 
than a third of the human race, and is still 
extending its sway over the hearts and lives 
of men. 

The plan of Christ's ministry is quite defi- 
nite and clear. He felt that His first duty 
was to offer Himself to the Jewish authorities 
at Jerusalem, and to the nation at large, as the 
promised Messiah. This He accordingly did 
(Jn 2 13_3 2^. But He knew from the first 
that they would reject Him. His ideal of what 
the Messiah was to be, and theirs, were too far 
asunder for any other result to follow. They 
sought an earthly king to lead a revolt against 
foreign domination, and to found a world- 
wide Jewish state. He sought a kingdom not 
of this world. Gradually the nation which at 
first received Him favourably became estranged, 
and He devoted Himself more and more to 



training the Twelve for their future work. 
The outlook of Jesus was never confined to 
the limits of Judaism. He looked forward to 
the conversion of all the nations, and laid His 
plans accordingly (MtS 11 JnlO 1 * Mt28 19 ). 
The idea of the Catholic Church is due, not to 
St. Paul, but to Jesus. 

4. The Localities of the Ministry. Roughly 
speaking, Jesus spent a year teaching in Judaea, 
a year (some say two years) in Galilee, and 
six months in Peraea and other places. The 
Synoptic Gospels do not describe the Judaean 
ministry, and very rarely allude to it (Mt 23 37 
Lk4 44 RM and Westcott and Hort). The 
omission is, no doubt, remarkable, but is 
capable of a simple explanation. Eight months 
of the Judaean ministry took place before the 
death of the Baptist and the public appearance 
of Jesus in Galilee, and were relatively un- 
important. The rest of the Judaean ministry 
consisted of occasional visits to Jerusalem. 
On these visits Jesus probably took with Him 
the Apostle John, who had a house at Jeru- 
salem, leaving Peter and the rest behind in 
Galilee to carry on His work. Hence the 
Synoptists, who depend upon St. Peter, omit 
the Judaean ministry, while St. John, who alone 
witnessed it, alone records it. 

5. The Baptism. Jesus was baptised by 
John the Baptist, who claimed to be the Fore- 
runner of the Messiah, in the latter half of 
a.d. 26. After the Baptism, both John and 
Jesus saw a vision of a dove descending upon 
Jesus, and heard a voice from heaven saying : 
1 This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well 
pleased.' This sign convinced John that Jesus 
was the Messiah and the Son of God, and 
henceforth he openly proclaimed the fact. 
The recognition of Jesus as the Messiah by 
John, which is most explicit in the Fourth 
Gospel, was of the greatest assistance to the 
future ministry of Jesus. John was universally 
recognised as a prophet, and his words carried 
weight;'(Mt2126 5 e tc). From the disciples of 
John Jesus obtained His first and most in- 
fluential followers ( Jn 1 36-42), 

6. The Temptation. After His Baptism, 
Jesus retired to the wilderness to prepare for 
His ministry by a period of seclusion. He 
was wholly occupied in meditation, fasting, 
and prayer. Here He overcame the tempta- 
tion, suggested to Him by the Evil One, to 
take the easy and pleasant road to success by 
falling in with the ideas of the multitude, 
founding an earthly kingdom, and using His 
miraculous powers for unworthy ends. He 
resolved to live a life of self-denial, humility, 
and suffering, and to appeal for the spread of 
His principles, not to force, or to popular 
favour, but to the religious instincts of pious 
and holy minds. His should be a Kingdom of 
Truth (Mt 4*). 



lxxv 



THE LIFE OF JESUS CHRIST 



7. The First Disciples. After the Tempta- 
tion Jesus returned to the neighbourhood of 
the Baptist, and several of the Baptist's dis- 
ciples attached themselves to Him. They were 
Peter, John, Andrew, Philip, and Bartholomew 
(Nathanael). They joined Him in the belief, 
or rather in the hope, that He was really the 
Messiah. But they did not commit themselves 
irrevocably at first. They followed Him, but 
did not entirely abandon their ordinary avoca- 
tions. It was not till the end of a year of 
personal experience of what Jesus was, that 
they left all and followed Him (Jnl 35 
Lk5H). 

8. Sketch of the Ministry. The Synoptic 
Gospels ignore chronology, and it is only by 
the help of the Fourth Gospel that anything 
like a chronological scheme of our Lord's 
ministry can be constructed. Following St. 
John, we may divide the ministry into eight 
periods. 

(1) From the Baptism, September A.D. 26, to 
the First Passover of the Ministry, April A.D. 
27. This period of about six months embraces 
the Baptism, the Temptation, the gathering 
of the first disciples, and the first miracle at 
Cana. The early part of the period was spent 
in the wilderness, the later part in Galilee. 
The life of Jesus was still more private than 
public, but the faith of His little band of 
disciples was growing, and His position as a 
teacher or rabbi was beginning to be recognised 
(Jnl 29-2 12). 

(2) From the First Passover of the Ministry , 
April A.D. 27, to December of the same year. 
This period of eight months was spent entirely 
in Judaea. At the Passover He cleansed the 
Temple for the first time, prophesied His 
death and resurrection in words afterwards 
quoted against Him at His trial (Mt26 61 ), 
converted a leading member of the Sanhedrin, 
and afterwards spent several months in Judaea 
teaching and baptising. He made many con- 
verts, but was not satisfied with their faith or 
earnestness. The apparent success of Jesus 
roused the envy of the disciples of John, who 
was obliged to rebuke them, and to renew 
His strong testimony to Jesus' Messiahship 

(3) From December A.D. 27 to the Feast of 
Pan ,11, Ma r<h a.d. 28. This period of three 
months was passed chiefly in (ialilee. The 
hostility of the Pharisees, due to tlie success 
of Jesus, drove Him from Judaea. On His 
way to Galilee He passed through Samaria, 
(rhere he made a Dumber <>f converts, thus for 
the first time extending His work beyond the 
limits of Judaism. This return to Galilee 
marks the beginning of the active Galilean 
ministry, which the Synoptists so graphically 
record (Mkl 14f -). At this period John was 
cast into prison, so that the eyes of all Galilee 



were now concentrated upon Jesus. Making 
Capernaum His head-quarters, He went on 
preaching tours through Galilee, proclaiming 
the kingdom of God, casting out devils, and 
healing the sick. A profound impression was 
produced. He was everywhere taken for a 
prophet, and it began to be the popular belief 
of Galilee that He must in truth be the 
Messiah. To this period, generally called the 
great Galilean ministry, in which the success 
of Jesus was most pronounced, are to be 
assigned the second miracle' at Cana ( Jn 4 46 ), 
the final call of the Apostles (Mt4!9 Lk5 n ), 
the choice of the Twelve, the Sermon on the 
Mount, much of the teaching by parables, and 
numerous miracles worked at Capernaum and 
throughout Galilee. The bulk of the work of 
Jesus recorded by St. Matthew and St. Mark 
belongs to this period. So crowded is it with 
incidents, and so extensive are the journeys 
which Jesus is said to have undertaken, that 
some suppose that it cannot have been com- 
pressed within the narrow limits of three 
months, and assign a year and three months 
to it. Towards the end of the period the 
Apostles were sent on a preaching tour 
(MtlOS). 

The whole period was one of intense activity, 
and full of hope and promise. Although Jesus 
did not openly call Himself the Messiah (the 
Christ), He assumed an authority which could 
only be justified on that assumption. Ap- 
parently He avoided the title, because in the 
minds of the Jews it was inseparably connected 
with the idea of a temporal king and a tem- 
poral kingdom. But among the Samaritans, 
whose idea of the Messiah was not political, 
He showed no such reticence, and openly de- 
clared Himself to be 'the Christ' (Jn4 2 6). 
In the Fourth Gospel, which does not describe 
the Galilean ministry, Jesus appears to be less 
reluctant to allow Himself to be recognised 
as the Messiah than He does in the Synoptics. 
(4) From the Feast of Purim, March 
a.d. 28, to the Second Passover, April a.d. 28. 
This period of about a month began with a 
visit to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Purim 
(JnS 1 ), but was chiefly spent in Galilee. At 
Jerusalem Jesus healed a man at the pool of 
Be thesda, and delivered an important discourse 
asserting His lordship over the sabbath, His 
equality with the Father, and His power to 
raise the dead. His words caused great of- 
f'eiiee. and luneeforth plots were formed against 
His life. While Jesus was at Jerusalem the 
Apostles were engaged on their mission of 
healing and preaching in Galilee (MtlO"\). 
Returning from Jerusalem, Jesus rejoined 
the Apostles, who reported with joy the 
success of their mission (Lk9 10 ). Then 
followed the feeding of the five thousand on 
the E. of the Lake (J116 1 ), an event recorded 



lxxvi 



THE LIFE OF JESUS CHRIST 



by all the evangelists. This is the really 
critical point of the ministry. Hitherto, at 
least in Galilee, all had been most favourable. 
Now a change began. The multitudes for 
whose benefit the miracle was wrought were 
for the most part enthusiastic Galileans, 
journeying to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of 
the Passover. They insisted that Jesus should 
be conducted to Jerusalem and proclaimed 
king. Jesus reused, and in so doing dis 
pleased not only the multitudes but even 
the Apostles. On the next day He offended 
His followers still more by declaring in the 
synagogue at Capernaum that He was the 
living bread that came down from heaven, 
and that those who would have eternal life 
must eat His flesh and drink His blood. At 
this many of His followers left Him, but the 
Apostles, though grievously disappointed, 
stood firm. For the Passover which fol- 
lowed, the second (or, as some think, the 
third) of the ministry, Jesus does not seem 
to have visited Jerusalem (Jn? 1 ). See 
Jn5!-6^. 

(5) From the Second Passover, April a.d. 28, 
to the Feast of Tabernacles in October of the 
same year. This period of about six months 
embraces the second and closing period of the 
Galilean ministry. The time was spent partly 
in Galilee proper, and partly in extensive 
excursions through Phoenicia, and the districts 
of Csesarea Philippi and Decapolis. The period 
is one of opposition, disappointment, and gloom, 
during which Jesus withdraws more and more 
from public life, and devotes Himself to His 
disciples. 

The Pharisaic party, which Jesus had deeply 
offended a month before by His speech at the 
Feast of Purim, now sent emissaries into Galilee 
to undermine His influence with the people, 
who were already beginning to be dissatisfied 
with Him for reasons of their own. A stormy 
encounter took place, in which Jesus denounced 
their pedantic traditions which in effect made 
void the Law of God (Mk7 lf -). Nevertheless 
He still went on a tour through the land of 
Gennesaret, and perhaps through the whole 
of Galilee, and healed multitudes of sick (Mk 
653-56), Perhaps at this period He visited 
Nazareth for a second time, and was again 
rejected (Lk4 16 ). At last He determined to 
leave Galilee and to undertake a tour through 
heathen territory. But first He pronounced a 
doom of woe upon those Galilean cities in 
which so many of His mighty works had been 
wrought, and wrought in vain (Mt 1 1 20 ). The 
motive for this extensive journey was probably 
not so much to undertake new work among the 
heathen, though this to some extent was done, 
as to be alone with the Apostles and to pre- 
pare them for His death. Passing through 
the land of Tyre and Sidon, He healed the 



daughter of the Canaanitish woman (Mk7 24 ), 
and then made a circuit to the other side of 
the sea of Galilee (Decapolis), where the popu- 
lation was mainly heathen. Here He performed 
certain cures and fed the four thousand, who 
probably were mainly Gentiles. Then, cross- 
ing to Bethsaida, He healed a blind man (Mk 
73i_826). Finding the Pharisees still active, 
and the country hostile (Mk3 n ), He started 
on another tour to CaBsarea Philippi, in the 
extreme N. of Palestine. Here occurred the 
great confession of St. Peter, in which in the 
face of apparent failure the Apostle expressed 
his faith not only in Jesus' Messiahship, but in 
His Divinity (Mtl6 16 ). Jesus, deeply moved, 
declared him to have fully merited the honour- 
able surname, which at their first meeting had 
been bestowed upon him (Jn 1 43 ). Then fol- 
lowed the announcement of the Passion and of 
the Resurrection ; the Transfiguration ; and a 
secret return to Capernaum (Mk9 33 ). Here 
occurred the miracle of the coin in the fish's 
mouth (Mt 17 24 ), the incident of the little child 
taken into Jesus' arms (Mk9 33 ), and the con- 
versation with His brethren, in which they 
taunted Him with the failure of His mission, 
and the present obscurity of His life ( Jn 7 2 f -). 

(6) From the Feast of Tabernacles, early in 
October A.D. 28, to the Feast of Dedication in 
December of the same year. See Jn7 10 -10 22 . 
Jesus went up to Jerusalem secretly to keep 
the Feast of Tabernacles, skirting the borders 
of Samaria (Lk 9 52 ), and healing ten lepers on 
His way (Lk 17 n ). Finding a certain amount 
of support at Jerusalem, He ventured from 
His retirement, and publicly asserted His claims 
to divine dignity. On one occasion He nar- 
rowly escaped stoning (Jn8 59 ). The only 
miracle recorded at this period is the healing 
of the man born blind. It is generally sup- 
posed that Jesus spent the whole of this period, 
which consisted of nearly three months, in 
Jerusalem. 

(7) From the Feast of the Dedication, Decem- 
ber a.d. 28, to the Raising of Lazarus, March 
a.d. 29. This period of about three months 
was chiefly spent in Peraea. At the Feast of 
the Dedication Jesus again nearly lost His 
life, and was obliged to retreat into Peraea, 
beyond Jordan. Here He preached and made 
many converts, the way having been prepared 
for Him by the preaching of John the Baptist : 
see Jn 10 22 " 42 . This period is full of incidents, 
and is not unlike the earlier Galilean ministry 
in character. Here, as in Galilee, Jesus was 
continually opposed by the scribes and Phari- 
sees. To this period are to be assigned the 
successful mission of the Seventy (Lkl0 lf -), 
the question of divorce (MklO 2 ), the blessing 
of little children (MklO 13 ), the interview with 
the rich young ruler (Lk 18 18 ), and the message 
of Jesus to Herod (Lkl3 31 ). The period 



lxxvii 



THE LIFE OF JESUS CHRIST 



culminates in the great miracle of the raising 
of Lazarus ( Jn 1 1 *). 

(8) From the Raising of Lazarus, March A.D. 
29, to the Crucifixion, April a.d. 29. This period 
of about three weeks was passed chiefly in 
retirement at Ephraim. From this place He 
returned to Jerusalem, to keep the last Pass- 
over and to suffer death, by way of Jericho 
and Bethany: see Jnll 54 -12 11 . At Jericho 
he healed two blind men (Mt20 29 ), and stayed 
with Zacchaeus (Lk^ 1 ). On the sabbath 
before the Passover He arrived at Bethany, 
and there in the evening Simon the leper 
entertained Him at a banquet (Jn 12 1 Mk 14 3 ). 
On Sunday (Palm Sunday) He entered in 
triumph into Jerusalem as the Messiah. His 
bold action rallied to His side once more His 
Galilean supporters. His recent miracle of 
the raising of Lazarus had also made a sensation 
in Jerusalem itself. He could, if He had so 
willed, have led a successful revolution ; but 
He would not, and His supporters gradually 
deserted Him (Mt21 lf -). Nevertheless, Jesus 
taught daily in the Temple, and was heard 
with intense earnestness from morning to 
night (Lk21 38 ). In the Temple He healed 
many who were blind and lame, and so great 
was the enthusiasm that even the children 
cried, ' Hosanna to the Son of David' (Mt21 14 ). 
On Monday Jesus, who had spent the night at 
Bethany, cursed the fig-tree (Mt21 1 8). He 
then cleansed the Temple for the second time 
(Mk 1 1 15 ). On Tuesday His authority to teach 
was challenged by the Sanhedrin (Mt21 23 ), 
and Jesus spoke the parables of the Two Sons 
(Mt21 28 ), the Wicked Husbandmen (Mt21 3 3), 
and the Wedding Garment (Mt22 1). He also 
solved the question of the Tribute Money 
(Mt22 15 ), confounded the Sadducees (Mt.22 23 ), 
and denounced in the strongest terms the 
general teaching of the scribes and Pharisees 
(Mt23!). The chief event of the day, which 
practically closed the ministry, was the great 



prophecy of the fall of Jerusalem and the end 
of the world, pronounced on the Mount of 
Olives (Mt24i). See also Jn 12 20-50. 

Wednesday was passed in retirement with 
the Apostles. On this day, if not before, 
Judas betrayed Jesus, for thirty pieces of 
silver (Mt26 14 ). On Thursday evening, a day 
earlier than the proper day for the Passover, 
Jesus celebrated the Last Supper, and in- 
stituted the Holy Communion (Jnl3 x Mt 
26 17 ). This day is commonly called Maundy 
Thursday, from the ' Command ' (Mandatum) 
given by Jesus to His disciples to wash one 
another's feet. That night He was arrested, 
and in the early morning of Friday was tried 
before the Sanhedrin, Pilate, and Antipas. 
His crucifixion, death, and burial were followed 
by the Jewish Passover, which in that year 
coincided with the sabbath day. Saturday 
(Easter Eve) was passed by Jesus in the abodes 
of the dead. According to the usually accepted 
view (which, however, is not entirely free from 
difficulties), He visited both the place of bliss 
(Lk2343) and the place of misery (lPet3!8 f -). 
In the latter He preached (lPet3 19 46) ; per- 
haps also in the former. 

9. The Resurrection and Ascension. Early 
on Easter Sunday morning Jesus rose from 
the dead, in His true body, which was, how- 
ever, transformed into a glorious and spiritual 
body, and for forty days appeared at intervals 
to the disciples, proving the reality of His 
Resurrection, and instructing them in the 
things pertaining to the kingdom of God. 
Then, having given to the Apostles a com- 
mission to convert the world, He ascended 
into heaven in their presence from the Mount 
of Olives, and sat down at the right hand of 
God, henceforth to rule over the universe 
(Ac 1 1 " 11 ). From heaven he sent down the 
Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and it is believed by 
Christians that He will one day come in person 
to judge mankind according to their works. 



lxxvjij 



THE TEACHING OF JESUS CHRIST 



The teaching of Jesus, though not given in 
systematic form, but in such instalments as 
were suited to the needs and capacities of the 
hearers, will be found to form a uniform and 
consistent whole. 

In external form it is thoroughly Jewish 
and rabbinical, as parallel passages from the 
rabbis adduced in the Commentary on St. 
Matthew will abundantly prove. In particular 
it makes free use of parables, a form of in- 
struction familiar to the rabbis, but employed 
by Jesus more systematically and effectively 
than by them. In substance, however, the 
teaching is not Jewish, but in the widest sense 
human, and as such equally adapted to all 
times and conditions of society. To secure 
this universality Jesus refrained from con- 
structing a detailed code of morals, and from 
issuing a directory of worship. He laid down 
principles of conduct and principles'of worship, 
leaving the disciples to work out their practical 
application for themselves. The teaching of 
Jesus was thus of a stimulating character. It 
forced men to think. It did not supply a cut 
and dried solution of moral problems, but 
supplied the point of view from which the 
true solution might be attained. Often the 
teaching was purposely paradoxical and seem- 
ingly contradictory, in order to indicate that 
moral principles ought not to be reduced to 
practice without thought, and without due 
consideration of the competing claims of other 
principles (Mt 5 39A2 Lk 1 4 26 , etc.). Sometimes 
the paradoxical form was due to the ' ideal ' or 
' absolute ' character of the teaching (Mt 5 ss -^). 
The Sermon on the Mount in particular is 
of this character. It is a sketch of perfect 
behaviour in a perfect society, and its precepts 
cannot be applied to the world as it now is 
without qualification. Yet there may come a 
time when the principles of that Sermon may 
be put in practice without any qualification 
whatever. 

The teaching of Jesus was authoritative 
teaching. Whereas the sages of Greece re- 
garded their opinions as guesses at truth, and 
the prophets of Israel spoke only as the voice 
of God from time to time reached them, Jesus 
taught with an authority which was inherent 
in His person. He revised not only the details 
of the Ceremonial Law by His own authority, 
but even the Decalogue itself (Mt5 21f -), and 
in general adopted such an attitude towards 
the whole Old Testament revelation as no 
prophet had ever assumed. From the begin- 



ning of His ministry His hearers ' were aston- 
ished at His doctrine, for He taught them as 
one having authority and not as the scribes ' 
(Mt728). 

i. The Fatherhood of God and human son- 
ship. Without any doubt the leading religious 
doctrine of Jesus was the Fatherhood of God. 
This idea, rarely and in a more limited sense 
expressed in the Old Testament, and seldom, 
if ever, in any other religion, was made by 
Jesus the foundation of His teaching. That 
' God is love,' and cares with the intensity 
and impartiality of a father's affection for 
every individual soul that He has created, is 
the essence of the gospel (MtlO 31 ). But 
according to Jesus God is ' Father,' not pri- 
marily because He is the Father of angels and 
men, but because He is the Father of His 
only-begotten Son (Jn3 35 ). From all eternity 
God loved the Son, and the Son loved God, 
so that even if the universe had never been 
created, God would still have been eternally 
a God of love (Jnl7 24 ). Men become the 
' sons of God ' in the higher spiritual sense 
not directly, but through their relation to Jesus 
Himself (Jn 14 21 ). By faith in Jesus and the 
new birth of water and the Spirit they become 
sons of God and heirs of eternal life. Of 
course, in a general way, men by nature belong 
to God, and so may be called His children, 
inasmuch as He is the author of their life 
and being, the source of all the powers and 
capabilities they possess. This natural rela- 
tionship, however, does not make them, in a 
true and proper sense, the sons of God ; it 
only constitutes the ground and possibility of 
their becoming such, and still leaves it open 
to them to become something quite opposite 
and contradictory. For real filial relationship 
with God, something more is needed than the 
derivation of our being from Him : mutual 
understanding and acknowledgment, com- 
munity of will, interest, and activity. This 
was made possible in Christ. Himself the 
everlasting Son of God, He turned the hearts 
of God's human (or natural) children to their 
Father, and opened the floodgates of His love 
to them. He taught them to claim and exer- 
cise their birthright in God. He put into 
their hands the charter of their divine son- 
ship. He signed and sealed it with His 
blood. ' As many as received Him, to them 
gave He power to become children of God, 
even to them that believe on His name ' (Jn 
l 12 ). It is only to be expected, then, that 



lxxix 



THE TEACHING OF JESUS CHRIST 



Jesus should always sharply distinguish His 
own Sonship from the sonship of other men. 
He says, ' My Father and your Father,' and 
' My God and your God,' never ' our Father ' 
and ' our God.' To maintain, as is sometimes 
done, that the Sonship of Jesus was only a 
sense of human sonship strongly developed, is 
to contradict not simply an isolated passage 
here and there, but the whole tenor of Christ's 
teaching. 

The life of sonship which the baptised 
Christian enjoys begins with repentance, and 
a complete surrender of the will to Jesus as a 
divine Saviour. Without this surrender of 
the life to Him, to be moulded absolutely 
according to His holy will, the unique blessed- 
ness and power of Christianity cannot be 
experienced. Only through faith in Christ 
can men in the full sense ' come to the 
Father.' ' I am the way and the truth and 
the life : no one cometh unto the Father but 
by me ' : ' He that loveth Father or mother 
more than me, is not worthy of me ' : ' No 
man having put his hand to the plough, and 
looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God ' 
( Jn 1 4 6 Mt 1 37 Lk 9 62). The great sacrifice 
which Christianity demands is the sacrifice of 
the will. He who has learnt to merge his 
own will in the will of God, and to take 
delight only in that which is well pleasing to 
Him, has learnt the great secret of Jesus, and 
is filled with the inward joy of sonship. 

2. The Motive of Love. God being thus the 
loving Father of men, it followed of necessity 
that men should regard one another as brothers. 
The chief stress, therefore, in Christian morality 
is laid upon love (Mt22 37 ). This love shows 
itself in various ways. (1) In ready forgive- 
ness. Just as God is always ready to forgive 
for Christ's sake every penitent sinner, so He 
insists that the forgiven sinner should forgive 
his brother also, not only unto seven times, but 
unto seventy times seven (Mt6 15 18 22 ). (2) In 
avoiding unkind criticism. Christians are 
warned to ' judge not,' that they be not judged 
(MtT 1 ). (3) In a peaceful disposition. 'Blessed 
are the peacemakers, for they shall be called 
sons of God' (Mt5°). (4) In active benevo- 
lence. This is often inculcated in an extreme 
:in<l paradoxical form — 'Give to him that 
asketh thee, and from him that would borrow 
of thee turn not thou away ' (Mt 5 4 -). 'Sell 
th.it ye have and give alms' (Lkl2 33 ) ; but it 
receives its perfect expression in the Golden 
Rule, ' Therefore all things whatsoever ye 
would that riK d should do to you, do ye even 
so to them ; for this is the law and the pro- 
phets ' (MtT 1 •■'). (6) In loving enemies and 
persecutors. Christ speaks of this as a chief 
and distinctive murk of Christian perfection 
(Mt5 43 ). ((>) In not resisting or resenting in- 
juries. ' Resist not him that is evil, but who- 



soever smiteth thee on thy right cheek, turn 
to him the other also ' (Mt 5 39 ). Throughout 
Christ's teaching constant stress is laid upon 
conduct, and especially upon the duties of 
practical benevolence. The final judgment 
will be according to works, works being re- 
garded as the only trustworthy indication of 
a living faith, and the works which Christ 
approves are thus described : ' I was an 
hungered, and ye gave me meat ; I was thirsty, 
and ye gave me drink ; I was a stranger, and ye 
took me in ; naked, and ye clothed me ; I was 
sick, and ye visited me ; I was in prison, and ye 
came unto me.' For those who do such works 
the kingdom of heaven is reserved (Mt 25 34 ). 

3. The General Type of Christian Character. 
Christianity has approved a type of character 
in most respects the very opposite of that 
which is approved by the world : instead of 
pride, humility ; instead of standing upon one's 
rights, submission to wrong ; instead of ambition, 
contentment. Gentleness, meekness, patience, 
sympathy, the power of rejoicing in tribula- 
tion, and of extracting pleasure from pain, are 
the gifts of Christianity to the world. The 
Christian ideal is sometimes depreciated as 
lacking in manliness and courage, but in truth 
it requires much more manliness to be humble 
than to be proud, much more courage to turn 
the cheek to the smiter than to smite again. 
Another great note of the Christian character 
is truthfulness and sincerity. According to 
Christ a Christian man's word should be as 
good as his oath. This is the meaning of the 
paradoxical saying, ' Swear not at all,' etc. (Mt 
5 34 ). But perhaps the best general description 
of a Christian man's character is to say that 
he is a single-minded man. He cannot have 
one foot in the world and the other in the 
Church, he cannot serve God and mammon. 
He must have one main purpose in life to 
which all others are to be subordinated : 
' Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his 
righteousness, and all these things shall be 
added unto you ' (Mt 6 33 ). 

4. Christ and Wealth. Christ regarded 
wealth as the great means by which the world 
binds men to its service. Detachment from 
wealth, therefore, is a necessary preliminary 
to being a Christian. In some cases, where 
the love of wealth was strong, Christ coun- 
selled its complete abandonment (Mtl9 21 ). 
From this detachment from wealth flow inward 
peace and absence of care. ' Be not anxious 
for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye 
shall drink, nor yet for your body, what ye 
shall put on ' (Mt 6 25 ). Although Christ warned 
His followers against the peril of wealth, and 
exhorted them to give liberal alms, there is no 
ground for the opinion that He regarded com- 
munity of goods as a necessary mark of a 
Christian society. Accordingly the surrender 



lxxx 



THE TEACHING OF JESUS CHRIST 



of wealth has always been regarded by Chris- 
tians as a counsel of perfection, not as a precept 
(Mtl92i). 

5. The Future Life. The moral teaching 
of Christ is based on the idea that this life is 
a state of probation for another. He taught 
His disciples not to seek their reward in this 
life, but in the next, when all the injustices 
of this world will be redressed, and all sor- 
rows swallowed up in fulness of joy. Not as 
if the Christian has absolutely no reward in 
this world. Communion with God through 
Christ is itself joy unspeakable, and may be 
called ' eternal life,' yet its full fruition will 
not be experienced until the final consumma- 
tion of all things. This assurance of a blessed 
immortality transforms the face of the world 
to a Christian. Pain, unhappiness, and even 
injustice, become part of a cleansing discip- 
line, by which God prepares his soul for 
eternity. Pain is transfigured, injustice is 
meekly borne. 

6. Death. To some extent, in speaking of 
death and the future world, Christ accommo- 
dated His language to the ideas in the minds 
of His hearers. It is unsafe, therefore, to 
build up specific views upon a literal inter- 
pretation of every reference, however casual, 
which He made to the subject. The following 
ideas, however, may be deduced with con- 
siderable probability from the general trend 
of His utterances. At death the souls of men 
do not pass at once to their final reward, but 
into a state (called 'Hades' in the RY, and 
j hell ' in the Apostles' Creed) in which they 
await the Judgment and the Resurrection. 
Yet even in this condition there is, as it were 
by anticipation, a distinction made. The souls 
of the just enjoy such a measure of felicity 
that they can be spoken of as in ' Paradise' or 
'Abraham's bosom.' From this it has been 
inferred that their state is one of progressive 
sanctification and glory, culminating in the 
resurrection. It was an inference of this kind 
that originated the practice of praying for the 
dead, which had already gained ground in the 
Jewish Church (see 2 Mac 12 42-45) before the 
time of our Lord, and seems to have been 
carried forward by some of the primitive 
Christians into the worship of the Church of 
Christ : cp. 2Timli6-i8 4™. The souls of the 
wicked, on the other hand, pass into a state of 
unhappiness, which is a foretaste of their 
future woe (Lkl6 23 ). Whether the pains 
endured by them are in some cases remedial, 
being intended to effect the reformation of 
those who are not absolutely hardened in sin, 
is not distinctly revealed, but has been largely 
entertained as a pious hope. It was believed 
in the primitive Church, and is still held by 
many Christians, that good men among the 
heathen who die without a knowledge of 



Christ are given an opportunity of Christian 
instruction in the other world, or at least are 
admitted to the ' more tolerable judgment.' 
There is a statement in 1 Peter that may be 
interpreted in the light of this hope. He says 
that Christ Himself, when He descended into 
' hell,' preached the gospel to the dead (1 Pet 
31946). 

7. The Resurrection. At the Last Day 
Christ will raise from the dead by His own power 
(Jn5 28 ) both the just and the unjust (Jn5 29 ). 
The resurrection body, though not materially 
identical with the present body, will be in 
some sense continuous with it. It will be a 
glorious and spiritual body, fitted, not for an 
earthly life, but for a new and higher state of 
existence (Mt22 3 <>). In the Judgment Christ 
will sit as Judge ' because He is the Son of 
man ' (Jn5 27 ), and it is He who will give the 
sentence (Mt25 34 ) of eternal glory or eternal 
woe (Mt25 46 ). 

8. Eternal Punishment. Of late years 
current ideas of future punishment have 
undergone extensive revision. The preval- 
ence of more enlightened views of the 
character of God, and the more general 
recognition of the distinction, very strongly 
marked in the New Testament, and now in 
the RY made evident even to the English 
reader, between Hades and Gehenna, have led 
in some quarters to more hopeful views, and 
almost everywhere to less positive and dog- 
matic assertions, regarding the ultimate fate 
of those who at death do not seem to be in a 
state of grace. Nevertheless, eternal punish- 
ment (though many of the notions associated 
with it may be given up) is still believed in, 
at least as a possibility. The doctrine seems 
to be taught by our Lord Himself (Mt25 4(i 
Mk9 48 , etc.), and the attempts to eliminate 
it from the Gospel, or to explain it away, have 
not been very successful. It seems, in fact, 
to be an almost necessary deduction from the 
generally accepted truths of the immortality 
of the soul and the freedom of the will. If 
the soul is free to choose between good and 
evil, and cannot die, it follows of necessity 
that the soul which makes evil a permanent 
part of its nature will be permanently excluded 
from fellowship with God. That is the very 
essence of eternal punishment. Eternal 
punishment is not, as has been sometimes 
represented, an arbitrary vindictive act of 
God, but a result which follows naturally, in 
certain cases, from the known nature of man 
and the known nature of God. God cannot, 
even if He would, make a man good by force, 
because the very essence of goodness consists 
in its being voluntarily embraced. If a man 
deliberately embraces evil and identifies him- 
self with it permanently, even God cannot save 
him. Of the exact nature of this punishment 



/ 



lxxxi 



THE TEACHING OF JESUS CHRIST 



nothing is revealed, except that there may be 
degrees of it suited to the various degrees of 
delinquency (Lkl2 47 ). It is possible that an 
essential part of it, in the case both of angels 
and men, will be the loss of free will. This 
view provides for the ultimate extinction of 
moral evil. 

9. Eternal Bliss. Of the nature of the 
final reward of the righteous, which is expressly 
stated to be eternal (Mt25 46 ), we can speak 
only in the most general terms. The language 
of Christ which describes it is in all cases 
figurative (Mt8 n 25 10 , etc.). Nevertheless 
it seems to be indicated that there will be 
degrees of blessedness (Jnl4 2 ), and perhaps 
of authority (Lkl9 17 ) in heaven. Some have 
imagined that heaven will be a state of passive 
contemplation or ecstatic worship, but it seems 
more likely that contemplation will be united 
with practical activity suited to the capacity 
of each individual soul (Lkl9 17 » 18 ). Christ 
taught that the future life of the blessed will 
be lived in a transfigured and glorified universe 
(Mtl9 28 ), an idea which is in harmony with 
the doctrine of the resurrection of the body. 
Heaven is uniformly conceived in the New 
Testament as a society or city. Its citizens 
find their happiness not merely in the con- 
templation, worship, and love of God (though 
this is their supreme delight), but in the 
loving fellowship which they enjoy with one 
another. Heaven is a perfect society, of 
which the basis is perfect love — love of God 
and love of all God's creatures. 

10. Other teaching of Christ. Large por- 
tions of the teaching of Christ are entirely 
passed over in this article, which simply aims 



at supplementing what is stated elsewhere. 
The title ' Son of God ' which He claimed at 
His trial, is discussed in the article ' The Per- 
son of Jesus Christ ' ; the title ' Son of man,' 
which was His favourite designation of Him- 
self, is discussed in a note on Mt8 20 . The 
' Kingdom of God,' or i of heaven,' one of 
the leading religious ideas of Christ, is dealt 
with in the Introduction to St. Matthew and 
in the prefatory remarks to the Sermon on 
the Mount (Mt5). For Christ's teaching 
about His Death, which He regarded as an 
atonement for the sins of the world, and as 
establishing a new covenant between God and 
the human race, see on Mt20 28 26 28 , and 
article ' The Atonement.' For His teaching 
upon the Law and the Old Testament, see 
Mt5 17 - 19 223 7 -40 Lkl6 16 2444 26 ™ Jn5 39 > 40 » 
45-47, For public and private prayer, see 
Mt6 5 " 15 7 7 - 11 Lkll5-8 181-8 9-14 J n 14 13, 14 
1623,24 Mt 21 13,21,22 26 40 > 4 i Jn4 2 i. 24 . For 
the sabbath day, see Mt 123-12 Mk3 4 Jn 7 21-24 
Lkl3 15 > 16 . For fasting, see Mt6 16 " 18 9 15 . 
On almsgiving, see Mt5 42 6I- 4 25 s 1 * 46 
Lk 12 33, 34 1412-19,21-23 1030-37 213,4 169. For 
repentance, see on Mt4i 7 21 28 -32 Lk 5 31.32 
132-5 1510,17-20 1630,31 24 4 M 7 . On gratitude, 
see Lk7 4 0" 47 839 171M 8 . On hypocrisy, see 
Mt23. On marriage, see Mt5 27 " 32 19 W On 
Church and State, see Mt22 2i . On scepticism, 
see Mt 14 31 1717-20 j n 3i 8 ,i 9 4 48 8 24 15 22-24. 
On the work of the Holy Spirit, see Jn3 3 *- 
1416-18,26 1526 167-14. n Satan and demonic 
possession, see on Mt4 25 . On missionary 
work, see Mt 28 i8 - 2 o Lk 24 ^-^ On the Church, 
see Mtl6 18 18 17 . On the Sacraments, see 
Mt 26 26-29 28 19 Jn35 6 81 '. 



Ixxxii 



THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM 



The chief, and also the most difficult, criti- 
cal question connected with the Synoptic 
Gospels is their relation to one another and 
to their presumed sources. Prolonged investi- 
gations, extending over more than a century, 
have not yet reached final results, but a con- 
siderable consensus of opinion inclines to the 
following conclusions. 

i. That St. Mark is the oldest of the 
synoptists, and has been used by St. Matthew 
and St. Luke, who have incorporated the bulk 
of his Gospel into their own with comparatively 
few alterations. 

The evidence for this is extremely strong. 
In the first place, the whole of St. Mark's 
Gospel, except from thirty to forty compara- 
tively unimportant verses, is contained either 
in St. Matthew or in St. Luke, and most of it 
in both ; whereas large portions of St. Matthew 
and St. Luke, and those very important ones, 
are peculiar to each of those Evangelists. 
Hence, if there was borrowing at all, it must 
have been from St. Mark. The other pos- 
sibilities will not bear examination. St. Mark 
did not copy from St. Matthew, for he would 
not have omitted the Nativity, the Sermon on 
the Mount, and such parables as the Unmerci- 
ful Debtor, the Labourers in the Vineyard, 
the Ten Yirgins, the Talents, and the Sheep 
and the Goats. St. Matthew did not copy 
from St. Luke, for he would not have omitted 
the parables of the Good Samaritan, the Rich 
Fool, Dives and Lazarus, and the Prodigal 
Son. Finally, St. Luke did not borrow from 
St. Matthew, for he would not have omitted 
those striking parables of St. Matthew which 
have been already mentioned. 

We shall now prove that there was actual 
borrowing, and, in order to do so, shall quote 
and comment on a few parallel passages. 



must conclude that one of them copied from 
the other. 



Mkl3l4 
But when ye see the abom- 
ination of desolation stand- 
ing where he ought not (let 
him that readeth understand), 
then let them that are in 
Judsea flee unto the moun- 
tains. 



Mt 24 15, 16 
When, therefore, ye see the 
abomination of desolation, 
which was spoken of by 
Daniel the prophet, standing 
in the holy place (let him 
that readeth understand), 
then let them that are in 
Judsea flee unto the moun- 
tains. 



Here we have an author's comment (viz. 
'let him that readeth understand') verbally 
identical in the two Gospels, and inserted at 
precisely the same point in our Lord's speech. 
As it is impossible to believe that the two 
Evangelists hit upon the same comment and 
inserted it at the same place by accident, we 



Mk6i6,i7 
But Herod when he heard 
thereof, said, John, whom I 
beheaded, he is risen. For 
Herod liimself had sent forth 
and laid hold upon John, and 
bound him in prison for the 
sake of Herodias, his brother 
Philip's wife, etc. 



Mtl4l-3 

At that season Herod the 
tetrarch heard the report 
concerning Jesus, and said 
unto his servants, This is 
John the Baptist, he is risen 
from the dead, and therefore 
do these powers work in him. 
For Herod had laid hold on 
John and bound him, and put 
him in prison for the sake of 
Herodias, his brother Philip's 
wife, etc. 



Here the death of John the Baptist is intro- 
duced and described by both Evangelists at 
the same point in the history, but out of its 
true historical order. Nothing but copying 
will account for this. 



Mkli<5 
And passing along by the 
sea of Galilee, he saw Simon, 
and Andrew the brother of 
Simon, casting a net in the 
sea ; for they were fishers. 



Mt4l8 
And walking by the sea of 
Galilee, he saw two brethren, 
Simon who is called Feter, 
and Andrew his brother, cast- 
ing a net into the sea, for 
they were fishers. 



Observe here the comment upon the narra- 
tive (' for they were fishers ') made by both 
Evangelists. "We cannot conceive that it oc- 
curred to them to make such a remark just at 
this point independently. 



Mk3l9 
And Judas Ts- 
cariot, which also 
betrayed him. 



Mtl04 j Lk6l6 

And Judas Is- And Judas Is- 
cariot, who also cariot, which was 
betrayed him. I the traitor. 



It cannot be an accident that the three 
Evangelists concur at this point in calling 
Judas a traitor any more than it can be an 
accident that, at the arrest of Jesus, all three 
Evangelists are careful to remind us that 
Judas Iscariot was ' one of the Twelve ' (Mk 
14i0Mt26i4Lk223). 



Mk524 
And he went 
with him, and a 
great multitude 
followed him, and 
they thronged him. 
And a woman, 
which had an issue 
of blood twelve 
years, and had suf- 
fered many things 
of manyphysicians, 
etc. 



Mt9i9 
And Jesus arose 
and followed him, 
and so did his dis- 
ciples. And behold 
a woman which had 
an issue of blood 
twelve years, etc. 



Lk842 
And as he went 
the multitude 

thronged him. And 
a woman having 
an issue of blood 
twelve years, which 
had spent all her 
living upon physi- 
cians, etc. 



Observe here how all three Evangelists 
break off the story of Jairus's daughter pre- 
cisely at the same point to describe the cure of 
the woman with an issue, who, they all agree, 
had been ill twelve years. 



lxxxiii 



THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM 



Mkl32 

And at even, 
when the sun did 
set, they hrought 
unto him all that 
were sick a d them 
that were possessed 
with devils. 



MtSi6 
And when even 
was come, the\ 
brought uut') him 
many possessed 
with devils. 



IA-4-W 
And when the 
sun was setting, 
all they that had 
any sick with 
divers diseases 
brought them unto 
him. 



Here we have a clear indication that it is 
St. Mark's Gospel which is used by the other 
two ; for of St. Mark's two expressions to 
describe the close of day (' even ' and ' when 
the sun did set '), St. Matthew adopts one and 
St. Luke the other. Cases of this kind occur 
throughout the Gospel history. St. Mark's 
account of the common incidents is generally 
the longest and the richest in detail, and what 
is found is that some of St. Mark's details are 
in St. Matthew, and some of them in St. Luke, 
and not all in both. 

Two other considerations tend to confirm 
the priority of St. Mark : (1) St. Mark's order 
of events is always supported either by St. 
Matthew or by St. Luke, whereas St. Matthew's 
deviations from St. Mark's order are never 
supported by St. Luke, nor St. Luke's by St. 
Matthew's ; (2) the close resemblances between 
St. Matthew and St. Luke are generally con- 
fined to the incidents which they record in 
common with St. Mark. Their accounts of 
the Nativity have practically nothing in 
common, and the differences between their 
versions of the Sermon on the Mount are very 
great. 

2. The version of St. Mark used by St. 
Matthew and St. Luke was probably the pre- 
sent Greek Gospel. For a long time it was 
customary to attribute the resemblances of 
the three Synoptic Gospels to a supposed 
' original Mark ' ; but recent research has 
demonstrated that this l original ' Mark re- 
sembled the present St. Mark so closely that 
the simplest view is to suppose them identical, 
as accordingly is now very generally done. 

3. Oral tradition probably exercised some 
influence over the composition of the Synoptic 
Gospels, especially of the First and Third ; but 
the resemblances are altogether too close to 
allow us to suppose that the principal common 
source was mere oral tradition. The ' original 
Mark' was certainly written^ for the author 
of it once addressed his readers (Mkl3 14 = Mt 
24 15 , see above), and St. Luke refers to 
numerous written sources (Lk 1 i). 

4. There is much less agreement among 
critics as to the sources of St. Matthew and St. 
Luke in those portions of their works which 
are not parallel with St. Mark. These sources 
would include (1) oral tradition; (2) in the 
case of St. Luke, at least, personal researches 
and enquiries in Palestine; (.'}) earlier docu- 
ments which, though numerous, were probably 
rather fragmentary (Lkl 1 )- A very early 
writer, Papias, who flourished about 130 ad.. 



speaks of St. Matthew as having compiled 
' the oracles ' in the Hebrew (or Aramaic) 
tongue. The exact meaning of ' oracles ' is 
doubtful, but the tendency of modern criti- 
cism is to suppose that St. Matthew's Hebrew 
' Logia ' was a collection of our Lord's dis- 
courses, rather than a continuous narrative. 
These ' logia ' of St. Matthew, in the form of 
a Greek translation, were probably used by the 
author of the First Gospel, perhaps even incor- 
porated entire, so that it is not without reason 
that the present Gospel is called ' according 
to Matthew.' Whether the ' logia ' were also 
used by St. Luke, and if so to what extent, 
is a difficult question. St. Luke and St. Mat- 
thew have about 200 verses common to them 
alone. The question is whether St. Luke's 
deviations from St. Matthew in these verses, 
which are generally very considerable, are not 
altogether too great to allow the supposition 
that he used a common document. The 
reader will be able to form his own judgment 
upon this matter by comparing the parallel 
passages, a complete list of which is given in 
the following table. 



Mt. 


Lk. 








37-10,12. 


37-9,17. 




Preaching of John. 


4 3-11 . 


43-13. 




Temptation. 




51-6,10-12 


6 20-23 . 


25. 


Sermon on the Mount. 


5 13 . 


1434,35. 




55 


55 


5 18 . 


1617. 




55 


55 


5 25, 26. 


1257-59. 




55 


55 


538-48. 


6 27-30, 32-36. 


55 




6 8 > 4 . ' 


1413,14. 




1> 


»5 


69-13. 


111" 4 . ' 




11 


55 


619-21. 


1233,34. 




Ji 


55 


6 22 > 23 . 


1 1 34-36. 




11 


55 


6 24 . 


I6I 3 . 




11 


11 


6 25-34. 


1 2 22-32. 




» 


>5 


71,2. 


637,38. 




J) 


5» 


73-5. 


641,42. 




?» 


55 


7 7 " n . 


H9-13. 




>1 


>» 


712. ' 


6 81 . 




1» 


55 


713,14. 


1323,24. 




>» 


55 


7 15-20. ^ 
1233-37./ 


643-45. 




51 


11 


721. 


6 4 <\ 




1» 


>5 


7 22, 23, 


1325-27. 




»» 


15 


7 24-27. 


6 47 ' 49 . 




55 


55 


85-13. 


f 7 1-3, 6-10 
\ 1328,29. 


} 


Centurion's servant. 


8 19 > 20 . 


9 57, 58. 




' The foxes have holes.' 


821,22. 


969,60, 




' Let the dead bury 








their dead. 


» 


9 32 " 34 . 
cp.l2-- , - , i 


} 1114,15. 




The deaf demoniac. 


9 36-38. 


102. 




' The harvest 
plenteous.' 


truly is 


105-16. 


101-12. 




Charges to the Twelve 
and the Seventy. 


1 24 " 33 . 


640 122.9. 


51 


■1 



lxxxiv 



THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM 



Mt. 

JO 34-36. 

1037,38. 

1039. 

1040,41. 

111-6. 
11 Ml. 

H12-14. 
H16-19. 
1 1 20-24. 

1 1 25 - 27 . 

[129-14 

1227,28,30. 

1238-42. 

1243-45. 

131M7. 
1333. 

1514 

16 2 ' 3 . 
1719,20. 

187. 

1812-14. 

1815,16,21,5 
1928. 

[2131,32. 
2144. 

[22M0. 

234-7,12,13. 
23 2 3-33. 



Lk. 

1251-53. 

1426,27. 
1733. 

1016. 

7 18-23. 
624-28. 

1616. 

7 31-35. 
1012-15*. 

1021,22. 

141-6.]' 
1 1 19, 20, 23. 
1 1 29-32. 
1 1 24-26. 

1023,24. 

1320,21. 
639. 

1254-56. 

175,6. 

181. 

153-7. 
.173,4. 

22 28 -30. 

7 29, 30.] 

2018. 

1415-24] 
1143,45,46,52_ 

1411. 

1137-44,47,48. 





Mt. 


Lk. 


Charges to the Twelve 


2334-36. 


H49-51. 


and the Seventy. 







John sends disciples. 
Christ's opinion of 
John. 



' Woe to thee, Chora- 

zin.' 
' I thank thee, Father.' 

? 

Beelzebub. 

The sign of Jonah. 

The house swept and 

garnished. 
' Blessed are your 

eyes.' 
Parable of the Leaven. 
Blind leaders of the 

blind. 
' Ye can discern the 

face of the sky.' 
Faith as a grain of 

mustard- seed. 
' Woe to the world be- 
cause of offences.' 
The lost sheep. 
' If thy brother sin.' 
Judging the twelve 

tribes of Israel. 
? 

' He that f alleth upon 
this stone.' 

? 

,\Woe to the Scribes 
/ and Pharisees. 



2337-39. 



2426-28. 

2437-39. 
2440,41. 
2443-51. 

2514-30. 



1334,35. 



1723,24,37. 

1726,27. 
1734-36. 
1239-46. 
1911-28.' 



Woe to the Scribes 
and Pharisees. 

1 Jerusalem, Jerusa- 
lem, that killest 
the prophets.' 

Sayings about the 
Second Advent. 



The Talents and the 
Pounds. 



It will be noted that the common matter 
is mainly, though not exclusively, sayings and 
discourses, and that its order and arrangement 
in the two Gospels is generally very different. 
This variation in order and arrangement, which 
is extreme, constitutes a real objection to the 
view that the authors of the First and Third 
Gospels both used the l logia,' at least as a 
principal common source. When they copy 
St. Mark, they preserve, as a rule, not only 
his words, but also his order and context, 
but when they are supposed to copy the 
' logia,' they deal much more freely with the 
words, and, as to the order and context, 
they either take no account of them at all, 
or differ from each other. Even if we admit 
that St. Matthew's habit was to collect our 
Lord's sayings into large masses, and St. Luke's 
to preserve the separate sayings in their original 
context, there still remain numerous diverg- 
ences of order and context, which are most 
difficult to account for on the hypothesis of a 
single common source. 

It seems most natural to suppose that if 
St. Luke used the ' logia,' he used them only 
to a limited extent, and is indebted for his 
knowledge of our Lord's sayings mainly to 
other sources. 



lxxxv 



THE DYNASTY OF THE HERODS 






1. Herod I (The Great). The Herods were 
not Israelites by race, but Idumeans. Herod 
I's grandfather, Antipater (Antipas), was the 
chief ruler of Idumea. His father, also called 
Antipater (or Antipas), embraced the Jewish 
religion when Idumea was taken by John 
Hyrcanus, and Herod I was consequently 
brought up a Jew. In 47 B.C. his father was 
made procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, 
and he immediately assigned subordinate juris- 
dictions to his four sons. Herod received 
Galilee, which he governed with great vigour, 
putting down brigandage with a strong hand. 
In 40 u.C. the Roman senate, at the instigation 
of Antony, made Herod king of Judaea, but 
it was not till 37 B.C. that he succeeded in 
establishing himself in Jerusalem, the people 
being still strongly attached to the Asmonean 
dynasty which had ruled in Palestine for 126 
years. At last Herod captured Jerusalem, 
and signalised his triumph by massacring the 
whole Sanhedrin except two persons, and 
putting to death all the adherents of the rival 
prince Antigonus. Antigonus himself was 
beheaded by Antony. Herod was a wise, far- 
seeing, firm, and enlightened ruler, altogether 
free from Jewish narrowness and prejudice, 
and inclined to adopt the learning and culture 
of the Romans and Greeks. On the other hand, 
he was suspicious, cruel, selfish and implacable. 
Towards the end of his life, when he was 
afflicted by a painful disease, his thirst for 
blood amounted almost to insanity. Among 
his victims was his tenderly loved wife 
Mariamne, her brother Aristobulus, her grand- 
father Hyrcanus, and his own sons Alexander, 
Aristobulus, and Antipater. The great work 
of his lifetime was the building of the Temple, 
which was begun in 20 B.C., and was not com- 
pletely finished till 05 A.D., just before the 
outbreak of the war with Rome. On his 
deathbed (4 A.D.) he ordered the principal 
Jews to be shut. up in the circus at Jericho, 
and slaughtered as soon as he had breathed 
his last, in order that there might be sonic 
real mourners at his funeral. He had ten 
wives, and numerous children. 

2. Herod Antipas was the son of Herod I 
by Malthake. a Saniariian. By the will of his 
father he received the telrarchy of Galilee 
and Perea, whieh yielded a yearly revenue of 
200 talents. He married the daughter of 
Arelas, king of Arabia Petnea, but was guilty 
of an intrigue with Herodias, his brother 
Philip's wife, whom lie afterwards incest uouslv 



married, in spite of the expostulations of 
John the Baptist, whose execution Herodias 
managed to procure by an artifice which is 
recorded only in the Gospels. Antipas was 
a great friend of Tiberius, in whose honour 
he built and named the city of Tiberias. In 
38 a.d. he was banished to Lugdunum in 
Gaul, and eventually died in Spain. Herodias 
voluntarily shared his exile. 

3. Herod Archelaus was also the son of Herod 

1 and Malthake, and was junior to Antipas. 
In spite of this, his father's will assigned to 
him a superior position, giving him the govern- 
ment of Judaea and the title of king. He 
was extremely unpopular in Judaea, and when 
he sailed to Rome to ask to be confirmed in 
his kingdom, his subjects sent a message after 
him, requesting that he might be removed 
from the kingdom, and Judaea placed under 
direct Roman government. To this circum- 
stance our Lord alludes, LklQ 12 ^. Augustus 
assigned to Archelaus Judaea, Samaria, and 
Idumea, with the title of ethnarch, not king. 
In 6 a.d. he was deposed by Augustus for 
tyranny, and banished to Vienna in Gaul. 
His dominions were placed under the govern- 
ment of a Roman procurator, and this arrange- 
ment continued till 41 a.d. We are told, Mt 

2 22 , that Joseph avoided entering the territory 
of the tyrant Archelaus, and retired to Naza- 
reth to live under the government of the milder 
Antipas. 

4. Herod Philip I, called Herod by Josephus, 
and Philip in the Gospels (Mtl4 3 Mk6 17 
Lk3 19 ), must be carefully distinguished from 
Philip, tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis 
(Lk3*). He was the son of Herod I by the 
second Mariamne, daughter of Simon the 
high priest. Owing to his mother's treason, 
he was left out of his father's will, and lived 
all his life as a private gentleman, chiefly 
at Rome. He was the first husband of 
Herodias, who divorced him to marry her 
uncle Antipas. 

5. Herod Philip II, generally known as 
Philip the tetrarch, was the son of Herod I 
and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. He was brought 
up with Archelaus and Antipas at Rome. His 
father's will assigned to him certain territories 
to the N. and E. of the Sea of Galilee (Bata- 
nea, Trachonitis, Auranitis). and the title of 
tetrarch. St. Luke calls him tetrarch of 
Iturea and Trachonitis (LkS 1 ). He reigned 
from 4 B.C. to 34 a.d., and was celebrated for 
his moderation, justice, and good government. 



lxxxvi 



THE DYNASTY OF THE HERODS 



He built Caesarea Philippi, and Bethsaida 
Julias, whither our Lord on one occasion 
retired to avoid Antipas (Lk9 10 ). His wife 
was Salome, daughter of Herod Philip I and 
Herodias. Since he was childless, his domin- 
ions were annexed on his death to the Roman 
province of Syria. 

6. Herodias (see MtH* Mk6 14 Lk3!9) was 
the daughter of Herod I's son Aristobulus, and 
his niece Berenice. She first married her 
uncle Herod Philip I, by whom she had a 
daughter Salome, who danced before Antipas 
and pleased him. Afterwards she divorced 
him and married his brother Antipas, who for 
her sake put away his wife, and thus provoked 
a disastrous war with his indignant father-in- 
law. Herodias procured the death of John 
the Baptist, and shared her husband's exile. 
She was sister to Herod Agrippa I. 

7. Herod Agrippa I, called Agrippa the 
Great by Josephus, was the son of Aristobulus 
and Berenice, and grandson of Herod I. He 
was brought up at Rome on terms of the 
closest intimacy with the imperial family, and 
was particularly friendly with Caligula and 
Claudius. When Caligula became emperor in 

37 a.d. he at once gave Agrippa the tetrarchy 
of Philip, who had died in 34 a.d., and in 

38 a.d. added to this the tetrarchy of the exiled 
Antipas (Galilee and Peraea). In 41 a.d., in 
return for great services rendered to Claudius, 
he received in addition Judaea and Samaria, 
and the title of king. He now ruled over all 
the dominions of Herod the Great. He con- 
stantly lived in Jerusalem, and kept the 
Mosaic Law with the utmost strictness, allowing 



no day to pass without offering sacrifice. His 
zeal for the Law caused him to persecute the 
Church (Ac 12). He died in 44 a.d. The 
account of his end given by Josephus is in 
substantial agreement with that of St. Luke. 
His wife was named Cypros, and among his 
children by her were Herod Agrippa II, 
Bernice, and Drusilla. 

8. Herod Agrippa II, son of Herod 
Agrippa I and Cypros, was only 17 years old 
when his father died, and Claudius, thinking 
him too young to govern the kingdom, made 
it once more a Roman province. In 48 a.d. 
Claudius assigned to him the small kingdom 
of Chalcis, and in 53 a.d. gave him in exchange 
for this the tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias, 
with the title of king. Nero added to his 
dominions certain cities in Galilee and Peraea. 
He was entrusted with the general oversight 
of the Temple, and to him is due the credit of 
completing it. His capital was Caesarea Phil- 
ippi, which he enlarged and renamed Neronias, 
in honour of Nero. He advised his country- 
men not to rebel against Rome, and when war 
broke out sided with the Romans. After the 
fall of Jerusalem, 70 a.d., he received a con- 
siderable accession of territory. His later 
years were spent in Rome, where he died, 
about 100 a.d. , the last of the Herodian 
dynasty. Although ' expert in all customs 
and questions which are among the Jews,' and 
well able to form an opinion as to the ortho- 
doxy of St. Paul's opinions (Ac 25, 26), he was 
of vicious life. 

9. Berenice, or Bernice, see on Ac25 13 . 

10. Drusilla, see on Ac24 24 . 



ABRIDGED GENEALOGY OF THE HERODS TO ILLUSTRATE THE NT. 

Antipater (ruler of Idumaea) 

Antipater (procurator of Judaea) 
Herod I 

1 



, . 1 1 

Aristobulus Herod Philip I 

(by Mariamne, (by Mariamne, d. of 
granddaughter of Simon) 

Hyrcanus I) | 



Antipas 
(by Malthake) 



Archelaus 
(by Malthake) 



Herod Philip II 
(by Cleopatra) 



Agrippa I 



Herodias 



Salome 
(by Herodias) 



Agrippa IE 



I 
Bernice 



Drusilla 



lxxxvii 



THE LIFE AND WORK OF ST. PAUL 



Of all the personalities of the apostolic age 
St. Paul shines brightest. Modern opponents 
of Christianity have, indeed, interpreted him 
very differently. They have never solved the 
problem that he presents to them. Some of 
them assert that he did little more than suc- 
ceed in corrupting Christianity. Others regard 
him as the real founder of Christianity in spite 
of the positive evidence which he gives to show 
he was only its disciple. A few have had the 
audacity to assert that none of the Epistles 
which bear his name were the product of his 
pen. But even those who maintain this in- 
credible theory cannot deny that St. Paul made 
a profound impression upon the mind of early 
Christendom. No one indeed would have 
taken the trouble to forge Epistles in his name 
if it had not already been venerated and loved 
as the name of one of the very foremost mis- 
sionaries of Christ. All indeed admit, whether 
they are Christians or not, that no person of 
the apostolic age laboured more successfully 
than St. Paul. 

Our sources for a knowledge of his life are 
the Acts written by his companion St. Luke, 
and St. Paul's own letters. Early traditions 
also preserve a few facts of value. Then there 
seem to be a few genuine traits in the apocry- 
phal ' Acts of Paul and Thekla,' a romance of 
the second century, and there is no reason for 
doubting the statement of St. Clement that he 
visited k the limit of the West,' and the ancient 
belief that he suffered martyrdom at Rome. 
At the present time the more moderate op- 
ponents of orthodox Christianity admit that 
the evidence of the second century is too strong 
to be brushed aside, and say that none of the 
Epistles can be safely called pseudonymous, 
ami that eight are almost certainly genuine 
(Gal, Ro, 1 and 2 Cor, Phil, Col, Philemon, 
1 Th). We believe that we are most fully jus- 
tified in asserting the genuineness of all the thir- 
teen letters, and shall therefore regard them 
as trustworthy evidence for the Apostle's life. 

i. Early Life and Conversion. Saul, also 
called Paul, was of purely Jewish ancestry, of 
the tribe of Benjamin, born at Tarsus in Ci 
lieia. The Paci that he was called by two 
names is probably to be explained by his in- 
heriting a Roman name with Roman citizen- 
ship. At the present day it is quite common 
for Jews t<> have a .Jewish and a Gentile name. 

and as 'Saulos' in Greek bears the ignoble 

sen^ of 'waddling,' it was not likely to be 
used in Gentile circles. Like all Jewish boys. 



Paul learnt a trade, in his case that of making 
tents, for the manufacture of which the hair 
of the Cilician goat was peculiarly fitted. His 
father was apparently well-to-do, and Paul was 
carefully educated. He studied rabbinical 
theology under Gamaliel at Jerusalem, and 
his literary method and style show a strong 
rabbinical and Pharisaic influence. He was, 
nevertheless, not uninfluenced by the broader 
and more Greek type of Judaism prevalent at 
Alexandria. His character was charged with 
zeal, courage and emotion. His physical powers 
were not equal to his intellectual. His presence 
was not imposing, his health was uncertain, and 
the ' thorn in the flesh ' of which he speaks, 
signifies some humiliating ailment which was 
most likely of an hysterical or even epileptic 
character. His early life was guileless, but his 
education developed within him an overpower- 
ing sense of the majesty of God's law, and with 
a sense of the meaning of the law there came 
also a sense of the meaning of sin. The com- 
mandment which was destined to be ' unto life ' 
he found to be ' unto death.' The knowledge 
that sin was forbidden, and that sin was pos- 
sible, led him into a severe inward conflict 
(Ro 7 : see Liddon's and Sanday and Headlam's 
Commentaries). 

The consciousness of inward failure seems 
to have stimulated his outward zeal for the 
Law. He regarded Christianity as a vile im- 
posture, and the work of persecuting it as one 
of the highest duties. He was known as an 
enthusiast before the martyrdom of Stephen. 
After it the Jewish ecclesiastical leaders saw 
in him an excellent instrument for the exter- 
mination of the new creed. Neither they nor 
he were content to persecute the Christians of 
Palestine only, and they commissioned him to 
go to Damascus. On his journey thither he 
became a Christian as the result of a personal 
revelation of Jesus Christ (35 or 36 a.d.). His 
own statements and the three accounts in Acts 
show that the revelation was miraculous (Ac 
91-16 22*-" 26 M8). In 1 Corl5 8 he puts the 
appearance of Christ to himself on a level with 
the appearance to Cephas and the other Apo- 
stles. An outward vision with an audible mes- 
sage having accompanied the inward revelation 
(Gal 1 1G ), St. Paul never ceased to believe that, 
like the original Apostles, he was an eye- 
witness of the risen Christ. With this vision 
he connected his call to be an Apostle to the 
Gentiles. And in writing to Corinth he as- | 
sumes that his enemies could not well admit 



lxxxviii 



THE LIFE AND WORK OF ST. PAUL 



the outward vision and then deny his apostolic 
vocation. 

2. Beginning of Missionary Career. After 
three days spent at Damascus the future Apostle 
of the Gentiles was baptised by Ananias. And 
now, as a member of the Christian Church, he 
began to proclaim in the synagogues that ' this 
Jesus is the Son of God.' But the great 
mental strain which he had undergone soon 
made rest imperative. He retired for three 
years to Arabia, and then returned with new 
force to Damascus. In consequence of Jewish 
plots against his life, he went to Jerusalem in 
order to become acquainted with St. Peter 
(38 a.d.). He remained there only fifteen days, 
and, in accordance with his policy not ' to confer 
with flesh and blood,' saw none of the apostles 
except Peter and James, ' the Lord's brother.' 
Ac9 26 - 30 shows us that it was Barnabas who 
introduced him to these apostles. He was con- 
veyed by the disciples to the seaport of Csesarea 
Stratonis, and thence took ship for Tarsus 
(Gal 1 21 > 23 Ac 9 30 1 1 25 > 26 ). He appears to have 
spent about seven years in Syria and Cilicia, 
and made converts there : cp. Acl5 23 . 

Summoned by St. Barnabas to Antioch, St. 
Paul took a leading position in this important 
Church. The next year, 46 a.d., he was sent 
with Barnabas to take alms from Antioch to the 
needy Christians of Judaea (Ac ll 30 ). After 
this the Holy Spirit singled out the two friends 
to begin the definite evangelisation of the 
Koman empire, 47 a.d. In company with John 
Mark, they set out for Cyprus, where they won 
a triumph in the conversion of Sergius Paulus, 
the Roman proconsul. They then set sail for 
Perga on the mainland, and, though deserted 
by John Mark, began boldly to preach in South 
Galatia. St. Paul persevered in preaching 
first to the Jews. They replied by hunting 
him from city to city. The missionaries every- 
where found that the Gentile proselytes heard 
them gladly, the heathen Gentiles also showed 
that they were willing to receive the gospel. 
The romantic and perilous adventures of the 
missionaries were not in vain. Churches were 
founded at Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, 
Derbe, and probably in other places. It was 
already clear that God ' had opened to the 
Gentiles a door of faith,' and that St. Paul had 
a special vocation to convert men who were 
not of his own race. 

3. The Council at Jerusalem, 49 a.d. The 
influence of St. Paul was now to receive a 
fresh acknowledgment. A revelation (Gal 2 2 ) 
directed him to go from Antioch to Jerusalem, 
where he laid before the Apostles the gospel 
that he preached among the Gentiles. It was 
a time of acute crisis. Certain J udaising con- 
verts of the original apostles maintained that 
the promises of the gospel only belonged to 
those who observed the Mosaic Law. St. Paul 



had asserted the justification of all Gentiles 
who believed on Jesus Christ, without the Law. 
He saw that if the Gentiles had to be circum- 
cised, it meant that the Gentile had to become 
a Jew in order to become a Christian, and the 
gospel was then not primary but secondary. 
The ' pillar ' apostles supported St. Paul. They 
gave him the •' right hands of fellowship,' and 
he returned to Antioch with complete liberty 
to act as the appointed head of the mission to 
' the uncircumcision.' All risk of Christianity 
becoming a mere sect of Judaism was now 
removed. 

4. Second Missionary Journey, 49-52 a.d. 
Ac 1 5 3(3 -l 8 22 gives us an account of this journey, 
which was marked by the Apostle's greatest 
missionary successes, by the earliest of his 
letters now extant (1 and 2 Th), and by the 
extension of the gospel to Europe. It began 
with a rupture between St. Paul and St. Bar- 
nabas, occasioned by St. Paul's refusal to be 
accompanied by Mark, with whom, however, 
he was afterwards reconciled. In company 
with Silas, a Jewish Christian of Roman 
citizenship, he visited the Churches which he 
had founded on his first journey. At each 
place the decisions of the Council of Jerusalem 
were communicated to the faithful (Acl6 4 » 5 ). 
At Lystra St. Paul took as an assistant Timo- 
theus, whom he circumcised, as he was the son 
of a Jewess. The Holy Spirit forbade the 
missionaries to preach in the province of Asia, 
and a vision summoned St. Paul to Europe. 
At the seaport of Troas he was joined by St. 
Luke, who has told us the story (St. Luke uses 
the pronoun ' we ' in 97 vv. of Acts. They are 
1 6 10-17 20 5-15 2 1 1-I8 27 1-28 1 6 ). They crossed 
to Macedonia and began to preach at Philippi. 
Hitherto, with the exception of Antioch, St. 
Paul had not preached in any really large town 
since his mission began. Henceforward he was 
to preach mainly in great centres of population. 
He was cruelly opposed at Philippi, the first 
town where we find that the relations between 
the missionaries and the civil authorities became 
a difficulty. As afterwards at Ephesus, the 
opposition was not religious or political, but 
came from the mercenary hatred of men whose 
interests were bound up with superstition. 
At Thessalonica and Bercea St. Paul won 
staunch converts, in spite of a deadly per- 
secution directed against him by the Jews of 
Thessalonica. 

From Bercea he went to Athens, the educa- 
tional centre of Greece, where he delivered 
an earnest address on the hill of the Areo- 
pagus. One member of the court of the 
Areopagus was converted, but the intellectual 
men of Athens were not sufficiently conscious 
of their inward moral failure to receive the 
gospel seriously. The huge city of Corinth, 
the commercial capital of Greece, offered a 



lxxxix 



THE LIFE AND WORK OF ST. PAUL 



very different field. It was notorious for the 
sensuality of the rich and the misery of the 
poor. While there St. Paul lived as a poor 
man with the poor, and made it his determin- 
ation to preach nothing but ' Jesus Christ, 
and Him crucified.' Protected by Roman law, 
he won many converts, including some persons 
of distinction. While at Corinth he wrote 
twice to the Thessalonians. The second jour- 
ney closed with a visit to Jerusalem. It was 
probably soon after this visit that an incident 
happened which showed the Vitality of the 
Judaising party in the Church. They no longer 
denied that the uncircumcised believers were 
Christians, but they tried to gain a distinct and 
higher status for the circumcised. When St. 
Paul went from Jerusalem to Antioch in 52 A.D., 
St. Peter, fearing to offend these Judaisers, 
was guilty of pretending to believe that he 
agreed with them. He refused to eat with 
uncircumcised Christians. St. Paul then openly 
rebuked him for this 'dissembling' (Gal2 n ), 
i.e. for acting in a manner contrary to his true 
convictions. (Some authorities place this in- 
cident earlier, shortly before the Council of 
Jerusalem, 49 a.d. : see on Ac 15. It is still 
debated among scholars whether St. Paul ever 
visited North Galatia, or whether ' the Phry- 
gian and Galatian country' (Acl6 6 ) means 
one district known by two different names, 
extending from Iconium to Pisidian Antioch, 
Phrygian racially and Galatian politically. For 
list of authorities on either side see HDB. 
vol. iii. pp. 70G, 707.) 

5. Third Missionary Journey, 52-56 a.d. 
The Judaisers took their revenge by visiting 
the Churches founded by St. Paul, where they 
presented themselves with ' letters of com- 
mendation,' pretending that they represented 
the original Apostles, and came to supply the 
defects of St. Paul's teaching. In the mean- 
time St. Paul visited Galatia and Phrygia, 
made a long stay at Ephesus, and went to 
Macedonia and Greece. During these few 
years St. Paul reached the pinnacle of his 
power. Forced, against his will, to engage in 
controversy, he wrote the four Epistles, 1 and 
2 Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans, which 
rank among the greatest masterpieces of all 
literature. The whole period was one of diffi- 
cult but victorious conflict. In Acts 19 we 
arc told the dramatic story of the riot at 
Ephesus, where the craftsmen who made 
images of Artemis stirred up the mob to 
expel him. On leaving Ephesus he brought 
the gospel to Troas, and went on to Mace- 
donia. Jllvria. and Greece, making Corinth his 
real goal. He had previously visited it ' in 
Borrow ' from Ephesus (2 Cor 2 * 13 1 > 2 ), but was 
compelled to return there on account of re- 
newed controversies. These controversies oc- 
casioned the Apostle the greatest anxiety, and 



though 2 Corinthians shows that his anxiety 
was partly allayed before he left Macedonia, 
he continued his journey, and arrived at 
Corinth at the end of 55 a.d. He stayed 
there three months (Ac20 3 ), during which he 
wrote the Epistle to the Romans. Wishing 
to return to Syria, he was prevented by a 
plot of the Jews from taking ship at Corinth 
for Syria. He therefore went round by Phil- 
ippi, where he spent the Easter of 56 a.d., 
and Troas. St. Luke describes the journey in 
Acts 20 and 21. St. Paul met with a friendly 
reception from St. James and ' all the elders ' 
at Jerusalem, a fact which shows that there 
was no split among the leaders of the Church, 
however much the partisans of those leaders 
might differ. Recognised in the Temple by 
certain Asiatic Jews, the Apostle was attacked 
by a hostile mob, and after defending himself 
in an address to the people and another ad- 
dress to the Sanhedrin, he was sent to the 
Roman procurator Felix at Caesarea. 

6. Period of Imprisonment, 56-61 a.d. The 
course of proceedings taken against St. Paul 
is made perfectly intelligible by St. Luke. 
St. Paul was a Roman citizen, and the Roman 
procurators were too just to deliver him to the 
Jews, though Felix was not above hoping for 
a bribe. St. Paul finally determined to cut 
the matter short by appealing to the emperor, 
an appeal which the procurator Festus could 
not disregard. The voyage to Rome is de- 
scribed by St. Luke with picturesque accuracy, 
and shows St. Paul manifesting that easy 
ascendency over his fellows which he always 
gained in unprejudiced surroundings. At' Rome 
the Jewish leaders did not oppose him, but 
the majority of the Jews deserted him. He 
remained at Rome until 61 a.d., living in his 
own hired house under the supervision of a 
soldier. During this period he wrote Colossians, 
Philemon, Ephesians and Philippians. They 
do not show the same exuberance of argu- 
ment as the four preceding Epistles. But 
their tenderness and devotion, their combina- 
tion of authority and humility, their insight 
into the true significance of Christ and of the 
Church, prove that St. Paul was still advancing 
1 from strength to strength.' 

7. Conclusion. St. Paul was released from 
his first imprisonment at Rome, as he seems 
to have hoped would be the case when he 
wrote Philippians (l 26 2 24 ). He had long 
wished to visit Spain (Rol5 28 ), and though 
his Epistles do not record such a visit, St. 
Clement of Rome, writing about 95 A.D., 
speaks of him as going ' to the limit of the 
West." which in a Roman writer probably 
means Spain. From the Epistles to Timothy 
and Titus we learn that he returned to the 
East. His last Epistle is 2 Timothy, written 
with winter in prospect and when the first 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



stage of his last trial was over. He had been 
lately at Troas and in Crete, and probably at 
Miletus and Corinth. 1 Timothy was ap- 
parently written from Macedonia on the way 
to Corinth, and the letter to Titus was written 
from Corinth when he was expecting to 
spend the next winter at Nicopolis opposite to 
Italy (Tit 3 12 ). He must have been arrested 
soon after the letter to Titus was despatched. 
According to the traditions of the primitive 



Church he was beheaded about three miles 
from Rome on the Ostian Way, close to the 
place now occupied by the great basilica of 
St. Paul. The basilica contains his tomb, 
marked by an inscription of the fourth century. 
The year of his death was probably 64 a.d., 
though it was formerly dated 67 a.d. The 
year of his conversion was probably 36 a.d. 
No Christian in all history accomplished as 
much work in a period of twenty-eight years. 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



i. Form of St. Paul's Writings. We have 
from the hand of the Apostle Paul thirteen 
Epistles — addressed four of them to individual 
helpers, and the rest to Christian societies of 
his foundation or lying within the circuit of 
his mission (Romans, Colossians). They are 
primarily not treatises upon religious doctrine, 
nor homilies enforcing specific duties, but 
letters of a friend to his friends, of the absent 
missionary and pastor to his flock. They are 
selections from a larger correspondence, and 
[in several instances (notably 1 and 2 Cor) 
imply letters and messages from the other 
side. The acquaintance and mutual affection 
of the parties, their common interests in 
Christ, supply the basis of the communications. 
They are essentially personal documents, origin- 
ating in the relationship between writer and 
readers ; from this standpoint the questions, 
of theology or morals or church administration, 
that arise in them should be approached, as 
being the questions of the hour to the corre- 
spondents. In the Epistles we watch the 
vital Christian problems emerging in the 
experience of the earliest Churches and taking 
) shape and colour from their constitution and 
surroundings. These writings give to the 
subjects of which they treat the actuality and 
living interest that attach to the career of the 
Apostle of the nations engaged in his mission- 
ary labours and in the shepherding of his 
strangely mingled flock. 

With this personal origin is connected the 
incidental nature of St. Paul's writings. The 
Apostle took up the pen to supply the lack of 
his presence (lTh2i7), when his field of 
9 labour became too wide to admit of frequent 
visits to the Churches. He wrote for the 
most part upon the spur of the moment 
(Romans was an exception) — on occasion of 
recent news, in response to some message or 
enquiry, in self-explanation and in expression 
of the thankfulness or solicitude concerning 



his readers that occupies his mind : see, e.g., 
lTh3« 1 Cor I" 71 2Corl8 7 6 13 io Phil2i2 
4io Col 14, 8 2 i Philemon v. 10, etc. Yet 
through these disconnected and seemingly 
casual letters, thrown off in the intervals of 
travel, in prison, or from the Apostle's 
winter-quarters, there runs one master pur- 
pose, one all-embracing conception of human 
life and of the things of God. 

2. Style of the Epistles. The saying that 
' the style is the man ' holds especially of 
epistolary writings. The letters of a gifted 
man are often more attractive than his laboured 
work, because they are written in freedom of 
heart and are the frank and unstudied expres- 
sion of himself. In this quality of St. Paul's 
Epistles is found at once their charm and 
their difficulty. His 'epistolary style is the 
most personal that ever was — a rapid con- 
versation reported verbatim and without 
correction' (Renan). There is nothing in 
literature that reflects more vividly the 
personality of the writer than some of these 
Epistles. 

Now St. Paul's is not an easy style, for he 
was not a man framed to take things easily. 
Life was for him a continual struggle, both 
without and within. Beneath his restless 
missionary activity and the calm of his prison- 
days, there went on in him an unceasing 
effort to 'apprehend that for which he was 
apprehended by Christ.' He is ' travailing in 
birth ' not only over his wayward offspring in 
the faith, but over the grand 'mystery of 
God,' of which he is the appointed dispenser, 
striving to explore the unsearchable riches 
and sound the unfathomed depths of the love 
revealed in Christ. The strain of the author's 
mind is manifest in the involved sentences of 
which some of his greatest passages consist 
—such as Ro 5 12-21 Gal2 3 -!°, or Ephl3-i 4 . 
With broken, impetuous utterance he sweeps 
us breathless through his long-drawn perioda, 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



until he reaches his lofty climax and the 
tangled path lies clear beneath our feet. 
St. Paul was a pioneer in religious thought, 
opening a way for the truth of the gospel to 
the conscience and intellect of the Gentile 
world. The difficult task has left its mark on 
his writings, like the lame thigh that witnessed 
to wrestling Jacob's victory. This subtle 
and eager thinker was at the same time a man 
of ardent feeling. In many places the en- 
tanglement of St. Paul's style is due to 
contending currents of feeling, to the quick 
play of emotion in his singularly mobile 
nature: see, e.g., 1 Cor 4*4-21 2 Cor 5 n " 15 7 5 " 9 
Gal4 12 - 20 . Logic and sentiment, passion and 
severe thought, are fused in his utterance 
to form a combination of singular pliancy, 
tenderness, and strength. In his gram- 
matical constructions and the connexion 
of phrase with phrase there is frequent 
uncertainty arising from the throng and press 
of his thoughts ; the thoughts themselves are 
clear and luminous. His leading terms are 
as crystalline in definition, as they are massive 
and profound in significance. The great 
watchwords of St. Paul's doctrine were 
framed to last for ever. 

A native of Tarsus, St. Paul knew Greek 
from childhood ; the niceties of its idiom come 
to him instinctively. The groundwork of his 
dialect was not, however, the literary Greek 
of the times, but the vernacular of every-day 
speech. Behind the Greek dress there lived 
in him a Hebrew spirit. Saul's youth had 
been spent l at the feet of Gamaliel ' (Ac 22 3 ), 
and his mind formed by the rabbinical dis- 
cipline (Gal 1 14 ). He draws freely on the 
language and ideas of the Old Testament, fol- 
lowing, though not, slavishly, the Septuagint 
Greek Version which was.in the hands of his 
readers. His imagery is mainly borrowed not 
like that of Jesus from nature and the open 
fields, but from the scenes of city life and 
the throngs of men. The Apostle's mind 
was fertile and plastic in expression ; each 
group of Epistles contains its distinctive locu- 
tions. He has his mannerisms and idiosyn- 
crasies, but is tied to no hackneyed formulae ; 
his speech reflected the eolour of its surround- 
ings, and suited itself to the constituency ad- 
dressed. Compare from this point of view 
the Btatelineee and measured argument of 
Romans with the incisiveness, poignancy, and 
pathos of Galatians and 1 and 2 Corinthians. 

the affectionate frankness and spontaneity of 
1 Thessalonians and Philippians, and the play- 
ful familial it v <>f the little letter to Philemon. 
3. The Matter of the Epistles. St. Paul's 
letters were east in the epistolary mould of 
the time. The salutation 'Grace and peace' 
is adapted from the ordinary courtesies of 
greeting. The salutation, variously expanded 



and qualified, serves sometimes to strike the 
keynote of the Epistle, as in Romans and 
Galatians. A thanksgiving is next offered to 
God for the Christian worth of the corre- 
spondents (Galatians is the signal exception), 
commonly supplemented by an appropriate 
prayer ; in Ephesians the opening acts of 
praise and prayer swell into a principal part 
of the letter. After the introductory devo- 
tions, the writer's purpose comes into view ; 
where his object is theological, we may look 
for some fundamental statement of principle 
at this point : see Ro 1 16. !< Col 1 15 , etc. The 
specific truth thus asserted is expounded 
and vindicated as need may require ; and its 
exposition is followed up by moral and prac- 
tical exhortation. Details of personal news, 
messages, and greetings, with a final bene- 
diction, close the letter. Such is the order 
of the doctrinal Epistles — Romans, Galatians, 
Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians. 
Where, however, the writer's main business is 
personal and practical, no such plan suggests 
itself : the explanations, discussions, or expos- 
tulations called for by the occasion naturally 
occupy the foreground, while directions of a 
more general bearing come in afterwards ; and 
theological passages occur here and there, 
wherever the handling of the matter strikes 
upon the underlying principles of the Gospel. 
Such is the case with Philippians, and the two 
Epistles to the Corinthians. 

The contents of the Epistles may be 
arranged, therefore, under the following heads : 
personal, theological, ethical, administrative, 
and devotional. These constituent elements are 
combined with perfect freedom ; no strict line 
can be drawn between them. The proportion 
in which they are blended, and the prepon- 
derance of the one strain or the other, give to 
each letter its complexion. Romans is above 
all the theological Epistle ; 2 Corinthians, Phi- 
lippians, and Philemon are intensely personal ; 
in 1 Corinthians and the Pastorals the prac- 
tical and administrative interests predominate, 
with a large infusion of the ethical and doc- 
trinal ; in 1 Thessalonians the personal and 
ethical ; in 2 Thessalonians. Colossians, and 
Ephesians doctrine and ethics are equally 
balanced, with a conspicuous development of 
the devotional vein in the last named ; Gala- 
tians is the best example of the union of the 
personal, theological, and moral in St. Paul's 
writings, the theological dominating the other 
two. 

The chapter- and verse-divisions — a modern 
invention of convenience — must be ignored by 
the readerwho wishes to understand St. Paul's 
Epistles ; the paragraphic arrangement of the 
Revised Version is preferable. Furnishing 
himself with a preliminary outline, and noting 
difficult expressions for later examination, he 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



should read each document right through and 
allow it to make its complete impression, as 
he would treat a letter from a friend, return- 
ing to the salient passages and critical points 
of the Epistle, in order to fasten upon his 
mind its essential import. 

4. Order and Connexion of the Epistles. 
The accepted order of St. Paul's letters has 
prevailed from early times. Originally they 
formed a distinct volume (to which Hebrews 
was attached), under the title of ' The 
Apostles,' with the several letters headed, ' To 
the Romans,' ' To the Corinthians, 1,' and 
so on. First came the nine letters addressed 
to (seven) Churches, then the four to (three) 
friends — the two sections being arranged in 
the order of size and importance, not of time. 

(a) The first four in the traditional succession 
form a coherent group, in which First and 
Second Corinthians and Romans followed con- 
secutively at intervals of a few months. The 
date of Galatians is disputed ; but it clearly 
belongs in character and subject-matter to this 
group, and is akin to Romans (56-57 a.d.). 

(b) The next three, along with the little 
note to Philemon, fall into a later group ; 
amongst these Colossians and Ephesians are 
synchronous and 'twin' Epistles, Philemon 
coming in as a private enclosure accompany- 
ing the former. Philippians stands somewhat 
apart, in character as in destination, from its 
neighbours ; opinions differ as to whether it 
preceded or followed them. These four were 
prison-letters — issued (Philippians certainly, 
the rest almost certainly) from Rome during the 
years 61-62 of St. Paul's first captivity there. 

(c) 1 and 2 Thessalonians, separated only 
by a few months, are the oldest of St. Paul's 
extant writings, having been written shortly 
after the Apostle's mission in Thessalonica 
(Ac 17), while he was labouring at Corinth in 
the latter period of his Second Missionary 
Journey, probably during 50-51 a.d. (Ac 18). 

(d) The three Pastoral Epistles presuppose 
St. Paul's acquittal in Rome from the charges 
against which he had ' appealed to Caesar ' at 
Festus' tribunal (Ac 25), the extension of his 
missionary course to a period which lay out- 
side the narrative of the Acts, his re-arrest 
and approaching martyrdom in Rome (2 Tim). 
They are dated in the year 64, on the pre- 
sumption that the Apostle fell in the great 
Neronian persecution, or about 67 by those 
who think it likely that he escaped this storm, 
and who recognise the lengthened course 
of ministry necessary to account for the new 
complexion of the Pastoral Epistles, if brought 
within his life-time. Their succession was : 
1 Timothy, Titus, 2 Timothy. 

(c), (a), (&), (d) is therefore the historical 
order of the four groups. Their composition 
extended over some sixteen years: (c) 50-51, 



(a) 55-57, (b) 61-62, and (d) about 67 (? 64) 

A.D. 

5. Course of Thought in the Epistles. The 

general course of St. Paul's thought in the 
later part of his life is revealed by the 
tenor and outstanding features of the several 
groups of his letters. When the earliest of 
them was written, the Apostle was midway in 
his career, and had been a Christian believer 
and preacher for at least fourteen years ; his 
mind was ripe, his doctrine in all essentials 
complete. The progress marked in the 
Epistles, while indicating certain changes 
of inward experience and the growth in- 
evitable in an active mind, was principally 
due to the advance of the Apostle's mis- 
sion, the development of his Churches and 
the trials through which they passed. As 
time goes on, his preoccupations become in- 
creasingly those of the pastor and teacher, 
rather than the missionary and evangelist ; 
compare 1 Thessalonians at the beginning 
with 1 Timothy at the end of the series of 
Epistles. His work as Gentile Apostle and 
Church-founder was exposed to three chief 
assaults — the first of these proceeding from 
Jewish Christians of Pharisaic temper, who 
desired to subject all believers in Christ 
to the Law of Moses ; the second from the 
reaction of heathen idolatry and immorality 
upon Gentile converts. The second group of 
the Epistles marks the crisis of the former 
struggle, which was decisive for St. Paul's 
authority, and gave shape to his characteristic 
doctrines of Justification by faith and Redemp- 
tion through the cross ; in Galatians we witness 
the climax, in Romans the practical conclu- 
sion of this controversy. 1 and 2 Corinthians, 
during the same period, illustrate most vividly 
the dangers of relapse to paganism ; 1 Thes- 
salonians earlier, and Ephesians later, witness 
to the same effect. A more subtle type of 
error betrayed itself at Colossae, and reappears 
in. the evils denounced by the Pastorals of the 
last group — viz. the perversion of Christian 
truth by Greek 'philosophy' (Col2 4 >? 1 Tim 
6 20 ), from which sprang the imposing Gnostic 
systems of the second century. This move- 
ment had its source in the conception of the 
evil of matter and the consequent separation 
of God from the finite world — an idea which 
precluded any real incarnation or atonement, 
and perverted the whole ethics of Christianity ; 
its working is seen already in the denial at 
Corinth of bodily resurrection (1 Cor 15). The 
Gnostic tendency took sometimes an ascetic 
(Col2 2 °- 23 1 Tim4 3 " 5 ), sometimes an antinomian 
turn (2 Tim 3 1-9 Tit 114-16) m m0 rals. Some 
Jewish ingredients entered into this amalgam, 
which originated probably in the attempt to 
assimilate the gospel to Essenic or Alexan- 
drian theosophy. As the Apostle's doctrines 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



of Salvation were wrought out in the heat of 
the legalist controversy (Galatians, Romans), 
so the incipient Gnosticism served, by contra- 
diction, to bring into relief his conception of 
the person of Christ and the nature of the 
Church, and to develop his ethical principles 
(Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians). 

The dangerous illness from which the Apo- 
stle suffered in the year 56, between the date 
of 1 and 2 Corinthians, formed a crisis in his 
life, and materially affected his views of the 
future. Previously he had written as one ex- 
pecting the Lord's coming within the present 
generational Th 415-17 1 Cor7 29 -3i 1 5 52 ), though 
guarding himself against positive assertion on 
the subject or fixing of the date (1 Th5 2 2 Th 
2 !, etc.) ; from this time he anticipates his 
own death ; the parousia recedes into the back- 
ground, and a wider prospect opens out for the 
Church and for the progress of humanity (see 
2 Cor 1 9 5 !- 8 Phil 1 21-23 2 Tim 4 6 Eph 2 7 1 Tim 
1 16 2 6 2 Tim 2 2). The influence of Rome prob- 
ably counted for a good deal in the direction 
of St. Paul's thought and work. The memory 
of the impious emperor Caius Caligula (37 T 
41 a.d.) and the popular Caesar-worship of 
Asia Minor supply a clue to the mystery of 
the Antichrist in 2 Th2. On the other hand, 
St. Paul's conception of the universal Church 
under the headship of Christ owed something 
of its breadth and grandeur to the spectacle 
of the world-empire unfolding before his eyes. 
His mission was laid out on an imperial scale ; 
he planted his Churches at the strategic points 
of Roman commerce and administration. By 
the time St. Paul (in the words of 2 Tim 4 7) 
had ' fought his fight ' and ' finished his course,' 
he had carried the gospel through every land 
from Syria to Spain, and through every class 
of Gentile society from the slave to the em- 
peror. This outward progress was matched by 
the development of his doctrine. His spirit 
has penetrated to the depths of the mystery 
of Christ ; his inspired logic and force of char- 
acter have won for the gospel a decisive victory 
over the Jewish and the pagan reaction, and 
over the antagonism of philosophic thought. 
He sees himself the recognised ' herald ' of 
( Shrist to the nations, the ' teacher of the Gen- 
tiles in faith and truth' (1 Tim2 7 ) ; his teach- 
ing is embodied in a line of organised Churches 
extending through the empire. The perma- 
nence of the gospel and its propagation amongst 
mankind art' guaranteed ; ' a pillar and ground ' 
are set up, on which ' the truth ' will stand for 
ever (1 Tim3 15 ). 

6. Characterisation of the Epistles. There 
is a crescendo and diminuendo of vigour and 
fulness of thought in the sequence of the four 
groups: I. the forenoon; n. the noontide ; ill. 
the afternoon ; IV. the evening Epistles. 

i. (a) 1 THE88ALONIAN8 : </ missionary's letter 



to young converts, whom he had left in the in- 
fancy of their faith ; full of tender recollection 
and solicitude ; consoling, edifying, non-con- 
troversial ; comparatively simple in style. Its 
chief warning is against heathen impurity (4 1- 8 ). 
The one error corrected is due to a too eager 
expectation and narrow view of Christ's Second 
Advent (4 13-5 «). The full ' gospel ' set forth 
in Romans is implied in 1 Th4 14 5 9 » 10 . 

(b) 2 Thessalonians deals with the con- 
tinued unsettlement of the Church in regard 
to the Second Advent (1 5 -212), and the conse- 
quent neglect of secular labour (3 6 "i 5 ). 

ii. (a) 1 Corinthians is the Epistle of the 
doctrine of the Cross in application, and holds in 
the practical sphere a place similar to that of 
Romans in the theological. Its first part (chs. 
1-6) arises out of disquieting news received 
from Corinth (see in. 12 51); its second part 
from questions put to the Apostle in a letter 
from the Church (chs. 7-16). In the piercing 
light that shines from Calvary the manifold 
problems confronting the Apostle of the Gen- 
tiles are surveyed ; Greek wisdom and Cor- 
inthian vice, church parties and rival ministries, 
and disorders in worship, spiritual gifts and 
their use and abuse, great social questions such 
as marriage and slavery, lighter matters of diet 
and dress, the restoration of the body and the 
final state of the dead, are all discussed in their 
bearing on the relationship of men to Christ 
and upon principles deduced from k the word 
of the cross' (l 17 2 2 ). This k word' embraces 
the truths of the resurrection of Jesus along 
with His death (15 3 > 4 ) of the new life in the 
Spirit and the union of the believer with the 
dying'and exalted Saviour (1 30 2 12 3 16 6 19^ e t c .). 

(b) '2 Corinthians : St. Paul's apologia pro 
vita sua. Since 1 Corinthians much has hap- 
pened — ' fightings within, fears without ' : the 
Apostle's all but fatal sickness (l 9 4 7 -5 8 ), a 
revolt quelled with difficulty and followed by 
a revulsion of loyal feeling toward him (2 5 -n 
72-16), changes in his plans bringing the re- 
proach of vacillation (li 5 - ls ), the coming to 
Corinth of Judaean emissaries who disparage 
him and set up as his rivals (3 J 10 12 H 4, 12-16), 
Chs. 1-7, addressed to the reconciled majority 
(see 2 fi ), are St. Paul's defence of his ministry 
before the Church ; chs. 10-13, the vindication 
of himself *g*inst his adversaries. The inter- 
jected chs. 8, 9 urge a more liberal contribu- 
tion for Jerusalem : cp. 1 Cor 16. This letter 
best reveals St. Paul as a minister of Christ 
and a man amongst men — the wealth of his 
heart, the ascendency and fire of his genius, and 
the charm of his disposition. 

(c) Galatians is St. Paul's vindication of 
the gospel against legal ism. 4 Another gospel ' 
(l 6 ) is being preached with seductive effect 
(3 1 ) in Galatia : the Judaisers at Corinth as- 
sailed St. Paul's authority ; here they impugn 



xciv 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



his doctrine, by insisting on circumcision as 
essential to the full Christian status (3 1-4 5 3 > 4 ), 
thus seeking to bring Gentile believers under 
the Mosaic yoke and incorporate them in 
Judaism. The legalists appealed to the au- 
thority of St. Peter and the Jerusalem Church, 
from which (they asserted) St. Paul had re- 
ceived his knowledge of Christ. The Apostle 
exposes their statements by telling, in chs. 1 
and 2, how he received his commission from 
Jesus Christ, and had won from the mother- 
church the recognition of Gentile liberties. 
S l -o u is the core of the Epistle, demonstrat- 
ing the salvation of men by faith in Christ 
crucified only, and the subordinate and pre- 
paratory office of Mosaism. 5 13 -6 10 is an 
ethical homily addressed to the faults of the 
readers, and 6 11 " 16 a trenchant summary of 
the letter. In historical interest and contro- 
versial power Galatians ranks first amongst 
the Epistles. 

(d) Romans is the most abstract and ob- 
jective of the Epistles : the grand exposition of 
Gods plan of salvation for mankind. St. Paul 
will soon visit Rome, where he claims author- 
ity as Apostle to the Gentiles. In this 
Church, which has existed for some years, he 
has already a number of friends (15,10-15 
I515-29 161-16). At this crisis of his work, it 
is well to deliver a full manifesto in face of 
the ' other gospel ' with which he has been in 
conflict ; he will thus best introduce himself 
at Rome, and counteract by anticipation the 
legalist propaganda. Chs. 1-8 unfold in posi- 
tive, systematic, and deliberate fashion ' the 
word of the cross,' which Galatians ar- 
gued negatively and polemically, and which 
1 and 2 Corinthians have assumed and built 
upon. Chs. 9-11 discuss the difficulty raised 
by the repudiation of the gospel on the part 
of the Jewish people, who had a prior claim 
to it (li 6 ) — a distressing problem to the 
Apostle personally, and a very serious objec- 
tion to his argument. Chs. 12i* 15 13 is a 
digest of Christian ethics, social and civil, 
based on the consecration of the body and 
the ' renewal of the mind ' under Christ's all- 
embracing law of love. The rest of the letter 
is of personal and local interest. 

The above are ' the four evangelical Epistles,' 
containing the heart and sum of the Apostle's 
teaching. 

in. (a) Colossians, like Galatians, is con- 
troversial. This is the Epistle of the exaltation 
of Christ, whose headship of the Church is 
affirmed to rest upon His anterior headship 
over the created universe (1 15-20). The right 
understanding of Christ's lordship in the 
realms of nature and grace, and of the bound- 
less scope of His atonement (118-20 29.10), 
leaves no room for the angel-mediations and 
ritual appliances by which the Colossian error- 



ists would have supplemented the Redeemer's 
work : see p. xciii above, and Intro, to Colos- 
sians. In the ethical half of the letter (3 1-4 6 ), 
each duty is enforced by the lordship of Christ : 
family relationships are dwelt upon with an 
emphasis new in the Epistles (3i 8 -4i) : cp. 
p. xciii. 

(6) Philemon should be attached to Colos- 
sians. This exquisite little note — a specimen 
probably of many such — reveals St. Paul's char- 
acter in private life. It appeals for the reception 
by his master of Onesimus, a runaway slave now 
converted to Christ, ' as a brother beloved.' 

(c) Ephesians is the Epistle of the glory of 
the Church, regarded as Christ's body and His 
bride. Ephesians and Colossians are kindred 
in thought and language ; the former reads as 
the complement and continuation of the latter. 
Yet there is a marked difference of manner — 
Colossians being polemical, incisive, sometimes 
very abrupt and obscure ; Ephesians the most 
calm, expansive, and diffuse of St. Paul's 
writings. He has dismissed the Colossian 
error from his mind, and gives himself up to 
the train of meditation on the glory of Christ 
and the Church which the controversy has 
occasioned. In richness of ethical and hor- 
tatory matter (4 1-6 20 ), transfused with theo- 
logical thought, Ephesians resembles Romans, 
to which Colossians and Ephesians stand next 
in point of doctrinal importance. 

(d) Philippians is, above all, the Epistle of 
heart fellowship. Its simplicity and discursive 
freedom remind us of 1 Thessalonians. As 
2 Corinthians discloses the loftiness of the 
writer's character and the supernatural powers 
of the ministry, Philippians reveals the depths 
of his inner faith and communion with Christ. 
It supplies essential matter for the Apostle's 
biography. 2 5 -n is a passage of surpassing 
theological interest. This is the most serene 
and beautiful of St. Paul's writings. 

iv. The three Pastorals are letters on 
Church discipline. In 1 Timothy and Titus 
the Apostle's delegates, at Ephesus and in 
Crete, are instructed about the appointment 
of elders (or bishops) and deacons, the stress 
being laid on qualifications of character. They 
are exhorted as to their own conduct in the 
ministry, especially in face of the heretical 
and vicious teaching now coming into vogue. 
The like admonitions, mingled with personal 
reminiscences and forebodings of the writer's 
death, occupy 2 Timothy — St. Paul's ' swan 
song.' These are conservative and valedic- 
tory Epistles ; ' guard the good deposit,' 
' speak the things that become the sound 
doctrine,' are their watchwords. 

7. Summary of Doctrine. The Godhead. 
' To us there is one God, the Father, of whom 
are all things and we for Him' (lCor8 6 ). 
This ' one God ' is known as ' The Father of 



xcv 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



our Lord Jesus Christ ' — ours through Him ; 
there is ' one mediator between God and men, 
the man Christ Jesus, who gave Himself a 
ransom for all' (lTim2 5 > 6 ). Christ appears 
by the Father's side as the ' one Lord Jesus 
Christ, through whom are all things and we 
through Him' (1 Cor 8 6 ). In Him, ' the Son 
of God's love,' ' dwells all the fulness of the 
Godhead' (Coll 13 2 9 ); in Him, since He 
' came in the likeness of men,' a complete and 
sinless humanity is realised (Gal 4 6 Phil 2 7 > 8 , 
etc.). The interests and destinies of mankind 
are lodged with Him, for salvation and for 
judgment (Ro5 21 2Cor5 10 , etc.). In the end 
1 every knee shall bow ' to Him ; Christ will 
then ' deliver up the kingdom to God even 
the Father,' and ' the Son Himself will be 
subject to Him that subjected all things unto 
Him, that God may be all in all ' (Phil2io,n 
1 Corl5 24 " 28 ). The divine Lordship of Christ 
does not impair, but vindicates, the unity of 
the Godhead. This is equally true of the 
Deity of the Holy Spirit, whom the Apostle 
associates with the Father and the Son in the 
benediction of 2 Cor 13 14 and elsewhere. ' The 
Spirit ' is God dwelling and working in the 
soul and in the Church (1 Cor2 12 3 16 6 19 Ro 
8 26 Gal 4 6 Eph2 21 , etc.). He comes to men 
as the ' Spirit of God's Son,' and is the witness 
of their ' adoption ' in Christ, the ' earnest of 
their inheritance,' the agent of their sanctifica- 
tion, the imparter of all gifts and powers of 
grace (Ro 8 1«» Gal 5 16-25 2 Cor 1 2 i- 22 Eph 1 13, 14 
lTh47,8 1 Cor 12 4-n, etc.). As the Holy 
Spirit wrought in the resurrection of 
Jesus, He will be the means of ' quickening 
the mortal bodies ' of those in whom He dwells 
(Ro8 6 "H). Grace—' the grace of God,' 'of 
our Lord Jesus Christ ' — is the conspicuous 
attribute of the Godhead in Christianity. 

Sin and Redemption. Except ' the one man 
Jesus Christ,' who is God's ' own Son,' ' all 
have sinned and are destitute of the glory of 
God ' (Ro3 23 83). The sin of mankind, call- 
ing forth ' God's wrath,' has brought both 
Gentiles and Jews to their present shameful 
and guilty state (Rol 18 -3 20 ); it is 'laying up 
in store ' for the impenitent a dreadful retribu- 
t ion (Ro 2 5 1 Th 1 ™ etc.). From Adam down- 
wards our race has been in bondage under 
thr law of sin and death' (Ro5i 2 -i4 7 2 3.24 
8 2 ). The law of Moses, which expressed in 
a more definite and imperative form the 
universal law of God engraved on the human 
conscience (Bo 2 ' '-"'' .V- 1 '-' 6 18 ), has served to 
provoke and aggravate, rather than to prevent, 
transgression (Bo3 10 T"--' 1 Gfral3 10 , etc.). In 
1 1 1 « t fulness of time, when the law had done 
its work, l Christ redeemed us from its curse'; 
• He was made sin for us, who knew no sin, 
that we might become God's righteousness in 



Him' (Gal 3 is 2Cor5 2 i). Our Lord in ' the 
death of the cross ' submitted on His brethren's 
behalf to the judicial consequence of human 
sin, meeting in its course that holy ' wrath ' 
which deals out death to transgressors. So 
dying ' one for all, 1 He offered ' a propitiatory 
sacrifice in His blood ' and effected ' recon- 
ciliation (atonement)' for mankind — a fact 
certified by His resurrection (Ro3 22 " 26 4 2 $ 
58-11 2 Cor 5 18-19). Faith in Him who thus 
' died and rose again ' for us, makes the indi- 
vidual man participator in the common salva- 
tion and brings ' peace with God ' (Ro 3 22 > 25 
5 1. 2 Eph 2 13-18, etc.); faith is the trustful and 
submissive hand of the sinner meeting God's 
outstretched hand of grace in Christ. The act 
of God in saving ' him who is of faith in 
Jesus,' St. Paul speaks of as ' justification.' 
By this he means not merely the (negative) 
forgiving of past sins, but the (positive) giving 
to the sinner of the status of a righteous man 
(Ro5 15 " 17 ), who is for Christ's -sake counted 
for and treated as righteous, his past sin 
being regarded as though it had not been 
(Ro43-8 5 2 2Cor5 2 i Col 2 1*), and is set there- 
by in the way of becoming righteous in life and 
conduct (Ro 6 4 > 1S 8 4 ). Hence justification im- 
plies 'adoption,' the receiving of the alien into 
the divine household, his endowment with ' the 
Spirit of God's Son,' and his investiture with 
the inheritance of God's children (Ro 8i 6 > 17. 31-34 
Gal 4 4 -7 Eph 1 5 ). In view of Christ's ' propiti- 
ation,' this restitution of the sinner is not 
merely an act of love on God's part : He is 
' just ' though He ' justifies the ungodly ' (Ro 
3 26 4 5 ), and His action is legal in the highest 
sense (Ro3 27 -3i). The 'redemption that is in 
Christ Jesus ' includes with the soul the body, 
won also for God by the price of His blood 
(lCor6 20 ); of its recovery from the grave, 
completing man's salvation, the resurrection 
of Jesus gives pledge (Ro3 24 8i 6 - 23 Eph 17,14 
lCorl5 2 <>> 2 3,45-57 iTh4i4 2 Tim lio, etc.). 

The Nev) Life in Christ. ' Justification ' 
through faith in the death of Christ leads 
to ' sanctification ' by union with the living 
Christ (Ro Oi-ii). All believers in Christ are 
' saints ' (1 Cor 1 2 6 11 , etc.), however defective 
their saintship ; they were consecrated to God 
in the act of saving faith (Ro 6 i 8 > 22 ), and regard 
themselves as no longer ' their own ' (1 Cor 
»•» '"• -")• They practically < live to God,' in so 
far as faith identifies them with Christ ; they 
' have coalesced with Him by the likeness ' 
first ' of His death ' and then ' of His resur- 
rection ' (Ro G4-ii Col 3 1-4, etc.). All human 
relations and earthly events are transformed 
for the man who is ' in Christ Jesus ' (2 Cor 
516,16) . he ■ knows no one ' merely 'after the 
flesh,' for he is a man of the Spirit, ' renewed 
in the spirit of his mind' (Eph4 23 » 2 4), and 



xcvi 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



carries spiritual estimates and aims into every- 
thing (Ro89 Gal 5 25, etc.). 'The law of 
Christ,' summed up in the two commands of 
love to God and man, rules his whole con- 
duct (Ro5 5 129, etc.). Impurity is shunned 
as a defilement of ' the temple of God ' and 
an outrage upon the Holy Spirit (lCor6 19 
lTh4 s ); lying is impossible amongst those 
who are ' members one of another ' (Eph 4 25 ) ; 
unkindness contradicts the example of Christ's 
self-sacrifice (Eph 431-5 2) : these are examples 
of the ethical logic of ' the word of the cross.' 
The obligations of the family and the state 
are not destroyed for the Christian, but 
assume a deeper meaning and a new sanctity. 
Even his eating and drinking are done to the 
glory of God (1 Cor 1031 Col3i?, etc.). l All 
things ' become his servants and ' work together 
for his good' (1 Cor 2 21-23 Ro8 2 s, etc.). For 
himself, his supreme desire is to be ' sanctified 
completely ' (1 Th5 23 ), to be ' conformed '—in 
spirit now, in body hereafter — ' to the image 
of God's Son ' (Ro8 2 9 Phil39-2i) ; f or others, 
that they may be saved from sin and finally 
'presented perfect in Christ' (RolO 1 Col 128 
2 Tim 2 1°, etc.). Thus his entire being is ' rooted 
and built up,' and wrapped up, ' in Christ,' the 
Head and Soul of redeemed humanity (Gal 2 20 
Col26,7 311 Eph4io lCor8<3 113, e tc). 

The Church. The Christian redemption is 
as truly social as personal ; Christ ' loved me 
and gave Himself up for me ' ; He also ' loved 
the Church and gave Himself up for her' 
(Gal 2 20 Eph 5 25). 'The saints and faithful 
brethren ' addressed in the Epistles belong, all 
of them, to the Christian community and owe 
allegiance to it (Gal 6 2 Eph5 2 i 1 Cor 12 12-27. 
etc.) ; they were ' called into the fellowship of 
God's Son, Jesus Christ our Lord ' (1 Corl 10). 
In earlier letters we read of this or that local 
Church, or ' churches of God.' Gradually the 
idea of ' the Church,' as the l body of Christ ' 
and ' habitation of God in the Spirit,' which 
embraces the particular Churches and consists 
of all without distinction who ' hold fast the 
Head,' grows upon St. Paul's mind (Gal 3 26-28 
Col3 n ); we see it completely formed in 
Ephesians (2 21 22) an( j the Pastorals (1 Tim3 15 
2 Tim 2 20 ). The Church is necessary to Christ 
as the body to the head; in Eph 123 s h e is 
called His ' fulness ' or k complement ' ; He 
' cherishes ' her, as the husband does his spouse 
(Eph 5 23-32). T he Church is no mere temporal, 
provisional institute; through 'all the genera- 
tions of the age of the ages ' she shares the 
glory of Christ, and will appear in her splendour 
of holiness at the Lord's coming (Eph 3 21 5 27). 
' Our gathering together unto Him,' in the 
perfected fellowship of the redeemed, is the 
goal of Christian hope (2Th2i, etc.). 

The grace given to individuals is corporate 



xcvn 



property. Each Christian must ' look on the 
things of others ' and ' by love serve ' his 
brethren; no feeblest limb of the body of 
Christ is without its use (Eph 4 7, 16, 25 Q. a } 5 13 
Phil 2 1-5 1 Cor 12 14 '.). Christ, who ' emptied 
Himself ' and ' humbled Himself unto death ' 
for His brethren's sake, is the Christian model 
(Ro 1 4 3 Phil 2 5-8). The various ' ministries ' 
with their specific ' gifts of grace ' (charisms), 
exist for the common benefit, and must be 
controlled for this end by the spirit of love 
(1 Cor 124-1440) ; their object is to furnish and 
enable ' the saints ' for their ' work of ministry,' 
and to promote a mutual edification through 
the entire fabric of the Church (Eph4Hi6). 
Hence it is character and soundness of faith, 
not ability, for which St. Paul is supremely 
anxious in his instructions to Timothy and 
Titus about appointments to Church-office. 
Christian teachers and pastors ' have no lord- 
ship over the faith ' of the flock ; they must 
' commend themselves to every conscience of 
men in the sight of God ' (1 Cor 10 15 2 Cor 1 23 
42 2 Tim 2 15). At Christ's tribunal they will 
'give account,' as being His 'servants and 
stewards of the mysteries of God' (lCor4i- 4 
2 Cor 5 9 ). Fidelity to Christ, possession of 
His « mind,' and a love for men that dictates 
unlimited self-denial, distinguish the gospel 
minister (1 Cor 2-4, 9, 2 Cor 12 15 Ro 1 14, 15 9 3). 
The Apostle lays stress upon the ordinances 
of Baptism and the Lord's Supper in respect 
both of their doctrinal significance and their 
covenantal force(Ro6 3 ,4 lCorl0 16 -22 H23-34) i 
while he attaches small importance to his per- 
sonal administration of them (1 CorliM7). 

The Kingdom of God, and the Consummation. 
The thought of ' the kingdom of God and of 
Christ' retires in the Epistles somewhat behind 
that of 'the Church,' but it was never dis- 
placed in the Apostle's mind. He took over 
the Old Testament Messianic conception of 
' the kingdom,' as it was transformed by Jesus. 
The Church consists of the ' citizens ' of God's 
kingdom (Eph 2 10 Phil320) ; 'the kingdom' 
embraces the entire order of things determined 
by the will of God in Christ, including the 
natural and secular provinces of life, which 
are bound up with the economy of grace (Ro 
13 1-5 Col 3 22-4 1 1 Tim 4 3-5 6 15). Creation and 
redemption are parts of one scheme, and Christ 
is their unifying principle (Col 1 15-18). 

The history of God's kingdom pursues a 
hidden ' purpose of the ages,' conceived in His 
prescient wisdom and executed according to 
' the good pleasure of His will,' which centres 
in the mission of Christ and is revealed by the 
preaching of the gospel to mankind (Ro 16 25-27 
Eph 3 2-11 2 Tim 1 9, 10, etc.). The throne of this 
kingdom is 'the heart' (RolOio 2 Cor 4 6 Col 
315); it s power is that of 'the Spirit'; its 



SURVEY OF THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL 



wealth lies in ' righteousness and peace and 
joy in the Holy Ghost' (1 Cor 2 4 420 RoHl?). 
It is destined, however, to dominate all mun- 
dane affairs (lCor3 21 >22 6 2 15 23 ), and to 
liberate nature along with ' the children of 
God ' ' from the bondage of corruption ' (Ro 
8i9-23)_ The Satanic powers regnant in 
heathenism, and all evil men, are the enemies 
of God and of Christ (Eph6io-i3 lCorl()20-22 7 
etc.) ; these constitute, in alliance, a ' dominion 
of darkness ' warring against ' the kingdom of 
the Son of God's love ' (Col 1 13) . they are 
doomed to an utter overthrow. ' Death, the 
last ' of Christ's foes, is in course of abolition 
(1 Cor 1526> 54-57 2Timl 10). 

The Apostle oftenest speaks of ' the king- 
dom of God ' in the light of its future con- 
summation, as matter of hope and ' inheritance ' 
(2 Th 1 5 1 Cor 69, etc.). ' The fashion of this 
world is passing ' (1 Cor7 29 31 ) ; at ' the revela- 
tion,' or ' coming (parousia) of our Lord Jesus 
Christ,' it will vanish (1 Cor 17 2 Cor 5 l 1 Th 
313 2Th2!. etc.). God's kingdom will then 
come in its ' glory ' (1 Th2 12 ) — the manifested 
glory of God ' streaming through the world 
(Ro 5 2 Tit 2 13 ), and centring in the person of 
the enthroned Christ (Phil 2 u 2 Th 2 »> u 1 Tim 
6 14 ). But there are those to whom Christ's 
'appearing' will bring shame and ruin (ITh 
52,3 2Th2 8 - 10 ); for He comes the second 
time as Judge. ' All must be manifested 
before Christ's tribunal,' where doom will be 
pronounced on ' the works of darkness ' (1 Cor 
4 5 2 Cor 5 10 Ro 2 16 ). ' The day of the Lord ' 
to the impenitent is ' a day of wrath and 
revelation of the righteous judgment of God ' 
(Ro2 5 » 6 ' 8 ' 9 ). The risen saints, approved at 
His coming, will be ' conformed ' to Christ's 
'body of glory' (Phil 3 21 CoLS*-* lCorl549). 
For Christians living in the flesh at His return 
the Apostle anticipates a transformation, with- 
out dissolution, of the ' earthy ' into the 
1 heavenly ' or ' spiritual body ' ; they will 
1 put on ' the latter ' over ' the former, so that 
4 the mortal ' part of them will be ' swallowed 
up of life' (lCorl5 51 - 55 2 Corf) 1 " 5 lTh4is-i7). 
In Christ's resurrection the Apostle sees the 
' firstfruits ' of the glory destined for 'those 
who are Christ's at His coming' (1 Cor If) 20. 23 
•_>(•<„•} 10-it 2 Tim 2 H,i2)__ 'a weight of glory' 
irradiating all created nature, with which their 
severest tribulations k arc not worthy to be 
compared' (Bo8 17 * 81 ). Meanwhile, the saints 
'dying in fche Lord 1 pass away to be 'with 

Christ.' in :i state ' very far better' than their 



present toil and warfare ( I'hil 1 - 1 - :! 2G 



God, all things in all.' is the goal to which 
creation and redemption move (1 ( 'or I .V--' s ). 

8. Authenticity and Integrity of the Epistles. 
The Pauline authorship of Romans, 1 and 2 



Corinthians, and Galatians has never been 
denied, except by a few eccentric scholars. 
1 Thessalonians, Philippians, and Philemon 
are added to the list of homologumena, as docu- 
ments which, though questioned for a while 
during the last century, have vindicated their 
genuineness by the clearness with which they 
reflect the personality of the Apostle. The 
other six are still counted as antilegomena — 
Colossians being the least disputed of them, 
the three Pastorals the most, while 2 Thes- 
salonians is held in considerable suspicion, and 
Ephesians in still more. Adverse critics re- 
cognise a Pauline nucleus in the personal data 
of Titus and 2 Timothy. Some regard Colos- 
sians and 2 Thessalonians — perhaps 1 Timothy 
— as Pauline in basis, but interpolated. Ephe- 
sians must be treated as genuine or pseudony- 
mous in its entirety. A good and sufficient 
defence can be made for St. Paul's full 
authorship in each case : see the several 
Introductions. 

Where Pauline authenticity is maintained, 
the unity of some Epistles is called in question. 
The difference in tone between 10 i-lS 10 and 
the rest of 2 Corinthians leads some able in- 
terpreters to regard this section as imported 
from another Epistle of Paul to Corinth — pos- 
sibly the lost 'letter' of 2 3, 4 an d 7 8 . 2 Cor 
6 14 -? 1 , again, is a paragraph that fits badly 
into its context, and that seems suitable to the 
earlier letter alluded to in 1 Cor 5 9 . It has 
been asked, moreover, whether the long chain 
of greetings found in R0I6 may not have 
been attached to a copy of this Letter, or of 
the principal parts of it, sent to some other 
Church than Rome — say to that of Ephesus, 
where the Apostle had laboured for three 
years. The triple ending of this Epistle (in 
I533 1620 an d 1625-27), an d the absence of the 
words 'in Rome' (l 7 ) from certain ancient 
copies, decidedly suggest the hypothesis of a 
manifold destination : see Intro, to Ro. 

It is to be noted that the most important of 
the thirteen Letters are the most certainly 
authentic. Whatever else may be denied, no 
one can reasonably doubt that there was such 
a man as Paul the Apostle of Christ Jesus, 
who wrote letters that are in our hands to 
Christian societies in Asia Minor. Corinth, and 
Rome, within thirty years of his Master's 
death. This is an historical fact of immense 
importance ; for these Epistles contain all the 
vital truths of Christianity, and exhibit them 
as living and transforming powers in society. 
These documents presuppose the person and 
teaching, the death and resurrection of the 
Lord Jesus. Without the Christ of the 
Four Gospels, the Paul of the Epistles is 
unintelligible. 



BELIEF IN GOD 



The central subject of the Bible is God. 
The Book opens with an account of. His crea- 
tion of the heavens and the earth (Gn 1 *), and 
concludes with a description of the ' new 
heavens and earth' (Rev 21) — the ideal to 
which creation is moving, and wherein God 
Himself shall be the immediate source of 
illumination and the object of worship. 

Throughout the Bible God is referred to 
as almighty, all-wise, all-holy, the eternal 
creator, sustainer, and moral governor of the 
universe. He is represented as entering into 
special relations with his highest creature, 
man, who is created in His image, after His 
likeness (Gn 1 26 > 27 ), to be His vicegerent upon 
earth (Gn 1 26-28^ an d to increase in sympathy 
and fellowship with Himself. Man has, 
however, abused His highest gift of free-will, 
and so introduced sin into the world, a blot 
upon the fair creation, and a hereditary taint 
upon his own stock. Henceforth God's rela- 
tion to man is changed. The glad love of 
pure beneficence becomes the wistful love of 
redemptive purpose. And in due time is 
chosen out for specially intimate relations with 
God, a single tribe — the ' seed of Abraham.' 
Israel is ' elected,' i.e. chosen out for special 
privilege and guidance, not from any motives 
of favouritism, but in order that he may be 
the vehicle of blessing to all mankind. To 
Israel — and through Israel to all men — is given 
an even deeper and clearer revelation of the cha- 
racter and will of God — that revelation which 
we see running through all the Old Testament, 
and reaching its climax in Jesus Christ : cp. 
Heb 1 1_5f . Different misconceptions are succes- 
sively purged away as opportunity occurs. At 
Sinai any lingering taint of idolatry and crude 
anthropomorphism is purged by the revelation 
of the ten commandments, and the natural 
tendency to irreverent, easy-going approach 
to the Almighty is met by the elaborate system 
of strict ceremonial. The prophets of the 
eighth century B.C. point out the futility of 
ceremonial reformation apart from righteous- 
ness of character, and go far towards removing 
the still-prevailing misconceptions by which 
the Lord was regarded as the tribal God of 
Israel, pledged to protect and support them, 
irrespective of their deserts. The Lord is 
' exalted in judgment ' (Isa 5 16 ), and no re- 
specter of persons. Special closeness involves 
special responsibility (Am3 2 ). Side by side 
with this comes a universalising tendency, a 
growing realisation of the one God's equal rule 



and care of all mankind (Am 9 7 Isa 2 2, 3 1 9 18-25)^ 
which finds strong emphasis in some of the 
later Psalms (cp. e.g. Pss96, 100, 117), and in 
the book of Jonah. 

Meanwhile the discipline of suffering and 
perplexity, which had its effect upon the 
Hebrew people throughout their history, but 
most markedly during the Babylonian exile, 
purified and spiritualised the conception of the 
meaning of religion and of life ; carried forward 
the thoughts of the faithful more and more 
wistfully to a future life, in which righteous- 
ness should be vindicated and the balance of 
happiness redressed ; and while it brought home 
to them the weakness and impurity of human 
nature, intensified the desire for personal holi- 
ness and communion with God ; and, finally, 
gave occasion for the portrayal of the ' Suffer- 
ing Servant of the Lord ' (Isa 41-53) gather- 
ing up into Himself at once human penitence 
and divine redemption — that most wonderful 
figure in all the Old Testament, which is 
strikingly typical of the central Figure of the 
New Testament. 

The statements about God in Holy Scrip- 
ture are uttered with an air of authority, 
dogmatically ; not as the result of a long chain 
of reasoning: 'The Lord said' this — 'did' 
that — or more emphatically, in the form of a 
message, ' Thus saith the Lord.' The teaching 
of the Bible is not the result of deductive or 
inductive reasoning. No direct arguments are 
adduced to prove the existence of God — that 
is assumed throughout. His attributes may 
be the subject of argument ; His existence, 
never. His justice, His wisdom, His power 
may be momentarily obscured by the mystery 
of evil in the world — as in the book of Job. 
Incidentally we may get arguments dealing 
with the nature of the Deity, as e.g. the inter- 
esting a fortiori argument from creature to 
Creator in Ps94, 'He that made the eye, 
shall he not see ? ' etc., which logically carried 
out becomes an inference of Personality in 
God from man's personality — there are argu- 
ments such as these either stated or suggested 
in Holy Scripture, but the existence of God 
never comes within their scope. It lies behind 
all else ; it is the fundamental conception in 
the light of which all else is viewed. Not 
only in the Pentateuch and the Prophets and 
the Psalms, but in the historical narratives — 
in the brief and apparently barren records of 
the accession, regnal years, and death of the 
various kings, it is made clear that God's Hand 



BELIEF IN GOD 



is at work throughout guiding the course of 
events, and that He is the ever-present Judge 
by whom the actions of king and subject alike 
are weighed. Even in the book of Esther, in 
which the divine Name never once occurs, no 
doubt is left upon the mind as to the provi- 
dential overruling of events both great and 
small. Nay, in those books which are least 
formally theological — Job, Proverbs, and Ec- 
clesiastes, the works of the ' wise men,' the 
humanists or philosophers of Israel — the 
thought of God is present from first to last. 
They do not grope and search after Him like 
the great pagan thinkers. They set out, not 
to discover, but to recognise Him ; to learn 
from His dealing with nature and human 
nature more about that divine Personality 
who is the primary presupposition of all their 
system, and with whom their heart holds 
sacred communion even while the intellect 
stands baffled before the insoluble problems 
involved in His permission of evil in the world 
He rules. 

The Bible, as we have said, does not offer 
arguments to prove the existence of the Deity, 
but it offers something which is far more 
valuable to most of us than any abstract proof. 
It gives us a concrete, experimental, descrip- 
tive theology. It shows us a picture of the 
world with God at work in it, which the 
devout, appreciative soul instinctively recog- 
nises as true. It offers us, largely in the 
concrete form of narrative and history, a 
theory of the universe which, rightly under- 
stood, is found to meet the demands of hearts 
and minds alike: revealing a God whose 
character is such and whose relation to man is 
such that in Him both our needs and our 
aspirations find satisfaction. At the same 
time it incidentally provides a theory of 
human nature (see especially Gnl-3) that 
affords the only satisfactory key to the raison 
d'etre of those needs and aspirations — the 
explanation of man's actual littleness and his 
potential greatness. 

We will consider first the message of the 
Bible to man's heart, and then its message to 
his understanding. 

The needs and aspirations of heart and 
spirit can only be satisfied by personal com- 
munion with the Deity, such as the Psalter so 
wonderfully delineates (see especially PsslG, 
17. 63, 73), :t communion which attains its 
fullest expression in the religion of the New 
Testament. 

This heart-knowledge is after all, to each 
individual who lias it. the most direct form of 
evidence for the existence of God — the per- 
sonal intercourse- with Him of our personal 
spirit — the communion in virtue of which we 
can nay, 'I know that there is a God became 
I know H< n>. I experience in prayer and 



sacrament and meditation a conviction of His 
reality and His presence which is quite as 
real to me as is the conviction that those things 
exist which I can touch and see. This convic- 
tion is clearest and strongest when I am at 
my best, and I attribute all that is best and 
highest in my character to such communion, 
as thousands have done before me.' 

This is the kind of ' knowledge of God' 
that cries aloud to us from the Psalms and 
Prophecies, and underlies the other writings 
of the Old Testament. And the perfection of 
this communion is to be found in Jesus Christ, 
as portrayed for us in the Synoptic Gospels 
(Lkl022; C p. Mkl3 32 ), but especially in St, 
John (5 19f - 10 15 .30 1411, e tc.), and reaches its 
climax in the great high-priestly prayer of 
Jnl7. After our Lord's Ascension and the 
descent of the Holy Spirit, it takes the form, 
for Christ's members, of a fellowship with 
the blessed Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost (2 Cor 13 14 ; cp. Unl3). 

Being, however, in one sense, a purely per- 
sonal and individual matter, this sense of 
communion is commonly thought to be too 
subjective to be adduced as an argument for 
the existence of God. It is always open to 
an objector to say, ' You assert that you 
have this feeling ; I am willing to admit 
your sincerity, but you may be the victim of 
illusion. All I can say is that I have no such 
feeling myself.' To such an assertion it seems 
perhaps inadequate to reply, l If you will but 
assume first provisionally (as we have to 
assume many things in practical life) that 
existence which you cannot demonstrate, and 
then act upon the assumption, conviction will 
come with experience.' Yet such a reply may 
be enforced and corroborated with all the 
weight of more than nineteen centuries of 
personal experience. Generation after genera- 
tion of martyrs and saints have testified in the 
strongest possible manner to their conviction 
that ' God is, and is a rewarder of them that 
diligently seek Him ' (Heb 1 1 6 ), and have 
been ready to seal the conviction with their 
life's blood. 

That such evidence is not without scientific 
value, is very strongly argued by no less a 
scientist than the late G. J. Romanes, who 
speaks of those who would ignore it as untrue 
to the principles of an impartial Agnosticism. 
Still it fails to appeal to a large class of 
enquirers, who look for a more definitely in- 
tellectual proof and one less intimately asso- 
ciated with personal feeling and emotion. 

There are such arguments for the being and 
character of God, and some of them have come 
down to us from very ancient times. It may 
be admitted that they do not — either singly or 
even in combination — amount to demonstra- 
tive proof ; yet they form, as we shall see, a 



BELIEF IN GOD 



very strong presumption in favour of belief in 
just such a God as the Bible claims to reveal. 

We will now briefly sketch the more im- 
portant of these types of argument, and then 
we may be better able to estimate the extent 
to which the Biblical revelation corresponds 
to, and completes, man's intellectual search 
after God. We must remember, however, at 
the outset that these traditional arguments are 
not the originating cause of man's belief, even 
where belief is found outside the influence of 
revelation, rather, they represent an intel- 
lectual analysis or justification of a belief 
already existing. As far back as Cicero in the 
first century B.C., or even earlier, pagan 
thinkers had observed that religion in some 
form or other is a universal trait in human 
nature. And though in modern days apparent 
exceptions of 'atheistical tribes' have been 
adduced to prove the contrary, the trend of 
anthropological science may be said on the 
whole to support the judgment of antiquity. 
There may indeed be savages (though the 
point has not been proved) among whom no 
definite trace of religious observance can be 
discerned ; but are they normal representa- 
tives even of undeveloped humanity? Is 
there no such thing as degradation ? Ajid 
have not even these poor savages some vestige 
at least of the religious faculty ? for that is 
all our argument really requires. The world- 
wide progress of Christian missions to the 
heathen seems to testify quite triumphantly 
that no race or tribe of men, however degraded 
and apparently atheistic, lacks that spark of 
religious capacity which may be fanned and 
fed into a mighty flame. 

Granted, then, that the religious faculty is 
practically universal among mankind, what is 
the significance of this fact ? From ancient 
times it has been regarded as an argument — 
often (wrongly) as a proof — that God exists. 
It is called the argument ' from the general 
consent of mankind ' : in Latin, argumentum e 
consensu gentium. The whole world, it is urged, 
must surely be right — securus judical orbis 
terrarum. 

Of a truth it is exceedingly unlikely, if (as 
we must presume) the world is rational, that 
a phenomenon so universal as religion, so inti- 
mately and intricately interwoven with the 
central facts of human life and progress, should 
be founded on illusion. But the outward ex- 
pression of the religious principle in different 
ages and climes exhibits so much variety, in- 
consistency, and vagueness, that we ought not 
perhaps to speak of this argument (at least in 
this, its broader and vaguer form) as directly 
evidencing the existence and character of God. 
What it really amounts to is, as has been well 
said, ' an evidence that there are evidences.' If 
the religious instinct is observed to be practi- 



cally universal, it will be worth while to see 
whether it is not essential to human nature. 
And this quest leads us to the formal argu- 
ments for God's existence. The grounds of 
this religious instinct will be found to lie partly 
in man's relation to the external world, partly 
in the constitution of human nature itself. 

The consideration of the external world 
around him, even in its broadest aspect, leads 
man up to the thought of an Eternal Cause ; 
the study of its phenomena in detail with its 
marvellous intricacy of harmonious interaction 
produces the impression of design, and leads 
to the thought of a Designer— i.e. of an Eternal 
Cause that is intelligent and free. Eeflexion 
on his own consciousness and the fact that the 
external world corresponds in a mysterious 
way to his own thought leads to the idea of a 
primal and Universal Consciousness embracing 
all reality and forming, as it were, a meeting- 
place between Thought and Things. Lastly, 
his own moral nature-conscience, with its au- 
thoritative voice, clearly distinguishable from 
mere wish, taste, desire, and self-interest — 
speaks to him of a Universal Lawgiver, supreme 
and perfect, to whom alone the 'categorical 
imperative ' of the inner monitor can be ade- 
quately referred. The Eternal Cause is thus 
found to be endowed with all the attributes 
characteristic of personality as seen in man. 

Of the first of these arguments little further 
need be said. Man finds in himself a principle 
of causality in the light of which he interprets 
the external world. He cannot help regarding 
the succession of phenomena which he observes 
as effects — attributing each to some cause. 
When he examines that again he discovers it 
to be no true or absolute cause, but itself the 
effect of something further back, and so on. 
He finds in himself the nearest approach to a 
vera causa: yet he would recognise the ab- 
surdity of calling himself self-caused. And 
the mind cannot rest in an endless chain of 
cause-effects. There must be, it feels, if you 
go far enough back, a real Cause, akin, in some 
way, to man's own power of origination, yet 
transcending it — a cause that owns no cause — 
no source of being — but itself. And to this 
Eternal Cause all things, including man him- 
self, must be ultimately referable. 

The third argument, again, in favour of a 
Universal Consciousness, which has several 
different forms, is too abstruse for the ordinary 
reader, requiring for its appreciation some 
degree of metaphysical training. The second 
and the fourth — the ' Design ' and ' Conscience ' 
arguments — demand a somewhat fuller treat- 
ment here, being specially important in view of 
the light thrown on them by recent scientific 
theory. 

The Design-argument is perhaps the most 
ancient and the most popular of all. It is 



01 



BELIEF IN GOD 



never actually formulated in the Bible, for the 
Bible, as we have seen, never treats God's ex- 
istence as the subject of argument. But its 
basis, the marvellous harmony of the created 
world, is the theme of more than one of the 
Psalms (cp. e.g. Pss 19, 104, 147, 148) ; and St. 
Paul comes very near to stating the argument 
in so many words, when he says (Ho 1 20 ) in 
depreciation of pagan superstitions and immor- 
ality, that the k everlasting power and divinity ' 
of the Creator are clearly discernible from His 
works. 

Granted that the very existence of the world 
implies an Eternal Cause, what can we learn 
about that Cause ? The nearest thing to a 
true first Cause of which I have experience, is 
my own personality : hence there is a pre- 
sumption that the world's first Cause will be 
at least what we know as personal. But that 
presumption is not all we have to go upon. 
There are definite indications in nature, when 
more closely observed, that make it impossible 
to regard the Eternal Cause as a merely me- 
chanical originator of the world-process, that 
stamp it — or rather Him — as intelligent and 
free, a nature like my own rational nature, only 
far above and beyond it. 

Everywhere in nature we see the teleological 
principle (as it is called) at work, i.e. we see 
means adapted to ends, and the present sub- 
ordinated to the future. This adaptation of 
means to ends manifests itself in a bewilder- 
ingly complex way — in each individual member 
of the great organism, in the lesser and greater 
groups, and in the whole. Everywhere, in fact, 
I see traces of purpose and design — for such 
adaptation speaks to me irresistibly of these. 
My only direct experience of like phenomena 
is in my own personality, and so I am led to 
infer a Designer. 

Some, however, have thought that this in- 
ference is invalidated by a closer scrutiny of 
those means by which the evolution of physical 
organisms is effected, according to modern 
scientific theory. Evolution, they say, has upset 
the Design-argument altogether. The marvel- 
lously adjusted interaction of forces and inter- 
ests which we observe in nature is not, as we 
have hitherto supposed, a perfect piece of 
elaborate machinery fresh from the Designer's 
Hand. It has a history behind it, and a history 
which we have only just begun to trace aright. 
The present state of things is not the result 
of a serene and orderly procession -wherein 
every member has found its due and rightful 
place. On the contrary, it is the result in every 
department <>f a struggle for existence fierce 
and unintermitted, in which only a small pro- 
portion — 'thefittest' — have survived. Nature's 
waste products, far outweighing her successes 
— how do they affect the Design-argument ? 

Again, we can see m part the actual means 



by which this relative progress in evolution 
has been made. On the one hand, that is the 
principle of Variation, whereby the offspring 
always varies in some degree from the parent, 
and, on the other hand, that of Natural Selec- 
tion, which results in the survival of the type 
best fitted to survive. Where, then, is there 
room for Design and a Designer ? The answer 
seems to be that the origin or root-principle of 
evolution has not yet been disclosed. What 
is it that produces the Variation which Natural 
Selection fixes and makes the basis of an 
upward step ? The choice seems to lie 
between God and — chance. That chance, or 
some non-rational force, could work on such 
definitely ' teleological ' lines, could produce 
such ordered and systematic results, is a theory 
harder to believe than the theistic theory. And 
the difficulty of it is rather enhanced than 
otherwise by recent scientific discovery. For 
if a mechanically regular world in which neither 
failures nor waste products had place, would 
produce the impression of design and purpose, 
much more forcibly are we driven to the same 
conclusion when we see order growing out of 
chaos, peace out of strife, and apparently in- 
tractable material moulded to artistic perfec- 
tion. The background of struggle, pain, decay 
and seeming waste may be in itself difficult to 
account for ; but the result shows that behind 
the working of the principles of Variation and 
Natural Selection there must be intelligence, 
will, purpose. 

The Design-argument may have been stated, 
in the past, in such a way as to expose it to 
the criticism of scientists ; but the argument 
itself — especially when broadly and generally 
treated — has only gained strength and illumin- 
ation from the modern view of nature's 
working methods ; for ' Evolution,' as Asa Gray 
said to Darwin, c has brought back teleology 
to science.' 

The Moral argument — that drawn from the 
phenomena of Conscience — has been similarly 
assailed, but with no better success. Attempts 
have been made to discredit the authoritative 
character of conscience by claiming for it a 
non-moral origin. Conscience, it is urged, is 
the result of a long and complicated process 
of evolution, and really represents not the 
divine voice of an inward monitor, but the 
outcome of ages and ages of racial self-interest. 
To reduce it to a principle of individual self- 
interest is obviously absurd considering how 
frequently conscience and immediate self- 
interest are found to be ranged on opposite 
sides. But the interest of the community or 
the race is a different thing. Generation after 
generation has, as it were, mechanically im- 
pressed upon its members the tendency to act 
ma direction salutary to the race, so that at 
last this unselfish or 'altruistic' principle has 



en 



BELIEF IN GOD 



become a sort of instinct or second nature, 
varying indeed in its range, intensity, and degree 
of enlightenment, but a constant characteristic 
of man as man. 

This line of argument is supported by the 
consideration that there are traces of ap- 
parently conscientious action in animals cus- 
tomarily regarded as irrational, and that 
conscience in mankind exhibits .extremely 
various and inconsistent results in different 
circumstances and stages of civilisation. 

But to treat conscience and the moral argu- 
ment on these lines involves a misconception 
of the scope of Natural Science. The scope 
of Natural Science, properly so called, does 
not include the origin of things nor the pur- 
pose and end of their being. It is merely con- 
cerned with a description of their present state 
and the discovery and analysis of the process 
by which they arrived thereat. Conscience is 
what it is, quite independently of the process 
by which it may have been evolved ; just as 
man is man — an intelligent, rational, moral, 
spiritual being, whatever may have been the 
stages whereby the physical side of him climbed 
up from the humblest places of the realm of 
organic life. Undoubtedly the truer view of 
things is the teleological — that which sees in 
the humble beginning the germ of a great 
future — and not the view which refuses to man 
and conscience their proper names because 
there may have been a time when they were 
far removed from their present stage of 
development. 

As for the startlingly inconsistent ways in 
which conscience vents itself in action, that 
only emphasises the one underlying principle, 
the principle expressed in the words ' I ought.' 
The subject-matter of conscience and its practical 

1 range of influence may vary indefinitely accord- 
ing to the surroundings, circumstances, and 
moral attainment of its particular possessor, 
and it is on this side that we speak of conscience 
as capable of education and enlightenment ; but 
the form of conscience remains constant. It 
may be stronger or weaker according to the 
measure of its use, but it remains in essence 
ever the same ; a principle of moral constraint, 
recognising in extreme cases no human tri- 

> bunal whatever — not even the expressed will 

i or the obvious immediate interest of society in 
general, and witnessing to an obligation that can 
only have reference to a Universal Moral Ruler 
and Lawgiver, whose will is regarded as at once 

P morally perfect and absolutely without appeal. 
Whatever, then, may be the history of the 
evolution of conscience, the testimony of man's 
moral nature would seem to be direct and un- 
mistakable. It points to an Eternal Cause of 
the Universe and of mankind characterised 
not merely by creative power and wisdom, but 
also by moral holiness. 



Is it corroborated by the testimony of 
history ? for if the actual ordering of the 
world of mankind clearly contradicts the 
testimony of conscience, we may still be 
tempted to treat that testimony as illusory. 

Bishop Butler has shown convincingly that 
though the government of the world repre- 
sents a scheme imperfectly comprehensible to 
us, yet there exist quite undeniable marks of 
moral rule — tokens that the Power which 
guides the world is, in more modern phrase, 
1 something — not itself — which makes for 
righteousness.' The rise and fall and the 
succession of empires ; the advance and deca- 
dence of races, tribes, families ; the fortunes 
of individual men — all these, while they pre- 
sent many puzzling and inexplicable features, 
about which we shall have more to say later 
on — bear witness on the whole to the right- 
eousness of Him who sits on the world's 
throne. 

On the physical side of human nature, 
where we should expect things to work them- 
selves out most mechanically, the moral law 
is perhaps most clearly vindicated. Immoral 
conduct produces its own punishment in so 
large a number of cases that sin and suffering 
have sometimes been regarded as simply and 
in every case, cause and effect. Experience 
teaches us, however — and the Bible teaches it 
too, in the book of Job — that not all which 
we commonly regard as evil — all pain, suffer- 
ing or material loss — is the direct consequence 
of moral wrong-doing in the individual who 
suffers. And Christ Himself expressly dis- 
countenances this attribution of suffering to 
sin, as its necessary cause (Lk 1 3 2 > 3 > 4 ). Indeed, 
suffering is not always an evil, as things are 
now, though we rightly look upon it as belong- 
ing to an imperfect state of existence. Some- 
times it seems to be the consequence of virtue 
and intended to stimulate the aspiring soul to 
still higher ideals. 

In history, the most striking picture of 
moral government is to be found in the 
fortunes of Israel. Here we are leaving 
Natural Religion and bordering upon Reve- 
lation. But if the Bible picture of Hebrew 
history be taken as substantially true, it will 
be found to supply a key to history in general, 
and to justify the believer's conviction that 
Old Testament history differs from secular 
history not so much in its subject-matter as 
in its treatment — that it is unique not mainly 
because the Chosen People were uniquely 
nurtured, guided, and disciplined, but because 
here alone the veil is lifted and the true 
issues of personal and national conduct are made 
plain as they appear to Him whose hand has 
guided the history of mankind from its begin- 
ning until now. For this reason, in spite of 
our enormous advance in historical method, 



BELIEF IN GOD 



and of the advantage that comes from an 
indefinitely wider horizon, it may be boldly 
said that the historians of to-day can never 
hope to surpass or even to equal the funda- 
mental grasp of truth achieved in the early 
and unscientific efforts of the inspired historians 
of Israel. 

Revelation. 'Natural Religion,' as it is 
called — i.e. the witness of human nature to 
God — needs Revealed Religion to complete 
it. Man's mind, dwelling on external nature, 
is led up to the thought of an immensely 
wise, mighty and beneficent Creator and 
Ruler. But there are many considerations 
which tend to depreciate the design-argument 
and rob it of its force. Man needs some 
direct assurance from outside the circle of his 
ordinary thought, to combat the problems 
raised by the presence of anomaly, failure, and 
waste, to say nothing of pain. 

Again, man's nature bears on it the impress 
of moral law, and would lead him up to belief 
in an all-holy Universal Lawgiver. Yet there 
is much in the facts of human society that 
would draw him in a quite opposite direction. 
No one can read the Psalms or the book of 
Job, no one can face honestly the facts of 
human society around him to-day, without 
feeling something of the almost overwhelming 
difficulty that is involved in the spectacle of 
successful wickedness, unpunished oppression, 
and unmerited suffering. 

We need some more direct assurance than 
conscience itself can give us if we are to exclaim 
with real conviction — 

' God 's in His heaven ; 
All 's right with the world.' 

And it is natural to ask : If there be a God 
such as human nature seems to suggest or 
demand, could He not — would He not find 
some means of making Himself known to His 
rational creatures ? 

The presupposition of the Bible is that he 
has found such means, and supplemented and 
completed Natural Religion by direct Revela- 
tion. This Revelation is focussed in the 
divine-human figure of Jesus Christ, fore- 
told and expected in the Old Testament, 
present to teach and work in the New. and 
ever abiding by Hi* Spirit in the Church. 

The fact of divine revelation is. of course. 

denied by Atheism: but apart from revela- 
tion altogether, Atheism is self-condemned by 
its presumption. To prove a negative is con- 
fessedly a difficult bask in any field, and the 
Atlnist claims bo bave proved it in the widest 

field of all — fche universe — and in face of the 

many-sided testimony of Nature and Human 
Nature. To be justified in a tlat and categorical 
denial of the existence of a deity I must be 
furnished with a full knowledge of the universe 



both as a whole and in its details, so as to be 
competent to declare that nowhere in all the 
realms of things existing is there any trace of 
evidence which might even probably tell in 
favour of Theism. None but a mind practically 
infinite, omnipresent, and all-knowing could 
compass this. And so it might be suggested 
that the Atheist really claims for himself the 
divine qualities and attributes of which he 
denies the existence in a God. 

Another line of thought antagonistic to reve- 
lation goes by the name of Agnosticism. It 
dwells on the obvious limitations of our 
mental powers, which find themselves baffled 
in every department when they attempt to 
pass beyond a certain point ; and says that 
the circumscribed human mind, excellent as 
it is in its own sphere, can never hope to 
comprehend the Infinite, the Absolute. ' The 
Power,' it says, ' which the universe manifests 
to us, is inscrutable.' It dwells also on the 
difficulties and anomalies in nature ; on the 
darker side of evolution — its aspect of failure, 
struggle and decay ; on the darker side of 
human nature — the presence of evil, especially 
of moral evil, in the world ; and says these 
so far balance the tokens of goodness observ- 
able, that we cannot be sure, if there be a 
government of the world, whether it is one 
that really ' makes for righteousness.' 

There is considerable justification for the 
emphasis laid by Agnosticism on these two 
factors in human life ; but it is just in regard 
to them that Revelation is our greatest help. 
The problem of evil scarcely falls to be dis- 
cussed here : but it may be remarked that, while 
a very real and pressing problem, it can be seen, 
in the light of Revelation, to be no insuperable 
obstacle to faith. With regard to the other 
point, the inadequacy of our faculties, it may 
be said at once that Natural Religion does fall 
short of certainty and completeness, and that 
this is fully admitted in the Bible. There 
is a sense in which the God of the Bible 
is ' incomprehensible,' ' inscrutable.' He is 
as high above man in His ways and thoughts 
as heaven is above earth (Isa55 9 ). His 
essential inaccessibility is expressed as a 
'dwelling in the thick darkness ' (1K8 12 ), or 
in 'light inapproachable' (ITimG 16 ). 'No 
man hath seen God at any time .. ' (Jn 1 18 ) ; 
' No man knoweth who the Father is save the 
Son' (LklO 22 ). Again, man as we know him 
is, of himself, utterly incapable of any true 
knowledge of God : the natural man is in- 
capahle of discerning the things of the Spirit 
(lCor2"). 

At the same time no duty is more persistently 
impressed on their hearers by the prophets than 
1 to know the Lord. 1 To its neglect are ascribed 
the woe and failures of the Chosen People (Isa 
13 513 Hos4 G ), and its presence is a guarantee 
civ 



BELIEF IN GOD 



of righteous conduct. In the New Testament 
the knowledge of the Father and the Son is 
identified with ' everlasting life ' ( Jn 1 7 3 ). 
What is the meaning of this apparent con- 
tradiction ? Fallen man, though sin has 
blurred in him the image of his Creator, re- 
tains still the potentiality of that communion 
for which he was created ; and though he 
cannot of his own initiative ' by searching find 
out God ' (Job 1 1 7 ), he can still, by penitent 
cooperation with Divine grace, attain to a true 
knowledge of One who has been seeking him 
ever since the first days of alienation in 
Paradise (Gn 3 9 ), and has revealed Himself to 
receptive hearts in times past ' by divers por- 
tions and in divers manners ' (Heb 1 1 ). In 
Himself essentially inscrutable, God wills to 
be known with the knowledge of personal com- 
munion. He has given man the capacity for 
such communion, and though man has rejected 
Him, God has devised means that His banished 
be not outcast from Him: cp. 2S14 14 . The 
greatest prophet of the Old Testament por- 
trays in wonderful words this paradox of 
divine condescension (Isa57 15 ). The New 
Testament presents it to us in concrete form, 
in the Messiah on whom the wistful gaze of 
Prophet and Psalmist had for centuries been 
fixed. Then was given once and for all a 
revelation of God and of Man together in a 
single life. 

The revelation of God in Jesus Christ has 
stood the test of many generations as corre- 
sponding to the highest aspirations and most 
urgent demands of human nature. Consider- 
ation of its characteristics shows it is just the 
revelation that man needs. On the one hand, 
it is a revelation of the character of Almighty 

1 God, as in the highest and supremest sense 

i 'our Father.' On the other hand, it is a 
revelation of Ideal Manhood: the bewildered 
question of ages about the meaning, purpose, 
and destiny of the human life is cleared up 
in the New Testament. What He tells us, 
in the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, 
about our duty and our hopes in this life 
and beyond the grave — what He shows us 
in His own person of communion with the 
Heavenly Father, and successful resistance 
of temptation in the strength of that com- 

i munion — what He shows us of absolute self- 
surrender, even to the point of death, of 
triumph through suffering, and of new life 
and glory after the grave — all these are essen- 

1 tial parts of His Revelation. But the Revelation 
is no bare presentation of truth and of an 
ideal utterly inaccessible to weak and fallen 
man. Grace as well as Truth came by Jesus 
Christ (Jn 1 W). And what differentiates this 



from all other so-called Revelations is that, 
while the ideal it holds up before man is 
uniquely lofty — nothing less than perfection 
(Mt5 48 ) — it supplies at the same time the 
motive force necessary for arriving at the 
ideal. 

The Revelation of Truth by itself might 
well generate despair. Its most characteristic 
effect has always been the production of a sense 
of sin : resulting from the felt contrast between 
the absolute_ holiness of Almighty God, re- 
quired by Him in man, and exhibited actually 
in the Man Christ Jesus, and the tale that 
conscience tells us of our own impurity and 
pollution. This terrible contrast — viewed in 
the light of God's revealed Love — would by 
itself produce an unspeakably bitter remorse ; 
but that remorse is transformed into penitence 
by the further revelation of Grace — i.e. of the 
means which Divine Love has devised for man's 
restoration. And so the sense of sin leads to 
' Conversion.' In the Bible teaching about 
Atonement — culminating in the Self-offering 
of Christ — we see the true Representative of 
Mankind removing the barrier set up by sin, 
opening once more the avenue of access to 
God, and so rendering possible to man a 
sacramental sharing of the divine life and 
strength. Here find their satisfaction that 
instinct and yearning that led to the primitive 
institution of sacrifice, as old apparently and 
as universal as the human race. In the 
teaching about the Incarnation — ' the Word 
made flesh' — the Son of God taking upon 
Him not an isolated individual human person- 
ality, but our nature in a universal way, so as 
to become true representative man ; we find 
the fulfilment of the true idea underlying those 
strange dreams, clothed often in unworthy 
guise which find expression in the ' Incarna- 
tion Myth ' of Hindoo and other religions. 
While in the outcome of the Incarnation — 
the incorporation of human personalities one 
by one as members into the body of Christ, 
that incorporation which renders the atoning 
sacrifice effectual in each one — we see realised 
the ideal of the social instinct : all other social 
' membership ' being but a poor metaphor 
beside the living membership in the Church, 
' which is His Body.' 

Finally, the Revelation in both its sides 
receives a magnificent corroboration, when we 
see the life of Christ reproduced really, if not 
completely, in the thousands of His followers 
who, conscious of their own shortcomings, have 
yet been able to say with lips and life at once, 
' I live, yet not I but Christ liveth in me' (Gal 
2 20 ). ' I can do all things through Christ which 
strengthened me.' 



cv 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 






1. Present Position of Christianity. Christi- 
anity is now the religion of at least a third of 
the human race. So rapid has been its advance 
during the past century, and so hopeful are its 
present prospects, that the remarkable prophecy 
of its Founder, that the whole world would 
ultimately be converted, is already within 
measurable distance of fulfilment. To investi- 
gate the origin of so remarkable a movement, 
and to attain to a clear conception of the 
character and personality of its great Founder, 
is the purpose of the present article. 

2. What is Christianity ? Among the nations 
of the West, even those who reject Christianity 
as a creed, still revere Jesus of Nazareth as the 
noblest and purest, and probably the greatest 
character which has ever appeared on the scene 
of history. ' About the life and sayings of 
Jesus,' says John Stuart Mill, ' there is a stamp 
of personal originality combined with a pro- 
fundity of insight, which . . must place the 
prophet of Nazareth, even in the estimation 
of those who have no belief in His inspiration, 
in the very first rank of the men of sublime 
genius of whom our species can boast. . . Re- 
ligion cannot be said to have made a bad choice 
in pitching on this man as the ideal representa- 
tive and guide of humanity ; nor even now 
would it be easy even for an unbeliever to find 
a better translation of the rule of virtue from 
the abstract into the concrete than to endeavour 
so to live that Christ would approve our life.' 
' Jesus,' says Renan, ' is in every respect unique, 
and nothing can be compared with Him. Be 
the unlooked-for phenomena of the future 
what they may, Jesus will not be surpassed. 
Noble Initiator, repose now in Thy glory ! Thy 
work is finished, Thy divinity established. A 
thousand times more living, a thousand times 
more loved since Thy death than during the 
days of Thy course here below, Thou shalt 
become the corner-stone of humanity, inso- 
much that to tear Thy Name from this world 
would be to shake it from its very foundations. 
No more shall men distinguish between Thee 
and God.' 

To Christians, however. Jesus is more even 
than this. A few, generally called Unitarians, 
are satisfied with regarding Him as the greatest 
of human prophets, but to the immense majority 
of Christians, in this as in every preceding age, 
He is the divine Son of God, who took our 
nature upon Him to redeem it, and after suffer- 
ing upon the Cross, rose from the dead, and 
ascended into heaven, where, seated upon the 



throne of the universe, He receives a homage 
indistinguishable from that paid to the eternal 
Father. 

3. The Christian Doctrine of the Incarnation. 
The belief that the historical person Jesus 
Christ is the eternal Son of God made man, 
and that accordingly (to use the words of an 
ancient hymn), He is ' God of the substance of 
the Father, begotten before the worlds, and 
man of the substance of His mother, born in 
the world ; perfect God and perfect man, of 
a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting, 
equal to the Father as touching His Godhead, 
and inferior to the Father as touching His 
manhood,' is called the doctrine of the Incar- 
nation. The idea of incarnation as a mode of 
manifestation of the divine nature is not alto- 
gether peculiar to Christianity. It is character- 
istic of several Eastern religions, particularly 
of those of India. According to the teaching 
of Brahmanism, Yishnu, one of the triad of 
supreme gods, became incarnate many times. 
His best-known incarnation is the ninth, in 
which he appeared as Crishna, literally ' the 
black one.' After achieving various heroic 
exploits, such as the avenging of the murder 
of his parents, and the slaying of the serpent 
Caliga, he was put to death by being shot with 
an arrow, leaving behind him the prediction 
that thirty years after his death the iron age 
would begin. The resemblance, however, of 
these Eastern incarnations to that of Jesus 
Christ is altogether superficial. Those were 
temporary, Christ's was permanent. In those 
the incarnate god practices without shame 
every species of vice ; Christ's life was sinless, 
and a perfect model for imitation. In those 
no salvation is achieved, except occasionally 
from the oppression of some earthly tyrant ; 
in Christ salvation from sin and eternal life are 
offered to all mankind. Puerile, vulgar, un- 
spiritual, degrading, and limited in scope, the 
incarnations of other religions cannot for a 
moment compare with the splendour of the 
Incarnation of Christ, the aim of which is to 
atone for sin, to destroy the power of evil, and 
to raise the whole human race into fellowship 
with God. 

4. The Reasonableness of the Incarnation. 
The Incarnation is not accepted by Christians 
simply because it is taught in the Bible, or 
because it is part of the traditional creed of 
the Church, but because it is itself intrinsically 
reasonable and in harmony with the highest 
and best ideas about God and man. 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



(1) It harmonises ivith the idea that man is 
made in God's image. All the higher forms of 
religion assume that the nature of God and 
the nature of man are closely analogous. The 
gift of reason, the knowledge of right and 
wrong, the freedom of the will, the desire of 
holiness, and the instinctive seeking after God 
which is found to some extent even in the 
most degraded races, are regarded as indicating 
that there is a real spiritual affinity between 
the Creator and the creature. The nature and 
character of God are manifested to some 
extent in the works of physical nature, but far 
more fully and adequately in the rational and 
spiritual nature of man, which, even in its 
fallen state, is the most God-like thing known 
to us. It is, therefore, altogether credible 
that human nature should be chosen as the 
medium of God's final revelation to the human 
race. An ideally perfect human life, lived 
under human conditions, and in the midst of 
ordinary human difficulties, is a far more satis- 
fying and morally fruitful revelation than a 
number of abstract propositions about God 
written in a book. 

(2) The Incarnation reveals GooVs love more 
effectually than any other kind of revelation. 
That God truly loves His creatures is in theory 
a truth of natural religion, but the present 
order of nature contains so much which seems 
to contradict it, that a special revelation in- 
tended to confirm it is urgently needed. The 
earthquake, the tornado, and the pestilence, 
overwhelm in a common destruction the saint 
and the sinner. Nature seems an adamantine 
system of blind resistless forces, which roll on 
for ever, careless of human needs and human 
tears or groans. What, therefore, is impera- 
tively required in a revelation designed to 
satisfy human needs is some definite and tan- 
gible proof, other than words, that nature is 
ruled by a personal Being friendly to the 
human race, and attentive to the needs of 
individual men. Such proof is offered by the 
Incarnation. God did not simply send a mes- 
sage from heaven announcing that He is 
friendly to the human race ; He sent His own 
Son to live a human life, to struggle like other 
men against sin, to suffer human sorrow, toil and 
disappointment, and finally to die a martyr's 
death. In Christ God shows His sympathy 
with our sufferings by suffering with us ; ' for 
we have not a high priest that cannot be 
touched with the feeling of our infirmities, 
but one that hath been in all points tempted 
as we are, yet without sin.' 

But it was not only in suffering, but also in 
acting, that Jesus Christ manifested the love of 
God. He ' went about doing good, and healing 
all who were oppressed with the devil, for God 
was with him.' He restored reason to the 
insane, sight to the blind, muscular power to 



the paralysed, life to the dead. Every miracle 
which He wrought was a miracle of benevolence, 
intended to convince men that the Father 
whose nature He came to manifest, was truly 
a lover of men, and truly kind and just. 

(3) The Incarnation is the most adequate way 
that we can imagine of atoning for sin. The 
chief barrier between God and man is sin, and 
the religious instinct of our race recognises that 
man cannot of himself remove that barrier. 
Superficial thinkers sometimes affirm that no 
reconciliation with God is necessary, or that! 
if it is, it can be effected by human penitence. 
There is truth in this, but only a half-truth. 
It is quite true that penitence is the natural 
and fitting atonement for sin. Thus when one 
human being sins against another, penitence 
is accepted as an adequate atonement. Even 
in the case of a sin against God, a really 
adequate repentance would be an adequate 
atonement. But the awakened conscience of 
man knows that this is impossible. His peni- 
tence for sin, like all his other virtuous acts, 
is weak and ineffectual, and he needs some 
transforming power which will make his peni- 
tence perfect. The Incarnation provides for 
this. The Incarnate Son of God as head of 
the human race, and as responsible for it, 
renders to God adequate sorrow for the sins 
of the world, and gives individual men, through 
their union with Him, grace to attain deeper 
and deeper penitence, until in the end their 
penitence will become perfect, and God will 
accept it as adequate. 

(4) The Incarnation is designed to make sin- 
less perfection possible, not at once, but in due 
course. It effects this not simply by the in- 
spiring influence of Christ's perfect example, 
but by means of constant supplies of super- 
natural grace given to those who are really 
walking by faith. According to the Christian 
theory, Christ by virtue of His holy Incarna- 
tion becomes the new ancestor of the human 
race. As by our natural birth and training 
we inherit the evil nature and sinful tendencies 
of our ancestors, so by our new and spiritual 
birth we are made partakers of Christ's holy 
and sinless human nature, and in its strength 
are enabled to obtain complete victory over 
sin. This sounds mystical, and to some minds 
fanciful, but it represents the central and vital 
religious experience of Christians. All who 
have advanced far in the religious life testify 
that through Christ they have been brought 
into vital union with God, and have received 
a new strength against the powers of evil. 

(5) The Incarnation achieves most perfectly 
the supreme end of religion, the complete union 
between the worshipper and the object of wor- 
ship. In Christ human nature is personally 
united to God, and since individual believers 
are related to Christ as members to the head, 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



or as branches to the trunk, they are thereby 
brought into supernatural union with the 
life of God. In this world the full fruition 
of the divine life is not attained ; but in the 
world to come, when human nature has been 
perfected through suffering, and cleansed from 
all stain of sin, every true believer will see 
God as He is, and will be united to Him per- 
fectly by knowledge and love, and will so fully 
partake of His nature as to be in a manner 
' deified.' 

(6) The Incarnation emphasises human soli- 
darity and human brotherhood. The humanity 
of Christ is not individual or racial, but uni- 
versal. He is the ideal of humanity as a whole 
realised, and in Him races and individuals are 
brought into spiritual fellowship with one 
another, and form one Church, family, or 
brotherhood. The Incarnation saves men 
not as individuals, but as members of the body 
of Christ, and makes the performance of social 
duties indispensable to admittance into the 
Kingdom of Heaven. 

4. Christ's Deity. Having shown the 
reasonable character of the Christian doctrine 
of the Incarnation, we shall now proceed 
to state briefly the direct evidence for Christ's 
Divinity. 

(1) Christ's Divinity v)as accepted by the 
earliest believers, not only of the Gentile, but 
also of the Jewish- Christian Churches. 

The Pauline Epistles, of which all except 
the Pastorals are practically undisputed, fall 
between the dates 51 a.d. (1,2 Th) and about 
67 A.D. (2 Tim). From them it appears that 
as early as twenty years after the Ascension 
the doctrine of Christ's Deity was already 
firmly established in the Church. It is not 
argued about or proved, but assumed as one 
of those fundamental ideas about which Chris- 
tians are agreed. Thus it is stated that He 
existed before He was born into the world 
(lCorlO 4 - 9 ), and indeed before all creation 
(Col 1 W), in a state of equality with God 
(Phil2 ,; ); that He created the world as the 
Father's agent, and still sustains it in exist- 
ence (Coll 16 - 1 ? lCor8 6 ) ; that to redeem the 
human race He became man (Gal4 4 ), and died 
upon the Cross (Col 1 20 ) ; that He dwells in 
believers as the source of their spiritual life 
(2Cor L3 6 ); t li-i t II. ■ is the Son of GodCRoS 82 ), 
:md actually God (Bo9fi Tit2" RV), and 
therefore to !><■ worshipped with divine honours 

by angelfi and men in His divine and human 

natures ( Phil 2 10 ). Prayer to Him is so much 
it matter of course, thai Christians are spoken of 
as 'those thai call apon His name ' (1 Cor 1 2 ). 
A certain real subordination of Christ to the 
Father, as being His Son. St. Paul admits 
(lCorlS 28 ), but He constantly unites 1 1 is 
name with that of the Father OB terms of 

equality as the author of grace, blessing, 



and all well-being (2 Cor 13 14 ). That in all 
the Churches founded by St. Paul, Jesus 
was reverenced as a Divine Being, can 
scarcely be doubted by any careful reader of 
his Epistles. 

But now perhaps it will be said, ' How can 
we be sure that St. Paul's view was shared by 
the other Apostles ? Is it not possible that 
the Twelve regarded Jesus as a purely human 
Messiah, and that it was St. Paul who first 
introduced into the Church the idea that He 
was divine ? ' We are fortunately not without 
the means of answering this question. The 
Pauline Epistles themselves furnish us with 
important evidence. From them we learn 
that though the relations between St. Paul 
and the Twelve were not always harmonious, 
and that theological disputes at times waxed 
hot, yet those disputes were about questions 
of inferior moment (e.g. the obligation of 
Circumcision and of the Ceremonial Law, the 
position of Gentile Christians in the Church, 
the relative authority of St. Paul and the 
Twelve), and that on all matters of funda- 
mental importance the parties were agreed. 
We learn that the Apostle of the Gentiles 
laid before the pillars of Jewish Christianity 
a statement of the gospel which he preached, 
that they declared themselves satisfied, de- 
manded no modifications whatever in his 
doctrine, and gave him ' the right hands of 
fellowship' as an Apostle of the true faith 
(Gal 2 i* 10 ). In accordance with this, St. Paul 
uniformly assumes that his own gospel and 
that of the Twelve is identical (see, e.g., 
lCorl5 n , 'Therefore whether it were I or 
they, so we preach, and so ye believed '), 
which he could not have done unless there 
had been agreement upon the crucial doctrine 
of Christ's person, and His relationship to 
God and man. 

But we have still more definite evidence 
than this. The leader of the Twelve has left 
an Epistle, which was unquestioned in the 
early Church, and which is supported by 
testimonies so numerous and so ancient, that 
to reject it is most hazardous. From Clement 
of Rome (95 a.d.), Polycarp (110 a.d.), and 
Papias (130 a.d.), a long line of definite and 
coherent testimony establishes the antiquity 
and authority of the First Epistle of Peter. 
This document presents a view of the person 
of Christ in essential agreement with that of 
St. Paul. According to this Epistle, Christ 
existed before His nativity, for it was He who 
inspired the Old Testament prophets (l 11 )- 
His death has a supernatural efficacy, being 
an atoning sacrifice, which procured for man- 
kind the remission of sins (12.18 2 21 > 24 3 16 ). 
He is now at God's right hand, invested with 
supreme authority over the universe, so that 
even the angels obey Him(3 22 ). He will come 
iii 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



again to judge the world (1?> 13 4 5, 12 5 3 ). 
He is the centre of Christian love and devo- 
tion (l 8 ). He is the one Mediator through 
whom the Father can be approached in wor- 
ship and prayer (2 5 4 11 ). He is mystically 
united to His people, and present in their 
hearts (3 15 > 16 5 10 > 14 ). Salvation is given 
through Him, and through faith in Him (l 9 
5 10 ). The absolute Divinity of Christ is espe- 
cially apparent in 1 n , where the Holy Ghost 
who inspired the ancient prophets, is declared 
to be the Spirit of Christ. Less certain is 
the doxology (4 n ), which, though it probably 
refers to Christ, may perhaps refer to the 
Father. It is clear, therefore, that St. Peter's 
doctrine of the person of Christ closely resem- 
bles that of St. Paul, and that not only in the 
Gentile, but also in the Hebrew Churches a 
very high conception of Christ's person was 
taught. Such other evidence as we have 
points in the same direction. The strongly 
attested, and in ancient times undisputed, First 
Epistle of John regards Christ as existing with 
the Father before His Incarnation as His 
' Logos,' or ' Word,' and sharing His eternal 
divine life (1 *> 2 ), as manifested in the flesh to 
destroy the works of the devil, to take away 
sin, and to give eternal life to men (l 2 3 5 4 2 
3 8 ), as atoning by His death for the sins of 
the whole world, and by His blood cleansing 
the soul from sin (1 7 2 2 , etc.), and as so in- 
separably one with the Father, that both are 
equally the objects of saving faith (2 23 " 25 , etc.). 
The disputed, but very ancient and probably 
genuine Epistle of James, coordinates Christ 
with God quite in the manner of St. Paul 
(11), calls Him 'the Lord of glory \ (2 1), a 
title suggestive of superhuman dignity and 
power, and looks for His Second Coming to 
Judgment (2 8 > 9). The Epistle to the Hebrews, 
which, though not by an Apostle, was written 
by a disciple of the Apostles, regards Christ 
as eternal (l 12 13 8 ), as the agent of the Father 
in creation (1 2 > 10 ), as the sustainer of the 
universe (l 3 ), as the superior of the angels 
and the object of their worship (l 4 * 6 ). The 
early speeches of St. Peter in Acts, recorded 
by a companion of St. Paul, represent Christ 
as ' Lord of all,' i.e. of the whole universe 
(10 36 ), as the Dispenser of the Holy Spirit 
(2 32 ), as the Prince or Author of life (3 15 ), as 
the sole Mediator between God and men, and 
only giver of salvation (4 2 ), as sinless (3 4 
7 52 ), and as the future judge of quick and 
dead (10 42 ). Already at this early period 
Christ was invoked in prayer by the Church 
of Jerusalem (Ac7 59 , probably also l 24 ), and 
Christians were described as those ' who call 
upon the Name ' of Jesus (9 14 ). 

(2) Christ taught His own divine Sonship. 
The prevalence of such a type of teaching 
in the Apostolic Church renders it certain that 



Jesus must have claimed for Himself a far 
higher place in the system of religion which 
He came to found, than has been claimed by 
the founders of other religions. Whereas such 
teachers as Gautama, Mahomet, and Confucius 
have claimed faith in their doctrines, not in 
their persons, Jesus evidently claimed faith 
in His person, and submission to His authority, 
of an altogether unique kind. Our direct 
knowledge of the teaching of Jesus is almost 
confined to the Four Gospels. Of these the 
Second is universally recognised to be based 
upon the reminiscences of St. Peter, the First 
to have behind it (at least in its reports of our 
Lord's discourses) the authority of St. Matthew, 
and the Third to have been compiled by a 
companion of St. Paul from authentic sources. 
As to the Fourth Gospel there is less agree- 
ment among critics. Its direct authorship by 
St. John is strongly maintained in this Com- 
mentary in accordance with the prevailing 
opinion among English scholars, but as there 
is less agreement upon the point among 
German critics, and we wish to reach abso- 
lutely unquestionable results, we shall only 
use its testimony in this article to corroborate 
the statements made by other authorities. 

St. Mark's Gospel contains hardly any of 
our Lord's discourses, and therefore very little 
that bears directly upon our present enquiry. 
Nevertheless, it is clear even from this Gospel 
that Jesus claimed superhuman dignity. He 
was put to death as a blasphemer for claiming 
to be not merely the Messiah, but the Son of 
God, and prophesying His future session at 
God's right hand, and Second Coming to 
Judgment (MkU^ 2 ). To His death He at- 
tributed a significance unintelligible on the 
assumption that He was a mere human being. 
His death, He taught, was ' a ransom for many ' 
(10 45 ), a propitiation for sin, and the establish- 
ment of a new covenant between God and man 
(14 24 ). Even while admitting His ignorance 
as man of the day and hour of His Second 
Coming, He assigned to Himself a position in 
the scale of being above the angels, and second 
only to that of the Supreme Father Himself 
('But of that day or that hour knoweth no 
one, not even the angels in heaven, neither 
the Son, but the Father,' 13 32 , where notice 
the absolute use of the title ' the Son ' as in 
the Fourth Gospel). 

St. Mark's evidence is confirmed by the 
more copious evidence of the discourses of 
Jesus, recorded in the First and Third Gospels. 
Here we find Jesus demanding unlimited faith 
in His own Person — a faith so intense, and a 
devotion so consuming, that none but God can 
rightly claim it (Lkl4 2 ^ Mtl0 14 > 15 > 3 2,33,37,40 
ll 28 ). He speaks with an authority higher 
than that of a prophet ; by His own authority 
revising the Mosaic Law, even the sacred words 



cix 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



spoken by God Himself on Sinai (Mt5 21f >). 
Specially insistent is His claim to be the 
future judge of the world. It is found even 
in the Sermon on the Mount, which is some- 
times stated to be a purely ethical discourse 
(Mt7 22 > 23 ), and again and again in the dis- 
courses which follow (Mtl6 2 ? Lk 128,40 Mt 
25 31 ). It often occurs in the parables, the 
most characteristic of the utterances of Jesus, 
and the least capable of alteration or per- 
version, e.g. in the parable of the Tares (' Let 
both grow together until the harvest, and in 
the time of harvest / will say to the reapers, 
Gather ye together first the tares, and bind 
them in bundles to burn them : but gather the 
wheat into my barn. . . So shall it be in the 
end of the world. The Son of man shall send 
forth His angels, and they shall gather out of 
His kingdom all things that cause stumbling 
and them that do iniquity, and shall cast them 
into the furnace of fire ; there shall be the 
weeping and gnashing of teeth,' Mtl3 30 > 4 0-42). 
also in the parable of the Ten Yirgins, where it 
is undoubtedly Christ Himself who pronounces 
the sentence of exclusion (Mtf25 12 ), and in the 
parable which follows it, where Christ is repre- 
sented as going into a far country, and then 
returning and recompensing His servants ac- 
cording to their behaviour during His absence 
(Mt 25 14 f • ; cp. Lk 1 9 12 f -). More striking still 
is the description of the Last Judgment (Mt 
25 31f -), where the Son of man sits on the 
throne of His glory, summons all nations into 
His awful presence, separates the good from 
the wicked as a shepherd divideth his sheep 
from the goats, and says to the former, ' Come, 
ye blessed of My Father, inherit the kingdom 
prepared for you from the foundation of the 
world,' and to the latter, l Depart from me, ye 
cursed, into the eternal fire which is prepared 
for the devil and his angels.' 

Specially instructive, as illustrating the 
sense in which Jesus called Himself the Son 
of God, is Mtll 2 7 = Lkl0 22 , 'All things have 
been delivered unto Me of My Father ; and 
no one knoweth the Son save the Father ; 
neither doth any know the Father save the 
Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth 
to reveal Him.' In this passage, which is 
admitted on all hands to belong to the original 
' Logia ' of St. Matthew, the point of greatest 
significance is neither the omnipotence granted 
to the Son, nor the fact that He alone knows the 
Father, but the remarkable statement that the 
nature of the Son is so transcendent, that it 
is apprehended by the Father alone. Is it 
not clear that a Being so exalted that He 
shares the Father's omnipotence, and is in- 
capable of being understood by any but Him 
is no creature, but is the Father's alter ego, 
His consubstantial Son, and the sharer of His 
throne and attributes ? 



The divinity of Christ is so clearly the 
doctrine of the Synoptic Gospels that there is 
no need to adduce in its* support the evidence 
of the baptismal formula (Mt28i»). The 
testimony for and against the genuineness of 
that formula has been given with considerable 
fulness in the Commentary, and it has been 
shown that the balance of evidence is decidedly 
in its favour ; but whether it is original or 
whether it is a later addition, the doctrine which 
it represents, the essential divinity of the 
Founder of Christianity, is certainly original, 
and forms an important part of the teaching 
of Christ Himself in the oldest strata of our 
oldest authorities. It is certainly not the 
fact, as is sometimes asserted, that the doctrine 
of Christ's divinity is a later addition to the 
simplicity of the primitive Gospel. 

5. Further evidence for Christ's Deity. We 
have shown that the doctrine of the Incarna- 
tion is in full harmony with what we know of 
the divine nature and of human nature, and 
is therefore reasonable. We have also shown 
that the New Testament teaches this doctrine, 
affirming that the Founder of Christianity, 
J esus Christ, is both God and man. We shall 
conclude with a few plain reasons for accepting 
this belief, reminding the reader that a full 
discussion would require a treatise, not a short 
article like the present. 

(1) Christ's sinlessness. If Jesus Christ was 
really God, His life must have been one of 
absolute holiness and beneficence. And this 
was really the case. His goodness is shown 
in part by the excellence of His moral and 
religious teaching, which is not derived from 
other teachers, but is stamped with the 
impress of His own beautiful personality. 
The best rationalist opinion confesses this. 
Keim speaks of ' the complete domination ' 
in His life, ' of the idea of moral good,' and 
adds, ' The life of Jesus, both in public 
and private, was in an eminent degree holy 
and pure, and allows us as such to infer a 
previous unsullied youth striving towards the 
noble and the exalted. The small defects 
that have been detected are no sins . . and 
vanish like a drop in the ocean of brilliant 
and superhuman achievement. . . We are still 
able to retain the strong and joyful conviction 
that it was Virtue herself who trod the earth 
in Him, and that the dolorous confession made 
by antiquity of the impossibility of sinlessness 
and of the non-existence of the ideal of virtue 
and wisdom found in Him its refutation and 
its end.' Similarly Strauss says : ' This intui- 
tion of a God good to all [as expressed in the 
Sermon on the Mount] Jesus could only have 
drawn out of His own being ; it could only 
have emanated out of that universal benevo- 
lence which was the fundamental characteristic 
of His own nature, and by which He felt 



ex 



J 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



Himself in perfect harmony with God. . . The 
dominant feature of His character was that 
love which embraces all creatures, and He 
makes of that the fundamental characteristic 
of the Divine Essence.' 

The goodness of Jesus is affirmed in the 
strongest language by those who have the best 
right to pronounce upon it — those, namely, 
who for nearly three years were brought into 
the closest daily contact witH Him. Thus St. 
Peter represents Him as absolutely sinless : 
' A lamb without blemish and without spot ' 
(1 Pet 1 19 ) ; ' who did no sin, neither was guile 
found in His mouth : who, when He was 
reviled, reviled not again ' (1 Pet 2 22, 23) . t Christ 
also suffered for sins once, the righteous for 
the unrighteous, that He might bring us to 
God ' (1 Pet 3 18 ) ; with which we may compare 
St. Peter's confession (Jn6 69 RV), 'We have 
believed and know that Thou art the Holy One 
of God.' 

St. John, the bosom friend of Jesus, who 
knew Him even more intimately than St. 
Peter, speaks of Him as sinless : ' Jesus Christ 
the righteous ' (1 Jn2 *) ; 'If ye know that He 
is righteous, ye know that every one also 
that doeth righteousness is begotten of Him' 
(1 Jn 2 29) ; ' We know that He was manifested 
to take away sins ; and in Him is no sin ' 
(Un35). 

Even the traitor Judas recognised the good- 
ness of Jesus, for ' he repented himself,' and 
said, ' I have sinned in that I have betrayed 
the innocent blood' (Mt27 3 > 4 ). 

The goodness of Jesus is also affirmed by 
those who were in no way connected with 
Him : by Pilate (' I am innocent of the blood 
of this just person,' Mt27 2 4 ; 'Why, what evil 
hath He done ? ' Mkl5 14 ; 'I find no fault in 
this man,' Lk23 4 »i 4 -22 J n i838 194,6,12). by 
Pilate's wife (' Have thou nothing to do with 
that just man,' Mt27 19 ) ; by one of the thieves 
(' This man hath done nothing amiss,' Lk23 41 ); 
by the centurion (' Certainly this man was 
righteous,' Lk23 4 *). 

Specially to be noted in this connexion is 
the fact that Jesus was without that conscious- 
ness of sin which exists in the holiest of men 
in proportion to their holiness. This is a 
point of deep significance. The general 
opinion of mankind has pronounced sinless- 
ness impossible. Demosthenes attributed it 
to the gods alone. Cicero had never found 
or heard of a perfectly wise man. Mahomet 
expressly disclaimed sinlessness, and recorded 
in the Koran God's command to him, ' Pray 
for the forgiveness of thy sins.' Gautama is 
not represented as having been sinless from 
the first, but as gradually attaining it. Socrates 
detected in his evil heart the germs of all the 
vices. Moses was guilty of serious sin (Ex 2 12 ). 
'Isaiah was a man of unclean lips' (Isa6 5 ). 



Elijah confessed, ' I am not better than my 
fathers' (1K19 4 ). St. Peter wept tears of 
penitence (Mkl4?2). St. Paul confessed him- 
self the chief of sinners (1 Tim 1 15). St. John, 
one of the most blameless of all the New 
Testament characters, says, 'If we say that 
we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the 
truth is not in us ; but if we confess our sins, 
He is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, 
and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness. 
If we say that we have not sinned, we make 
Him a liar' (Unl 8 ). Jesus, on the other 
hand, never recognised in Himself the least 
moral blemish (for MklO 17 , see the Com- 
mentary). The most explicit statements of 
His sinlessness are found in the Fourth Gospel 
(Jn8 4 <5 1430 829 1011 174) 3 but the synoptic 
evidence is really as strong. The claim to be 
the personified Moral Law of the human race, 
and in particular to be not one of the subjects 
of judgment but the Judge, implies sinless- 
ness. So does His claim that His death is a 
propitiatory sacrifice for the sins of the whole 
world (MklO 45 ). Quite decisive also is the 
passage (Mt 1 1 28) where, after declaring that 
' no man knoweth the Father, save the Son,' 
He says, ' Come unto Me, all ye that labour 
and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. 
Take my yoke upon you and learn of Me ; 
for I am meek and lowly in heart : and ye 
shall find rest unto your souls.' An invitation 
like this could never have been addressed, 
without extreme arrogance and impiety, by a 
sinner to fellow-sinners. 

We have, therefore, in Jesus the absolutely 
unique case of a man of unexampled holiness, 
and yet without any consciousness of sin. 
This harmonises well with, and indeed suggests 
the belief, that the personality of Jesus was 
not merely human, but superhuman. 

(2) Christ's miracles. From human nature 
we expect works of human capacity, from 
superhuman nature works of superhuman 
capacity. A natural Christ may, perhaps, 
afford to dispense with miracles. A super- 
natural Christ cannot. From a supernatural 
Christ supernatural works are imperatively 
and rightly demanded, and, if they are not 
forthcoming, sober reason will be inclined to 
conclude that the ' supernatural ' Christ is not 
supernatural. Now the ministry of Christ is 
simply full of mighty works which exceed 
human capacity, and can only be regarded as 
miracles. The credibility of these miracles is 
discussed in a special article, to which the 
reader is referred ; all that we have here to 
do is to point out their bearing upon the 
doctrine of Christ's person. Every unpreju- 
diced mind which has come to the conclusion 
that they are true will surely admit, (1) that 
they harmonise with and confirm the view 
that Christ's personality was superhuman ; and 



THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST 



(2) that they must be regarded as setting the 
stamp of divine approval upon the teaching of 
Jesus, part of which was, as we have shown, 
His Divine Sonship. This is particularly the 
case with regard to the Resurrection. Jesus 
was put to death as a blasphemer, because He re- 
affirmed at His trial His claim to be the Son of 
God. God the Father, by raising Him from the 
dead, proclaimed to the world that this claim 
was true. St. Paul, therefore, is perfectly 
justified in saying that Jesus was ' declared to 
be the Son of God with power, according to the 
spirit of holiness, by the resurrection of the 
dead ' (Ro 1 4 ) : see art. ' The Resurrection.' 

(3) Christ's influence upon the world. The 
moral and spiritual influence of Jesus Christ 
upon the world during the last two millenniums 
has been so exceedingly great as to harmonise 
thoroughly with the view that He was a divine 
person. ' It is needless,' says a judicious 
writer, ' to attempt to prove that the supreme 
attractiveness of the Person of the Founder 
of Christianity has imparted to the Church 
the whole of its vitality. To this fact all 
history bears witness. Nor is its testimony 
less certain that of all the influences that have 
been exerted in this earth, that of Jesus has 
been the most potent. Enumerate all the 
great men who have ever existed, whether 
kings, conquerors, statesmen, patriots, poets, 
philosophers, or men of science, and their 
influence for good will be found to have been 
as nothing compared with that which has been 
exerted by Jesus Christ. . . He who was 
in outward form a Galilean peasant, who 
died a malefactor's death, has founded a 
spiritual empire which has endured for 
eighteen centuries of time, and which, despite 
the vaticinations of unbelievers, shows no signs 
of decrepitude. Commencing with the smallest 
beginnings, His empire now embraces all the 
progressive races of men. Those by whom it 
has not been accepted are in a state of stagna- 
tion and decay. It is the only one which is 
adapted to every state of civilisation. 

' It differs from all other states and com- 
munities in that it is founded neither on force 
nor on self-interest, but on persuasion and the 
supreme attractiveness of the character of its 
Founder. . . History affirms that Jesus has not 
only been a great man among great men, or even 
the greatest of them, but that He stands at an 
immeasurable height above them. He is the one 
only catholic man, the one ideal of humanity, 
for whose presence in and action on history 
none of the known forces that energise in the 
moral and spiritual worlds can account. What 
is the necessary inference from this ? I answer 
that, as those forces which have energised in 
man from the day of His appearance on this 
earth have failed to produce His fellow, we 
must be in the presence of a moral miracle.' 



(4) The argument from Christian experience. 
The argument which looks weakest upon paper, 
but which is really in many ways the strongest, 
is the argument from the experience of be- 
lievers. What keeps people Christian, and 
adds to the number of Christ's adherents, is the 
fact that He really does give to His followers 
that joy, and peace, and blissful communion 
with God, and victory over the powers of evil, 
which He declared that He would. Those 
who come to Jesus in faith do not find Him 
wanting. They receive from Him spiritual 
life and vital power. Their characters are 
gradually transformed, and they become capa- 
ble of acts of heroism and exalted virtue, 
which without Christ they could not possibly 
perform. Their souls are filled with serenity 
and peace beyond human understanding, which 
not even the fiercest storms of life can seriously 
disturb. Labouring and heavy laden they 
go to their Lord, and in Him find rest unto 
their souls. 

(5) The great dilemma. We have been led 
to the conclusion that the Founder of Christi- 
anity, who is revered not only by Christians 
but also by most Freethinkers as the best of 
men, and the greatest of religious and moral 
reformers, claimed to be divine. This con- 
clusion is supported by such varied and con- 
vergent evidence, that real doubt upon the 
subject is precluded. We are therefore brought 
face to face with a very serious dilemma : 
either the Author of Christianity was divine, 
or He was not good (aut Deus out homo von 
bonus). Of attempts to evade this dilemma 
the following are the chief, (a) It has been 
maintained that Jesus was insane. We reply 
that it is strictly impossible that a system of 
religion and morality which has commended 
itself to the intellect and conscience of the 
highest races of the earth can have been origin- 
ated by a madman, (b) It has been maintained 
that Jesus believed Himself to be divine, not 
because He had any internal knowledge of the 
fact, but because He interpreted the Old 
Testament prophecies, especially those of 
Daniel, as indicating that the Messiah would 
be a Divine Person. We reply that no mere 
man who interpreted the prophecies in this 
way, could (unless he was insane) possibly 
imagine Himself to be the Messiah. 

The dilemma, then, cannot be evaded. 
Either Christ was divine, as He claimed to 
be, or He was a deceiver. A deceiver He 
cannot have been, because He founded the 
purest system of religion and morals that has 
ever been presented to the world. He must, 
therefore, have been divine, as the Apostles 
themselves, and the Church ever since their 
day, have believed. 

The notes on Lk2 4 ° Mkl3 32 and Phil 2 7 
should be consulted. 



cxn 



THE TRINITY 



Although the exact theological definition 
of the doctrine of the Trinity was the result 
of a long process of development, which was 
not complete till the fifth century or even 
later, the doctrine itself underlies the whole 
New Testament, which everywhere attributes 
divinity to the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, 
and assigns to them distinct functions in the 
economy of human redemption. The New 
Testament mainly contemplates the relations 
of the Divine Persons to man and the universe, 
regarding the Father as Creator, the Son as 
Mediator and Redeemer, and the Spirit as 
Sanctifier (the ' economic ' Trinity) ; but hints 
are not wanting that this threefold function in 
creation and redemption is an outward mani- 
festation of certain inward and eternal dis- 
tinctions in the Godhead Itself (the ' essential ' 
Trinity). In the early Church the Monarch- 
ians, and especially the Sabellians, laid such 
exclusive stress upon the ' economic ' Trinity, 
that they denied that there are any real dis- 
tinctions in the Godhead at all, and taught 
that Father, Son, and Spirit are only three 
different modes in which the One Personal 
God reveals Himself to and acts upon man. 
The main current of Christian thought, how- 
ever, has always held firmly to the belief that 
the terms Father, Son, and Holy Spirit repre- 
sent eternal and necessary distinctions, and 
those of a personal and ethical as well as of a 
merely metaphysical kind, within the Divine 
Substance. Christians have seen in the doc- 
trine of the Trinity not only an intellectual, 
but also a moral and spiritual revelation of the 
highest importance. 

i. Personality Human and Divine. Theism 
regards God as personal, and Christianity as 
tri-personal, but the term ' person,' as applied 
to God and to the ' Persons ' in God, is not 
used in quite the same sense as that in which it 
is used of human beings. The first distinction 
is that human personality is finite, and Divine 
Personality infinite. This constitutes so enor- 
mous a difference, that some thinkers deny that 
God can be conceived of as personal. Person- 
ality, they say, is essentially finite ; it is a 
definite thing marked off and distinguished by 
certain boundaries from other things, and if 
those boundaries are removed, personality 
ceases to be. Moreover, they maintain, even 
if personality could be predicated without 
contradiction of God, it is of the nature of a 
limitation or imperfection, and therefore could 
not be appropriately attributed to a Perfect 
Being. 

h 



We reply that though limitation character- 
ises the imperfect personality of man, it is 
no part of the essential idea of personality. 
When a being is spoken of as ' personal,' it is 
meant among other things less important (1) 
that he is intelligent, (2) that he is self- 
conscious, (3) that he possesses will. Now 
not one of these qualities implies, of itself, 
any limitation or imperfection. It is as easy 
to conceive a perfect intelligence, knowing all 
actual and possible things, as to conceive a 
limited intelligence like man's. Intelligence, 
therefore, in a perfect and infinite degree can 
be legitimately predicated of God. Self- 
consciousness, again, is implied in perfect in- 
telligence ; for if a perfectly intelligent Being 
did not know Himself, His intelligence would 
be limited. Will, in like manner, is capable 
of real perfection ; it does not necessarily imply 
any limitation of nature. It is as easy to 
conceive of a Will absolutely free and in- 
finitely powerful, as to conceive of a limited 
will like man's. It is perfectly legitimate, 
therefore, to say that God possesses a Will 
adequate to His Intelligence — that is, that He 
is able to achieve all that is possible. Person- 
ality, therefore, being potentially infinite, can 
be ascribed, not only without contradiction, but 
with propriety and truth, as the least inade- 
quate term known to us, to the Infinite and 
Absolute God. 

The second distinction is that, whereas 
human personality stands outside and excludes 
every personality except its own, the Divine 
Persons of the Trinity mutually pervade, inter- 
penetrate, include, and contain one another. 
This wonderful quality (technically known as 
perichoresis, circumincessio, or circuminsessio) 
cannot be distinctly conceived of by us from 
lack of any analogous experience among human 
persons. Perhaps the best way of gaining 
some faint glimpse of what it means, is to start 
with the idea of human sympathy, and to 
imagine it infinitely deepened and extended. 
If it were possible in the case of two friends, 
for the one not only to know the thought or 
feeling or resolution present in the mind of 
the other, but also to feel it in his own mind 
as his own thought or feeling or resolution, we 
should have a human analogy, real though 
extremely inadequate, of the far closer and 
more exalted union and communion which 
subsists among the Divine Persons. 

2. The Trinity and the Divine Self-Con- 
sciousness. In man self-consciousness only 
arises when the self distinguishes itself from 
cxiii 



THE TRINITY 



the not-self, i.e. when the thinking subject has 
present to its consciousness some object of 
thought distinct from itself. 

Now the doctrine of the Trinity indicates 
that what is true of man is true also of 
God. From eternity the Father and the Son 
were personally distinct beings, knowing one 
another and themselves as such, and conse- 
quently for the Trinitarian there is no difficulty 
in understanding how God was self-conscious 
even before the world was created, i.e. before 
there was any created not-self from which He 
could distinguish Himself. 

3. The Trinity and God's Moral Perfection. 
Since Christ taught the supremacy of love 
and the duty of universal benevolence, it has 
come to be felt and acknowledged with increas- 
ing clearness, that love is the most beautiful 
of human virtues, and the most adorable of 
the Divine Perfections. But perfect love is 
only possible between equals. Just as a 
man cannot satisfy or realise his powers of 
love by loving the lower animals, so God 
cannot satisfy or realise His love by loving 
man or any creature. If God is truly Love, 
in the full sense of that term, He must have 
always possessed some equal object of His 
love, some alter ego, or, to use the language of 
Christian theology, a consubstantial, co-eternal, 
and co-equal Son. 

4. The Trinity and Social Life. An ideally 



perfect life is a social life. A life lived in 
the exercise of friendship, social intercourse, 
and benevolence, is a far higher life than that 
of a recluse, who seeks to attain perfection in 
solitude. If, therefore, the life of the God- 
head is as perfect as can be conceived, it must 
be a social life — that is to say, there must 
exist within the Divine Unity a plurality 
of Persons, among whom the most perfect 
fellowship exists. This conception of the 
Godhead as a Perfect Society, characteristic 
of Trinitarianism, is ethically more fruitful, 
and practically more stimulating than that of 
Unitarianism, which regards God as an iso- 
lated Person, incapable of social life, or of any 
real love but self-love. The Trinitarian, and 
the Trinitarian alone, is able to discern perfect 
love realised in his object of worship, and to 
recognise in the essential Nature of the God- 
head, the perfect pattern of the Family, of the 
Church and of the State. 

5. The New Testament Doctrine. The 
leading Trinitarian texts in the New Testa- 
ment are discussed in the Commentary. 
Eeference should be made to Mt3 13f - 28 19 
Lkl35 j n i4 5 i5 f is (especially 14" 15 26 
1613-15), lCorl23-6 2 Cor 1313 IPetIM (lJ n 
5 7 ). For the Deity of the Son, see art. ' Person 
of Jesus Christ.' For the Deity and Person- 
ality of the Holy Ghost, see also Jnl4 16 * 26 
1526 167 2022 Ac233 Ro826 Gal 4 6. 



CUT 



MIRACLE 



I. Introductory. The attitude of the op- 
ponents of supernatural religion towards 
Miracle has changed very considerably during 
the last two centuries. The old frontal assault 
of the Deists, routed by men like Butler and 
Paley with weapons that are now largely out 
of date, has been succeeded by flank attacks, 
(1) from the direction of historical and literary 
criticism, and (2) from that of a more modern 
natural science. First a vigorous attempt 
was made by the celebrated Tubingen school 
of critics to discredit the documentary evi- 
dence, and the New Testament passed through 
a severe fire of criticism from which it issued 
stronger than ever. The old traditional and 
uncritical views, though modified at points, 
were in general deliberately and distinctly 
confirmed. As a result of this fierce attack 
the relation of the documents to the tra- 
ditional Christian faith remains unaltered, 
and their unique value as historical evidence 
of the first importance has been established on 
a new basis. Criticism of a more or less 
hostile tendency and of a progressively search- 
ing character still continues, and from time 
to time throws important light on some aspect 
of the problems concerned. But the trust- 
worthy character of the New Testament 
documents as a whole may be regarded as 
established permanently, on firmer ground 
than ever before. 

After the New Testament, the Old. We 
are all familiar with the recent controversies 
raised by what is called ' the Higher Criti- 
cism ' ; and we may readily admit that it has 
modified very considerably our views of the 
external history and development of the 
documents in question. It has not, however, 
shaken our belief in inspiration, nor impaired 
the value of the Old Testament writings as 
the record of the earlier stages of God's 
progressive revelation to mankind. On the 
contrary, we may thankfully admit that the 
assured results of criticism, as distinct from 
its unverifiable speculations, have made clearer 
the stages of that revelation, and have given 
back to us the human aspect of the Bible 
, without taking away the divine. 

We shall be justified, then, in approaching 
our subject in the simplest and most straight- 
forward way, taking for granted the general 
trustworthiness of the documents, though 
ready, as we go along, to deal with any special 
points that may come up before us. 

If the Bible really contains, as we believe, 



the record of God's revelation of Himself to 
men, we should expect it, while clearly in touch 
with every-day human life, to abound in 
traces of its special origin and purpose. We 
should expect it to offer us frequent glimpses 
of a higher order of things, beyond the range 
of our ordinary perception — to exhibit, in fact, 
a miraculous element. 

And such, indeed, is the case. The purpose 
of this article is to emphasise and illustrate 
this fact : to show that the Miraculous is too 
closely interwoven into the texture of the 
Bible to be removable ; then to consider the 
cause and purpose of its presence there, and 
its place as an integral and essential part of 
Revelation. Thus we may find ourselves in 
a position to meet the objections that are 
often urged against the possibility of Miracle, 
on the ground that it contradicts the scientific 
principle of Natural Law. A general treat- 
ment alone will be possible here. For further 
suggestions the reader is referred to the notes 
on the various passages in which the most 
important miracles are recorded. 

2. Miracle inseparable from the Bible. 
When we assert that Miracle is an integral 
part of the Bible we mean that the miracu- 
lous considered generally — whatever may be 
thought of particular instances — is too closely 
interwoven into the texture of the Bible to 
be removable without destroying the character 
of the records. 

The consideration of the claims of individual 
miracles is quite another question. We are 
not compelled to put all miracles on the same 
footing, either as regards their importance or 
as regards their attestation. We may be will- 
ing to admit that the evidence for the different 
events recorded in the Bible, or the evidence 
that such and such recorded events were 
miraculous, varies considerably. 

For instance, the external attestation of our 
Lord's Resurrection is stronger than that avail- 
able for any other of the biblical miracles, or 
indeed for any other event of ancient history. 
On the other hand, the documentary evidence 
for His Virgin birth is less strong, though it 
has the combined and (in general) harmonious 
witness of two obviously independent nar- 
ratives, and receives full corroboration from 
the otherwise unaccountable difference be- 
tween His recorded life and character and that 
of any other human being. In the case of 
the Old Testament the external evidence is, 
throughout, naturally Jess abundant, But 



cxv 



MIRACLE 



here also we find varying degrees of attest- 
ation. That an exodus from Egypt, in some 
sense miraculous, took place in the time of 
Moses, is a fact which — as the many and 
varied references testify — has stamped itself 
too clearly upon the Hebrew consciousness to 
be seriously questioned, save by those who 
deny the miraculous altogether, and even they 
would probably admit a basis of historic fact. 
But the miracle of the 'sun standing still,' as 
popularly understood, is scarcely referred 
to again in the canonical books, and the 
poetical setting of the passage puts the problem 
of the actual miracle on an entirely different 
footing from the fact of the battle in which 
the miracle is thought to have occurred : see 
note on Josh 10 12 . Similarly, it has been 
suggested (and the context gives some colour 
to the idea) that the incident of the ass speak- 
ing occurs in a dream of Balaam's, after which 
he arose and i went with the princes of Balak ' 
(Nu22 35 ). Again, the story of Jonah is by 
many regarded as an allegory of God's dealings 
with the Jewish Church, of which it certainly 
supplies a fruitful parable. Individual miracles, 
then, may be treated each on its own merits 
according to the evidence available. The 
question before us is a wider one. 

Can the miraculous element as a whole be 
regarded as an accidental or non-essential 
adjunct to the Bible ? Can the miracles be 
explained away altogether or one by one, or is 
there an ' irreducible minimum ' which refuses 
to be explained away ? 

Now there are two ways in which an attempt 
may be made to explain away miracles alto- 
gether. (1) By the first, they are regarded as 
the result of a superstitious tendency to ' super- 
naturalise' distant events ; (2) by the second, as 
the outcome of an unscientific tendency to 
regard as miraculous all that contemporary 
knowledge cannot explain. We do not deny 
that each of these explanations may possibly 
be applicable to some of the more obscure 
events usually regarded as miraculous, but 
we do deny emphatically that they have any 
general application to the miracles of the 
Bible. 

(1) If the first argument were sound, we 
should expect to find the miraculous element 
concentrated in, if not confined to, the earlier 
portions of Revelation, so as to give the 
impression that the idea of miracle belongs to 
fche dawn of Hebrew thought. But this is far 
from being the case. Miracle is not found 
exclusively or chiefly in the earlier or more 
obscure portions of the Old Testament, nor is 
it confined within fche limits of the Old Tes- 
tament, but occupies a like or even a more 
important place in the New. And in par- 
ticular the miraculous is so intricately inter- 
woven into the life of Christ that the attempt 



to disentangle it from the Gospels necessitates 
such a grievous mutilation of the records as 
would change their entire character. If the 
Gospel material be reduced to the comparatively 
small residuum of matter which is common to 
all three synoptists. Miracle would still be 
there ; and, indeed, the Gospels denuded of 
the supernatural would be as inexplicable as 
the long discourse in the sixth chapter of St. 
John would be if deprived of the miracle of 
the l Five Thousand ' which forms, as it were, 
its text. If the point of view of the writers 
themselves and their contemporaries counts for 
anything, we cannot fail to observe that the 
first preachers of the gospel boldly staked the 
truth of Christianity on the fact that Christ 
was risen, and regarded themselves in a special 
sense as ' witnesses of the Resurrection ' (an 
essential qualification for apostleship, as in the 
case of Matthias : see Acl 22 and cp. 2 32 
315 420,33 ? etc.). While St. Paul, in whose life 
and teaching the Resurrection plays a su- 
premely important part — as he himself tes- 
tifies, according to the narrative of the Acts, 
at Antioch, Thessalonica, and Athens, and 
before the Sanhedrin, Felix, Festus, and 
Agrippa — adduces, in an important argument 
on this subject addressed to the alert and 
critical Corinthians, more than five hundred 
witnesses for the fact of the miracle (1 Cor 15 6 ). 

Taking the Bible, then, as it stands, it may 
be confidently stated that the miraculous ele- 
ment is as strong (or stronger) in the later 
portions as in the earlier. But the question 
is complicated by the date of the documents. 
Are not the miracles, it may be asked, concen- 
trated in those documents, whether earlier or 
later in the Bible series, which may be sup- 
posed to have been written at the furthest 
distance of time from the events which they 
record ? 

It would be easy to show, did space permit, 
that, even on the hypotheses adopted by the 
majority of modern 'Higher Critics,' this is not 
the case. In the Old Testament, e.g., the re- 
cord of the Mosaic miracles does not come down 
to us wholly or mainly through the group of 
documents called by the critics the ' Priestly 
Traditions ' ; the older ' Prophetic Narratives ' 
supply a full account of the Flood, Egyptian 
Plagues, Crossing of the Red Sea, and many 
more. The miracles of the Kingdom period, 
again, are not confined to the book of Chro- 
nicles, which is rightly regarded as much later, 
in its present form, than the book of Kings ; 
on the contrary, the most striking and signi- 
ficant instances occur in one of the undoubt- 
edly oldest sections of the latter book — in the 
narrative of Elijah and Elisha. 

As regards the New Testament, the case is 
even stronger, for it is at least far from im- 
probable that the last of its books was written 



cxvi 



MIRACLE 



before the first century of the New era was 
well passed, while the earliest (1 Th) may be 
confidently dated at no more than twenty-five 
years after the Crucifixion. 

And so, whether we consider the narratives 
in their biblical order, or regard them in rela- 
tion to the nearest ascertainable date of the 
documents which record them, we find that in 
neither way is the view supported which would 
regard Miracle as the outcome of that super- 
stitious tendency which leads a later age to 
magnify far distant events — especially events 
connected with crises in the national history 
— and endue them with a supernatural 
colouring. 

So far from the supernatural being confined 
to those documents which originated at a 
period furthest distant from the events they 
record, the most stupendous miracle of all, 
and the most important, viz. Christ's Eesur- 
rection, is attested by evidence which may, 
without any straining of language, be called 
contemporaneous. 

(2) We now have to face the second objec- 
tion. Admitting that the events occurred, and 
occurred to a large extent in the manner re- 
corded, may not the supernatural interpreta- 
tion of them be questioned ? Even the 
descriptions of contemporaries or eye-wit- 
nesses are sure to take colour from the age in 
which they originate. Must we not take into 
consideration the absence of scientific know- 
ledge of nature's laws characteristic of early 
ages, and especially the unscientific character 
of the Hebrew mind — its notorious tendency 
to ignore secondary causes, and find the im- 
mediate working of the finger of God in all 
events alike ? May it not be true that events 
described in the Old Testament as involving 
the direct interposition of the Almighty might, 
with the fuller knowledge of a later and more 
scientific generation, be traced to the working 
out of natural forces, and be characterised, 
not as miracles, but as unusually striking co- 
incidences ? May not, e.g., the drying up of 
the Red Sea and of Jordan be explained as 
due to the combined action of known natural 
forces, acting only more powerfully than has 
otherwise been observed? Have we not, in 
many at least of the Egyptian plagues, rather 
an emphasising of phenomena already common 
in Egypt, than an entirely new experience ? Do 
not the majestic accompaniments of the law- 
giving at Sinai recall the associations of a 
volcanic eruption, or a more than ordinarily 
lengthy and terrific electric disturbance ? Or 
again, to tread on still more sacred ground, 
may not many of Christ's miracles of healing, 
whether in cases of demoniacal possession or 
otherwise, be explained as exhibiting an un- 
usually intense form of that many-sided influ- 
ence of mind over both mind and matter with 



which modern mental science has made us 
familiar ? 

In attempting to meet this form of objec- 
tion, we shall, as in the former case, be ready 
to admit the possibility that it may apply in 
some cases. Let each be judged, as far as pos- 
sible, on its own merits, when the principle 
has been allowed. We shall maintain, how- 
ever, two positions : first, that the objection does 
not cover the whole ground, and, secondly, 
that it misconceives what we mean by Miracle. 
(a) It does not cover the whole ground. 
So far, at any rate, as science has yet gone, 
many of the miracles, and some of them 
among the most strongly attested, remain 
outside its range. There is an irreducible 
minimum which is not amenable to such ex- 
planation. It will be sufficient to take the 
New Testament. Here we find that, while 
many of Christ's miracles of healing find 
some sort of analogy in modern scientific 
treatment of hysteria and the like — and may 
thus be possibly regarded as miraculous rather 
in their inexplicable anticipation of the results 
of later human progress, than in anything 
else — many also are admitted by medical ex- 
perts to involve, if true, such organic changes 
in the patient as cannot be accounted for by 
reference to any power of mind over matter 
known to modern science. Further, there 
are the miracles wrought upon Nature, e.g. 
the turning of the water into wine, the feed- 
ing of the 4,000 and 5,000, the stilling of the 
storm, the walking on the sea, which physical 
science confessedly cannot as yet explain ; and 
above all, there is the central miracle of the 
Resurrection so uniquely attested. 

(b) It is a misconception of the meaning of 
Miracle as we understand it, to suppose that 
the defender of the miraculous is concerned 
to prove a contradiction of Law as such, or 
to minimise or exclude the operation, in these 
cases, of secondary causes. He does not argue 
in favour of a contradiction of Law, for 
according to his own belief the Author of 
miracles is also the Author of Nature and its 
laws. Neither does he hold a brief against 
secondary causes. If there be such a thing 
as Miracle, working definite effects upon the ex- 
ternal world, then it will be true of miraculous as 
of non-miraculous events that they are capable, 
in their measure, of scientific description. 

The physical condition, e.g., of Naaman, or 
of the blind man healed by Christ at Beth- 
saida (Mk 8^-26) wou i d have been capable5 n0 

doubt, of medical diagnosis at any stage of 
the cure. The only factor which would re- 
main outside the range of medical science 
would be the force that originated the series of 
reactions which resulted in physical soundness. 
Again, to take an instance of a rather differ- 
ent kind. The miracle of the stoppage of 



cxvn 



MIRACLE 



Jordan's waters (see on Josh 3 16 ) is curiously 
paralleled by an Arabic narrative of the middle 
ages, which records a similar stoppage in the 
same river, and accounts for it as the result of 
a damming up of the stream by an extensive 
landslip higher up. It is at least possible 
that a scientific account of the great event 
recorded in the book of Joshua would trace 
it to secondary causes of a similar kind. What 
physical science could not do would be to 
explain Joshua's foreknowledge of this very 
remarkable natural phenomenon, and its co- 
incidence with the needs and purposes of the 
Israelite army. 

Many other miracles of the Old Testament 
may be similarly treated and with a similar 
result. We may strip them of much of their 
' portentous ' clothing — of that which our 
present habit of thought is inclined to regard 
as crude and arbitrary. We may explain this 
as the outcome of a mode of speech, graphic, 
figurative, poetical, insulted by translation 
into the prose of hard fact. We may make 
full allowance for the imaginative tendency of 
the Oriental mind : its pictorial and dramatic 
genius. But we shall not even so get rid of 
the miraculous. The miracles are not miracles 
merely or chiefly because of their intrinsic 
character. Their claim to be miraculous lies 
rather in the moment of their occurrence, and 
its obvious relation to the necessities and pro- 
prieties of the great scheme in which they are 
set, and in the fact that, in so many cases, 
they could be predicted. And the belief that 
they involved the personal interposition of 
the Deity for a definite purpose, is not shaken 
in the least by the consideration that the 
Author of Nature may have chosen to inter- 
pose by the employment of those natural 
forces through which He normally works. 

3. Miracle essential to the Biblical Revelation. 
So far we have seen that miracle is practically 
inseparable from the Bible ; that the miracu- 
lous element in Holy Scripture cannot be 
explained away as being simply a superstitious 
and unscientific interpretation of events which 
a later age could have explained satisfactorily 
on a basis of physical science. And in the 
course of our enquiry we have seen hints at 
least that there is some reason for this stub- 
born and unremovable presence of the mira- 
culous. 

If we can make clear to ourselves what is 
the place of Miracle in the Bible, and what 
is its relation to Revelation, we may also 
go far towards finding an answer to the 
further problems that arise in connexion 
with the relation of Miracle to Natural Law. 

In theology and biblical exegesis there has 
been a change of ideas corresponding in some 
degree to that which has marked the last 
century in the matter of physical science. 



The old mechanical conception of the universe 
which finds expression in Milton's description 
of creation, has given place to an organic con- 
ception. The world, we say now, is less 
fitly symbolised by Paley's ' Watch ' than by 
a living organism — growing, developing, pro- 
gressively fulfilling the law of its being, and in 
consequence witnessing more rather than less 
convincingly to the divine wisdom and power 
and purpose of its Originator and Sustainer, 
who is also its immanent principle of life. 
Similarly the problem of the miraculous has 
received a new setting. Miracles are not now 
regarded in the old way as external creden- 
tials to Revelation — a sort of artificial adjunct 
or added appendix. The evidential value of 
the miraculous may be fully recognised, but 
at the same time it is viewed as an organic 
part of the Revelation itself. The miracles 
of Christ, e.g., as we now see, were not 
isolated manifestations of supernatural power 
put forth simply and solely to excite wonder 
and astonishment, and as it were to compel 
belief. He refused, very definitely, to work 
a miracle of this kind (Mk8 n and parallels). 
Rather they are the outcomes of His won- 
derful and gracious character, integral portions 
of His teaching ; touches which, if removed, 
would leave a blank which would be felt 
in the complete, harmonious, and supremely 
natural if also supernatural portrait which the 
evangelists have artlessly combined to paint 
for us. And the supreme miracle, as we shall 
see shortly, is Christ Himself. His ' mighty 
works ' were, of course — and some of them 
especially — tokens of His divinity. The 
Resurrection, e.g., is classed as such by St. 
Paul (in Rol 4 : cp. Jn5 36 10 25 > 38 Mt ll 2 ' 5 ). 
They were signs, not to compel belief — for 
compelled belief is no longer faith — rbut signs 
to stimulate and strengthen and develop the 
germ of faith already present, and to trans- 
form it into assured conviction. Thus St. John 
(2 n ) speaks of Christ's first miracle at Cana — 
which was obviously a sign of sympathy and 
kindness — as being also a manifestation of His 
glory ; but the manifestation is to the inner 
circle of His disciples. Similarly Christ Him- 
self enumerates His characteristic miracles of 
healing, together with other works, as cre- 
dentials of His Messiahship. But the evidence, 
be it observed, is addressed to St. John the 
Baptist. 

This view of Miracle as an integral part of 
Revelation may explain to some extent the 
difference in character between the miracles 
of the Old Testament and those of the New. 
The Revelation, as we are observing more and 
more, is a progressive one, a gradual unfold- 
ing of divine truth to man, in divers parts and 
divers manners (Heb 1 ] ), as he was able to bear 
it, Will not the miraculous element, then, 



MIRACLE 



show itself progressive too ? Shall we be sur- 
prised if some of the Old Testament miracles, 
e.g. the shadow on Ahaz' dial, or the trans- 
formation of Moses' rod, seem to lack the 
obvious appropriateness and the richness of 
spiritual teaching and symbolism that shine 
forth from the recorded works of Christ ? 

If miracles are acted teaching, should we not 
expect those which belong to an earlier and 
more elementary stage of Revelation to be of 
a simpler and more elementary sort ? One 
might venture to say that just as divine com- 
mands could be laid on Abraham and Joshua, 
in the childhood of morality, which could not 
be laid on us : so miracles could be wrought 
and be helpful in an earlier stage which in a 
later — such as our own age— r would be simply 
a stumbling-block to belief. Yet even the 
earliest, and, if we may so say, ' crudest ' of 
Old Testament miracles display a marked 
superiority, from this point of view, to many 
of the meaningless and ludicrous 'miracles' 
of the Apocryphal G-ospels and mediaeval 
hagiologies. 

The accepted view of the universe has ad- 
vanced, and Natural Science has taught us so 
well the lesson that the Almighty is a God of 
Law and order, that we instinctively suspect 
as unworthy of Him anything which seems to 
verge on the arbitrary or capricious. Many of 
the Old Testament miracles, if wrought to-day, 
would be as inappropriate as in their context 
they were appropriate. Let us consider for a 
moment some broad facts about them. At 
first sight they seem quite incidental and un- 
systematic. Possibly a progress may be dimly 
discerned, allowing for exceptions. The mi- 
racles, e.g., of the ninth century B.C. — especi- 
ally the more beneficent miracles recorded of 
Elijah and Elisha, seem more like those of 
Christ than the Mosaic miracles of some seven 
centuries earlier. These earlier ones, again, 
adapted as they are to the special circumstances 
of their occasion, have a more exclusively 
general appeal to masses of people, while the 
later ones involve more individual dealing. 

Other indications of law and system are to 
be found in the miracles of the Bible. Chief 
among these is their threefold grouping. The 
miracles are, for the most part, concentrated 
in three epochs, epochs when a vindication of 
God's supremacy was specially to be looked 
for ; and they are grouped around those three 
figures which find places together on the mys- 
terious Mount of Transfiguration : Moses — 
Elijah — Christ. 

(1) The first or Mosaic group ushers in the 
redemption from Egypt, the giving of the 
divine Law, and the foundation of the Hebrew 
theocracy. (2) The second marks a new crisis, 
when owing to the religious innovations of 
Ahab and Jezebel the worship of the true God 



in Israel was first formally menaced by a new 
and hostile cult actively supported by the 
Court. (3) The third group is the climax of 
all. The miracles of Jesus Christ, with their 
peculiar appeal to reason, affection and con- 
science, throw back a flood of light upon the 
obscurer miracles of the Old Testament. ' The 
central point,' as Dr. Sanday has said, ' in the 
Old Testament revelation was that God is a 
living God; that the world is not a dead world, 
but instinct with life, which is all derived from 
Him. The New Testament takes up this and 
tells us that Christ the Word was the Light 
and Life of men.' 

The miracles of the Old Testament certainly 
exhibit God as a living God, and culminate in 
the Incarnate Life — the Christ of the Gospels, 
whose career on earth issues in a Resurrection 
and Ascension which have brought new life to 
the world. And in this supernatural figure 
we see Miracle exhibited to us most natur- 
ally and in closest contact with all that we 
instinctively recognise as highest and noblest. 
His character is indeed the supreme wonder 
of all : more marvellous than any of those 
particular miracles which were, after all, but 
partial ' signs ' of the fulness that was in Him. 
Whether we read it in the pages of the Gospels, 
or in St. Paul's description (1 Cor 13) of Love 
at work, we perceive in it an ideal perfection 
combining all the recognised manly virtues 
with those usually thought of as womanly. 
We mark its union of opposites — patience, 
gentleness, meekness, with a sternness and a 
force unequalled in history ; the cosmopolitan 
breadth of ideas found in one brought up in 
what would naturally have been the narrowest 
surroundings. Its superhuman claims are com- 
bined with an unparalleled humility and 
reasonableness ; its superhuman powers are 
controlled always and focussed on His mis- 
sion, never employed for His own material 
comfort or the earthly advancement of His 
followers. Above all, there is the ideal morality 
exhibited, as even opponents admit, in His 
life and teaching, and the marvellous fact 
that none of His many recorded sayings, 
whether in the ethical sphere or in any other, 
have become obsolete or subject to revision 
in the subsequent growth of human knowledge. 

But if Christ on earth is a wonder, still 
more is Christ ascended. It is the character 
of Christ as exhibited and developed in the 
history of His Church, impressing itself fruit- 
fully on successive ages and on divers races, 
at home in each and bringing out the best in 
each regardless of diversity of clime, race, 
tradition, antecedents, and civilised status ; it 
is the vital power of Him, exercised in the 
tremendous if familiar phenomenon of conver- 
sion, which persists to-day to prove that the 
age of miracle is not past. Believers see in 



cxix 



MIRACLE 



this but the fulfilment of His own recorded 
promise, ' Greater things than these shall ' the 
believer * do' ; ( because I go to the Father ' 
(Jnl4i2). 

That systematic and rhythmical sequence 
of miracle which is represented by the names, 
Moses, Elijah, Christ, does not suddenly come 
to an end with the close of the New Testa- 
ment, though its character, as we have seen, 
tends to change with the changing require- 
ments of successive ages. To us children of 
a practical, matter-of-fact, and scientific century 
' signs and wonders ' like some of those in the 
Bible would be a hindrance and not a help, 
even had we the strength of faith necessary 
to evoke them. Yet He who after His Ascen- 
sion wrought ' many signs and wonders ' ' by 
the hands of the Apostles' (Ac2 43 5 12 ) and 
1 confirmed the word with signs following ' 
(Mk 1 6 20 ; cp. Ac 4 29 > 30 ), has continued by moral 
and spiritual miracles to give evidence of His 
living presence throughout the centuries, ac- 
cording to the terms of His recorded promise, 
1 Lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end 
of the world' (Mt28 2 °). 

4. Miracle essential to Revelation as such. 
We may claim, perhaps, to have shown that 
Miracle is essential to the biblical Revelation. 
May we not go further, and say that it 
would seem to be essential to Revelation con- 
sidered in the abstract — that is, to any con- 
ceivable method by which God might reveal 
Himself to man in a manner more direct and 
more unmistakable than is afforded by His 
revelation of Himself in the course of nature ? 
On this subject it was formerly considered 
enough to observe that a divine message could 
only be sufficiently accredited by obviously 
supernatural accompaniments, and that there- 
fore miracles were appended to Revelation as 
its necessary ' credentials.' Such a statement 
is, however, from a modern point of view, far 
from satisfactory. 

We can no longer (as was pointed out 
above) look upon miracles as an external 
appendix added to Revelation by way of 
credentials. Miracle, we should say, has a 
great credential value, but its witness is 
intrinsic — from within ; it witnesses to the 
truth of Revelation by witnessing to the 
character of the person revealed. The 
miracles of Christ hold a supreme place as 
the work of Incarnate God ; but the other 
miracles also as emanating from the one per- 
sonal Deity may be expected to bear the 
stamp of a personal consciousness and will. 
We know that a succession of phenomena in 
nature can be diverted by the action of our 
own human wills, and that without any real 
breach of Nature's laws. This is done, for 
instance, whenever a surgeon performs a 
successful operation, or a physician using his 



knowledge of materia medica arrests the natural 
course of a disease. So, too, without any real 
contradiction of the system of Law which 
He has established for the working of the 
universe, the Personal Creator and Ruler of 
all things may be conceived as ' interposing ' 
— either directly or by means of His creatures 
— and so diverting or interrupting what 
would otherwise have been the inevitable 
course of events. Such interposition, if 
definite and striking in its external results, 
would be what we know as Miracle. It would 
differ from the action of our limited minds 
and wills in many points : notably in the 
range of its power and influence and in the 
constant perfection of its purpose. These 
exclude the element of capriciousness that 
makes the action of our wills so often un- 
accountable and out of harmony with the course 
of nature. 

In this conception of Miracle as a display of 
personality is to be found, we believe, the true 
solution of the various problems with which 
the question is encumbered. It helps us to 
understand, by the analogy of our own volition, 
what else would look like the introduction of 
a capricious principle into a world where we 
have been accustomed to see Law reigning : 
it helps us, moreover, to realise the place and 
purpose of miracle as evidencing, in the only 
way possible, the personal character of the 
Ruler of the universe : and it supplies a link 
between what we regard as the ordinary works 
of Providence — the normal phenomena which 
the world's process exhibits — and those ab- 
normal phenomena inexplicable by our accus- 
tomed methods, which we call miracles. Both 
alike are manifestations of a personal mind 
and will and power, working according to the 
law of a perfect nature ; but the one class of 
manifestations is deliberately intended to 
supplement — and interpret — the other. 

So we are led back again to Christ as the 
supreme miracle and the revealer of the ultimate 
naturalness, if we may so speak, of the super- 
natural. For He in whom meet heaven and 
earth, the human and the divine, expresses 
uniquely in His recorded miracles as in His 
words and life, the perfect character of Him 
' whom no man hath seen, nor can see,' yet 
concerning whom He Himself hath said : 
4 He that hath seen me hath seen the Father.' 
In the Incarnate what we ordinarily call 
Miracle is, as it were, normal ; for in Him is 
God personally revealed to man, personally 
acting under conditions of human life. 

5. Miracle and Natural Law. But since it 
is reverence for Natural Law that is responsi- 
ble for most of the modern distrust of Miracle, 
it will be necessary to enter a little more fully 
into the relation between Miracle and Natural 
Law. 



cxx 



MIRACLE 



Of course the whole structure of modern 
science is built upon the foundation of the 
uniformity of Nature. If things happen 
anyhow, as in a nightmare, then there can 
be no use in attempting to study Nature 
at all. And if the presence of Miracle 
disturbs the uniformity of Nature and in- 
troduces absolute chaos into the world, we 
can forgive people for refusing to consider 
the possibility of the miraculous. But is it 
true that a belief in Miracle contradicts the 
reign of Law in Nature ? As a matter of 
fact, the average believer in Miracle speaks 
and acts in his daily life as one who believes 
also that Nature is normally constant and 
uniform. His expectations, his forecasts, his 
plans imply just as steady and practical a 
reliance on this principle as do those of the 
veriest sceptic. And why ? Because the 
very possibility of Miracle depends on the 
fact of uniformity. Miracle needs the ordi- 
nary working of Natural Law as its back- 
ground. It does not exclude Natural Law, 
but it is relative to it. If all things were 
unaccountable, where would be place for 
Miracle ? St. Augustine had arrived at a 
really profound conception of the relation of 
Miracle to Natural Law, when he suggested 
that all God's ordinary works are wonderful 
— miraculous — but that, since familiarity has 
so blunted men's minds that they fail to appre- 
ciate the yearly miracle of harvest and vintage, 
the Lord of Nature who, year by year, by 
natural processes which He has ordained, 
multiplies bread-substance for hungry men, 
and turns rain-water into wine to gladden 
; man's heart, once on a time saw fit to do these 
things by a momentary act of that Will to which 
one day is as a thousand years. 

Miracles, if they occur at all, must be, as St. 
Augustine saw, the work of the same Lawgiver 
who day by day exhibits to us the orderly 
wonders of Nature's processes. But if this 
be so it follows that miracles themselves must 
conform to Law, albeit some higher law than 
those with which physical science is convers- 
ant. Nature and conscience alike demand 
that we should regard God as the author ' not 
of confusion, but of peace ' (1 Corl4 33 ), i.e. as 
, self- consistent because absolutely perfect. It 
i is true that there is a disturbing element in the 
world ; that there is a principle at work abso- 
lutely contrary to the principle of Law — what 
the Bible calls sin. 'Sin,' as St. John says, 
i'ia lawlessness' (Un3 4 ). But sin is not a 
positive entity, a created thing ; it is rather 
the abuse of a choice offered to man by his 
Maker, and offered of necessity if man was to 
be a free agent. The possibility of choosing 
to do right necessarily involves the possibility 
of choosing to do viro?ig. How far human or 
angelic sin is responsible for the anomalies in 



the physical world which occasionally perplex 
and baffle the student of Natural Law, we are 
not here concerned to consider. There is one 
consideration, however, suggested by the pres- 
ence of this disturbing factor. If Miracle 
seems arbitrary and violent, may it not be 
because some forcible method is necessary to 
redress the balance already upset by the 
introduction of evil into a world originally 
' very good ' ? 

And further, may not this forcible redress- 
ing of the balance, if such it be, be still 
performed in accordance with some higher 
principle of Law ? 

The analogy of human personal action 
suggested above may help us here. When 
the physician — acting, it must be remembered, 
in accordance with the laws of medical science 
— restores the body to health, although he 
forcibly interrupts a series of physical pro- 
cesses which apart from him must have worked 
themselves out, he is really ranged on the side 
of the natural and normal. And it may per- 
haps be worthy of remark that the abnormal 
conditions which his skill and determination 
have fought and conquered are often directly, 
more often, probably, indirectly, the result of 
human sin. May we not say then that in the 
sphere of biblical miracle ' the real intervention 
is not the intervention of grace, but that of 
the sin which required it ' ? 

We have seen above that there are traces of 
law and system discernible in the miracles of 
the Bible viewed generally, and that in the 
case of many of them the entire physical 
results may have been achieved by a disposi- 
tion of natural forces at a particular time and 
for a particular purpose. There are other 
cases, however, where such an explanation 
seems inadequate to account for the result. 
These cases cannot, it is true, be referred to 
Natural Law ; but may they not be glimpses 
of a higher system which, for want of a better 
name, we must call ' Supernatural Law ' ? 
Nature herself supplies us with an illustration 
(and it is more than a mere illustration) which 
may enable us to realise the probability and, 
so to speak, naturalness of there being above 
and beyond the laws which our reason is able 
to discover, a higher stratum of law such as 
must appear to our ordinary intelligence 
supernatural, miraculous. 

In external Nature we see four different 
worlds ; the higher in each case built upon 
the lower, in a sense including it, and yet 
remaining for ever distinct from it and 
apparently inaccessible to it. 

(a) First there comes the Inorganic World 
— chemical elements and their products — dead 
matter. This is subject to its own elementary 
laws of gravitation, cohesion, and the like. 

(b) Above that stands the Organic World, 



cxxi 



MIRACLE 



which takes up the inorganic into its cell- 
structure, and is in this respect amenable to 
the laws of Matter ; but has in it, besides, 
potentialities and conditions of existence 
wholly unknown to the inorganic, and is 
subject, in consequence, to a fresh set of laws 
which do not touch the lower sphere — the 
laws of organic life. 

(c) Higher up we have Animal Life, with 
its own peculiar gifts, conditions, laws of 
growth, nutrition, locomotion, etc. ; (d) and 
higher up, again, the rational, self-conscious, 
moral life of Man. 

Each member of this ascending series of 
worlds is supernatural and miraculous from 
the point of view of those below it, while 
subject in a real sense to the laws governing 
its inferiors. None is lawless, arbitrary, capri- 
cious in reality, though the higher you go 
up the scale, the more appearance there is of 
absence of law and uniformity. The truth is 
that they are subject to ever higher, grander, 
more complex, more mysterious laws. 

The teaching of the Bible seems to be that 
above these familiar orders of the inorganic, 
the organic, the animal, and the rational as 
known in man, there is yet another order, (e) 
the sphere of the purely spiritual, glimpses of 
which appear now and again to us as ' miracles.' 
These glimpses are possible, because man is 
himself on one side a spiritual being, made 
' in the image of God,' and so akin to the 
supernatural world. They appear to him 
miraculous, because his intelligence, which 
lives and moves habitually in the natural 
world, is not at home yet in the spiritual. 
They are given because the Ruler of that 
supernatural world is Ruler also of the natural, 
and desires personal contact and communion 
with His rational creature, man. 

If the relation of the supernatural to the 
natural world be such as our illustration 
suggests — if, that is, the former interpenetrates 
and completes while it also transcends the 
latter, we should expect that, though the laws 
to which miracles conform be beyond our 
reason as such, there would yet be something 
in them which would appeal to us as reason- 
able, and would have contact at least with the 
principle of Law as we see it working in the 
world around us. This we have already, to 
some extent, found to be the case, and deeper 
consideration will confirm the impression that 
the Bible miracles may be explained as in- 
stances rather of the controlling action of a 
higher law than of sheer violation of the 
lower. 

One further suggestion may be made in this 
connexion — not as though it would cover the 
whole field of Miracle or offer in any sense an 
adequate explanation of all the miraculous 
phenomena of the Bible. 



We have already spoken of some of the 
miracles of Christ as involving an inexplicable 
anticipation of the results of later human pro- 
gress ; and surely it is true to say that a 
marked anticipation of a distinctly later stage 
of the advance of humanity is in itself of 
the nature of Miracle. It would have been 
nothing short of a miracle — e.g. if any one 
had made use of wireless telegraphy in the 
days of Queen Anne — because it would have 
been an advance quite out of touch with any- 
thing else in the conditions and circumstances 
of the time. From this point of view the 
mighty works of Christ would lose nothing of 
their miraculous character if it could be shown 
that modern or future medical science could 
produce identical results. The system of 
religion and morality set forth by Christ 
— which is intrinsically far more important 
than the miracles usually so called — gathers 
up into itself all the yearnings and gropings 
of the ancients, and at the same time repre- 
sents the goal towards which the ethical 
advance of humanity has been gradually mov- 
ing, so that His words have 'never passed 
away' like the utterances of other ancient 
teachers. May not His wonderful dealings 
with matter and with mind in like manner 
represent the capacity of perfect humanity — the 
goal towards which mankind is moving in- 
tellectually and scientifically by the help of 
the accumulated experience of centuries ? 
This, as we have seen, would render them 
no less miraculous ; and it strikes out a line of 
thought that has a much wider reference, in- 
cluding in its scope the Old Testament as well 
as the New. For if an inexplicable advance, 
out of all proportion to the contemporary 
development of the race, be miraculous, what 
claims may not be made for the Law, Prophecy, 
and History of the Old Testament. 

Conclusion. Man moves on the borderland 
of the rational and spiritual worlds. He 
belongs in part to both. The higher is his 
heritage as much as the lower ; but of the first 
he enjoys as yet but rare glimpses. One great 
purpose of the Bible's miraculous record, 
culminating as it does in that Resurrection 
miracle without which subsequent history is 
inexplicable, is to warn us against the spirit 
which would discredit and reject those price- 
less glimpses when they are presented, and 
elect to live always on the lower plane. 

Such a despising of man's birthright is not 
possible to those for whom the statements of 
the Christian creed represent historic facts. 
Christ, the Incarnate Deity, at once natural 
and supernatural ; Christ crucified, risen, 
ascended, glorified, has achieved for them per- 
petual access to the higher realm ; they ' see 
heaven open and the angels of God ascending 
and descending upon the Son of man ' (Jn 1 51 ). 



THE RESURRECTION 



It cannot be said of the Kesurrection, as is 
sometimes said of other miracles, that it lacks 
an adequate motive. The greatest of all 
questions that it concerns man to know, is 
whether there is or is not a future life. ' It 
matters,' says Pascal, ' to the whole of life to 
know whether the soul is mortal or immortal.' 
If a supernatural revelation is possible at all 
(and all who believe in a Personal God who 
loves His creatures, must believe that it is), a 
revelation on the subject of a future life is of all 
others the most credible. For in the presence 
of this great question all human knowledge is 
bankrupt. Science can only trace the history 
of the conscious soul to the moment of death. 
The human heart may yearn for immortality, 
philosophy may speculate about it, but neither 
can prove it. Socrates more than any other 
man applied himself to prove the immortality 
of the soul, but when the death-sentence was 
passed upon him, he could only say : ' The 
hour of departure has arrived, and we go our 
ways, I to die, and you to live. Which is 
better God only knows.' 

The Christian Church claims to have 
received from God a special revelation upon 
this great question. According to her settled 
belief, God raised her Founder from the dead 
for the special purpose of revealing to man- 
kind (1) the existence of a future life, and 
(2) the nature of that life. 

i. The Character of the Evidence. The evi- 
1 dence for the Resurrection is of a kind which 
appeals primarily to the spiritual faculty of 
spiritual men. Those who already know and 
love God, who feel in their souls a yearning 
for eternal communion with Him, and a deep 
sense that the injustices, disappointments, and 
failures of this life point to a future life in 
which God's righteousness and love will be 
finally vindicated, will be drawn to examine 
attentively the evidence for the Resurrection 
; of Jesus Christ. Those, on the other hand, 
i who are living without faith in a personal 
: God, and to whom Nature therefore mani- 
fests only a series of unvarying mechanical 
"! laws, will either reject the evidence without 
? examination, or, if they examine it, will pro- 
nounce it insufficient. Yet, although the 
final decision will depend largely upon a man's 
general attitude towards spiritual and moral 
truth, the Resurrection claims to be a historical 
fact, and therefore the evidence for it, so far 
as it is historical, admits of being tested by 
the same canons of criticism as other historical 



evidence. It is the duty of Christians, there- 
fore, to subject the evidence for the Resurrec- 
tion to the most rigid scrutiny, a scrutiny all 
the more penetrating and searching in propor- 
tion as the practical results which follow from 
the alternative decisions of the question are 
momentous. 

2. The Documents. All modern criticism, 
except that which is carried to the point of per- 
versity, acknowledges the genuineness of the 
chief Epistles of St. Paul, and since that 
Apostle was converted soon after the Resur- 
rection (according to Harnack as early as 30 
a.d., and certainly not later than 36 A.D.), his 
Epistles will be admitted to be a valuable wit- 
ness as to what the belief of the first Christians 
was upon this subject. That the Resurrection 
of Jesus was firmly believed not only in the 
Churches founded by St. Paul, but also in 
those founded by the original Apostles, is 
manifest from these writings. The leading 
passage is lCorl5 3f -, in which St. Paul 
rehearses the fundamental articles of the 
Christian faith. Of the Resurrection he says 
(see RY) : ' For I delivered unto you first of 
all [this was in 50 a.d., about twenty years 
after the event] that which also I received, 
how that Christ died for our sins according 
to the Scriptures ; and that He was buried ; 
and that He hath been raised [the perfect 
represents the permanence of the result] on 
the third day according to the Scriptures ; 
and that He appeared to Cephas [i.e. Peter], 
then to the Twelve [in reality to the eleven, 
but ' the Twelve ' is a recognised title of the 
apostolic body] ; then He appeared to above 
five hundred brethren at once, of whom the 
greater part remain until now, but some are 
fallen asleep ; then • He appeared to James ; 
then to all the Apostles ; and last of all, as unto 
one born out of due time, He appeared to me 
also. . . Whether then it be I or they, so we 
preach, and so ye believed.' 

We learn from this passage that the Resur- 
rection of Jesus Christ was regarded as one 
of the foundation doctrines of Christianity, 
and that faith in it was taught to all converts 
' first of all,' or more literally, ' among the 
first or most important truths ' of the new 
faith ; that St. Paul's teaching upon this 
subject was identical with that of the other 
Apostles ; and that more than five hundred 
private Christians (most of whom were still 
alive when St. Paul wrote) could testify that 
they had seen the risen Lord. So far from 



THE RESURRECTION 



the Resurrection being based, as is sometimes 
alleged, on the all but unsupported evidence 
of a single hysterical woman, there is no 
mention of any appearances to women at all. 
The list is clearly an official one of appear- 
ances to the Church and its officers. There 
is an appearance to St. Peter, the leader of 
the Apostles ; one to the Twelve, the recognised 
heads of the Christian community ; one to 
James the Lord's brother, destined soon to rule 
the great mother-church of Jerusalem ; one 
to all the Apostles, i.e. to other leading men 
besides the Twelve, perhaps to the whole 
Seventy (Lk 10 *) ; one to the whole Church, on 
which occasion over five hundred were present ; 
and one to St. Paul, the founder of Gentile 
Christianity. It is important to notice that 
two of these appearances were to unbelievers. 
The unbelief of James is particularly noted 
in the Gospels (Jn7 5 Mk3 21 Mtl5 3 ?), and it 
was probably this appearance which effected 
his conversion (Ac 1 14 ). As to St. Paul, his 
companion and biographer tells us that he was 
' yet breathing out threatenings and slaughter 
against the disciples of the Lord ' (Ac 9 *), 
when the risen Lord appeared to him outside 
the gates of Damascus. Taken altogether, 
the evidence to which St. Paul alludes in this 
passage represents a truly impressive mass of 
testimony. This is the opinion not only of 
defenders of traditional views, but even 
of recent negative criticism. Schmiedel, for 
example, says, ' This passage must be regarded 
as the earliest account of the appearances of 
the risen Jesus ; unquestionably it goes back 
to the communications made by Peter during 
the fifteen days' visit of Paul, three years 
after the conversion of the latter ' (Gal 1 18 ) ; 
Weizsacker says, ' Paul's knowledge of these 
things must have come from the heads of the 
primitive Church ' ; Wernle says, ' In the very 
earliest time St. Paul obtained this informa- 
tion from St. Peter ' ; Keim says, ' Paul 
wishes in pious earnestness to give the truth. . . 
It is beyond doubt that the facts were really 
experienced and believed as they were faith- 
fully related to him, and as he has again faith- 
fully reported them. . . Paul's help supplies 
the whole question with its fixed point, its 
Archimedean fulcrum.' 

The important evidence of St. Paul is con- 
firmed by the first-hand evidence of St. Peter. 
St. Peter's First Epistle is one of the best 
attested of all ancient documents, and since 
its contents are in harmony with its reputed 
date and authorship, we need have no hesita- 
tion in accepting its evidence. Its testimony 
to the Resurrection is remarkably strong. 
For St. Peter the Resurrection is not a 
speculation. !>nt b most certain fact, the basis 
of the Christian's hope. 'Blessed,' he says, 
'be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus 



Christ, who according to His great mercy 
begat us again into a living hope by the Re- 
surrection of Jesus Christ from the dead' 
(1 3 ). And again, ' God raised Him from the 
dead, and gave Him glory ; so that your faith 
and hope might be in God ' (1 21 ). The testi- 
mony of two other Apostles can be added. 
The Gospel of St. Matthew, whether it be 
directly by that Apostle, or based upon his 
original Hebrew 'Logia,' apparently rests upon 
his authority. Its testimony to the Resurrec- 
tion is quite explicit (Mt28). The Gospel of 
St. John, though questioned in modern times 
by certain schools of criticism, was in ancient 
times universally accepted, and is in truth 
attested by weighty evidence, both internal 
and external, as the work of the Apostle. 
Its writer offers a personal testimony to the 
Resurrection, and gives a detailed account of 
three appearances of the risen Lord which he 
himself beheld. 

Besides these primary authorities the second- 
ary witnesses are of great importance. St. 
Luke was a Gentile of Antioch, who, during 
his long sojourn at Caesarea (Ac24 27 ) from 
56-58 a.d., had ample opportunities of con- 
sulting the actual eye-witnesses, and we have 
every reason to suppose he did so (Lkl 1 * 4 ). 
His Gospel and Acts must therefore be re- 
garded as valuable authorities. Their testi- 
mony to the Resurrection is unmistakable. 
As for St. Mark, his position as secretary and 
interpreter to St. Peter (cp. lPet5 13 ) gave 
him exceptional opportunities of knowing the 
truth. Unfortunately the conclusion of his 
Gospel has been lost, but it is certain that his 
narrative was written from the point of view 
of a believer in the Resurrection, and that in 
its complete form it contained an account of 
that event (Mkl6<5, etc.). 

3. The Number of Appearances. It is im- 
plied by the sacred writers that the appear- 
ances of the risen Lord were numerous 
(Jn21 25 Acl 3 ). At least ten or eleven are 
definitely mentioned. 

(1) To Mary Magdalene (Jn 20 16 ; cp. Mk 
169). 

(2) To the other women (Mt28 9 ). 

(3) To Peter (Lk2434 1 Cor 15 5). 

(4) To two disciples on their way to Emmaus 
(Lk24i5). 

(5) To the ten Apostles without Thomas 
(Lk2436J n 20i9). 

(6) To the Apostles with Thomas (Jn 20 26 ). 

(7) To seven disciples, among whom were 
Peter, Thomas, Nathanael, James, and John 
(Jn2P). 

(8) To the eleven disciples on a mountain 
in Galilee (Mt28™), with which is probably 
to be identified — 

(9) The appearance to over 500 brethren at 
once (1 Corl5 6 ). 



cxxiv 



THE RESURRECTION 



(10) To James the Lord's brother (1 Cor 157). 

(11) To the Apostles on the occasion of the 
Ascension (Ac 1 4 ). 

(12) To St. Paul (Ac 9 3, etc.). 

4. Alleged Discrepancies in the Evidence. 
The above passages taken together represent 
an impressive mass of cumulative evidence, 
the weight of which would not be sensibly 
diminished, even if it could be shown that dis- 
crepancies exist between the narratives. For 
it is one of the established rules of historical 
criticism that the disagreement of the witnesses 
in matters of detail, does not invalidate their 
testimony to the main facts which they agree 
in relating. Up to a certain point, indeed, the 
presence of discrepancies in different narratives 
is rather a favourable indication than other- 

: wise, because fictitious narratives, intended 
to win credit as history, would inevitably be 

" precise, chronological, and harmonious not 
only in reality, but in appearance. 

The only question is whether the discrep- 

1 ancies in the accounts of the Resurrection are 
so numerous and important, as to throw dis- 
credit upon the history as a whole. The chief 
difficulties are the following. St. Luke and 
St. John mention two angels, St. Matthew 
and St. Mark only one. According to the 

' synoptists, the angels were seen by the women ; 
according to St. John by Mary Magdalene 
only. According to St. Luke and St. Matthew, 
news was brought by the women that the tomb 
was empty, and that Jesus had risen ; accord- 

j ing to St. Mark, ' they said nothing to any 
one, for they were afraid ' ; whereas, according 
to St. John, news of the empty tomb (but not 
of the Resurrection) was brought by Mary 
Magdalene only, though there is a hint (Jn 
20 2 ) that other women also had been present. 
Again the words of the angel announcing a 
Galilean appearance are given in substantial 
agreement by St. Matthew and St. Mark ; but 
in St. Luke an important change is made. 
The word G-alilee is retained, but the reference 
to a Galilean appearance is obliterated, pro- 
bably because it is not St. Luke's design to 
record any appearances in Galilee. 

These are all the discrepancies of any 
moment which can plausibly be alleged against 
the scriptural narratives. They relate almost 
entirely to the proceedings of the women on 
the morning of the Resurrection, and are 
easily explained by the fact that the women 
were so much startled by the appearance of 
the angel (Mt28 8 Mkl6 8 Lk24^), that they 
were unable to give an entirely consistent 
account of their experience : cp. Lk24 n . 
As to the often repeated statement that the 
authorities contradict one another as to the 
locality of the appearances, some placing them 
in Judaea and others in Galilee, we can only 
say that no sufficient reason has been shown 



why there should not have been appearances 
in both localities. The biblical writers, at any 
rate, recognise no such incompatibility. Not 
one of them says that the appearances were 
all in one locality. St. Matthew records one 
appearance in Jerusalem and one in Galilee ; 
St. John three in Jerusalem and one in Galilee ; 
while St. Paul does not mention the locality 
of any of the appearances. 

The discrepancies, therefore, are too slight 
to discredit the narratives as a whole. This 
is the opinion even of many leaders of modern 
rationalism — of F. C. Baur, for example, who 
says, ' For the disciples the Resurrection was as 
real as any historical fact — whatever may have 
been the medium of this persuasion ' ; and of 
Mr. Macan, who says, ' Two broad facts may 
be taken as certain — that Paul and the other 
Apostles had certain visions, and that, in con- 
sequence of these visions, they believed that 
Jesus had risen from the dead.' 

5. The interpretation of the facts. Various 
attempts have been made to explain the facts 
which have just been described, most of them 
without supposing that a miracle occurred. 
The chief are — 

(1) The theory of fraud. This is the oldest. 
Soon after the Resurrection the Jews spread 
a report that the disciples had stolen Christ's 
body, and pretended that He had risen 
(Mt28 13 - 15 ). This calumny is alluded to by 
Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen ; is 
found in the heathen Acts of Pilate, and the 
mediaeval Jewish Toledoth Jeshua ; and was 
advocated by the German rationalist Reimarus 
(1694-1767). In our day even rationalists 
reject this theory as ' repellent and disgraceful ' 
(Keim). It is acknowledged on all hands that 
so pure an ethical movement as Christianity 
cannot have originated in conscious fraud. 

(2) The theory of the natural disappearance 
of the body. The body is supposed to have 
been removed by some person or persons 
unknown (e.g. the gardener, unknown Galilean 
disciples, Mary Magdalene, the Sanhedrin, 
Pilate, etc.). But these unknown persons 
would either have produced the body, or at 
least have explained that they had removed 
it, as soon as the Apostles began to proclaim 
that Christ had risen from the tomb. 

(3) The theory of apparent death. It is 
alleged that Jesus did not die upon the cross, 
but fainted, and after burial revived and 
came out of the tomb, thus giving rise to the 
belief that He had risen from the dead. 
This theory, once the usual one among 
rationalists, is now nearly, if not quite, 
obsolete. Strauss (1864) says of it : 'A man 
half-dead, dragging Himself in languor and 
exhaustion out of His tomb, with wounds 
requiring careful and continuous medical 
treatment — could He, in such a state, have 



THE RESURRECTION 



produced upon the minds of the disciples the 
impression that He was victor over death and 
the grave, the Prince of Life — an impression 
which nevertheless was the source and spring 
of all their subsequent activity ? ' 

(4) The theory of subjective visions. This 
view, now the accepted one among rationalists, 
was already stated, nearly in its modern form, 
by Celsus (a.d. 170), who says, ' Who beheld 
the risen Jesus ? A half-frantic woman, as 
you state, and some other person, perhaps, of 
those who were engaged in the same system 
of delusion, who had either dreamed so, owing 
to a peculiar state of mind, or, under the 
influence of a wandering imagination, had 
formed to himself an appearance according to 
his own wishes, which has been the case with 
numberless individuals ' (see Origen, ' Against 
Celsus,' ii. 55). Modern advocates of this 
view maintain that they can account for 
the appearances by the ordinary laws of 
psychology, without introducing supernatural 
agency. Hallucinations are known to occur, 
(a) to persons afflicted with certain physical 
diseases, (b) to insane persons, (c) to persons, 
not insane, but suffering from certain disorders 
of the nervous system, (d) to healthy persons 
intensely preoccupied with an idea which they 
have allowed to obtain exclusive possession of 
their minds, (e) It is also maintained by 
good authorities, but is not yet generally 
accepted, that the thought of one mind acting 
1 telepathically ' (i.e. without any material 
means of communication) upon the thought 
of another mind of a certain type of psycho- 
logical sensitiveness may induce a visual 
hallucination. 

Now it cannot be fairly said that the appear- 
ances of the risen Christ can be explained on 
any of these principles. For as to (a) none of 
the perceivers were sick ; as to (ft), none of 
them were insane'; as to (c), even if it be sup- 
posed that Mary Magdalene and St. Paul suf- 
fered from some form of nervous ailment, this 
cannot be said of the Twelve, or of James, or 
of the five hundred brethren ; as to (r/), the 
disciples were certainly not intensely preoccu- 
pied with the idea of the Resurrection. The 
ignominious death of Jesus had scattered His 
followers, and thrown them into the deepest 
despondency. They were in the position of 
men who, having placed implicit trust in a 
leader, were beginning to wonder whether, 
after all, they had not made a great mistake. 
All the Gospels represent our Lord's prophe- 
cies of His Resurrection as fulling upon deaf 
ears (Mtl6 22 Mk9 10 Jn20 9 , etc.), and depict 
the despondency of the disciples (Mt26 56 
Mkl6 10 ), and their unwillingness to believe 
the good news (Mt28" Mkl6".i2,i4 Lk24H. 

25,37.38 J n 20 25). 

As to (e), if hallucinations can be telepathic- 



ally induced at all (and this is doubtful), this 
can only happen to persons of a very rare and 
quite abnormal psychological sensitiveness. To 
suppose that the nervous systems of the Twelve 
and of the five hundred were all so abnormally 
' sensitive,' that the visions of Mary Magdalene 
could be ' telepathically ' communicated to them 
all, surpasses credence. Nor is this all. Recent 
research has demonstrated (see the voluminous 
evidence collected by the Psychical Research 
Society) that visual phantoms hardly ever 
speak, and, when they do, never more than a 
word or two. But the risen Lord spoke every 
time that He appeared, and carried on long 
conversations with the disciples. On the sig- 
nificance of the empty tomb, of the handling, 
and of the eating — all which circumstances are 
inconsistent with the theory we are considering 
— more will be said in the next sections. 

(5) The theory of objective visions, or of a 
' spiritual resurrection.'' Many who reject the 
traditional belief in a corporeal resurrection, 
and yet desire to find a mediating position 
between that and the purely negative view, 
adopt the theory of objective visions. They 
suppose that, after Jesus had been put to 
death, His body did not rise, but that His 
glorified and immortal spirit was allowed by 
God to appear to the disciples, as a token that 
the teaching of Jesus had been ratified by the 
divine approval, and that, in particular, human 
immortality is a fact. This theory, often 
spoken of as that of a ' spiritual resurrection,' 
approximates very closely in practical effect 
to that usually denominated ' orthodox,' and 
deserves sympathetic and respectful considera- 
tion. Our objection to it is, that while it re- 
moves none of the real difficulties involved in 
the older view, it introduces new and greater 
difficulties of its own. The great difficulty of 
believing in our Lord's Resurrection is its 
miraculous character. The theory of objective 
visions tries to eliminate the element of mira- 
cle by denying our Lord's corporeal, while 
admitting His spiritual, Resurrection. But 
even on such a view the Resurrection of Jesus 
remains a miracle. It is as much a breach of 
the order of nature, and, therefore, as much a 
miracle, for a disembodied spirit to return and 
hold conversations with living persons, or for 
God to send ' a telegram from heaven ' (Keim), 
as for a corpse to rise. It is a mistake to 
think that the philosophic objections to mira- 
cles apply exclusively, or even with especial 
force, to physical miracles. They apply equally 
to all miracles. It is more difficult, doubtless, 
to determine the limits of natural possibility 
in the case of mind than in the case of matter ; 
but when those limits are plainly transcended, 
as they are when the facts require the hypo- 
theses of spirit return and of telegrams from 
heaven to be entertained, the philosophic 



cxxvi 



THE RESURRECTION 



objections against alleged psychical miracles are 
as strong as those against alleged physical 
miracles. The half-hearted Rationalism, there- 
fore, which accepts a spiritual, while denying 
a corporeal resurrection, is as incapable as 
Orthodoxy of removing the great stumbling- 
block of miracle, and is under the additional 
disadvantage of being forced to deal with the 
evidence in a thoroughly arbitrary way. It is 
compelled, for instance, to disbelieve what 
even Schenkel regarded as incontrovertible, 
that the tomb was empty on the third day, 
and that the risen Jesus, in order to convince 
the disciples that He was not a phantom, 
allowed Himself to be handled, and ate before 
them. 

(6) The theory of a corporeal resurrection. 
Upon the whole, no theory will be found to 
satisfy the facts, except the traditional one of 
a bodily resurrection. On the morning of the 
third day the tomb was empty. This fact, in 
spite of recent denials in the interest of the 
theory of a spiritual resurrection, stands firm. 
It is attested not only by Luke, who had 
good sources of information, but also by 
Mark (that is, by Peter), by Matthew, by John, 
by the Jews (Mt 28 13 ), and apparently by Paul 
also, for that is the natural conclusion to draw 
from the fact that he mentions the burial in 
connexion with the Resurrection (lCorl5 4 ). 
To deny a fact so amply attested is not sound 
criticism. The tomb, then, was empty, and, 
since the removal of the body either by the 
disciples or by the Jews is (as we have shown) 
an inadmissible hypothesis, we must conclude 
that the body of Jesus rose to a new life. 
Other evidence points in the same direction. 
Thus the risen Lord sought to dispel the idea 
which the Apostles at first entertained, that 
He was a disembodied spirit, by offering 
Himself to be handled, and by showing the 
wounds in His hands, feet, and side (Lk 
2437*. Jn20 20f -); also by eating before and 
with the disciples (Lk24 42 AclO 41 ; cp. Ac 
l 4 RM, Mkl6 14 ). It is no sufficient reply to 
this to say that the risen body could pass 
through solid matter ( Jn 20 19 > 26 ), could appear 
and vanish suddenly (Lk24 31 ' 36 ), could trans- 
port itself instantaneously from place to place 
(cp. Lk24 31 " 34 ), and therefore must have 
been a phantom or spirit. If we adopt the 
usual view, that at the Resurrection the body 
of Jesus was transfigured, and became a 
glorious and spiritual body, no longer limited 
by the laws and conditions of ordinary matter, 
no contradiction arises. We shall suppose 
that our Lord's risen body belonged naturally 
to the sphere of heaven, not to that of earth, 
and that it was by way of condescension and 
to confirm the faith of the disciples, that He 
made it visible to earthly eyes, tangible to 
human hands, and capable of eating earthly 



food. His risen body was not like that of 
the widow's son or of Lazarus, but like that 
of the saints in glory (1 Corl5 35f -). 

6. The Permanent Significance of the Re- 
surrection. From many points of view the 
Resurrection is the most important event in 
human history, and a large treatise would 
hardly exhaust its many-sided significance. 
Only the briefest outline of its bearing upon 
human life and thought can be given here. 

(1) The Resurrection has brought new hope 
and happiness into the world by the light it 
throws upon human immortality (lPetl 3 - 4 ). 
This is recognised even by rationalists. For 
example, John Stuart Mill says : l The bene- 
ficial effect of such a hope (in human im- 
mortality) is far from trifling. It makes life 
and human nature a far greater thing to the 
feelings, and gives greater strength as well as 
solemnity to all the sentiments which are 
awakened in us by our fellow-creatures, and 
by mankind at large. It allays the sense of 
that irony of Nature which is so painfully felt 
when we see the exertions and sacrifices of 
a life culminating in the formation of a wise 
and noble mind, only to disappear from the 
world when the time has just arrived at which 
the world seems about to begin reaping the 
benefit of it. The truth that life is short and 
art long is from of old one of the most dis- 
couraging parts of our condition ; this hope 
(of immortality) admits the possibility that 
the art employed in improving and beautifying 
the soul itself may avail for good in some other 
life, even when seemingly useless for this.' 

(2) The Resurrection makes it possible to 
vindicate God's justice and benevolence in the 
government of the world. If this life is all, 
God cannot be regarded as perfectly just and 
benevolent, because he frequently permits the 
righteous to be afflicted, and even to be un- 
justly put to death, while the wicked go un- 
punished and enjoy worldly prosperity. But 
if, as the Resurrection indicates, there is a life 
beyond the grave in which all earthly wrongs 
are righted and all wickedness adequately 
punished, the moral character of God can be 
successfully vindicated. 

(3) The Resurrection indicates that the 
future life will be not that of the soul only, 
but of the soul united to a suitable organ or 
' body.' Christians regard matter as possessed 
of an intrinsic excellence of its own. It has 
reached its present perfection as the result of 
many ages of cosmical development, and there- 
fore it is probable, on the theory that there is 
a final goal to which all creation moves, that 
matter as well as spirit will be ultimately per- 
fected and glorified (cp. Ro8 18 - 25 2 Pet 3 13 
Rev 2 1 x ), and that in the future life we shall 
be surrounded by a ' material ' environment of 
some kind. Unless hereafter we possess bodies, 



CXXVll 



THE ATONEMENT 



it is difficult to understand how we shall even 
recognise one another, and unless there are 
beautiful objects, it is difficult to understand 
how the soul will enjoy, as Plato says it will, 
the contemplation of perfect beauty for ever. 
(4) The Resurrection sets the seal of the 



divine approval upon the Teaching of Jesus, 
and in particular 

(5) Declares Him to be the Divine Son of 
God. 

On the last two points see art. ' The Person 
of Jesus Christ.' 



THE ATONEMENT 



The meaning of the word ' atonement ' 
becomes plain when it is divided into syllables, 
' at-one-ment.' It signifies the setting at one 
of those who have been estranged. ' "We 
actually find the word " onement," reconcilia- 
tion, in old authors ' (Skeat). 

In the New Testament the word only occurs 
in Ro 5 n AV, but in RY it has disappeared 
even from that passage, and is replaced by 
'reconciliation' : cp. Ro5 10 ll 15 2Cor5 18f -, 
where the Greek word is the same as inRo5 n . 

The word ' atonement ' is really taken from 
the Old Testament, where it occurs about fifty 
times, generally in conjunction with the verb 
' to make.' Thus Ex30 15 , ' to make an atone- 
ment for your souls ' ; Lv 9 7 , ' make an atone- 
ment for thyself, and for the people,' etc. It 
is given there as the translation of a form of 
a Hebrew word, which literally means ' to 
cover,' and describes the effect of the sacrifices 
of the Jews in ' covering, ' i.e. removing sin 
and uncleanness, and so restoring communion 
between God and man. Therefore, used of 
the death of Christ, the word may be taken to 
imply that Christ's death was sacrificial, and 
that its effect is to do away with that separa- 
tion between God and man which has been 
brought about by sin. 

Although the word 'atonement' is absent 
from the New Testament (RV), yet the thought 
runs throughout the sacred volume. Thus in 
MklO 45 Christ speaks of giving 'his life a 
ransom for many,' and in Mk 14 24 says, 'This 
is my blood of the New Testament, which is 
shed for many.' InJnl 29 the Baptist pro- 
claims, ' Behold the Lamb of God, which 
taketh away the sin of the world ' ; in Ro 5 10 
St. Paul says, ' When we were enemies we 
were reconciled to God by the death of his 
Son ' ; and in 1 Pet 1 19 we read of being re- 
deemed ' with the precious blood of Christ, as 
of a lamb without blemish, and without spot.' 
Cp. Jn3H f - 65110H.15 1224 1513 R 324f. -i^ 
88,82,34 iCorl30fi20 723 153 2Cor5i 8f - Gall* 
31 3 4 f - Ephl? 2 w 5 a Phil28t Coll 1 *' 20 * 2H 
lTh5i°lTim2«Tit2i 4 Heb727 9H'-26f. lO™', 



1224 i3iof. iPetl 2 224 318 Unir 22 3 5 > 16 
4i°Revl5 5 6 > 9 7 14 143*. 

In these passages the teaching of the New 
Testament may be clearly discerned. It may 
be briefly summed up thus : Christ died for 
us ; He became a Ransom, and redeemed us ; 
He became a Propitiation for our sins ; He 
became a ' curse ' for us, and was ' made sin ' 
on our behalf ; by His death, by the shedding 
of His blood, by the giving of His life, by His 
Cross come forgiveness, cleansing, the taking 
away of sin, eternal life, 

Although the connexion between His death 
and our salvation is so clearly stated in the 
New Testament, when we ask in what manner 
the death of Christ brings about our forgive- 
ness, no precise answer is given in Scripture ; 
and yet it seems impossible for man to rest 
satisfied without an answer. His heart may 
find rest and peace with God in the Cross of 
Christ, but, none the less, his mind calls out 
for an explanation of the mystery of the 
Cross. "Various attempts have been made to 
supply this intellectual need. 

It was thought in the earlier Christian cen- 
turies that the death of Christ was a ransom 
paid to Satan, that mankind might be released 
from bondage to him. Afterwards it was 
taught that Christ gave up to God His sinless 
life in payment of the debt which man had 
incurred to God, by not rendering the obedience 
and honour due to Him. Again, it was held 
that God satisfied His justice by inflicting on 
Christ the punishment which the sins of man- 
kind deserved ; or, that Christ suffered to show 
God's justice, bearing a punishment instead 
of us, that we might recognise the wickedness 
of sin. 

Whatever support these theories may still 
obtain, they present such difficulties to modern 
religious thought as necessitate an advance to 
something more satisfactory. We cannot think 
either that God would punish the innocent, 
or that for the sake of punishment inflicted 
on the innocent He could justly spare the 
guilty. We cannot think that there can be 



cxxvin 



THE ATONEMENT 



anything formal and fictitious about our rela- 
tion to God. These unsatisfying theories have 
largely come from unduly pressing, in a literal 
manner, the details of metaphors which should 
be interpreted broadly and freely. The meta- 
phors of ' ransom ' and ' redemption ' are meant 
to express the greatness of Christ's self-sacri- 
fice, and its purpose and effect in delivering 
us from sin and its consequences. The meta- 
phors of ' propitiation,' ' reconciliation,' and 
1 justification,' are meant to express, not that 
God needs to be appeased, but that the effect 
of the work of Christ, when taken into the 
heart of sinful man, is to do away with the 
barrier which sin has built between him and 
God, and to bring him back to God in peni- 
tence and obedience. Christ in His sacri- 
fice was at one with the mind of the Father. 
God did not hate the world, but ' so loved 
the world that He gave His only-begotten 
Son.' 

In opposition to the penal theories, some 
have supposed that the death of Christ became 
the means of our salvation simply by giving us 
such a manifestation of God's love as would 
win our hearts, and lead us to surrender our- 
selves in love and gratitude to Him. This 
theory contains a measure of truth, but does 
not seem to take sufficient account of the 
representation of the death of Christ as a 
sacrifice offered to God for our sins to ' shew 
God's righteousness.' 

The meaning of the Atonement must be 
found in the facts. The great fact, of course, 
was the death of Christ. It was His death on 
which the main stress was laid both by Christ 
Himself and by His apostles. It is not said 
that His life was lived for the remission of 
sins, but that His blood was shed for that 
purpose. 

Now, historically considered, the death of 
Christ was a natural event. The manner of 
His death was the natural consequence of the 
life which He lived. The outstanding feature 
of His life was its deliberate and unceasing 
submission to the will of His Father in every 
point. The human society in which He lived, 
the human social organism by which He was 
surrounded, sought to bring Him into line 
with its own will, its own desires ; and those 
desires were self-centred, self-seeking. At 
the same time, the human nature which He 
shared with us had the natural feelings of man, 
which shrink from pain and sacrifice, and 
which desire self-gratification. So that, as 
has been said, He had ' all the external 
machinery ' for disobedience. But the will 
of human society, and the temptations of 
human nature, beat upon Him in vain. His 
life was, all through, the complete repre- 
sentation, the perfect realisation, of the will 
of God. 



Such a life naturally led to the Cross. The 
sinful passions of man, which could not bend 
Christ to yield to them, rose against Him in 
hatred, and put Him to death. Thus, on the 
part of men, the Crucifixion was a murder. 
But on the part of Christ, the death of the 
Cross was the culmination of His righteous 
life, the crowning act of assent to the will 
of God. It was a ' death unto sin.' It was 
the refusal of sin, carried to its last and vic- 
torious extremity. 

Looked at in this way, then, the death 
of Christ was the perfect display of right- 
eousness, the complete achievement of union 
with the Divine will, the absolute condemna- 
tion of human sin. 

But the life and death of Christ were more 
than individual. He was not one among 
many, but the man of all men, the son of 
man, the second Adam, the perfect represent- 
ative of the human race. He was made in 
all points like unto His brethren, that He 
might express, before man and before God, 
what the thoughts and wishes and acts of man 
should be. His life was an offering to God, 
and that not merely for Himself, but for 
others, as expressing the return to God of 
sinful humanity. It was the beginning of a 
new and reformed order of things for human 
nature. In the life and death of Christ, the 
best man, the natural leader of men, spoke to 
God for man. It remained for the rest of 
mankind to utter their ' Amen ' to that perfect 
prayer. 

Christ, then, is the elder brother of the 
human race, bound to mankind in such inti- 
mate relationship that some have liked to 
think that the Son of God would have become 
Incarnate even if man had not sinned. But 
since mankind has sinned, the righteousness 
and holiness and love for man of the Son 
of God must have produced in Him sorrow 
for the sin of man. A sinner's sorrow for 
his sin, when it is true, is penitence. Christ 
was sinless. But seeing that His relationship 
to man is so intimate, and His love for man 
so great, we can imagine that His sorrow for 
man's sin would be filled with shame, and be 
that true penitence which man himself did 
not rightly feel. For as a loving and saintly 
mother suffers shame and penitence for the 
sin of her son, so even more, and to an infinite 
degree, would the loving and holy Son of 
God feel shame and penitence for the sin 
of mankind which He ' bore ' when He 
identified Himself with our sins in such a 
manner that it is said that He was ' made 
sin ' (2 Cor 5 21 ). The burden of our sins 
thus borne upon His heart would explain 
His agony in the garden and His cry of 
desolation upon the Cross. 

Accordingly, Christ accepted the Cross 



THE ATONEMENT 



when it came in His way, instead of escaping 
from it. He did so, not only because it was the 
culmination of His union with the will of the 
Father, but also because in the shame of that 
death, and in its utter emptying of Himself 
before God, He expressed the true penitence 
of man for the sin of man. 

Thus the death of the Cross was a double 
sacrifice offered in man's name. It expressed 
the sacrifice of self to the holy and righteous 
will of God, and the sacrifice of true peni- 
tence and righteousness. This sacrifice, joined 
as it was to self-sacrificing love, was 'the 
noblest act that God had ever looked upon. 
It was acceptable to God, ' an offering and a 
sacrifice to God for an odour of a sweet smell ' 

(Eph5 2 ). 

But how could a sacrifice of penitence and 
righteousness, offered by Christ, alter the rela- 
tionship in which we stand to God ? The 
answer is to be found, partly, in the union 
between Christ and the human race, through 
which, in an ideal and sacramental way, ' one 
died for all, therefore all died' (2 Cor 5 14 ). 
Practically and actually, for each individual 
the answer is to be found in the union of the 
believer with Christ. As St. Paul makes clear 



in his Epistles, he who has faith in Christ can 
be justified, i.e. accepted by God, because his 
face is set in the right way, because the seed 
has been sown which bears the fruit of life. 
Faith is more than abstract belief. It is even 
more than trust. It is that loving adhesion 
to Christ which loves all He is and all He did, 
which 'loves the Crucified because of the 
Cross and the Cross because of the Crucified.' 
Therefore the character of the believer is 
altered by his faith. He enters into the 
meaning of Christ's Cross and makes it his 
own. He, too, takes up his Cross and follows 
Christ. He, too, seeks the will of God, 
through his union with Christ, even at the 
cost of 'cutting off his hand' or 'plucking 
out his eye.' He, too, dies to the sin of the 
world, in his heart and will and life. He 
shares the righteousness of Christ as well as 
His repudiation of sin. And he can do all 
this, not only through the transforming power 
of loving faith, but also because the Holy 
Spirit, which is the Spirit of the Crucified, is 
given to him, reproducing Christ in Him, and 
changing him ' into the same image.' He of 
whom this has become true is one with Christ 
in God. 



ex xx 



INSPIRATION 



The word ' inspire ' means ' breathe into.' 
In the Authorised Version Wisd 15 n illustrates 
this meaning, ' Forasmuch as he knew not his 
Maker, and Him that inspired into him an 
active soul, and breathed in a living spirit.' 
The word ' inspiration ' occurs twice in the 
Authorised Version : (1) Job 32 8 , ' But there is 
a spirit in man : and the inspiration of the 
Almighty giveth them understanding'; and 
(2) 2 Tim 3 16 , ' All Scripture is given by in- 
spiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine.' 
The last instance is, however, doubtful, and 
we shall probably do well to accept the render- 
ing of the Revised Version, ' Every Scripture 
inspired of God is also profitable,' an inter- 
pretation which agrees with some of the oldest 
English versions. We must content ourselves 
with noticing that in any case this verse shows 
how the word ' inspire,' like many other words, 
gradually passed from a physical to a spiritual 
meaning. St. Paul's phrase corresponds with 
that of St. Peter, who speaks of the prophets 
as ' moved by the Holy Ghost ' (2 Pet 1 21). 

Inasmuch as every faithful Christian is moved 
by the Holy Ghost who dwells within him, it 
is possible to speak of every Christian as in- 
spired. But this does not imply that the Holy 
Spirit grants to every Christian the same degree 
of insight into truth, or that there is no pro- 
gress in the apprehension of different parts of 
truth, or that the Holy Spirit bids every man 
to manifest his inspiration in the same way. 
To assume that it does, is to raise needless 
difficulties in the interpretation of the Bible, 
which clearly exhibits, not only varying degrees 
of inspiration, and different ways of manifest- 
ing it, but also individual and general pro- 
gressiveness in the apprehension of divine 
truth. Bearing this in mind, then, we must 
enquire what is meant by the inspiration of the 
writers of the Bible. 

Speaking broadly, the Christian means by 
their inspiration an impulse from God causing 
certain persons to write, and directing them 
how to write, for the edification of others. 
Though it is closely connected with revelation, 
it is not identical with it. By revelation God 
makes known to a soul truths which were un- 
known to it before. But it is not at all neces- 
sary that an inspired writer should receive any 
new truths by way of revelation. Thus St. 
Mark was inspired to write his Gospel, but he 
was inspired to write down truths which were 
already familiar to him and to others through 
the instructions given by St. Peter. While the 



Church has continuously witnessed to her 
belief in the inspiration of those Scriptures 
which she decided to include in the Canon, she 
has never defined the method of inspiration by 
saying how the Holy Spirit acted upon the 
natural faculties of the writers. Therefore the 
method of inspiration may still be regarded as, 
in a certain sense, an open question. But it is, 
nevertheless, not so open as to be unaffected 
by certain definite limits which we must now 
consider. 

The nature of inspiration must be ascertained 
(1) by a careful and exact study of the Holy 
Scriptures themselves : their own testimony as 
to their origin, design, and authority must be 
scrupulously observed. (2) From the action 
of the Church with regard to Holy Scripture 
and its meaning. To learn what inspiration 
is, we must not only see how the books were 
written, but also see their effect on the life 
of the Church and the testimony which 
the Church gave to them. (3) The Christian 
must ascertain the meaning of inspiration 
by submission to it. The man whose own 
life is not under the influence of the Holy 
Spirit cannot expect to understand inspiration. 
And a Christian can only learn to look upon 
the Scriptures from the right point of view in 
proportion as he acts as a member of that 
divine society which produced the Scriptures 
and set its seal to them. 

Fidelity to the above principles will keep us 
from the extreme theories which men have 
constructed with regard to the divine and the 
human elements in the Bible respectively. By 
saying ' extreme,' we do not mean that any 
opinion which is called ' extreme ' is necessarily 
wrong, or that any opinion which is called 
' moderate ' is necessarily right. It is our duty 
to accept a doctrine, not because it is moderate, 
but because it is true. And the more extreme 
theories about the Bible must be rejected, not 
because they are extreme, but because they are 
false. They either lay such an emphasis on 
the divine element in the Bible as to make the 
human element unreal, or they lay such an 
emphasis on the human element as to leave no 
room for the divine element. Thus they offer 
a striking parallel to certain errors with regard 
to the Person of our Lord. In early times 
the Gnostics, Apollinarians, and Monophysites 
allowed our Lord no true human nature, while 
certain of the Adoptionists and all the Nestor - 
ians insisted so strongly upon' the human nature 
as to limit or even eliminate the divine. One 



cxxxi 



INSPIRATION 



extreme was sometimes an actual reaction 
against the other. So it has been with the 
Bible. At the time of the Reformation there 
was among Protestants a strong tendency to 
appeal to the Bible against the traditions of 
the Church. And in order to make the appeal 
as effective as possible every attempt was made 
to safeguard the divine authority of the in- 
spired books. This attempt led to some extra- 
ordinary exaggerations. Many scholars were 
led to adopt the opinion of a Jew named de 
Rossi, who held that the little points in the 
Hebrew Bible denoting the vowels were in- 
spired, a theory which de Rossi defended by 
holding that the origin of the vowels was com- 
municated to Adam in Paradise and transmitted 
to Moses. In 1675 a.d. some Swiss Protestants 
actually made the divine inspiration of the 
vowel-points a doctrine of their articles of 
religion. The result was that people pinned 
their faith on separated passages in the Bible 
instead of its general teaching, and derived 
from it maxims for condemning historical and 
scientific enquiries which the authors of the 
Bible would not have condemned themselves. 
Thus the Old Testament was quoted to sup- 
port slavery when circumstances no longer 
justified its retention, and a line of poetry was 
employed to condemn Galileo for asserting 
that the earth moves round the sun. It is to 
be feared that many men were turned away 
from the doors of Christian churches for not 
accepting claims made for the Bible which the 
Bible does not make for itself. 

Then came the reaction. Atheists and 
Agnostics began to lecture on the 'mistakes 
of Moses,' assuming that if they could show 
that Moses committed some errors in science, 
their Christian hearers would give up Christ. 
Rationalistic writers deliberately tried to erase 
everything that is supernatural in the Old 
Testament, and all the miracles in the New 
Testament were treated as legendary wonders 
rising from a desire to enforce some pet theory 
held by the evangelists, or from a love of the 
marvellous in the minds of ignorant peasants. 
Thus the divine element in the Bible was 
either wholly denied or was reduced to such 
guidance as might be granted by God to any 
man in any place. 

The true and middle way is for us to see 
the divine element of inspiration in the human 
clement of human words and thoughts. 

The Human Element. This can be recog- 
nised (a) in the cooperation of human minds 
With the mind of the Holy Spirit. The 
Psalmist who unburdened his soul in Ps51 
must have been deeply conscious that he was 
himself imploring forgiveness, and like other 
humble saints may have been scarcely aware 
that the Divine Spirit was prompting his 
prayer. In the same way the prophets were 



perhaps often unaware of the full divine 
meaning which God intended their words to 
bear ultimately. When the Psalmist says, 
' They pierced my hands and my feet,' and 
when Hosea says, ' When Israel was a child 
then I loved him, and called my son out of 
Egypt,' we need not suppose that they were at 
all conscious that their words would correspond 
with the experiences of the Messiah. 

The human element can be recognised (b) in 
the materials employed by the sacred writers, 
and in the manner in which they are combined. 
The writers used various sources of informa- 
tion as modern writers do. Thus in Nu21 14 
we find a reference to a 'Book of the Wars 
of the Lord,' and in Samuel, Kings, and Chroni- 
cles several documents are quoted. Even in 
the New Testament the writers felt at liberty to 
rearrange or modify earlier inspired writings, 
for St. Luke and St. Matthew both appear to 
have absorbed much of St. Mark's Gospel, and 
St. Luke has endeavoured to make the Greek 
more elegant. Again, the fact that Mkl6 9 " 20 
and Jn 7 53 -8 n were probably not written by 
those evangelists themselves does not affect 
their inspiration. The Church has recognised 
them as true, and has connected them with the 
sacred narrative that embraces them. 

The human element can be recognised (c) in 
those occasional statements which appear to 
be inaccuracies. St. Jerome says plainly that 
there is an error both in Mtl3 35 and in Mt 
27 9 , points which are well known to modern 
students. When different narratives have been 
combined we find some apparent contradictions ; 
thus in Gn3228 and 35 10 we find two different 
explanations of the name Israel. In spite of 
such contradictions the biblical histories are 
of immense value even as histories, and apart 
from the precious instructions which they con- 
vey with regard to faith and morality. 

The human element can be recognised (d) 
in the fact that the inspiration of the books 
and of the authors is progressive. Only to 
our Lord Jesus Christ was the Holy Spirit 
given ' without measure.' The inspiration of 
all other teachers was intermittent (Jer42 7 
1 Cor 7 10 ). They received different measures 
of enlightenment. Inspiration was commen- 
surate with the medium through which it 
passed, and with the development of the 
minds for whose benefit it was originally 
given. We can readily admit, for example, 
that in the imprecatory Psalms the writers 
were probably so goaded by the persecution 
and cruelty which they experienced at the 
hands of their enemies, that those necessary 
ideals of religion — mercy and forgiveness — 
were, for a time at least, quite obscured. In 
a less degree, the human limitations of cir- 
cumstances and environment probably influ- 
enced such books as the Song of Solomon, 



INSPIRATION 



Ecclesiastes and Esther, although each of these 
has a place and purpose in the Old Testament 
well understood by every student of Jewish 
history. The value of many of the laws of 
the Old Testament consists not in the fact 
that they afford a moral standard for all time, 
but in the fact that they afforded the best 
moral standard for their own age and prepared 
for the best moral standard in the future. 
And the history of the Old Testament shows 
us how God made use of imperfect men, 
and of literary methods which belonged to 
the child-mind of the race. But though these 
are earthen vessels, they contain heavenly 
treasure. 

The Divine Element. This is (a) discernible 
in prophecy, which is a characteristic of the 
New Testament as well as of the Old. St. 
John in the Revelation (22 9 ) is shown to be 
among the prophets as Isaiah and Amos had 
done. The prophets were filled with the 
certain conviction that their inspiration came 
not from within them, but from without. 
The call of Moses (Ex 3, 4) shows that he is 
forced to be a prophet against his will. 
Isaiah receives his call with reluctance and 
self-abasement. It is the same with Jeremiah. 
We find repeatedly in the prophets that an 
irresistible impulse came upon them, and that 
after some deep communion with God they 
felt forced to speak. Ac 2 if- 18 shows that 
the Apostles on the day of Pentecost knew 
the same kind of impulse, and in Gal 1 16 St. 
Paul testifies to an inward revelation similar 
to that given to Moses. The inspiration was 
sometimes regarded as an ' answer ' from God 
like an answer to prayer (Jer23 35 Mic3 7 ). 
Sometimes the inspiration implied a direct 
command to write (Isa 8 1 Jer36 28 Rev 21 5). 
The prophets are ' men of God,' ' interpreters.' 
They always insist on morality and religion in 
closest union, interpreting current events in 
the light of God's will. They foretell the 
fall of the Jewish state as St. John foretold 
the fall of Rome, and they insist that the 
destroying powers are instruments of God. 
But their teaching about the nature of God 
and the duties of the people are coordinate 
with an inspired outlook into the future. The 
prophets are ' seers,' and the predictive element 
in their teaching is essential (see Isa 1, 5, 6 Hos 
11 Am 2). They foretell the punishment of 
the wicked, the kingdom of God that is to come, 
and the perfect king. We cannot always say 
that all the details of the prophecies have 
been fulfilled, but we can often say that these 
details are a setting and shrine of the brilliant 
truths which have come to pass. 

(6) The divine element can be discerned in 
the laws and in the worship of the Bible. The 



strong commands and prohibitions of the 
Decalogue lay down conditions that are neces- 
sary for the human race, and show us that a 
violation of the laws which are for the good 
of human society is an offence against God, 
who constituted human society. The elabor- 
ate regulations of external worship had a 
divine purpose in teaching man his need of 
the Saviour and in foreshadowing the priestly 
work of Christ. In the prayers and praises 
of private or of public worship which we read 
in the Old Testament we find a spiritual joy 
and self-humiliation which are unparalleled in 
other literature. 

(c) The divine element can be discerned in 
the history of the Bible. The events of his- 
tory are, in a sense, the words of God, and 
the inspired historians interpret these words. 
The intention of God, in the development or 
decline of Israel and Judah and the nations 
around them, was grasped by the writers and 
described for the religious education of the 
world. The traditions and fortunes of the 
race are represented to us as illustrating 
God's dealings with man, ' God's judgment on 
sin ; His call of a single man to work out a 
universal mission ; His gradual delimitation 
of a chosen race ; His care for the race ; His 
overruling of evil to work out His purpose.' 
To the historians of the Old Testament, as in 
a far deeper sense to the historians of the New, 
their records were not a series of disconnected 
facts, or the tale of a physical and material 
continuity. They were the story of God's 
purpose in establishing His own kingdom. 

(d) The divine element can be discerned in 
the action of the word of God upon the souls 
of men. We are sometimes told that we 
ought to read the Bible like any other book. 
This is true with regard to the language and 
grammar of the Bible. But it is not true 
with regard to the matter which the Bible 
contains. For the Bible is not like any other 
book. It bears the stamp of the divine, and 
it gathers round the person and word of Jesus 
Christ, who is the central figure of human 
history. The Bible tells us how the world 
can be regenerated, and how we can be saved. 
The remedy for its frequent misuse is not to 
read it less, but to read it more, and to read 
it with greater reverence. We need forgive- 
ness : where can we find language better than 
the Lord's Prayer, and Ps51 ? We need 
courage : what words are better than ' The 
Lord is my shepherd ' ? We need comfort : 
where can we find it better than in the story 
of Him who bore our griefs ? We need re- 
calling to the great simplicities of the moral 
life : what can we do better than ponder the 
words of the Sermon on the Mount ? 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



i. Function of Conscience in Bible 
Study 

God has given to men a conscience as well 
as a Bible. They are made to correspond 
with each other, as the eye is made to corre- 
spond with the light and the light to correspond 
with the eye. The chief function of the Bible 
is to develop the conscience. One great func- 
tion of the conscience is to interpret the Bible. 
If you read your Bible, ignoring this function 
of conscience, you will misinterpret it. 

Conscience is constituted to appreciate the 
distinction between right and wrong, between 
ought and ought not. If we make two lists 
— if truth, fairness, generosity, self-sacrifice 
be put in one list, and falsehood, unfairness, 
meanness, selfishness in the other, we are 
compelled by conscience to label the one set 
' ought ' and the other ' ought not.' We can- 
not help it. No one in his senses could reverse 
these labels. We know that if practising the 
first set bring pain, and the second set pleasure, 
yet we cannot reverse our decision. Nay, 
more, we feel certain that the distinction 
belongs not to this earth alone — that the 
ought and ought not stretch to the furthest 
planets, to the angels of G-od, to God Himself. 
Wrong would be no less wrong if it were 
attributed to God. No revelation, no external 
portent, could persuade us of the opposite. If 
even a voice from heaven should declare to 
us that lying and dishonesty were right, we 
should, as St. Anselm says (' Cur Deus Homo,' 
1.12), be forced to believe not that they were 
right, but rather that the voice which spoke 
was not God. We must carry this belief into 
our Bible reading ; that is true faith. Faith 
in God means faith in a Person, faith in a 
character ; faith in an infinite justice and love 
and nobleness and generosity — faith in a God 
to whom it would be absolutely impossible to do 
what was unfair or ungenerous to any man. 

Therefore, if we are offered a certain inter- 
pretation in Scripture that clashes with men's 
highest sense of what is generous and fair, we 
must not ignore that clashing. We must 
refuse to accept that interpretation for the 
present till we have enquired more about it. 
For example, if we are bold thai in the 'hard- 
ening of Pharaoh's heart' God punished 
Pharaoh for something that Pharaoh could 
not have helped, we must decline that inter- 
pretation. If we read in Bo 9 St Paul's 
famous passage about election, and if any man 



should explain it to mean that God destines 
some men to eternal heaven and some to eter- 
nal hell, not for anything of good or evil 
in them, but for His own glory to magnify 
Himself, we are bound to reject such a mean- 
ing without hesitation. This is not a»question 
of doubting the Bible, but of doubting men's 
interpretation of it. True faith will not accept 
an interpretation that is dishonouring to God. 
It is as if a schoolboy got a letter from his 
father containing a passage capable of an evil 
meaning. A companion suggests such a mean- 
ing. The boy, though he does not understand 
the passage, instinctively rejects that inter- 
pretation as unworthy his father's character. 
If he can find no other meaning he prefers to 
leave the passage a mystery for the present. 

It is very necessary to say this ; yet it is 
necessary also to add a grave caution against 
the attitude that would make every man set 
up his own judgment as to what he would 
believe or disbelieve. It is not at all safe to 
judge from the recoil of this or that man's in- 
dividual conscience, lest there may be in it any- 
thing abnormal. It is only when one can feel 
sure that a certain interpretation of Scripture, 
though otherwise possible, clashes with the best 
men's sense of what is right and true, that he 
is justified in rejecting it. 

Such humble, prayerful, yet fearless use of 
conscience soon sets us asking questions which 
lead to important results. For we begin to 
find in the Old Testament utterances that fall 
below the level of the enlightened Christian 
conscience, and actions that one feels would 
not win the approval of Christ. We find per- 
mission of slavery, plurality of wives, divorce, 
etc. We find fierce, vengeful words in the 
imprecatory Psalms. Conscience insists on our 
questioning these things, and the more con- 
science is enlightened by the main teaching of 
the Bible the more will it insist on such 
questioning. 

ii. The Divine and Human in the 
Bible 

There are two answers. First, that in the 
Bible the divine and human are blended 
(see art. ' Inspiration '). We must not regard ,j 
the Bible as an absolutely perfect book in 
which God is Himself the author using human 
hands and brains only as a man might use 
a typewriter. God used men, not machines — 
men with like weakness and prejudice and 
passion as ourselves, though purified and 



CXXMV 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



ennobled by the influence of His Holy Spirit ; 
men each with his own peculiarities of manner 
and disposition — each with his own education 
or want of education — each with his own way 
of looking at things — each influenced differ- 
ently from another by the different experi- 
ences and discipline of his life. Their in- 
spiration did not involve a suspension of 
their natural faculties ; it did not destroy 
their personality, nor abolish the differences 
of training and character ; it did not even 
make them perfectly free from earthly passion ; 
it did not make them into machines — it left 
them men. 

Therefore we find their knowledge some- 
times no higher than that of their contem- 
poraries, and their indignation against oppres- 
sion and wrong-doing sometimes breaking out 
into desire of revenge. This would not 
surprise us in the least in other good men 
who were, we knew, striving after God and 
righteousness. It surprises us in the Bible, 
because of our false preconceptions ; because 
it is in the Bible we do not expect the actors 
to be real and natural ; because of our false 
theory of Yerbal Inspiration we are puzzled 
when the divine is mingled with the human. 
We must learn that the divine is mingled 
with the human. 

We cannot draw a line between the divine 
and the human. We cannot say of any part, 
' This is divine,' or ' That is human.' In 
some parts, as the Gospels, there is more of 
the divine ; in others, as the Chronicles, 
more of the human. It is as a mine of 
precious ore where the gold is mingled with the 
rock and clay — the ore is richer in one part 
than another, but all parts in some degree are 
glittering with gold. It is as sunlight through 
a painted window — the light must come to 
us coloured by the medium — we cannot get 
it any other way. In some parts the medium 
is denser and more imperfect, in others the 
golden glory comes dazzlingly through. It is 
foolish to ignore the existence of the human 
medium through which the light has come ; 
it is still more foolish to ignore the divine 
light, and think that the tinted dome is 
luminous itself, that the light of heaven has 
only come from earth. Both must be kept in 
mind — the divine and the human — if the Bible 
is to be rightly understood. 

in. Progressiveness of Revelation 

And the other answer to the questionings 
of conscience is this — that we must think of 
human life as the great school of God, where 
gradually, patiently, through all the ages He 
has been training humanity for nobleness of 
life. The Old Testament is to be read not as 
a series of perfect precepts equally applicable 
to all men in all ages of the world, but rather 



as the story of God's gradual education of 
humanity. It was like our gradual education 
of our children to-day. We begin with the 
lowest rudiments of knowledge. Very crude 
and imperfect conceptions must satisfy us at 
first. Though all the glory of the highest 
knowledge lie before the child by and by, 
yet he can only partially receive it now until 
his mind has grown. Perhaps a better illus- 
tration of the attitude of the Old Testament 
is seen in the attitude of the missionary 
to-day in dealing with the lower races of 
heathendom. He knows how little is to be 
expected from them at first. He has to 
tolerate and overlook much that grieves him. 
He must be content to move slowly. He 
rejoices at every effort after good, even 
though it be largely mixed with evil. He 
gives warm approval to acts which for these 
poor savages really mean progress upward, 
though to the Christian world at home they 
may seem worthier censure than praise. He 
believes that God is helping men by His 
Holy Spirit, even though error and wrong- 
doing yet remain. By and by, when some of 
his converts have grown into noble, faithful 
strugglers after Christ, will they not look 
back on the early training and the early 
notions as on a lower stage that they have 
long since passed, and yet confess that it was 
a necessary stage in their progress upward ? 

Such was God's progressive education of 
the race. Many things in the early stages 
were overlooked or 'winked at' (Ac 17 30 ). 
Slavery was not at once swept away, but its 
cruelties were forbidden and its abuses checked 
— divorce was not absolutely prohibited, but 
laid under stringent regulations. When we 
read of these evils so allowed to exist — when 
we find, as in the Psalms, the lofty teachings 
and burning aspirations after God now and 
then marred by the fierce prayer for vengeance 
on the wicked — we must remember that we 
are judging men in the lower classes of the 
great school of God, and that the presence of 
His Spirit with men did not necessarily 
involve absolute perfection in teaching and 
conduct. Notice in the Sermon on the Mount 
how clearly our Lord teaches this progressive- 
ness of revelation : ' Ye have heard that it 
was said to them of old time . . but I say 
unto you,' etc. : see Mt5 17 > 21 > 27 > 33 > 3 M 3 RV. 

iv. The Bible in the Twentieth Century 

In the beginning of this new century there 
are other questions arising about the Bible 
besides those already referred to. There are 
questions of scientific accuracy, and questions 
as to the ' Higher Criticism,' as it is called. 
People have learned that the first chapter -of 
Genesis cannot be reconciled with science ; that 
the stories of the Creation and the Flood 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



had existed as legends of other races long 
before the Bible was written. They have 
learned that there are certain books of Scrip- 
ture which bear on the face of them marks of 
being not original work, but compilations from 
earlier lost documents. And most of these 
things that they have learned are true. There 
is no doubt that the ordinary Bible reader 
will be compelled in the new century to shift 
his point of view. We have learned much 
during the past fifty years which has thrown 
new light on the meaning of parts of our 
Bible, which has at any rate made doubtful 
some of our old views and interpretations of 
it. But we must learn not to be disturbed at 
changing our view-point, and we especially 
must try in educating the younger generation 
to prepare them for changes which must come. 
For example, we must not insist that the Bible 
teaches as God's infallible truth that the world 
was created in six literal days, and finished off 
on Saturday night as a carpenter would finish 
his week's work, or that the order of Creation 
must be accurately given in the first chapter of 
Genesis. We cannot teach positively that the 
story of the Fall is an exactly literal narrative 
of facts. Some people think that it is, and 
others, who are certainly no less holy and no 
less learned, think that it is an ancient allegory 
embodying a deep and vital truth. We must 
keep an open mind about many such things as 
these. We must endeavour in our Bible study 
to be thoroughly real and thoroughly truthful, 
'to assert nothing as certain which is not 
certain, nothing as probable which is not 
probable, and nothing as more probable than 
it is.' We must keep in mind that God's way 
of helping the world to the light may have 
been very different from what we thought it 
was, and that it is a dangerous thing to put in 
the place of inspiration certain popular notions 
as to what inspiration should be. We must 
therefore seek to let in the light on all sides, 
however it may ultimately modify our precon- 
ceived notions of inspiration. And if we do 
so we shall find by and by that the result 
will be not loss, but great gain to the Bible. 
There is a story of an ancient land where a 
fire once swepl over the liills destroying the 
flow.rs and the foliage and changing the 
Familiar aspect of the scene. But as the 
people w.it grieving for their loss they dis- 
COvered thai the tire which had destroyed the 
fiowera and the foliage had opened by its heat. 
deep fissures in the rockB, disclosing to their 
view rich reins of silver — so it shall be with 
us if we face the new questions wisely. If by 
the searching lire of literary and scientific 
criticism we lose Borne cherished traditional 
notions, we shall gain in a deeper knowledge 

of truth. We shall gain in knowledge of the 
nature and limits of inspiration and in under- 



standing God's methods of communication 
with men, and we shall be saved from many 
of the errors and misapprehensions that are 
turning men away from the Bible to-day. 

And for the questions of the Higher Critic- 
ism, if we believe that the Old Testament 
story is true, that the inspired men who wrote 
it had access to sources of knowledge in the 
past, why should it matter if the books in 
their present form were written much later 
than we thought, or that they are the result 
of compiling and editing again and again under 
the mysterious free supervision of the Spirit 
of God ? We do not all believe that all the 
statements of Higher Criticism will ultimately 
be accepted — many of them are being already 
relinquished and forgotten — but no doubt 
there will ultimately remain a residuum of 
established fact which must modify in some 
measure our views about the Bible. And we 
do not believe that in that residuum of fact 
will be anything to prevent thoughtful men 
from believing in the divine origin of the 
Bible. 

In these times of questioning and doubt 
about the Old Testament there are some 
reassuring thoughts that men should keep be- 
fore them. First think of the wonder of this, 
that any set of old documents always open 
to scrutiny and question should have been 
accepted as of divine origin and yielded to by 
men as having authority to impose on them 
commands often disagreeable to them. What 
gave them that authority? There seems no 
possible answer but that they possessed it 
of themselves ; they commanded the position 
they held by their own power. Men's moral 
sense and reason combined to establish them. 
Where there were no miracles or portents, no 
external voices from heaven to compel alle- 
giance, men must have received these books 
largely because of their appeal to the God- 
given conscience within. That is to say, the 
authority of the Scriptures through all the 
ages primarily rests on the conviction which 
they themselves produced that they came from 
God. That conviction forces itself on us still 
to-day. In the records of other nations we 
see- the chief stress laid on power and pros- 
perity and comfort and wealth. In these 
strange records goodness is the only thing of 
importance. The chief business of prophet 
and historian and legislator seems to be to 
rebuke men for sin and point them to holiness. 
Look at the wonderful national poems and 
hymns : ' Have mercy on me, God, after 
Thy great goodness' (Ps51) ; 'Praise the 
Lord, my soul ' (Psl03) ; ' The Lord is my 
shepherd ' (Ps 23), and think of the dark, 
horrible history of the outside world at the 
time that all these wonderful national poems 
were written. Then notice the compulsion 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



that seemed laid upon the prophets, the mys- 
terious Spirit striving with them, enlightening 
them, compelling them to speak of God's 
righteousness. Hear the constant iteration, 
1 The Word of the Lord ' ; ' Thus saith the 
Lord.' Surely these are not the phenomena 
of ordinary human history ! Then see how 
the whole Bible centres in Jesus Christ. The 
Old Testament tells of the preparation for 
Christ ; the New Testament tells that when 
that preparation was complete ' in the fulness 
of time God sent forth His Son.' Jesus Christ 
as it were stands between the Old Testament 
and the New, and lays His hand on them both. 
The Old Testament, He insists again and 
again, is the Word of God, and bears witness 
of Him. The New Testament is the story of 
the words and works of Himself and of the 
Apostles sent forth by Him. And both to- 
gether form this Bible of ours, which beyond 
all the books of the world has proved its 
power to turn men towards righteousness. 
We never hear man speak of the power and 
peace and hope that come from the study 
of the Latin classics, or of lives wrenched 
round from darkness to light by any other 
teaching than that of the Bible. 

Therefore let us rest our hearts on these 
foundations and be at peace, while men are 
questioning and finding out for us what we 
did not know before about the inspired Word 
of God. 

v. Hints and Suggestions for Study 

i. On using Common Sense. The old objec- 
tion is often repeated that the Bible is like 
a ' nose of wax ' that can be turned every way ; 
that one can gather all sorts of contradictory 
teaching from its pages. Yes, if you read it 
foolishly ; for the Bible is no formal system 
of teaching with every precept accurately de- 
fined and limited, and every exception carefully 
pointed out. It deals with broad principles 
rather than with particular precepts. We are 
trusted to apply these principles ourselves to 
the practical guiding of our lives. Sometimes 
its commands are of universal application ; 
sometimes they apply only to such special 
cases as are before the writer ; sometimes 
they are figurative and intended to prescribe 
the spirit and temper of our lives, such as 
' Give to him that asketh thee,' etc. The 
same caution is needed about the types and 
prophecies of the Old Testament. If man 
will not diligently use the common sense that 
God has given him he must make mistakes 
in reading the Bible. The inspired writers 
express themselves quite freely, and usually 
without showing any anxiety to prevent mis- 
understandings. They seem to assume that 
their readers will be sensible people. They 
see no need of constantly guarding and quali- 



fying their statements, and reminding us that 
they are to be taken in connexion with other 
statements made elsewhere. 

There are many ways in which this absence 
of common sense shows itself. There is the 
thoughtless habit of quoting all parts of the 
Bible as Scripture, whether they be the words 
of our Lord or the words of Bildad the 
Shuhite and Zophar the Naamathite, in the 
book of Job, who are afterwards represented 
as condemned and contradicted by God. There 
is the habit often indulged in by preachers of 
twisting the obvious meaning of words, and 
the commoner and more dangerous habit of 
quoting for the support of doctrines isolated 
texts utterly regardless of the context or of 
the circumstances under which they were 
originally uttered. One might as well take 
as a general proposition a single sentence of a 
letter without considering the context or the 
writer, or the purpose of the letter or the per- 
son to whom it was written. Thus people 
put St. Paul and St. James in opposition with 
regard to Faith and Works. It is quite 
natural that two teachers, or even the same 
teacher at different times, should make these 
different statements. A preacher dealing with 
penitents who in their misery were trying to 
win God's favour by piling up good deeds 
might very wisely tell them that God desired 
not this, but that they should come with 
simple trustful faith, as a little child to its 
father. But just as wisely might he. in deal- 
ing with people who justify frequent lapses 
into impurity and meanness and ill-temper by 
talking much about their faith and their rest- 
ing on the finished work of Christ and not on 
their own righteousness — just as wisely might 
he insist as indignantly as St. James that faith 
without works is dead. 

2. On Taking Pains. Using common sense 
implies taking considerable pains in one's 
reading. Take two readers, say, of the Epistle 
to the Galatians. The first makes no attempt 
to get into touch with his author. He begins 
each day at the beginning of his daily chapter. 
Quite possibly, owing to faulty chapter divi- 
sion, this may begin in the middle of an argu- 
ment, or not be at all the logical commencement 
of the subject discussed ; so he reads over the 
chapter feeling very hazy as to its meaning. 
As he has read the previous chapter in the 
same hazy way, he never thinks of looking 
back to find the connexion ; thus he wastes a 
good deal of time, turns away dissatisfied, or 
contents himself with culling out one or two 
disconnected texts. The other reader takes 
pains. He knows that to understand any 
man's letter one must find out its drift and 
purpose, and get in touch with the writer and 
his original readers ; so he looks into the Acts 
of the Apostles to find out St. Paul's connexion 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



with these Galatians. Then he reads over the 
whole Epistle two or three times for a general 
view of it. He notices its severe, indignant 
tone. He sees that the writer is hurt and 
offended about the fickleness of his converts 
and their reception of false teachers who 
oppose him. He seems very self-assertive as 
to his position. Perhaps this is all that a 
first or second perusal of the Epistle reveals. 
But this sets him thinking. He has kept clear 
of commentaries, trying to get his view of the 
Epistle by himself. But now he turns to his 
commentary, and with its assistance he goes 
back again to the Acts of the Apostles. He 
finds reason to believe that after Paul had 
left Galatia, his constant opponents, the 
emissaries of the Judaising party, had come 
proclaiming (as in the case recorded Ac 15), 
1 Except ye be circumcised and obedient to 
the Law ye cannot be saved.' The reader at 
once understands the vexation of the Apostle 
at these fickle -converts deserting him for false 
teachers, and putting in jeopardy the whole 
future of Christianity in that region. With 
this key he turns back again to his perusal of 
the Epistle, and it becomes at once full of life 
and interest. Let this hint suffice. We cannot 
go further with the subject in our limited 
space. 

3. Devotional Study. Surely it is not 
necessary to say that one should study regu- 
larly — should study with the object of growing 
acquainted with God, and with the purpose of 
finding God's will and doing it when he has 
found it. Still less is it necessary to say to 
any honest Bible reader study prayerfully, 
though it may be well to suggest to him the 
habit of reading his regular portion first, and 
then on his knees trying to turn it into prayer, 
so that there should be not only God's speak- 
ing to him, but also his speaking back to God 
in God's inspired words. 

All these things are matters of course to a 
devout reader. What, perhaps, he is most in 
Deed of is a help towards meditation. In 
Liddon'a ' Clerical Life and Work' there is a 
valuable section on this subject which has 
much helped the writer. So few know how 
to read their Bible profitably, especially few 



know how to meditate on it. Let us very 
diffidently suggest what a meditation should 
be. Not the leaning lazing on your elbow 
with the Bible open before you, reading the 
verses silently, and letting the thoughts fre- 
quently wander ; it is no such listless dream- 
ing over the text ; it is an act of the whole 
soul rising in the fulness of its energy to- 
wards God — memory, imagination, intellect, 
will, fully engaged ; it is the soul placing itself 
in the presence of Jehovah ; it is an effort 
after the Yision of God. 

First of all, let your imagination play freely 
on the passage. Think of the actor or writer. 
Put yourself in his place. Try to enter into the 
feeling of the formalist Pharisees, the jealous 
scribes, the ignorant mob, and especially of 
the great loving heart of Him who loved 
and understood and watched over them all. 
Try, as you read a passage of St. Paul, to ' put 
yourself in the place ' of the writer, with his 
keen, highly-strung nature, now glad, now 
despondent, now vexed and dissatisfied, but 
always with every thought full of loyalty to 
his Master. This use of the imagination will 
help you to the heart of the passage. Then 
the intellect is summoned before God to enter 
into His message, to grapple with the subject 
and select the leading thought in it. 

This is but preparatory ; then bring the 
will to bear on it — Will to love the highest, 
Will to imitate the noblest, Will to cast your- 
self down in lowly adoration before all the 
love and self-sacrifice told of God, of Jesus 
Christ. 

Get the habit of doing it — if not once a day, 
then once a week ; but as often as you can. Se- 
lect the fittest portions — the story of the Pas- 
sion, the words of Christ, the prayers of St. Paul 
for his beloved people. Thus let the soul linger 
in the presence of God, laying the inmost being 
before Him, and entering into reverent and 
affectionate yet trustful conference with Him. 
Lie low before Him. Let Him speak to your 
soul, and speak back to Him, face to face, as 
a man speaketh to his friend. Take a great 
deal of trouble to learn and acquire the habit 
of meditation. It is there the soul learns most 
to blame itself and to adore and love its Lord. 



cxxxvin 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



The opening pages of the Bible reveal to 
us the elements of religion, in language which, 
though figurative, is unmistakable in its im- 
port. We are told of the Creator who called 
the universe into being (Gn 1 1 f >), and formed 
man ' in His own image ' (Gn 1 26 > 27 ), with the 
gift of free-will. We are told how man 
abused this gift, and, seeking a false independ- 
ence, fell under the bondage of sin and death 
(Gn3; cp. Eo5 12f ): a bondage from which 
divine succour alone could redeem him. The 
law-books, especially Leviticus, emphasise this 
need of divine help, in their doctrine of 
Sacrifice, laying stress on the awful holiness 
of God (Lvll 45 19 2 20 7, etc.), and man's need 
of purification and self -surrender ; while the 
Psalmists and Prophets dwell on the inner 
spiritual character of repentance and of that 
obedience of the heart to God's moral law, 
without which sacrifice is worse than a mockery 
(1S15 22 Pss40 6 51 16 > 17 Isal llf ' Hos6 6 ). 

Some of these thoughts are found, in a more 
or less incomplete or distorted form, in every 
religion. The dependence on an unseen 
spiritual being, or beings ; the consciousness 
of broken communion ; the consequent need 
of some new, heaven-given means of access 
— these ideas, as well as the simpler and more 
childlike thought of tribute or of free-will 
offerings of homage and thankfulness, lie at 
the root of those sacrificial customs in which 
religion has always expressed itself even 
among pagans. The Bible's teaching about 
religion, if we compare it with what we can 
learn of contemporary heathen customs, and 
especially those of the pagan Semites, seems 
to take up these common ideas, to purify and 
transfigure them, and make them the vehicle 
of a doctrine valuable for all ages. 

i. The Covenant of God with Man. One of 
the leading conceptions of the Old Testament 
— the one, in fact, from which the volume 
derives its name — is that of a Covenant be- 
tween God and man (Covenant with Noah, 
Gn6!8; with Abraham, Gn 121-3 171-u 2216-18 
with Jacob, Gn28 13 " 15 ; with the people of 
Israel. Ex24? 3410. 2 ? Lv269 Dt299- 15 31 24 -30 
with David, Ps 89 3 , 28 > 33-39) ; _ a Co venant which 
as St. Paul points out (Gal3 15f -, especially v 
17), is prior to the Law, and superior to it 
Herein the Almighty condescends to pledge 
Himself, that if man fulfil certain conditions, 
He, on His part, will pardon his sins and bless 
him. The true inner meaning of this Cove- 
nant is manifested in that New Covenant (of 



which the Old is but a shadow), foretold 
by prophets (Jer31 3 if- ; cp. Heb 8 8-12 and 2 
Cor3 6 ), and announced by Christ in His in- 
stitution of the Lord's Supper, in the words : 
' This is my blood of the New Covenant,' or 
' This cup is the New Covenant in my Blood ' 
(Mt 26 28 Mk 14 2 * Lk 22 2 <> 1 Cor 1 1 25). 

2. Covenant and Sacrifice. The Covenant 
of which the Bible speaks is made with sacri- 
fice (Ex 24 5 f - Ps 50 5 Heb 9 15 f -). Its principle 
is an Atonement (At-one-ment) between man 
and God (Leviticus, especially c. 16, Day of 
Atonement, and Heb 9). The sacrifices of the 
Old Covenant, in their three leading types of 
sin-offering (Lv4-6), Burnt-offering (Lv l 3f -), 
Peace-offering (Lv3 lf -), while revealing the 
true character of man's relation to God, and 
ministering in a provisional way to the devo- 
tional needs of the faithful, led up to the great 
Atonement of the New Covenant, in which all 
their defects were remedied, and their imperfec- 
tions removed. The Sin-offering teaches that 
communion is broken and that access to God 
can only be reopened by the shedding of life- 
blood (Lvl7 n ), symbolising expiation and 
cleansing ; the Burnt-offering, in which the 
entire sacrifice is consumed upon the altar, 
speaks of that unreserved self -surrender which 
is the only homage God can accept from man; 
the Peace-offering, in which priest and offerer 
feast together at ' God's board ' symbolises the 
life of joyful communion between man and 
his Maker. 

3. Christ's Sacrifice of Atonement. All these 
conceptions are realised completely in our 
Lord's self -offering as displayed to us in the 
New Testament. He gives Himself as an 
atonement for sin (Ko3 25 Un2 2 4 10 ), as an 
offering of perfect obedience to the Father 
(Phil 2 8 ), as a gift of communion and life to 
His members? (Jn6 32 ^ 10 10 1125 146 Col3 4 ). 
What are, after all, but types and shadows 
(HeblO 1 ; cp. Col 2") in the Old Testament, 
the New Testament reveals in real substance. 
For instance, the victim in the Old Covenant 
was unconscious and unwilling : Christ offers 
Himself of His own free-will (JnlO 17 - 18 ), and 
looks forward to the dread moment with wist- 
ful yearning (Lkl2 50 ). (So false, we may 
notice in passing, is that idea of the Atone- 
ment which pictures it as an angry Father 
punishing an innocent Son.) Again, the victim 
under the Old Covenant was only by a sort of 
1 legal fiction ' identified with the offerer, who 
laid his hand on the beast's head, and pre- 



cxxxix 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



sented its life instead of his own (Lv l 4 ). But 
Christ's offering is in a very real sense iden- 
tical with those on whose behalf it is made. 
The Victim is indeed Himself the offerer ; 
offering, however, as representative of all 
mankind. When St. John tells us that the 
Word was made flesh (Jn 1 14 ), he speaks of an 
incarnation in which the Son of God took 
upon Him not the physique of an individual 
man, but assumed our human nature in a 
general way ; an assuming which is the more 
universal in its effects because of the omni- 
potence and omnipresence of the Person who 
assumed it. Christ thus becomes, as St. Paul 
teaches, a second Founder of the race — the 
'Second Adam' (lCorl5 4 5-47 R0512-21). In 
this character, as being truly, and by no fiction, 
representative of the whole race, He was able 
to offer up to Almighty God the threefold 
sacrifice of expiation, homage, and communion 
on behalf of all mankind. Further, what He 
thus accomplished for all of us, He is able, if 
we are willing, to accomplish in each one of us 
individually : His divinity effectuating in de- 
tail, through the power of His Spirit, what 
His perfect humanity achieved once for all. 
Thus the redemption and sanctification which 
His Atonement brings to individual souls by 
His indwelling is no more a ' legal fiction ' 
than His self -offering on behalf of all. ' Christ 
in you,' says St. Paul, is 'the hope of glory' 
(Col 1 27 ). His victorious might, working in 
those who are united to Him as members of 
His Body, and blending their wills with His, 
is able to transform them, step by step, into 
His own likeness, as He, literally, grows to 
maturity in them : and the effect of righteous- 
ness thus produced, is then quite truly both 
His and ours — He is, in fact, 'our righteous- 
ness' (ICorl 30 ). Dwelling in us, He frees 
us not only from the guilt of sin by His ex- 
piatory death, of which He makes us partakers 
(Ro G 3, 4 2 Cor 4 io Col 2 12, 20 2 Tim 2 U), but also 
from its bondage and its taint, by the power 
of His resurrection life (Col2i3f, 3 if.). His 
Holy Spirit, by whom He indwells in the be- 
liever, transforms the soul from glory to glory, 
making it a 'mirror' of the Lord's perfection 
(2Cor3".i8). 

4. Material Pledges of the Atonement. 
Sacraments. As in the Old Covenant God 
deigned to work by material pledges, so also 
in the New. Here again, however, we have 
no longer symbol but reality. ' Except a man 
be born anew — be born of water and the 
Spirit.' says our Saviour, 'he cannot sec — he 
cannot enter into — the kingdom of God' (Jn 
). And later on He bids His followers 
•make disciples of all the nations, baptising 
them into the name of the Father and of the 
Son and of the Holy < ; host' (Mt28 1 »). Again, 
He says : 'I am the bread which came down 



cxl 



from heaven . . the bread of life . . the bread 
which I will give is my flesh for the life 
of the world . . except ye eat the flesh of 
the Son of Man and drink His blood, ye have 
not life in yourselves ' (Jn 6 34 > 41 > 48 > 51 > 53 ). And 
later on He takes up bread and wine in His 
Holy Supper, saying, ' This is my body,' ' this 
is my blood,' 'do this in remembrance of me'; 
and speaks of His Blood as that of the ' New 
Covenant ' (Lk 22 w> 20 and parallels). So it is 
that the two great Sacraments of the Gospel, 
though they have been the subject of much 
discussion, especially since the Reformation, 
are recognised by all Christians as having a 
special importance in relation to the New 
Covenant, as pledges of our union with the 
Incarnate Redeemer. That He should use such 
humble material means as vehicles of spiritual 
blessing is not only appropriate to our own 
composite nature — part matter and part spirit 
— but of a piece also with the marvel of His 
Incarnation, whereby heaven and earth are 
wedded together : cp. Jn 1 51 . The Sacraments 
are rightly considered as moral instruments 
for the conveying of God's grace in Christ to 
us. What God offers us therein is no mechan- 
ical or magical power, still less a mere symbol 
or fiction, but an indubitable spiritual boon. 
The effect upon ourselves depends on the 
attitude of our own souls. Repentance, faith, 
obedience are the requisites for a right recep- 
tion of either of these Sacraments, as they are 
necessary conditions of a right relation to 
God : and these requisites are themselves gifts 
of the Holy Spirit, to be won by earnest 
prayer. 

5. Infant Baptism. Those many Christians 
who practise infant baptism, do so because they 
believe (1) that it is in accordance with the 
mind of Christ and a proper understanding of 
the sacred rite, and (2) that its significance 
and effect are secured by the pledges of the 
sureties that as the child develops he shall 
be taught what are the privileges and responsi- 
bilities of a member of Christ and the initial 
gift be fostered by ' the nurture and admoni- 
tion of the Lord' (EphG*). 

The adult who is admitted to baptism takes 
these pledges upon himself, promising to for- 
sake sin, to accept trustfully the revelation of 
God's mercy in Christ, and to walk in the 
path of the divine commandments. In pagan 
lands it is usually as a result of preaching 
(cp. Rol() 1 ^ ir >) that the light dawns upon 
him, and he experiences what we know as 
' Conversion ' ; then, after fuller instruction, 
he is brought to the baptism of the Covenant. 

6. Conversion. This phenomenon of con- 
version often happens, and sometimes in a 
striking way to those who have been brought 
up in Christian surroundings, and those who 
have been baptised in infancy. The grace 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



of God in them has been so far quenched by 
contending influences — worldliness, careless- 
ness, vicious passions, or the like — like the 
seed in thorny ground whose growth is choked 
by worldly cares and riches (Mtl3 22 ). At 
last the Voice of God makes itself heard ; 
with conviction of sin and sincere repentance 
union with Christ is realised and the divine 
forces of the indwelling Spirit are brought 
into play. The result is seen in a fruitful 
life of communion with God. This conver- 
sion is not to be confused with the gift of 
baptism. In adults converted from alien 
beliefs it normally precedes baptism, as in the 
case of St. Paul (Ac9 3f - and v. 18 22 «'. and 
v. 16), while in those who are baptised as 
infants it naturally follows the rite. In some 
cases, as in that of St. Paul, the conversion 
comes in a single moment ; in others it is a 
gradual process, more or less continuous, of 
more intimate approach to God. Often it has 
a kind of rhythmical or recurring character, 
marked by definite stages in the external or 
internal life of the individual, as at confirma- 
tion and at first communion, in times of sick- 
ness or bereavement, or on the occasion of 
marriage or parenthood — these crises forming 
steps in a more or less regular evolution of 
the spiritual life. 

For all alike conversion in some sense is 
necessary, and for all alike it involves the 
individual realisation of our relation of son- 
ship to the heavenly Father. ' Except ye be 
converted,' says the Saviour, ' and become as 
little children, ye shall in no wise enter into 
the kingdom' (Mtl8 3 ). 

7. Religious Duties. The typical duties 
on which our Lord lays stress in His Sermon 
on the Mount — Fasting (Mt 6 16 ' 18 ), Almsgiving 
(MtG 1 - 4 ), and Prayer (Mt 6 5 " 15 )— cover the 
whole field of the religious life, representing 
respectively the three aspects of our Lord's 
atoning sacrifice, as sin-offering, burnt-offering, 
and peace-offering. 

(1) Prayer. Prayer is the soul's communion 
with its Maker. Its importance and some- 
thing of its nature are revealed to us by our 
Lord's example (we are told of His spending 
long hours alone in prayer, Mtl4 23 Lk6 12 
Mkiss), by His precepts (Mt9 38 Lk21 3 6 Mk 
7 7f. H22f. 5 etc.), and by the pattern prayer 
which He has given us (Mt69- 13 Lkll 2 -*). 
It is the outpouring of the child's soul to the 
heavenly Father, with whose will the child's 
will is blent. In a wide sense it is an attitude, 
not necessarily expressed in words, so that 
St. Paul can say, 'Pray without ceasing' 
(lTh5 17 ). Yet that there is something more 
in prayer than a mere spiritual self -surrender 
— a ' Thy will be done ' — is clear from Christ's 
words and works. Always in submission to 
the all-wise will of the Father, He encourages 



us to ask for definite things. For spiritual 
blessings, first of all, where there can be no 
doubt about God's will, and the only necessary 
condition is faith (Lkll 18 ; cp. lCorl2 3 i 
14 1 ). But not for spiritual blessings only. 
In His agony He prayed definitely to have the 
' cup ' removed, if it were the Father's will 
(Lk22* 2 ; cp. Heb5 7 ). In His model prayer 
He bids us, after the petitions of which God 
is the subject, to ask for daily bread (Mt6 n ). 
In His works of healing He Himself answers 
the prayers of parents and friends for the 
restoration of their loved ones to health (Mt 
85*. 9 2f « and v. 181 14 3 5,36 1522^ e tc). 

In modern times people have often been 
puzzled about prayer. Science has taught us 
that God works in the world by law and 
system, and that everything works together 
in an extremely complicated interaction. What 
place is there then, it is asked, for individual 
prayers ? If I ask for a definite thing for 
myself or my friend, even though it be not 
what we commonly call a ' miracle,' am I not 
presuming, and presuming in vain, to beg for 
a breach of the laws by which God works ? 

The answer is, first of all, that if God 
works by law and system, marshalling the 
forces of nature in harmonious interaction, 
the force of the prayer of faith is not outside 
that system, but is one of its most potent 
factors. Furthermore, we ask all subject to 
God's will, confessing our own ignorance ; 
and as we advance in the knowledge and love 
of Him, our own wills inevitably become 
more and more attuned to His, and it becomes 
growingly impossible that we should approach 
Him with extravagant and unworthy petitions. 
Again, as St. Augustine observes, we are 
bidden to ask all in the name of Jesus (Jn 
15 16 ig23,26) 5 the Saviour : anything asked in 
ignorance which would, if granted, run counter 
to God's redemptive purposes, we shall expect 
to be withheld, as not being really in the Sa- 
viour's name. Finally, as we suggested above, 
Christ makes it quite clear that it is normal 
and right for the faithful to ask for such things 
as they need, and gives us many object lessons, 
in His works of mercy on earth, of answers 
to the prayer of faith in what must have seemed 
like desperate cases. It is noticeable also that 
He frequently combined with the physical 
boon prayed for, a corresponding spiritual 
boon, adding the healing of the soul to that of 
the body (Mt9 2 -6, etc.). 

The prayer of which our Lord is specially 
speaking in the Sermon on the Mount is that 
private intimate communion with God which 
the ' Father who seeth in secret ' is pledged to 
recompense (Mt6 6 ). This aspect of prayer is 
emphasised in contrast to the ostentatious 
praying in the streets of the contemporary 
Pharisees (Mt 6 5 ), and is not, of course, meant 



cxli 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



to condemn those regular meetings for prayer 
in which the corporate life of God's people ex- 
pressed itself alike in the Old Covenant and 
the New. 

(2) Fasting. Fasting — the spirit of the 
sin-offering — i.e. of purification and self- 
discipline, and almsgiving — the spirit of the 
burnt -offering, i.e. of self-surrender, are, 
like prayer, assumed and taken for granted 
in the Sermon on the Mount, the necessity 
of unostentatious sincerity being similarly 
emphasised. 

Self-discipline, the inner principle of fasting, 
is rendered necessary by the disorder in our 
nature wrought by sin. Not even an apostle 
can do without it : ' I keep under my body,' 
says St. Paul, ' and bring it into subjection ' 
(1 Cor 9 2 7 ; cp. 2 Cor 6 5 ll 27 ). It is, in fact, 
that renunciation of the world, the flesh, and 
the devil which from the earliest ages has ac- 
companied Christian baptism, and represents 
the penitent codperation of man with the 
Holy Spirit in the work of self -purification. 
It naturally expresses itself in acts of self- 
denial, a mark of Christ's sincere disciples 
(Mtl6 24 ), and still more, perhaps, in the glad 
acceptance of Cod's manifold discipline in 
life. 

(3) Almsgiving. Self-surrender, the inner 
principle of almsgiving, is the recognition that 
all we have and are is doubly due to God, 
who has first, as Creator, granted us our exist- 
ence, and then, as Redeemer, bought us with 
a price (1 Cor 6 20 7 23 ) — the precious blood of 
Jesus Christ. 

8. In these practices we realise our union 
with Christ. Thus in the three principles 
represented by fasting, almsgiving and prayer, 
the believer is united with the Saviour in His 
threefold act of atonement ; and by the 
power of the divine indwelling his sinful body 
is progressively purified and assimilated to the 
stainless humanity of Christ, his warped will 
is broughl more and more into line with that 
perfect will, his whole life is caught up into 
an ever closer communion with the life of 
God. And thus individual believers are 
gathered up into the pure offering of a re- 
deemed humanity, the sacrifice which He 
offered up once for all apon the Cross, and 
effectuates successively and in detail in those 
whom He unites to Himself . The sanctinca- 
tion of individual Christians is thus a kind of 
propagation of Christ Himself, and is a little 

type of thai great oorporate perfection of the 

whole body Of the red, niied of whieh St. 

Paul speaks as the coining to a perfect, i.e. 

full-grown. Humanity, the measure of the 
stature of the fulness of Christ (Eph4 u ). 

9. Penitence: Sins of Believers. It would 
be misleading, however, to describe this process 
of sanctification as one of steady and undevi 



ating advance. As there have been retrograde 
moments and periods of decline and disloyalty 
in the Church in general (both under the Old 
Covenant and under the New), so too the 
individual Christian life is often a perplexing 
mixture of ascents and downfalls. The Old 
Testament is full of such instances, alike in 
the Church and in the individual. The fre- 
quent backslidings of the nation are paralleled 
by the failures of patriarchs like Israel him- 
self, and of subsequent saints of eminence 
like Moses and David — grave, though inci- 
dental failures, which do not affect the favour- 
able character of the final verdict. In the 
New Testament the mention of the single 
name of Peter is sufficient to show the possi- 
bility of defection after an intimate walk with 
Christ, and the certainty of a full restoration 
after sincere repentance. 

There is, indeed, a passage in the Epistle 
to the Hebrews which speaks of a form of 
disloyalty after which renewal is impossible 
(Heb6 4 - 6 ), and our Lord Himself has words 
of deepest solemnity about a blasphemy against 
the Holy Spirit ' which hath never forgiveness ' 
(Mk3 29 ). We shall be justified in identifying 
these two sins — a deliberate and wilful ranging 
oneself against known truth — and in dis- 
tinguishing from this unforgivable offence 
the constant instances of frailty in the re- 
deemed for which Christ expressly invites us 
to ask pardon (Mt6 12 > 14 ). For though the 
New Testament speaks of believing members 
of Christ as ' saints ' or holy people (e.g. Ro 
17 1526 1615 iCorl 2 61 1433, etc., etc.), and 
St. John, speaking of the believer ideally con- 
sidered, says that ' whosoever is begotten of 
God doeth no sin ' . . 'cannot sin ' (Un3 6 > 9 ) ; 
yet the Lord clearly contemplated in the 
faithful some deviations from the path of 
perfection, else He would not have inserted 
into His model prayer the clause • forgive us 
our trespasses.' Nor can we forget that St. 
John, in the same Epistle just quoted, speaks 
clearly and strongly to believers about the 
forgiveness and cleansing that can be won by 
confession of sins (1 Jnl 9 > 10 ). The Christian 
consciousness has rightly regarded confession 
of sins as a normal part of private as well as 
public devotions, and a necessary condition of 
continuance in God's grace. It is especially 
appropriate as a preparation for the reception 
of Holy Communion, and has been so recog- 
nised by all Christian denominations. Con- 
fession accompanied by contrition and purpose 
of amendment, by which the soul renews 
from time to time its renunciation of the 
world, the flesh and the devil, wins, so Scrip- 
ture assures us, the forgiveness of the Father 
and restoration to effective communion with 
Him. 

10. Eternal Life. The communion of the 



cxlii 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



spirit with God in Christ, which the New 
Testament, taking up the language of the 
Old, describes as ' knowledge ' of God (Hos 4 l 
63,6 j n 173 Phil 19 Col lio, etc.), is called by 
St. John 'Eternal Life' (Jnl7 3 ) ; a phrase by 
which the Apostle clearly means, not a future 
gift, but a present possession. It is a gift, no 
doubt, but imperfectly appropriated here — 
the ' crown ' of it, its full and triumphant 
fruition, is to be attained by the faithful after 
death (2 Tim 4 8 Rev2 1( >) ; yet it is neverthe- 
less a real possession on this side of the grave. 
Even the Psalmists of the Old Testament 
recognised this truth, and the fact of present 
communion with God was to them the supreme 
argument for a future life (Pssl6 8-11 17 15 ) ; 
an argument clinched by our Lord when He 
said the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob is 
not a God of the dead, but of the living, for 
all live unto Him (Lk20 37 > 38 ). Just as the 
phrase ' kingdom of God ' or ' of Heaven ' is 
used sometimes of the Church militant and 
imperfect (e.g. Mtl3 24f - 47f -), and sometimes 
of the perfect, triumphant Church of the 
future (Mt 25 34 ) — and rightly so, because these 
are really two different stages of the same 
thing ; so too with ' Eternal Life.' It begins 
as soon as Christ is appropriated, as soon as 
the believer is first united to His triumphant 
resurrection life ; it is to be consummated 
when the Son of man shall come in His glory. 
11. Death and Judgment, Heaven and Hell. 
Over against Life stands Death, the penalty 
incurred by man as the result of his wilful 
breach with God : ' in the day that thou 
eatest thereof thou shalt surely die ' (Gn 2 17 ). 
The death thus spoken of in Scripture is not 
primarily or exclusively the physical disso- 
lution of the body, but rather that death of 
body and soul together of which Christ speaks 
in such solemn and mysterious tones (Lkl2 5 ). 
If God is Life and man's eternal life consists 
in close and constant communion with Him, 
it needs no dogmatic statement to make clear 
the terrible character of a permanent alienation 
from Him. The language of Scripture is 
forcible enough on this head (Mt25 41 > 46 Mk 
9 48 ) ; but there is no more powerful aid to 
the" realisation of the appalling alternative 
than the consideration of the extent of the 
Saviour's sufferings for our redemption. The 
value of the redemption can only be estimated 
by an appreciation of the price paid. It is 
thus that Christ's passion, from the agony in 
the garden to the death on the Cross, has 
always been the strongest stimulus to con- 
version ; it draws us with a twofold cord of 
love and fear — fear of that ineffable doom 
which it cost so much to avert, and love to 
Him who for love of us willingly paid the 
price. The Cross is the only adequate measure 
of the hatefulness of sin and of the horror of 



its consequences. Those consequences are 
not to be regarded as belonging entirely to 
the future, any more than are the consequences 
of saving union with the Redeemer. As it 
was said in the Old Testament that ' in the 
day that ' man disobeyed ' he should surely 
die,' so also in the New Testament we are told 
by St. John that ' he that hath not the Son 
of God hath not the life' (1 Jn5 12 ), and that 
' he that loveth not abideth in death ' (1 Jn 
3 14 ' 15 ). In both cases, however, the consum- 
mation, whether of life or death, lies beyond 
the grave, and Scripture describes the eternal 
future of mankind as following upon a Judg- 
ment in which all alike are to pass before 
Christ's throne (RoU™ 2Cor5 10 ). This is 
clear from our Lord's own words as well as 
from those of His Apostle (Mt25 31 » 32 ). The 
Judgment is represented as preceded by the 
general resurrection of the dead, at Christ's 
Second Coming (Jn5 28 . 29 ). 

12. Paradise. If we ask what is the con- 
dition, meanwhile, of those who have passed 
away from this life, our Lord's words to the 
penitent robber : ' To-day shalt thou be with 
me in Paradise ' (Lk 23 43 ), to which the parable 
of Dives and Lazarus (Lkl6 20f -) form a kind 
of commentary, suggest to us a state in which 
the believer's soul is in a special sense ' with 
Christ,' in a more intimate relation than is 
possible for us here : a state to which St. 
Paul seems to be looking forward when he 
says that ' to depart and be with Christ ' is 
far better (Phill 23 ). This 'waiting state' 
(Hebll 3 M0; C p. Rev 6 9) of the faithful has 
as its background in the parable the ' torment ' 
of Dives, which seems, correspondingly, a fore- 
taste of that 'Gehenna of fire' (Mk9 43 " 48 ), 
under the symbolism of which our Lord refers 
to the eventual condition of the permanently 
wicked — the ' fire prepared,' He says, ' for the 
devil and his angels ' (Mt 25 41 J. Any attempt 
to reveal to us in our present state either the 
joys of heaven or the woes of hell must 
necessarily be couched in figurative language ; 
but the language of Scripture on this subject, 
though to be interpreted with caution, is 
certainly of a kind to be received with the 
utmost seriousness ; and when all has been 
said, no more appalling definition can be given 
of the state of the lost than that it is one of 
wilful, permanent, and absolute alienation 
from God who is Life and Love. 

13. Faith in Christ. It was to save us 
from this doom that the Redeemer was given, 
' for God so loved the world, that He gave 
His only begotten Son, that whosoever be- 
lieveth in Him should not perish, but have 
everlasting life ' (Jn 3 16 ). This belief in Him 
— not a mere intellectual assent to certain 
doctrines, but a going forth of the whole 
nature in trustful homage — brings with it of 



cxliii 



THE ELEMENTS OF RELIGION 



necessity a fervent love, and with the love a 
patient submission and obedience. Thus the 
doctrine of St. James is complementary to 
that of St. Paul, and though in a sense faith 
is the one thing needful, because it opens the 
soul to accept God's grace, and thus makes 
His entry into us possible ; yet faith without 
works is not only dead but inconceivable (Jas 
217'). 

Faith, as we have said, is God's gift to those 
who desire it and are ready to receive it. It 
is in all ages a requisite to the effective work- 
ing of the Holy Spirit in man's soul ; even as 
in the days of our Lord's ministry it was an 
indispensable condition without which even 
He could do no mighty works on men(Mt 13 58 ). 

It is perhaps to stimulate faith that certain 
difficulties — like the problems of evil and of 
suffering — are allowed to remain unsolved for 
us, and certain eventualities unrevealed. 
Enough is told us to command our trust and 
to justify the venture of belief. If all were 
clear, there would be no place for the discip- 
line of faith ; we would walk, not by faith, 
but by sight (2 Cor 5 7 ; cp. Jn20 2 9 lPetl 8 ). 

Such are the leading elements of the Chris- 
tian religion ; and if, like its individual 
professors, it is to be judged by its fruits, we 
need have no fear of the result. To compare 
it, not merely with the polytheistic religions 
which once held sway in Europe, but with its 
great contemporary rivab for the homage of 
mankind — Buddhism and Mohammedanism — 
is to gain a fresh appreciation of its superiority, 
and be confirmed in our conviction of its 
truth. Consider what the Church has done 
for Europe and for Western civilisation 
during the nineteen centuries of her existence. 
She leavened the great Roman Empire when 
it was festering with moral corruption, and so 
prolonged and purified the good influence of 
its ideals of law and government. When the 
knell of the old Empire as mistress of the 



world sounded, and the northern barbarians 
rushed in upon her borders, the Church took 
up her task of taming and civilising these 
barbarians, offering to each race and people 
from the inexhaustible treasury of Christ's 
perfect humanity the gifts specially adapted 
to develop its own peculiar character, and 
thus under her influence nationality slowly 
came into view ; that spirit to which modern 
Europe owes so much of her best. And what 
she has done for individual nations, bringing 
some sort of order out of chaos, she is doing 
gradually for the comity of nations, leavening 
the public opinion of the world in favour of 
peace and justice. 

In the social sphere, her teaching has trans- 
formed the family, especially in regard to the 
status of woman, has abolished slavery, and 
has brought out what the ancient world never 
dreamed of, the infinite worth of the in- 
dividual personality, while inculcating at the 
same time the highest altruistic ideals of 
universal brotherhood and membership in a 
common Body. In the sphere of knowledge, 
where the Christian Church is often blamed 
as a reactionary and obscurantist influence (a 
blame which, no doubt, is well deserved in 
certain cases), she has on the whole exercised 
a salutary check upon wild and fantastic 
speculation, while supplying at the same time 
the strongest possible stimulus to research, 
declaring the wonders of creation and of 
human nature to be a mirror of the glory and 
beauty of its Creator. The religion of the 
Bible is one which, while it fixes our ultimate 
gaze on the world to come (2 Cor 4 18 ), gives a 
new and inexhaustible interest to God's visible 
creation, in which it reads a record of His 
everlasting power and divinity (Ro 1 20 ), and, 
above all, to the study of mankind — history, 
anthropology, and kindred studies — for there 
are written the records of His educative and 
redemptive dealings with the being whom He 
formed in His own image (Gn 1 26 > 27 ). 



cxliv 



PALESTINE 



Palestine is a little country, no bigger than 
Wales ; but it was in the centre of the ancient 
civilised world, and the highway of the nations 
led along its borders from Egypt to Assyria. 
It was a mountain land, with fresher climate 
than either the Delta or the plains of Baby- 
lonia, and it was rich in corn and oil. It was 
therefore always coveted by the kings of Egypt 
and Assyria ; and though it had no ports, yet 
in the immediate N. the Phoenicians developed 
a great sea-traffic, and sent out colonies to Africa 
and Europe. 

The land from Dan to Beersheba — i.e. from 
N. to S. — was about 150 m. long, and contained 
6,000 sq. m. W. of Jordan and 4,000 to the E. 
in Moab, Gilead, and Bashan. Western Pales- 
tine consists of a chain of mountains rising 
generally not more than 3,000 ft. above the 
sea, having a wide plain on the W. and the 
deep Jordan valley on the E. The mountains 
are of limestone, the plain of good soil, bordered 
by sand dunes or by crumbling sandy cliffs. 
In Lower Galilee the ridge of Carmel juts out 
NW., and the range of Gilboa runs further E., 
leaving the triangular inland plain of Esdraelon 
between them, bounded on the N. by the hills 
of Nazareth and of Lower Galilee, with Tabor 
as an outlier on the E. N., again, are the 
mountains of Upper Galilee, sloping down to 
the narrow plains and hills between Accho and 
Tyre. In the centre of the land Ebal and 
Gerizim are among the highest summits, divided 
by the narrow valley of Shechem. Between 
the mountains of Jerusalem and Hebron and 
the plains of Sharon and Philistia is the region 
of the foot-hills, called the Shephelah in the 
Bible. This continues N. to Carmel. The 
western spurs, which receive the W. winds 
from the sea, are clothed with copses ; the 
foot-hills are covered with olive groves, while 
the plains are fit for corn. The Hebron 
mountains — and, indeed, most of those through- 
out the country — are green with vineyards ; 
but the appearance of the hills, especially 
round Jerusalem and Shechem, is rugged and 
barren. The land is well supplied with springs 
throughout, The eastern steep slopes are very 
rocky and bare, and on this side, towards the 
S., the desert of Judah is a waste of white 
ridges with tall precipices above the Dead Sea. 
On the S. the mountains fall from Hebron to 
the rolling grassy downs of Beersheba. 

There are several perennial streams in 
Sharon ; and under Carmel the boggy Kishon, 
rising at Tabor, enters the sea in the only bay 
S. of Tyre. There are others, again, flowing 



to the Jordan, of which the chief are the 
waters of iEnon, NE. of Shechem, and the 
stream in the Valley of Jezreel. The Jordan 
rises near Dan, at the foot of Hermon, and 
runs through the papyrus swamps of the Huleh 
lake to the pear-shaped Sea of Galilee, which 
is flanked by precipices mirrored in its waters. 
Thence, still descending, it reaches the Dead 
Sea, which is 1,300 ft. below the Mediterranean. 
It winds through a thicket of tamarisks and 
other low trees, never being broader than about 
30 yds., and having some 30 fords, the last 
opposite the plain of Jericho ; but the current 
is rapid, especially near the mouth. The Dead 
Sea is 10 m. wide and 40 m. long, and on 
either side sheer precipices rise sometimes 
1,000 ft. above the water. 

The country E. of Jordan includes half the 
Jordan Valley, which has on an average a total 
width of 10 m. Very steep slopes lead up to 
a plateau which stretches E. to the Syrian 
Desert. These slopes are sandstone below 
and hard limestone higher up. In Moab the 
plateau is bare and treeless, but in Gilead, to 
the N., the hills are covered in parts with 
woods of fir and oak. The only real forest in 
Western Palestine has now been sadly thinned, 
but presented twenty years ago a dense wood 
of oaks between Nazareth and Carmel. In 
Gilead, where there are many beautiful streams, 
especially the Jabbok, opposite Shechem, the 
scenery is at times park-like, at times presents 
only grey mountain slopes. IS", of this, again, 
are the rich corn plains of Bashan, and the 
basalt regions of Golan and Argob, with their 
extinct volcanoes ; while far to the E. the 
'Hill of Bashan' rises over the plains. 

There is thus much variety of scenery in 
Palestine, and while the plains are hot and 
fever-stricken in summer and autumn, the hills 
are healthier and cooler, especially when the 
W. wind blows daily in June from the sea. 
The climate of Palestine is like that of Southern 
Italy. In spring the plains are gay with flowers, 
and the Jordan Valley is carpeted with bright 
colours. In autumn all is brown and grey, 
parched by the summer sun and the searching 
E. winds of May and October. But the 
country is famous in the East for its fruits ; 
and figs, grapes, pomegranates, melons, and 
apricots are found in all parts of it. It is a 
' good land,' ruined only by the evil deeds of 
man. Amid the copses the traveller often 
lights on the wine-presses and vineyard towers, 
which betoken former cultivation. 

Palestine is capable of supporting ten times 



cxlv 



PALESTINE 



its present population, and could well have 
held the numbers which we are told dwelt 
there in the days of the Hebrews. All the 
ancient fauna of the Bible — beasts, birds, and 
reptiles — still remain, except the lion, whose 
bones are found in the Jordan gravel beds ; 
the wild bull (miscalled by Greek translators 
the ' unicorn '), which was still hunted in 
Lebanon in 1130 B.C. ; and the bear, which is 
now only found on the snowy slopes of 
Hermon, 9,000 ft. above the sea. Even the 
fallow-deer has been found among the oaks 
of Tabor, and the roebuck in the copses of 
Carmel and Galilee, and in the woods of 
Gilead. The antelope runs in herds in the 
plains ; the ibex leaps among the ' rocks of 
the wild goats ' in the Desert of Judah. The 
1 coney,' or hyrax, has there, too, its home in 
the cliffs ; the leopard and wolf haunt the 
Jordan, and the fox, jackal, and hyena are 
common, as are all birds of prey, and the wild 
doves which fill the oak woods ; while the 
partridge runs in the higher hills. The trees 
of Palestine are also the same as of old, though 
the ' apple ' is rarely found in the S. Even 
Leviathan — the crocodile — survives in the 
Crocodile river S. of Carmel, though Behe- 
moth — the elephant — is unknown. In the 
sixteenth century B.C. there were, however, 
herds of wild elephants on the Euphrates, as 
mentioned in the annals of Thothmes III, and 
the great beast was no doubt well known when 
Solomon and Hezekiah had thrones of ivory 
and Ahab made an ivory shrine. 

We may turn briefly to consider the chief 
towns of the country noticed in the Bible. 
In the mountains W. of Jordan Hebron was 
the chief city of the S., standing in a flat 
mountain vale surrounded by vineyards, and 
having under the floor of its Mosque the 
ancient rock sepulchre which appears to have 
been that of the Patriarchs. 

Jerusalem — which was already a strong city 
of Amorites in Joshua's time — occupied a 
defensible position, surrounded, except on the 
N., by deep ravines. The old city occupied 
two spurs on the W., separated by interior 
valleys from the Temple ridge, which sank 
gradually to Ophel — the priests' quarter, 
walled in later — beyond which on the E. 
was the gorge of the Kidron, with its pre- 
cipices ; and E. again the chalky slopes of 
Olivet dotted with olives. All that now re- 
mainfl <>f ancient Jerusalem are the ramparts 
of Herod's outer Temple enclosure, and part 
of the western wall and its great tower — also 
of the same age. The old city was rather 
larger than the present walled town ; and 
after 30 a.d. it had extended N\ to include a 
total of 300 acres, requiring a new third 
wall on this side. Exploration shows that 
the traditional site of Calvary, in the (at he 

cxl 



dral, is the summit of a knoll, with a steep 
southern slope, which appears to have formed 
the citadel of the lower city ; and it is prac- 
tically impossible that this should not have 
been very early included in Jerusalem. The 
more probable site of Golgotha is the hillock 
outside the N. gate of the city, to which 
Jewish tradition still points as the site of the 
ancient place of execution. 

Passing N. by Bethel, a hamlet on the grey 
rocks, we reach the ancient capital at Shechem, 
close to which on the E. is Jacob's Well — one 
of the few spots where we can feel certain of 
the presence of Christ ; it is now preserved 
in the ruins of a Crusaders' church. In 
Shechem the last remnant of the Samaritans 
preserve their ancient copies of the Law, and 
yearly observe the Passover on Gerizim. W. 
of this, Samaria, in the low hills, presents the 
ruins of Herod's temple and colonnades on a 
long, low hillock. Thence we pass to the 
small brown plain of Dothan, with its well, at 
the site still keeping the ancient name ; and 
so on to Jezreel on a spur of Gilboa, where 
we find remains of wine-presses to the E., 
where was Naboth's vineyard. A little to the 
N. is Shunem with its lemon gardens and 
springs ; and on the N. of the volcanic peak 
of Moriah, is the hamlet of Endor with its 
cave, and Nain, a little village to the W., hard 
by. The only other towns needing notice in 
the N. are Accho, on the N. side of its bay, a 
city mentioned on monuments very early ; 
and Tyre, with its two harbours N. and S., 
now a fair-sized place, and no longer a ruin. 
Sidon, which has a larger port, is beyond the 
limits of the Holy Land. 

On the sea-coast Gaza alone — on its hillock 
surrounded by long olive avenues — is left as a 
city, out of the five towns of the Philistines. 
Ascalon, on the shore, is a ruin half covered 
with sand, with remains of the walls built by 
Richard Lion Heart. Ashdod, on a hill of 
red sand, is but a mud village, as is Ekron 
further N. The site of Gath is probably the 
present Tell es Sfifi, at the mouth of the valley 
of Elah. Lachish is a Tell, or mound, further 
S., where remains have been excavated dating 
back to Joshua's time. Joppa remains the port 
of Jerusalem (connected now by rail), and is a 
considerable place, famous for its orange groves. 
In the plain of Sharon to the N., Caesarea is 
now a ruin with a few cottages, and remains of 
the walls, the theatre, the race-course, and 
the temple of Herod's time, extending beyond 
the walls of the small Crusader city. In the 
Jordan Valley, Jericho is represented by 
mounds of sun-dried brick, close to the hills 
at 'Ain es Sultan, N. of the Valley of Achor 
(Wady Kelt); while a solitary tamarisk in 
the plain to the E. marks the site of Gilgal. 
The only other town W. of the river is Beth- 



PALESTINE 



shean, N. of the Yalley of Jezreel, now a foot of the mountains. The latter site seema 



mud hamlet, but with walls, theatre, and 
temple, of the Roman age. 

E. of Jordan, all Moab lies in ruins ; and 
these, though retaining their ancient names, 
are mostly of the Christian period, such as 
those at Dibon, Medeba, Heshbon, Rabbath- 
Ammon, and Gerasa. The hill slopes, how- 
ever, are strewn with cromlechs and standing 
stones, probably of the Canaanite age. Maha- 
naim in Gilead is a ruin in the circular hollow 
plain on the hills, and is now called Mukhmah; 
while, N. of the Jabbok, Ramoth Gilead stands 
on a high hill at the present village of Reimun, 
and Suf further N. may be the Mizpeh of Jacob 
and Jephthah. Mizpeh in Benjamin is not to 
be confused, and is probably the present ruined 
mound Tell Nasbeh, S. of Bethel, near Geba, 
and Ramah, and Michmash with its deep 
' Valley of Thorns,' and its cliffs Seneh and 
Bozez. In Bashan there are also few villages ; 
and the sites of Ashtaroth Karnaim (Tell ' Ash- 
terah), and Edrei (Adra) are ruined mounds. 
This region is full of fine houses and temples, 
now overthrown, which bear dated Greek in- 
scriptions of the second and third centuries a.d. 
— these have no connexion with the old cities 
of Og and Sihon ; but further E., at Sia, is a 
temple, which by its inscriptions is known to 
have been built for Herod the Great, to the 
god Baal Shemim. Damascus by the rush- 
ing Abana, beyond the limits of Palestine, is 
still a city under Hermon, with some 250,000 
inhabitants. Banias, at the source of Jordan, 
above Dan (Tell el Kady), represents Caesarea 
Philippi ; and the scenery, where the river 
bursts full-grown from the rocky cave with its 
Greek shrine of Pan, is amongst the most 
picturesque in Palestine, tall poplars lining 
the river, while the ruins of the Crusader 
castle tower over the village, and the snowy 
Hermon dome rises to the N. 

The scenery of the New Testament is 
mostly connected with Lower Galilee. Naza- 
reth was a remote village, otherwise unnoticed 
in history, lying in a hollow plateau on the 
hills, with a cliff behind to the N. It is now 
a thriving town. Tiberias, which was a new 
city in the days of Christ, is now a walled 
town on the W. of the Sea of Galilee, and the 
remains of older walls, enclosing a larger area, 
are traced on the slopes above. 

Chorazin with its ruined synagogue is a cer- 
tain site, N. of the lake, as is Magdala, a village 
near the shore on the W., N. of Tiberias. 
The site of Capernaum has been disputed, 
Christian tradition placing it at Tell Hum 
(Caphar-Ahim of the Talmud) on the N. shore, 
where too are remains of a synagogue ; while 
Jewish mediaeval tradition places it further 
W., at the ruin of Minyeh, on the shore in the 
Plain of Gennesaret — a small recess at the 



best to meet the requirements of the account 
by Josephus, who speaks of the Fountain of 
Capernaum as watering the Gennesaret plain. 
As to Bethsaida, there appears to have been 
only one place so named — at the mouth of the 
Jordan where it enters the lake, and E. of 
the river. It is now called et-Tell, and a 
sort of delta has been formed which now 
makes the mouth of the river nearly a mile 
further S. 

The site of the Baptism at Bethabara was 
only a day's journey from Cana of Galilee 
(now Kefr Kenna), N. of Nazareth, and it 
was also about two or three days from Bethany 
(j n 128, 35, 45 22 10^0 116,17) on the Mount of 
Olives. Thus the Christian tradition which 
places it E. of Jericho appears to be incor- 
rect ; and the name occurs only once in Pales- 
tine, at the great ford of Abarah, not far S. 
of the Sea of Galilee. This situation fulfils 
all requisites in a satisfactory manner. Other 
doubtful sites, such as Gergesa and Ephraim, 
need not be discussed ; but the fact that 
Dalmanutha stands (Mk 8 10 ) instead of Magdala 
may be explained by the latter being the 
Hebrew term for ' tower,' while the former 
is probably an Aramaic name, meaning ' place 
of the fort.' Aramaic was the common tongue 
of Palestine when the Gospels were written, 
and probably the language spoken by Christ 
Himself. 

The last scenes of His ministry are con- 
nected with Bethany, now a little stone village 
on the S. slopes of the central top of Olivet, 
where is an old ruined castle, once guarding 
the Benedictine Nunnery of Queen Milicent 
of Jerusalem. The first scene of His life is 
laid at Bethlehem, which is now a well-built 
Christian town not far S. of Jerusalem, on a 
long spur with terraced sides planted with 
olives. The cathedral here is the oldest 
church in the world ; the pillars of its basilica 
are those erected by Constantine. The rocky 
grotto beneath, with its rock-cut manger, is 
the traditional stable by the inn — the only 
sacred site of Gospel history mentioned 
earlier than the fourth century a.d. by Chris- 
tian writers ; for it was known to Justin 
Martyr and Origen, as well as to Jerome. 
Such rock stables often occur in ruined towns 
of the Hebron mountains ; and the site is at 
least possible. 

Space does not allow further description of 
places like Adullam, Debir, Gezer, Megiddo, 
Antipatris, Bezek, Taanach, and other cities 
recently rediscovered with many more ; for 
of some 600 towns in Palestine noticed in the 
Bible at least 400 are well known; and about 
150 of them were not to be found on any 
map before the survey of Palestine was 
carried out between 1872 and 1882 a.d. 



cxlvii 



BIBLE ANTIQUITIES 



The most distinctive characteristic of Bible 
study during the past century has not been 
criticism (which began in the eighteenth cen- 
tury), but rather discovery. The comparative 
method, as in other studies, has gradually taken 
the place of older forms of comment ; and 
a mass of independent and reliable informa- 
tion has come to light, in an unexpected man- 
ner, due to scientific exploration of Eastern 
lands, and of their hidden treasures. For 
more than twelve centuries Western Asia was 
practically closed to the scholar and explorer 
by Moslem fanaticism ; but when at length 
the increase of civilisation, and of facilities for 
travel, enabled Europeans to study the real- 
ities of Eastern life on the ground, unhoped- 
for treasures, forgotten civilisations, languages, 
and scripts, which had, for thousands of years, 
been preserved under the sands of Egypt, or 
the foundations of Asiatic palaces, were gradu- 
ally recovered, and made available by the 
zeal of explorers and the genius of scholars. 
Through such discovery the study of the Bible 
has been placed on an entirely new basis ; and, 
while many of the theories of the eighteenth 
and earlier centuries have thus been rendered 
obsolete, the testimony of monuments so pre- 
served has more and more served to confirm 
the history, and to explain the ideas and cus- 
toms, of the Hebrews and of their neighbours, 
as described in both the Old and the New 
Testament, by the light of original and en- 
tirely independent evidence. We have prob- 
ably not as yet by any means exhausted the 
possibilities of such study; and almost every 
year now adds some welcome detail to the 
total of our knowledge, through research in 
Palestine, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, or in 
Asia Minor, and through the better under- 
standing <>f the languages and written char- 
acters of the monuments, in which such records 
are preserved as contemporary accounts of 
<-veiits noticed in the Bible. 

Before about 1*20 v. d. only ({reck, Roman, 
and a fVw Phoenicia]] monuments, of late date, 
were available to the scholar ; and study was 
chiefly devoted to the comparison of manu- 
scripts and versions of the Scriptures, which 

only carry us back fco 916 LD. for the Hebrew, 

and bo Hie fourth and fifth centuries of our 
era for the Greek, Syriac, and Samaritan 
manuscripts. Egyptian hieroglyphs, and cu- 
neiform tablets, had. it is true, excite. 1 the 
curiosity of observers even in the middle ages, 
but it was not until 1822 that an impetus 

ex 



was given to such study through the decipher- 
ment of the Egyptian by Champollion, the 
famous French scholar. Already in 1812 the 
first Hittite monuments had been described by 
Burckhardt at Hamath ; yet their importance, 
and the wide diffusion of this civilisation, re- 
mained unsuspected till about twenty years 
ago. In 1835 Sir Henry Rawlinson began the 
study of cuneiform, which by his genius was 
developed into a new special science ; but it 
was not till 1888 that proof of the civilisation 
of Canaan, in the time of Moses and Joshua, 
was afforded by the recovery of the political 
correspondence of Asiatic kings and chiefs 
with the Pharaohs, found at the village of 
Amarna, between Memphis and Thebes in 
Egypt. The discoveries of E. Chantre (1893) 
and of Dr. H. Winckler (1907), in Cappadocia, 
have added cuneiform texts which give us the 
history of Hittites, Egyptians, and Babylonians 
in wonderful detail in the fifteenth and four- 
teenth centuries B.C. 

The modern scholar no longer relies on 
second-hand information derived from Greek 
or Roman writers, who were often ignorant of 
the realities of foreign civilisations ; or on the 
corrupted text of Josephus, the Hebrew his- 
torian, and of Manetho, the Egyptian chron- 
icler of Ptolemaic times ; or on the few 
fragments of Berosus the Babylonian. He 
can study the original sources on monuments 
of granite, basalt, and limestone, or in pottery 
tablets and in papyri, as easily as the later 
Phoenician texts, or the coins of Palestine, 
Persia, Greece, and Rome. Languages the 
existence of which had been entirely forgotten 
— such as the Akkadian (in Chaldea), the 
Assyrian, the Egyptian, the Sabcan (in Arabia), 
the ancient Persian, Vannic, and Lycian — have 
been recovered ; and have been explained by 
aid of living tongues, such as Turkish, Arabic, 
Coptic, etc. ; while others, found later, still 
form the Bubject of discussion among scholars, 
such as the Hittite and cognate dialects, which 
have only recently come to light. 

Egyptian research, while receiving perhaps 
more general attention than any other branch, 
still suffers from the fragmentary nature of 
the information recovered, and from the 
absence of systematic chronicles. We know 
that the civilisation of the Delta was very 
ancient, but the age in which it first arose is 
still uncertain within some two thousand years. 
Prom about L600 to L200 B.c. the Egyptians 
were masters of the great trade-route, through 
lviii 



BIBLE ANTIQUITIES 



Palestine and Syria, to Mesopotamia. Monu- 
ments of Rameses II occur (about 1330 B.C.) 
at Sidon, Beirut, and even in Bashan, where 
also an inscription of Seti I (about 1400 B.C.) 
has quite recently been found ; but as yet we 
have only a single allusion to the Hebrews in 
Egyptian texts, namely, to the attack on 
' Israel ' in Palestine by Mineptah after 1300 
B.C. On the other hand, the most important 
contribution to early Bible history as yet 
recovered is found in the Canaanite letters, 
already mentioned as preserved in Egyptian 
archives ; and in these we have probably the 
earliest monumental notice of the Hebrews 
in the fifteenth century B.C., at the time of 
Joshua's conquest of Palestine. 

Babylonian and Assyrian monuments con- 
tain much more that has direct bearing on 
the Bible than is found in Egypt. The 
chronicles of Babylon preserve an exact 
chronology, back to the date of the founding 
of that great city about 2250 B.C. ; and the 
existence of Chaldean kings many centuries 
earlier has been ascertained, although the 
earlier chronology, before the date above 
given, still remains very uncertain. From 
the ninth century B.C. onwards the names of 
kings of Israel and Judah occur in the records 
of their Assyrian contemporaries who are 
noticed in the Old Testament ; and texts of 
Nebuchadnezzar, others referring to the 
Belshazzar of the book of Daniel, and later, 
Persian inscriptions of Darius and Artaxerxes 
serve to illustrate and to confirm biblical 
history. The famous excavations of Layard 
at Nineveh, which led to the recovery of most 
of this information, were first undertaken in 
1845 ; but quite recent explorations by Ameri- 
cans at Nippur (Calneh) in Chaldea, south of 
Babylon ; by Germans at Babylon itself, and 
in North Syria ; by French Government Ex- 
peditions at Tell Loh in Chaldea, at Shushan 
(east of the lower course of the river Tigris), 
and in Cappadocia, immediately north of Syria, 
have materially added to our general know- 
ledge of the earliest ages of civilisation in 
Western Asia. 

Phoenician records are generally too late to 
be of assistance in respect to Bible history, 
though interesting as showing the influence 
of Hebrew speech on this famous maritime 
nation, which held the shores from Tyre 
northwards under Lebanon. In the fifteenth 
century B.C. the Phoenicians spoke the same 
language used in Babylonia and Assyria, and 
wrote in the cuneiform character, then com- 
monly employed throughout Western Asia ; 
but their later inscriptions, about the fourth 
century B.C., are in alphabetic characters, and 
in a dialect closely akin to Hebrew, while the 
texts of the Samala ruins (in the extreme 
north of Syria), in the eighth century B.C., 



give an Aramaic dialect, whence the later 
Palmyrene and Syriac are derived. 

Palestine has so far only yielded three 
very ancient texts, namely, the Moabite Stone 
(ninth century B.C.), the Siloam inscription 
(before 703 B.C.), and a cuneiform tablet of 
the fifteenth century B.C., found at Lachish, 
in which Zimrida— a local governor whose 
letters also occur in the Tell el Amarna collec- 
tion — is noticed. The Galilean synagogues of 
the second century a.d. present square Hebrew 
texts, and one somewhat earlier occurs on the 
tomb of the Beni Hezir at Jerusalem ; but 
as yet very few ancient inscriptions — even 
including coins and seals — have been found in 
the Holy Land. 

Hittite monuments present a very archaic 
art, with human figures which are recognised 
to be Mongolic, wearing a peculiar costume, 
and long pigtails like the Tartars. These 
carvings occur at Hamath and Aleppo in North 
Syria, accompanied by a distinct hieroglyphic 
system of writing ; and they are probably as 
old as 2000 B.C. They are found in the region 
where, as we know from other monuments, 
the Hittites lived from the earliest times down 
to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (600 B.C.) ; but 
they extend also all over Asia Minor ; and 
two examples have been found in Babylon 
itself, while Hittite seals have been recovered 
in Nineveh. The Hittites themselves were 
confined to North Syria and Cappadocia, but 
this class of antiquities belongs to a race 
evidently akin to the ancient Akkadians of 
Babylonia, of which the Hittites formed only 
one tribe or branch among many others. 

Greek antiquities in Western Asia are valu- 
able for comparative purposes, in studying the 
New Testament. The most important example 
is the stone found in Jerusalem, which pre- 
sents a text prohibiting any Gentile from 
entering the inner courts of Herod's temple. 
It was standing in place in the time of our 
Lord, and of St. Paul. Other texts witness 
the existence of a Greek-speaking population 
in Decapolis (east of the Sea of Galilee, 
within the province of Bashan) in the same 
age. Others again, further east, belong to 
the pagan temple of Sid, built by a subject of 
Herod the Great. It is well known that the 
technical expressions used, especially in the 
Acts of the Apostles, agree in a very remark- 
able manner with the wording of Greek texts, 
and of classic writings, which refer to the 
government of Syria and Asia Minor by the 
Romans in the first century of our era. The 
Greek papyri from Egypt have also added 
much that is interesting to our knowledge of 
early Christianity. 

Palestine Exploration has been an important 
feature in the general development of the 
comparative method of Bible study. The 



cxlix 



BIBLE ANTIQUITIES 



first scientific enquiry into geography in Pales- 
tine, undertaken in 1838 by the famous Ameri- 
can explorer Dr. Robinson, substituted for 
the contradictory (and sometimes ignorant) 
traditions of the Latin and Greek Churches a 
real study of Bible topography on the ground, 
with the identification of ancient sites, where 
the old names still remain almost unchanged 
in modern Syrian speech. In 1864 the survey 
of Jerusalem was carried out by Sir C. W. 
Wilson, K.C.B., and in 1867-70 important 
excavations on the Temple hill, and in the 
city, were made by Sir Charles Warren, K.C.B. 
The survey of Western and Eastern Palestine 
by the present writer followed (1872-1882) ; 
and about 150 Bible towns were then dis- 
covered, which had not appeared on older 
maps. The survey of Sinai, begun in 1867, 
with later researches, has done much to clear 
up disputed questions as to the story of the 
exodus. But in addition to geographical re- 
search, the study of archaeology in Palestine 
has dispelled many false conceptions, and has 
brought to light many indications of ancient 
civilisation, both Hebrew and Canaanite, al- 
though at present the task of excavation, at 
sites other than Jerusalem, has only been re- 
cently begun, and much remains still to be 
done. At Lachish, and at the probable site of 
Gath, at Gezer, at Taanach in Galilee, and 
elsewhere, English, American, and German 
explorers have recently laid bare the founda- 
tions of ancient cities, in south and north 



alike. They have recovered inscriptions, He- 
brew weights and gems and coins, remains of 
early Canaanite idols, and other valuable indi- 
cations of the early civilisation of the country 
which illustrate Bible statements. The de- 
struction of Canaanite idolatrous emblems by 
the Hebrews renders it impossible to find such 
remains, on the surface, in the Holy Land ; 
and it is only by excavation that they can be 
recovered. 

The general result of such practical work 
has been to confirm the historical statements 
of the Bible as a whole, whenever these can 
be compared with contemporary records. The 
history of Babylonia is accurately traced to 
the days of Abraham ; and the civilisation of 
Canaan, as described in the time of Moses 
and Joshua, is proved by the Egyptian chro- 
nicles of victory, and by the extant remains, 
which equally attest the early wealth and cul- 
ture of the Hebrew kings. We find, more- 
over, that records on permanent materials — 
stone or brick — existed as early as the time 
when Moses wrote the tablets of the Law ; 
that gems were then carved, and tents with 
golden pillars used ; that ancient scribes were 
able to preserve their records correctly through 
the lapse of more than a thousand years, and 
were careful and faithful in copying their 
yet older authorities ; and in general, that 
there is nothing that suggests any anachronism 
or misrepresentation in the picture of ancient 
civilisation preserved to us in the Pentateuch. 



c) 



HEBREW CALENDAR, COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



Calendar 

The growth of the Hebrew Calendar cannot 
be traced here, but its general form in later 
times may be given. The year, determined 
by the recurrence of the seasons, was divided 
into twelve months, according to the changes 
of the moon, numbering alternately twenty- 
nine and thirty days. There is some difference 
of opinion as to when the year was supposed 
to begin at different epochs of Hebrew history. 
Before the exile, it may have begun in autumn ; 
but afterwards there seems to have been a 
double arrangement, by which the civil year 
was reckoned to begin in autumn and the 
sacred year in spring. The months are usually 
indicated in the Old Testament by numbers, 
as the ■ first ' month ; but the following names 
gradually became affixed to them. Abib, or 
Nisan, corresponded approximately to our 
April, and the others in order were : Zif, 
Sivan, Thammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri or Ethanim, 
Bui, Chisleu, Tebeth, Shebat, and Adar. The 
month was divided into weeks of seven days 
each, the last, not the first as with us, being 
the sabbath day of rest. The day was reckoned 
from sunset to sunset, and was divided into 
watches or hours, according as night-time or 
daytime was in question. 

Money 

The earliest Jewish coins were struck in 
the time of Simon Maccabaeus, about 140 B.C., 
but Persian, Egyptian, and Phoenician money 
was in use before that, and later on Greek 
and Roman coins were in circulation. Of 
course, from very early times, various precious 
metals were used as means of exchange, either 
in the lump or in the form of rings, the value 
being determined by the weight as shown by 
the balance. The following are the principal 
values of gold and silver as estimated by the 
weight : — 

Early Hebrew. Jewish. 

Light Shekel, silver 
Heavy Shekel, silver 
Light Manah, silver 
Light Manah, gold 
Light Talent, silver 
Light Talent, gold 

Coins were not in use before 700 B.C., and 
none are noticed in the Bible before the time 
of Ezra. In Ezr2^ and Neh 7 70 > 71 > 72 we 



£ s. d. 


s. d. 


1 8 


1 2 


3 4 


2 4 


4 3 4 




G6 13 4 




250 




4000 





find darkeiuon, and in 1 Ch29 7 Ezr8 27 adarhon. 
probably the same piece of money, and trans- 
lated ' dram ' in the Authorised Version and 
1 daric ' in the Revised Version. It is a foreign 
word, probably of Persian origin, the Persians 
having a ' daric ' which weighed 130 grains. 
In the ISTew Testament the following words 
are to be noticed, belonging to the Greek or 
Roman coinage : — 

Mite (Lepton), Mkl2 42 , the smallest Jewish 

(bronze) coin = £ farthing. 
Farthing {Kodrantes), Mt5 26 , \ Roman As = ^ 

farthing. 
Farthing {Assarion), Mt 10 29 , the Roman As — 

a halfpenny or cent. 
Penny {Denarius or Denarioii), Mtl8 28 , etc., a 

Roman coin = 8^d. 
Piece of silver {Drachme), Lkl5 8 , a coin of 

Antioch = the denarius. 
Tribute money (Didrachmori), Mtl7 24 , equiva- 
lent to two drachms of Antioch = Is. 4c?. 
Piece of silver (Arguriori), Mt26 15 , equal in 

value to three denarii, or 2s. l^d. 
Piece of money {Stater), Mtl7 27 , same value 

as last. 

Weights 
Light Shekel =160 grains. 
Heavy Shekel = 320 grains. 
Light Manah = 50 Light Shekels = 8,000 

grains = 1 lb. 4 oz. 13 dwt. 8 grs. 
Heavy Manah = 100 Shekels = 16,000 grains. 
Light Talent = 3,000 Light Shekels = 480,000 

grains. 
Heavy Talent = 3,000 Heavy Shekels = 960,000 

grains. 
Bekah = \ Shekel. 
Rebah = \ Shekel. 
Gerah = -^ Shekel. 
Talent, or Kikkar = 60 Manahs. 

Measures of Length 

The Egyptians had a cubit of 20*6 inches, 
and used, later, one of about 21 '6 inches. 
The ancient Akkadians of Chaldea used a 
unit of 10 - 5 inches ; we do not know if this 
was used by Babylonians and Assyrians. The 
length of the Siloam tunnel (1,200 cubits) 
shows that, in Hezekiah's age, the Hebrew 
cubit cannot have exceeded 1 7 inches. Accord- 
ing to Maimonides the building cubit was 16 
inches, and the smaller cubit 13 '3 inches, 
equal to half of an Arabic Draa, or ' arm.' 



cli 



HEBREW CALENDAR, COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



The word cubit means a ' forearm.' 
was divided as follows : — 



The cubit 



Barley corn 

Finger 

Palm 

Hand 

Span 

Foot 

Small cubit 

Building cubit 

Large cubit 



•33 inches. 
•66 „ 



2-66 
5-33 
8-00 
10-66 
1333 
16-00 
18-66 



Square Measure 

The Hebrew square measure (Ex27 9 > 12 ) 
was based on a square of 50 cubits, so that a 
Kor of land (with a 16-inch cubit) would be 
3-03 acres, or very close to the Arabic Feddan, 
or ' yoke ' of land, of 3*3 acres. 

Dry Measure 
According to the rabbis the Hebrew Log 
was equal to the contents of six hen's eggs, 



and held 6,000 grains weight of water. This 
measure agrees closely with that used in 
Egypt. 

Log 
Cab 
Omer 
Hin 

Seah 



24 cubic inches 
% „ 
172-8 „ 

288 „ ,, 

576 



Ephah 1728 
Kor 17280 



0-69 pints. 
2-76 „ 
4-96 „ 
1*04 gallons. 

2-08 „ 

6-20 „ 

62-00 „ 



Liquid Measure 

This, as described by Josephus, agrees with 
Greek measures : — 





Hebrew. 


Greek. 




cub. in. 








L6g 


32-7 


0-81 pts. 


1 Xesta 


0-94 pts 


Cab 


130-8 


3-24 ,, 


4 Xestoe 


376 „ 


Omer 


236-0 


6-70 „ 


7 Xedoe 


6-58 „ 


Hin 


393 


1 -40 gals. 


2 Choas 


1 -39 gals 


Seah 


785-0 


2-90 „ 


1^ Modii 


2-80 „ 


Bath 


2353-6 


8-40 „ 


1 Metretes 


8-40 „ 


Kor 


23536-0 


84-00 ,, 


10 Metretes 84 -0 „ 



BIBLE CHRONOLOGY 



For the period before the Call of Abraham 
no chronology is possible, and for many years 
after that event, indeed until the times of the 
kings, the dates are more or less doubtful. The 
duration of the Oppression and of the rule of 
the various Judges as given in the book of 
Judges is greatly in excess of the interval 
probably to be assigned to them ; but it is 
likely that many of the events described were 
really contemporaneous, not successive. The 
dates assigned to the successive Hebrew kings 
are baaed upon the length of their reigns as 
given in the books of Samuel and Kings, 
corrected so far as possible by the evidence of 



the Assyrian inscriptions which, in the matter 
of Chronology, are of great value. 



Dates. 


Events. 


B.C. ?2300 


Abraham. 


U700 


Joseph. 




Descent into Egypt. 


?1250 


Moses. 




The exodus. 


1200-1050 


Period of the Judges. 


1040 


Saul. 


1017 


David. 


977 


Solomon. 


973 


Foundation of Temple. 


937 


Division of Monarchy. 



Dates. 



Israel. 



B.c. 937 


Jeroboam I 


920 




917 




9 1 5 


Nadab. 


914 


B i ha. 


900 (890) 


Ela!,. 


899 (889) 


Zimri. 


SU9 vM»i 


Oniri. 



Foundation "I ' S; i- 



876 



After Division of Monarchy 



Jmlali. 

Rehoboain. 



Invasion 

slink. 
Abijah. 
Asa. 



of Shi- 



Jehoehaphat. 



Dates. 



Israel. 



Judah. 



.0. 875 


Ahab. 




854 


A halt at battle of 
karkar. 




853 


Aba/iah. 




852 


Jchoram (Joram). 




851 




Jehoram. 


843 


. 


Ahaziah. 


842 


Jehu. 

Pays tribute to 
Assyria. 


Athaliah 


836 


• • 


Joash. 


815 


Jehoahaz. 




798 


Joash. 





clii 



BIBLE CHRONOLOGY 



Dates. 



Israel. 



Judah. 



Dates. 



Israel. 



Judah. 



796 


. 


Amaziah. 


B.C. 722 Fall of Samai 


-ia. 


789 


. . • 


Azariah (Uzziah). 


720 . 


Hezekiah. 


782 


Jeroboam II. 




701 . 


Invasion of Senna 


739 


. 


Jotham. 




cherib. 


741 


Zechariah. Shal- 




692 . 


Manasseh. 




lum. 




641 . 


Amon. 


740 


Menahem. 




639 . 


Josiah. 


738 


Pays tribute to 
Assyria. 




608 . 


Battle of Megiddo 
Jehoahaz. 


736 


Pekakiah. 




608 . 


Jehoiakim. 


735 


Pekak. 




607 . 


. Fall of Nineveh. 


734 


Alliance with Rezin 


Ahaz. 


605 . 


. Battle of Carchem 
ish. 




of Syria against 




604 . 


Nebuchadrezzar, 




Judah. 






king of Babylon 




Invasion of Tig- 




597 . 


Jehoiachin. Zede 




lath-pileser,king 






kiah. 




of Assyria. 




586 . 


Fall of Jerusalem. 


729 


Hoshea. 









Later Events 



c. 586-538 


Period of the exile in Babylon. 


B.C. 102-76 


538 


Capture of Babylon by Cyrus. 


75-67 


536 


Return of the Jews from exile. 


66-63 


536-330 


Period of Persian dominion. 


63 


515 


Building of Second Temple com- 
pleted. 






62-40 


458 


Ezra's arrival at Jerusalem. 




445 


Nehemiah's first visit. 


40 


433 


Nehemiah's second visit. 


40-37 


330 


Conquest of Persia by Alexander. 


37-4 


322 


Beginning of Greek (Ptolemaic) 


7-6? 




dynasty in Egypt. 


B.C. 4-A.D. 6 


312 


Beginning of Greek (Seleucid) 
dynasty in Syria. 


A.D. 6-41 




26-36 


320-198 


Period of Ptolemaic dominion. 


26-29 


197-167 


Period of Syrian dominion. 


29 


167 


Revolt of the Maccabees. 


29-61 


165 


Temple services resumed. 




160 


Judas Maccabaeus (166-160) falls in 
battle. 


41-44 


143 


Jonathan (160-143) put to death. 


44-70 


142-135 


Simon High-Priest and Prince. 


64 


134-104 


Hyrcanus I. 




103 


Aristobulus I, king. 


70 



Jannaeus. 

Alexandra. 

Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. 

Jerusalem taken by Pompey. Be- 
ginning of Roman dominion. 

Hyrcanus II under Roman sove- 
reignty. 

Parthian invasion. 

Antigonus. 

Herod the Great. 

Birth of Jesus Christ. 

Archelaus ethnarch of Judaea, etc. 

Roman Procurators in Judaea. 

Pontius Pilate Procurator of Judaea. 

Ministry of Jesus. 

Death of Jesus. 

The story of the Acts of the 
Apostles. 

Agrippa I (grandson of Herod), 
king of Judaea. 

Second Period of Roman Procurators. 

Fire at Rome. Persecution by 
Nero. 

Destruction of Jerusalem. 



cliii 






THE COMMENTARY 



GENESIS 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Title and Contents. Genesis is the first 
of the five books which compose ' The Pen- 
tateuch ' and deal with the history and religion 
of the Hebrews before their final settlement 
in Canaan. It is known in Hebrew as ' B're- 
shith ' (' In the beginning'), from the word with 
which it opens. ' Genesis ' is a Greek word 
meaning ' origin ' or ' beginning,' and is the 
name applied to it in the LXX version. It 
has passed into general use as an appropriate 
description of the contents. 

The book is divided into two main sections : 
chs. 1-11, giving an outline of the Hebrew 
traditions regarding the early history of the 
world and man ; and chs. 12-50, containing an 
account of the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
and Joseph, in their bearing upon the origin 
of the Hebrew race. More particularly, its 
contents may be summarised as follows. Part 
1. The Primeval History : (a) chs. 1-5, the 
story of Adam and his descendants ; (b) chs. 
6-11, the story of Noah and his sons. Part 2. 
The Patriarchal History : (a) chs. 12-26, the 
lives of Abraham and Isaac ; (b) chs. 27-36, 
the life of Jacob ; (c) chs. 37-50, the life of 
Joseph. The first eleven chapters may be re- 
garded as an introduction, designed to show 
the relation of the Hebrew race to other na- 
tions, and connect their history with that of 
the world. The real history of the book 
commences with the twelfth chapter, where 
the call of Abraham marks the beginning of 
an epoch. As a whole, the book presents an 
account of the origin and rise of the Hebrew 
nation, written from a religious point of view, 
to show how God chose them to be His pe- 
culiar people, and made with them those 
covenants and promises which were fulfilled 
in their later history. 

2. Religious value. While recognising the 
progressiveness of revelation, and finding the 
standard of Christian morals in the New Tes- 
tament rather than in the Old, we must still 
regard the book of Genesis as ' profitable for 
teaching, for reproof, for correction, for in- 
struction which is in righteousness.' Certain 
great fundamental truths of the religious and 
moral life are woven into the texture of its 
narratives, and the lessons to be derived from 
them have lost little or nothing of their 
original significance and force. That God is 
one, the Source of all that is, the Supreme 



Lord and Ruler of the world ; that what He 
creates and does is all ' very good ' ; that He 
does not brook disobedience to His will, but 
punishes the sinner, while He rewards them 
that diligently seek and serve Him : these are 
some of the ideas on which it insists, ideas 
which lie at the root of all morality and re- 
ligion. It has even a gospel to proclaim, for 
the love and grace of God are brought out 
conspicuously, not only in His normal rela- 
tions with man, but amid the ruin and havoc 
wrought by sin. He holds communion with 
the creature whom He has created in His own 
image ; He loves and cares for him in his state 
of innocence or rectitude ; He has mercy on 
him when he has sinned and forfeited the 
blessings of Paradise. Throughout the book 
there is a conception of God as one, holy, 
spiritual, and an insight into His relationship 
with man and the world, neither of which 
can be paralleled in ancient literature. Some 
of its earlier portions have points of re- 
semblance to the primitive traditions of other 
nations, but they are clearly distinguished 
from them in their representations of moral 
and religious truths. They may be cast in 
simple language, and embody ideas of their 
time ; but, unlike the ancient mythologies, 
they are never immoral or unreal, and they 
trace everything to the thought and action of 
a living, personal God. 

The teaching of Genesis, then, is still ap- 
plicable in Christian times. It is the more 
valuable that it is enforced, not by precept 
merely, but by concrete examples in personal 
and family life. Its characters are real men, 
not fictitious heroes or demigods. And God 
is actually in touch with them, working out 
His purposes in the events of their lives. He 
is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; in 
all the incidents of their careers, in the general 
march of human history in which they bear 
their part, we see Him moving and acting 
with merciful, redeeming aim. The promise 
that ' the seed of the woman shall bruise the 
head of the serpent,' the covenant with Noah 
after the Flood, the choice and call of Abra- 
ham, the covenants with him and his successors, 
the election of the Hebrew nation and its 
progressive consolidation into a theocracy or 
kingdom of God, are all indications of His 
underlying purpose to redeem the whole world 



1 



IXTRO. 



GENESIS 



INTRO. 



from the effects of c man's first disobedience.' 
Genesis thus graphically and realistically de- 
picts the beginning and partial development 
of that long and patient process which cul- 
minated in the work of Christ. 

3. Authorship. Until recently, Genesis, 
like the rest of the Pentateuch, was regarded 
as the work of Moses. This view was ac- 
cepted on the authority of Jewish tradition, 
which generally seeks to attribute the sacred 
books of the nation to the most famous 
names in its history. The tradition, how- 
ever, did not arise until a comparatively late 
period ; and, in the absence of corroboration, 
its evidence can hardly be regarded as con- 
clusive. The book itself is anonymous, and 
contains nothing to suggest a Mosaic author- 
ship. On the contrary, it bears traces of 
having been put together in its present form, 
many years after the death of the great 
Hebrew patriot, when the Canaanite was no 
longer in the land (Gn 12 6 ), and the Jewish 
monarchy indeed had been established (Gn 
36 31 ). Dual accounts are sometimes given of 
the same event, and different passages exhibit 
such diversity of literary and other character- 
istics as point to an origin in independent 
sources. Accordingly the view is now largely 
entertained that Genesis is the work of an 
unknown editor who had access to documents 
containing the traditions and early records of 
the Hebrew race, and welded tbem together 
into a whole. For a fuller discussion of the 
subject, reference should be made to art. ' The 
Origin of the Pentateuch.' Of the three 
documents there mentioned as underlying the 
Pentateuch, only two are to be met with in 
Genesis, viz. the so-called Primitive and 
Priestly documents. The latter supplies the 
framework of the book, and the various parts 
of the former are dovetailed into it, as it 
were, by way of heightening the effect, and 
giving more detailed information. 

As is pointed out in the general article, the 
difference of style in the two documents is 
clearly marked. The Primitive document is 
lively and picturesque, and abounds in descrip- 
tive touches, which lighten up the narrative, 
and impart a living interest to the people and 
places described. The Priestly document, on 
the other hand, is written in a more formal 
manner : it is much taken up with chronologies 
and genealogies, and loves to dwell upon 
covenants and religious ordinances. In illus- 
tration of these characteristics, the Priestly 
account of the end of the Flood in Gn 8 1 - 5 



may be compared with the picturesque descrip- 
tion of the same event taken from the Primi- 
tive document in 8 6-12 ; also the appearance 
of God to Abraham in c. 17 with the ac- 
counts of similar appearances in 16 7 ~ u 
and 18 1_8 > 16 . The two threads of narrative, 
Primitive and Priestly, are supposed to have 
been based upon older written accounts com- 
piled from oral traditions, and to have been 
put together, to form the present book of 
Genesis, in the days of Ezra. 

4. Analysis. The framework of the book 
is marked by the repetition of the formula, 
'These are the generations of,' a phrase which 
occurs ten times, and always at the beginning 
of a new section, except in 2 \ where it is put 
at the end of the first account of the Creation, 
to which it properly belongs. The instances 
of its occurrence, with the references, are 
these : 2 4 (of the Creation) ; 5 J (of Adam) ; 
6 9 (of Noah) ; 10 1 (of Shem, Ham, and Ja- 
pheth) ; llio (of Shem) ; 1127 ( f Terah) ; 25 12 
(of Ishmael) ; 25 19 (of Isaac) ; 36 1 ' 9 (of Esau); 
37 2 (of Jacob). The passages derived from 
the Priestly document which constitutes the 
framework are roughly as follow : in Part 1 
(chs. 1-11) : li-2 4a 5 1 - 32 6 9-22 7 6 -8 5 8*3-19 9 1-17 

8 28-10 7 10 20-23,31-32 H 1(W2 . i n p art 2 (chs. 

12-50) : (a) the history of Abraham and Isaac, 
16i5_i7 27 21 w 23!-2° 25 7-20 26 34-35; (b) the 
history of Jacob, 27 «-28 9 34 (parts) 35 »- 15 . 23-29 
36 ; (c) the history of Joseph 37 1-* 46 *■* 47 "> 
483-r 492*33 5012-13. The Primitive document 
is traced in these passages : in Part 1, 2 4b -4 

Ql-8 7I-5 8 6 " 12 ' 20 - 22 9 18-27 10 8-19,24-30 H 1-9 . i n 

Part 2, (a) 12!-16 15 18 1 -20 1 8 21 7-22 2 * 24^256 
25 21-2633; (b) 27 i- 45 28 10 -3320 34 (parts) 
351-8,16-22. ( C ) 37 2b_46 5 46 28-47* 47 12 -48 2 

48 8-4927 50 Ml, 14-26. 

The discovery of the composite character 
of Genesis, it may be added, need not be 
regarded as affecting the question of the 
inspiration of the book. That question re- 
mains practically the same, whether Genesis be 
the work of one or of several hands. The 
dates assigned to the parts of which it is sup- 
posed to be composed, as well as to the re- 
casting of them in their present form, are all 
embraced within the age of the prophetic 
activity in Israel ; and the whole bears all the 
marks of true and genuine inspiration. In 
this respect Genesis will stand comparison with 
any of the historical books of the Old Testa- 
ment. God, it must be remembered, ' at sundry 
times and in divers manners spake in time past 
unto the fathers by the prophets ' (Heb 1 l ). 



1.1 



GENESIS 



1.1 



CHAPTERS 1-2 *a 

The Creation 

' The foundation of foundations and pillar 
of all wisdom is to know that the First Being 
is, and that He giveth existence to everything 
that exists!' Thus wrote Moses Maimonides, 
a Jewish scholar of the 12th cent, a.d., con- 
cerning whom the Jewish proverb runs : 
1 From Moses to Moses there arose none like 
Moses.' He had in his mind the opening chap- 
ter of the Bible, the object of which is to lay 
this foundation ; to declare the existence of 
the One God ; to teach that the Universe was 
created by Him alone, not by a multitude 
of deities ; that it is the product of a living, 
personal Will, not a necessary development of 
the forces inherent in Matter ; that it is not 
the sport of Chance, but the harmonious result 
of Wisdom. The writer, and the Blessed 
Spirit who guided him, had but one object in 
view, to insist on the two truths which under- 
lie all others, the Unity of God and the deri- 
vation of all things from Him. 

If we remember that, we shall be relieved 
of a difficulty which has greatly troubled 
devout and thoughtful men. Many are the 
essays and books which have been written on 
the discrepancies between the scientific account 
of the mode in which our globe came into 
being, and the account given in this first chapter 
of the Bible. Astronomy has shown it to be 
highly probable that, millions of years ago, an 
inconceivably immense mass of glowing gas 
gradually cooled down and took the form of a 
rotating sphere. This threw off the planets, 
our earth amongst the number. The central 
part is now the sun. The earth by slow stages 
grew fit to be the abode of life. Assuming 
that the astronomers are right, or, indeed, on 
any reasonable supposition, the sun and moon 
were not created later than the earth, on the 
Fourth Day (1 16 > 17 ). Again, Geology has 
proved that animal life cannot be dated later 
than vegetable (l u > ^ compared with l 24 ), and 
the remains of animals found in the rocks 
testify by their structure to their feeding on 
other animals, not on fruit and herbs (l 30 ). 
But such discrepancies do not detract from the 
real value of our narrative, which is intended 
to teach Religion, not Science. For the ex- 
ercise and training of human faculties God, in 
His Wisdom and Goodness, has left men to 
find out physical truths by the use of the 
powers He has given them. The biblical 
writer availed himself of the best ideas on the 
subject then attainable, put them into a worthy 
form, freed them from all disfigurements, 
stamped them with the impress of Religion. 
And the miracle of it is that the result con- 
tinues valid and precious for all time, a noble 
presentation of the Unity and Spirituality of 



God, of the Omnipotence of His Will and of 
the Wisdom of His operations. (For a fuller 
consideration of this subject see art. ' Creation 
Story and Science.' 

The question will be asked, whence did the 
OT. writer derive his ideas about the creation 
of the world which we find in this passage ? It 
used to be generally supposed that they were 
given to him by direct revelation of God. 
Some competent authorities maintain that, if 
not appearing for the first time in his work, 
they were at least original to the nation to 
which he belonged. Something may be said 
for this view, but the majority of scholars, 
upon historical and literary grounds, incline 
to the opinion that they were more or less 
derived. All the great nations of antiquity, it 
is argued, endeavoured to account for the 
origin of the world, and there are striking 
similarities in the pictures they drew. There 
is little doubt that the Hebrews were deeply 
affected by Babylonian influences, political 
and literary, and the Creation Story written 
on the clay-tablets of Babylonia has so many 
features in common with that before us as to 
warrant the conclusion that there is a historical 
connexion between them. 

In an article ' Genesis and the Babylonian 
Inscriptions,' extracts are given from the Ba- 
bylonian stories of the Creation and the Flood, 
and the relationship of the two accounts is 
discussed. It is sufficient to say here that no- 
where is the force of inspiration more manifest 
than in the way the whole subject is treated in 
the Bible. The Babylonian poem describes the 
Creation as an episode in the history of the gods; 
the Bible places it in its right position as the 
first scene in the drama of human history : the 
former represents the deities themselves as 
evolved from Chaos ; the latter assumes God 
to be before all things, and independent of 
them : the former loses itself in a confused, 
conflicting medley of deities ; to the latter 
there is but One God: the wild grotesqueness 
of the one story is in startling contrast with 
the gravity, dignity, and solemnity of the 
account with which we have been familiar 
from childhood, which has also its message for 
our maturer years. 

The present passage is full of the character- 
istics which mark the Priestly source. See on 
2* b and art. ' Origin of the Pentateuch.' 

1-3. Render, ' In the beginning, when God 
created the heavens and the earth — now the 
earth was waste and void, and darkness was 
over the deep, and the spirit of God was 
brooding over the waters — then God said : Let 
there be light.' On this rendering ' Creation ' 
is not ' out of nothing,' but out of pre-existing 
chaos. Vv. 1 and 3 tell how, when God deter- 
mined on the creation of the ordered universe, 



1. 2 



GENESIS 



1. 11 



the first work was the formation of light as 
essential to life and progress. The first half 
of 2 4 was probably prefixed originally to v. 1. 
See on 2 !- 3 . 

2. God] Heb. Elohim. The word probably 
signifies ' strength,' but the etymology is obscure ; 
cp. Arabic Allah. The Heb. word is plural in 
form, but as a rule it is significantly followed 
by verbs in the singular, except when used of 
heathen gods. The plural form may be used 
to express the variety of attributes and powers 
which are combined in the divine nature, or it 
may indicate that with the Hebrews one God 
had taken the place of the many gods who 
were worshipped by their heathen kindred. 
Created] Heb. Bara ; a word used only of the 
creative action of God. The heaven and 
the earth] the ordered universe as contrasted 
with the dark watery waste of v. 2. The 
creation of the heaven and the earth did not 
precede the work of the six days, but com- 
prised it, cp. 2 l . There was no ' heaven ' 
until the second day. With the whole v. cp. 
Col l 16 . 17 , Heb 34 113. without form (RV 
' waste') and void] The word rendered void is 
bohu. It reminds us of the Phoenician myth 
that the first men were the offspring of ' the 
wind Kolpia and his wife Baau which is 
interpreted Night,' and of the yet earlier 
Babylonian Bau, 'the great mother,' who was 
worshipped as the bestower of lands and flocks 
on mankind, and the giver of fertility to the 
soil. The deep] Heb. tehom : the mysteri- 
ous primeval watery mass which, it was con- 
ceived, enveloped the earth. The Babylonians 
personified it as Tiamat, the dragon goddess of 
darkness whom Merodach must conquer before 
he can proceed to the higher stages of creation. 
The Spirit (RV spirit ' : lit. ' breath ' or ' wind ') 
of God] In the Bab. myth the gods are first 
evolved from the primeval deep: here the 
Divine agency is described as working on 
formless matter from the beginning. Moved] 
rather, "was brooding' with life-giving power 
as a bird on her nest. 

3-5. First day : — Creation of Light. 

3. And God said, Let there be light] A 
sublime sentence! ' By the word of the Lord 
were the heavens made. 1 Light and darkness 
;uv regarded as two objects, each occupying a 
place of its own (Job 38 ''•' >. Lighl is created 
en the first day, the luminaries on the fourth. 
Nol as an explanation, Eor this it is not, but 
merely as an Illustration, it may he remembered 
that, according to the generally approved 
modern theory, the matter composing our 
solar 1 at firsl in the shape of an 
inconceivably vast mass of fiery vapour, winch 

gradually cooled down and took the form of a 

rotating sphere. This threw ofl the planets, 
our earth amongsl the number. The central 
part is now the sun. So that light in Itself 



may be regarded as prior to the specific lights 
that stood related as luminaries to the earth. 
The earth by slow stages grew fit to be the 
abode of life. 

4. Good] i.e. perfect for the purpose for which 
God designed it. 

5. And the evening, etc.] RV ' and there was 
evening and there was morning, one day.' In 
the endeavour to bring the Creation story into 
harmony with the ascertained results of science, 
it is often maintained that the writer meant 
indefinite periods of time by the term ' days.' 
But the science of Geology was entirely un- 
known to the ancients, and it is not legitimate 
to read a knowledge of modern discoveries 
into these ancient records. The author meant 
days in the sense of v. 16. Evidently, he had 
in mind the Jewish week, wdiich he regarded 
not only as prefigured, but rendered obligatory, 
by God's example in creating the world, as 
God worked six days, and rested the seventh : 
so the week was to consist of six working days, 
and a Sabbath day of rest. At the same time 
the writer intended to show that there w r as an 
orderly process in the work of creation. Note 
that evening is put before morning, probably 
because the Jewish day began at sunset. 

6-8. Second day : — Creation of the Firma- 
ment. 

6. The firmament] the sky, heavens. The 
word means something 'solid' or 'beaten out,' 
like a sheet of metal. The ancients supposed 
that the sky was a solid, vaulted dome stretched 
over the earth, its ends resting on the moun- 
tains, and the heavenly bodies fastened to its 
inner surface. It served as the throne of God, 
cp. Ex 24 10 Ezk l 26 . Its purpose here was to 
divide in two the primeval mass of waters. 
Above, it supported the upper waters which 
fell upon the earth through ' the windows of 
heaven' (7 11 ) in the form of rain; below were 
the waters on which the earth rested, and from 
which it emerged. These waters were sup- 
posed to form a subterranean abyss which 
supplied the springs and seas ; for the idea cp. 
Gn 7 11 49-'5 Dt 33 1 3 Job 38 16 Ts 242 Prov 8 28, 
also Ex 24 10 Ezk l 26 . This thought of the 
division of the primeval ocean into an upper 
and lower portion is represented in the Baby- 
lonian story by the cleaving of the body of 
Tiamat. 

9-13. Third day: — Separation of land and 
water, ('nation of vegetation. 

9. Let the dry land appear] by emerging from 
the lower waters which were now gathered 
into seas. See Ps 104°- 8 . 11, 12. Grass . . 
herb yielding seed . . tree yielding fruit] a 
simple and popular classification of the vege- 
table world. Whose seed is in itself] RV 
'wherein' (i.e. in the fruit) 'is the seed 
thereof.' After his kind] i.e. according to 
their several species. 



1.14 



GENESIS 



2.3 



14-19. Fourth day: — Creation of sun, 
moon, and stars. 

The special value of this part of the story- 
lies in its opposition to the worship of the 
heavenly bodies as deities, which was such a 
prominent feature of heathenism in Babylonia 
and elsewhere. Here they are declared to be 
created for the service of man, fulfilling a 
definite purpose. That purpose was threefold : 
(a) ' to divide the day from the night ' ; (b) to 
be 'for signs, and for seasons, and for days, 
and years,' i.e. to give the means of reckoning 
time ; (c) ' to give light upon the earth.' 

14. Lights] rather, ' luminaries,' to hold and 
distribute the light created on the first day. 
In] rather, ' on ' or ' before ' the firmament ; 
so vv. 17-20. See on v. 6. Signs . . seasons 
. . days . . years] For some of the modes in 
which the heavenly bodies were believed to 
serve as signs see 2 K 20 641 Isa 7 u Jer 10 2 
Joel 2 30 Mt 2 2 24 29 . The seasons of the year 
are of course determined by them. The sun 
and moon rule the day and night ; the length, 
temperature, etc., of day and night depending 
on their positions. 

20-23. Fifth day : — Creation of fishes and 
birds. 

20. Let the waters] render, ' let the waters 
swarm with swarms of living creatures,' animal- 
cule, insects, fish, etc. Fowl that may fly] 
RV 'let fowl fly.' 21. Great whales] Heb. 
denotes rather creatures like serpents, croco- 
diles, etc. 22. Blessed them] As animate 
creatures they received a divine blessing, 
which suggests God's pleasure in the creation 
of beings capable of conscious enjoyment. 

24-31. Sixth day: — Creation of animals and 
man. 

26. Let us make man] the crowning work 
of creation and its highest development. The 
plural form 'us,' which occurs again 3 22 11 7 
and Isa 6 8 , has been interpreted of the Holy 
Trinity, but this would be anticipating a 
doctrine which was only revealed in later ages. 
The thought is perhaps that of God speaking 
in a council of angelic beings, or the form of 
the word may indicate a plural of majesty : 
see on ' God ' v. 1. The point of the expres- 
sion, however, is that it marks a closer relation 
of God to man than to the rest of His creation. 
It is not ' Let man be made ' but ' Let us make 
man.' Man] Heb. adam, the name of the race 
which becomes the name of the first man. 

In our image, after our likeness] The 
likeness to God lies in the mental and moral 
features of man's character, such as reason, 
personality, free will, the capacity for com- 
munion with God. These distinguish man 
from the animals with which on the physical 
side he has much in common, and inevitably 
ensure his dominion over them (cp. Ps8 5 ' 6 ). 
When the perfect Image of the Father ( Heb 1 3 ) 



had fully manifested His character, it became 
possible to declare, in yet more adequate lan- 
guage, what true likeness to God is (Eph 4 24 
Col3 10 ). 

27. Male and female] There is nothing in 
this account of the Creation to suggest that the 
sexes were not simultaneously created : contrast 
2 21 - 23 , which is from the earlier document. 
29, 30. The writer of the Priestly narrative 
here represents men and animals as living only 
on vegetable food. We seem to trace the 
thought of a primitive golden age, when the 
animals did not prey on each other, but lived 
at peace together : cp. Isa ll 6 - 9 65 25 Hos 2 18 . 
It is he also who records the permission to use 
animal food after the Flood (9 2 > 3 ). But the 
parrallel narrative from the Primitive document 
refers to the keeping of flocks (4 2 > 4 > 20 ), and 
takes no notice of any prohibition of animal 
food. 31. Very good] Certain systems of 
philosophy and morality, ancient and modern, 
have proceeded on the assumption that evil is 
inherent in matter, and therefore that God 
and the world are antagonistic. This idea is 
quite foreign to the Scriptures, which teach 
that 'every creature of God is good.' Genesis 
teaches that evil enters the world from without : 
see on 3 1 . 

2 1 - 3 . Seventh day : — God ceases from His 
work and sanctifies the day on which He rests. 

Vv. 1-3 clearly ^belong to the first narrative 
of the Creation, of which they form the 
natural conclusion. The first part of v. 4, 
' These are the generations of the heavens and 
of the earth when they were created,' has 
probably been transposed from its original 
place before l 1 , as in all other cases the phrase 
stands at the beginning of the section to which 
it refers, cp. 5 l 6 9 10 1 . The second account of 
Creation begins in the latter half of v. 4, and 
should have formed the commencement of c. 2. 

1. All the host of them] i.e. ' all the contents 
of heaven and earth.' 2. He rested on the 
seventh day] God ceased (as the word means) 
from His creative work. 

3. God blessed the seventh day and sanctified 
(BV 'hallowed') it] This is adduced in 
Exodus as the ground for the observance of 
the sabbath (see Ex 20 8 - u notes, 31 17 Heb 4*). 
It was separated from ordinary days, and set 
apart as a day for rest, and at a later time for 
holy observance. Further instructions as to 
its use will be found in Ex 31 13 35 2 . The 
Babylonians observed the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st 
and 28th days of the lunar month, as days 
when men were subjected to certain re- 
strictions : the King was not to eat food 
prepared by fire, nor offer sacrifice, nor consult 
an oracle, nor invoke curses on his enemies. 
But the weekly sabbath came to have a 
peculiar religious significance among the 



2.4 



GENESIS 



2.4 



Hebrews, which is not evident among other 
nations ; and by its regular recurrence every 
seventh day it was dissociated from its 
connexion with the moon, and with lunar 
superstitions. 

4. These are the generations of the heavens 
and of the earth when they were created] i.e. 
this is the history of their creation. See on 
vv. 1-3. The phrase ' These are the gener- 
ations ' occurs ten times in Genesis, viz. 2 4 5 1 
69 ioi nio n27 2512 25 19 36 1 37 2 . 

CHAPTERS 2^-324 
Paradise and the Fall 

In this famous passage we possess a wealth 
of moral and spiritual teaching regarding God 
and man. The intention of the writer is 
evidently to give an answer to the question : 
How did sin and misery find their way into 
the world ? As is natural among Orientals 
he put his reply into narrative form ; and 
though it is generally accepted that the details 
are to be interpreted symbolically rather than 
literally, yet they are in marvellous agreement 
with the real facts of human nature and ex- 
perience. Adam is the representative of the 
human race. The story of his temptation, fall, 
and consequent forfeiture of Paradise shadows 
forth some of the greatest mysteries of the 
human lot — the strangely mingled glory and 
shame of man, his freedom of action, the war 
between the law in his members and the law 
of his mind. It thus comes to have a universal 
significance and shows each man, as in a minor, 
his own experience. When he reads this nar- 
rative, his conscience says to him, like a prophet 
of God : ' Thou art the man ; the story is told 
of thee ! ' 

In c. 2 the nature of man is unfolded. It 
has two sides, a higher and a lower ; on the one 
hand, he is connected with the material world, 
as made of dust of the earth : on the other 
hand, he is related to God, who breathes into 
his nostrils the breath of life. He stands above 
the animal creation by his endowments of 
reason, discrimination, and language; he gives 
names to the beasts. The ideal relationship 
of the sexes appears in the creation of woman 
from the side of man. and his delight in finding 
in her an adequate companion and helper. 
Special emphasis is laid upon the moral and 
spiritual aspects of human nature. Man is 
created with the faculty of holding free and 
trustful communion with God, and with the 
power of exercising freedom of choice. It is 
Chiefly in virtue of these high prerogatives that 
he can be said to be created in the image of 
God Liberty Of choice, however, or free will, 

is a perilous gift, it maybe used cither rightly 

or WTOngly, and so there arises t lie possibility 

of temptation, of sin, of a 'fall': see on 2 14 . 



C. 3 shows how man misuses his freedom. 
He is tempted by a mysterious power of evil, 
and falls before the temptation. Immediately 
the direst results ensue, both for his inward 
and outward condition. ' The fruit of man's 
first disobedience ' is seen at once in his con- 
sciousness of guilt, his interrupted communion 
with God, his miserable state, and even the 
altered condition of the world in which he 
dwells. Yet God does not abandon him. He 
continues His care over him, and comforts him 
with the promise of final victory over the power 
of evil. See on 3 15 for the significance of this 
passage in the light of Christianity. 

It is to be expected that, in externals at least, 
the Bible narrative should resemble the tradi- 
tions of other Oriental peoples. Accordingly 
we find, as in the case of the Creation and Flood 
narratives, that certain parallels to the Paradise 
story existed among the ancient Babylonians. 
This, and the further fact that Eden is placed 
in the vicinity of the Euphrates, have been 
taken to suggest that the Hebrews brought 
the original tradition with them from their 
home in the plains of Babylonia. The Bible 
narrative, however, differs from all others in 
its worthy conception of the divine nature, its 
freedom from polytheistic and heathen associa- 
tions, and its embodiment of such profound 
religious truths as stamp it with the mark of 
inspiration. 

The passage (2 4b -3 24 ) now under considera- 
tion begins with a second account of the Crea- 
tion forming an introduction to the story of 
man's temptation and fall. Some scholars 
regard this account as simply complementary 
to that given in c. 1. They maintain that it 
is not a separate story of the Creation, but a 
continuation of the former, with special 
reference to man's position in the universe. 
There are strong reasons, however, for regard- 
ing 2 4l>25 as a narrative independent of 1-2 4a . 
(a) The primeval chaos, the creation of man and 
woman, vegetation and animals, are described, 
but there are striking differences in the two 
accounts, (b) The Creator is no longer called 
'God' (Elohim) but 'The Lord God' (Jehovah 
Elohim), a fact which first suggested that the 
Pentateuch was compiled from different 
sources, and gave its name ' Jehovistic ' to 
the continuous Primitive document of which 
this passage forms the commencement. (c) 
The writer speaks of the universe and its 
Author in different terms to those of c. 1. 
God is regarded as intimately concerning Him- 
self with men rather than in His transcendental 
power; and this concern of His is expressed 
in terms which are properly applicable to the 
only living persons we directly know, viz. 
men. This anthropomorphism runs through 
the whole of the Paradise story (cp. 2 7 » 8 » 19 . 21 > 
3 8 ). (d) The lordship of man over creation 



6 



2.4 



GENESIS 



2.14 



is expressed, not by setting him up as the goal 
to which all tended (cp. l 26f -), but by represent- 
ing him as the first created, before plants or 
herbs C2 4 - 8 ), the being for whom the animals 
were afterwards made, and finally woman as a 
fitting mate, (e) The formal, orderly style of 
c. 1, which characterises the Priestly docu- 
ment, is exchanged here for the imaginative, 
poetical style which marks the Primitive (cp. 
2 8,9,15,19,31-6,7,8). (f) Fi na lly, if the two 
accounts of Creation had been originally the 
work of one writer, he would surely have ex- 
plained that he was describing the same event 
from different standpoints, giving reasons for 
so doing. But he does not, and it is reason- 
able to conclude from all the variations which 
have been pointed out, that we possess two 
accounts of the Creation and of the origin 
of man upon earth, drawn from different 
sources. 

4 b -7. Eender, ' In the day that the Lord 
God made earth and heaven, when no plant of 
the field was yet in the earth ; and no herb of 
the field had yet sprung up . . the Lord God 
formed man,' etc. Vv. 5, 6, from ' For the 
Lord God,' thus form a parenthesis. 

4. The LORD God] Where Lord is thus 
printed in capitals in the English Bible it 
stands for the Heb. JHVH, the sacred 
divine name which was probably pronounced 
1 Yahweh.' In later times the word was con- 
sidered to be too sacred to be uttered ; the 
title Adonai (i.e. My Lord) was substituted in 
reading, and thus the true pronunciation was 
lost. Hebrew was originally written without 
vowel-signs ; when these were added to the 
MS text, the vowels of the name as read 
(Adonai) were attached to the consonants 
JHVH, and thus the artificial form ' Jehovah ' 
was produced, which has come into common 
Christian use. See on Ex 3 13 for the signifi- 
cance of the word, which means perhaps ' The 
Self-existent 1 (or ' Self -unfolding'). Yahweh 
(Jehovah) is the proper name of the God 
of Israel rather than a title, and as such was 
used by other nations who regarded Jehovah 
as the tribal God of the Jews (cp. Isa 36 20 ) ; 
the name also occurs on the Moabite stone set 
up by Mesha (2 K 3 4 ). The American re- 
visers have substituted ' Jehovah ' for ' the 
Lord ' throughout the OT. In Gn 2 and 3 
Jehovah is joined with Elohim ('the Lord 
God'). The latter name was probably added 
by the editor who combined the narratives in 
order to show that the Jehovah of this section 
(the God of Israel) is the same as the Elohim 
(the Creator of the world) of the previous 
one. The earth and the heavens] RV 'earth 
and heaven.' Note the difference in the order 
from that in l 1 . The centre of interest in 
this c. is man on the earth. 

6. Mist] The kindred word in the Assyrian 



language denotes the annual inundation of the 
Euphrates ; see on v. 8 and on 3 7 . 

7. Man] Heb. adam as in c. 1. AV renders 
the word as a proper name frequently in chs. 
2-4; RV gives 'man' throughout except 3 17 
4 25 . Ground] Heb. adamah. A connexion 
is thus suggested between the two words, but 
the derivation of Adam is uncertain. Formed 
man of the dust of the ground] The lowly origin 
of man, and his derivation on the physical side 
from the lower elements of creation, are here 
implied. To ' become a living soul ' means 
no more than to possess the principle of life 
possessed by the animals ; cp. v. 19, where the 
Heb. for ' living creature ' is the same as for 
' living soul ' here. But it is not said of the 
animals that God breathed into their nostrils 
the breath of life, only of man : this implies 
that man stands in a special relation to God, 
and may be taken as referring to the gift 
of those spiritual faculties by which he holds 
communion with God, and possesses a 'like- 
ness ' to Him ; see on l 26 . 

8. A garden] LXX renders by * Paradei- 
sos' (a Persian word meaning 'a park'), 
hence the English 'Paradise.' Eastward] 
i.e. of Palestine, such as Babylonia would be. 
Eden] The Heb. word eden means ' de- 
light,' but there is a Babylonian word edinu, 
meaning 'plain,' and there maybe a reference 
to the great plain in Babylonia between the 
Tigris and the Euphrates. In the southern 
portion of this plain an ancient hymn placed 
a garden of the gods wherein ' a dark vine 
grew . . its appearance as lapis lazuli.' 

9. Every tree] The garden was planted 
with trees, like a king's pleasure park. The 
trees are specially mentioned, partly because 
they were to provide man's food, and partly be- 
cause attention is directed to two of them for a 
particular reason. As life was to be sustained 
by them, so immortality was to be received 
through the fruit of the tree of life, and 
knowledge of good and evil with death in the 
end were the possible consequences of eating 
of the forbidden tree. The garden was di- 
vinely planted, and the trees had miraculous 
powers of good and evil. The tree of life] 
The Egyptians believed that in the blissful 
fields of Alu in the other world grew the 
tree of life, which the stars gave to the 
departed that they might live for ever ; cp. 
also Rev 222. 

10-14. There are many theories regarding 
these rivers. Perhaps the most likely is that 
the ancients, with their very limited notions 
of geography, regarded the four great rivers 
known to them, Euphrates, Tigris, Indus 
(Pishon) and Nile (Gihon), as having a com- 
mon source in some large lake in Eden. Cush 
will then be Ethiopia. It is possible, how- 
ever, that the main river stands for the Persian 



2. 15 



GENESIS 



3.1 



Gulf, which was anciently called ' The Salt 
River,' and the four heads were four streams 
connected with it, viz. (1) the Euphrates; (2) 
the Hiddekel, which the Persians called the 
Tigra, and Greeks the Tigris ; (3) the Gihon, 
which is said to ' compass ' the land of Cush, 
the country of the Kashshu in W. Elam, and 
which may therefore be the Kerkha, which 
once ran with the Euphrates and Tigris into 
the Persian Gulf ; and (4) the Pishon, which 
has not been identified. Havilah] the sandy 
region of N. Arabia, and thus not far from 
the other localities. Bdellium] an odoriferous 
transparent gum. Onyx] RM 'beryl.' Vv. 
10-14 are regarded by many as a later ad- 
dition to the narrative. 

15. Dress] i.e. cultivate. Keep] i.e. protect 
(from the beasts). 

17. Knowledge of good and evil] i.e. moral 
consciousness issuing in moral judgment ; the 
power to distinguish between good and evil, 
not in act only but in consequence as well. 
This faculty is necessary, in order that man 
may reach moral maturity. The narrative im- 
plies that it would have come gradually to man, 
through the teaching of God, and without the 
loss of his own uprightness. It is a faculty 
which is developed from within, not conferred 
from without. By discipline and self-control 
man gains character and moral strength, or the 
knowledge of good and evil, and the power to 
discriminate between them. Hence ' the fruit 
of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil ' is 
forbidden to man, not given to him like that 
of the others. It can impart the knowledge 
of good and evil at once, without a prolonged 
process of discipline or education ; but the 
attainment of it in this summary way is made 
an act of disobedience, perhaps to assist man's 
moral development by affording a test of his 
self-control. Man's freedom of choice, how- 
ever, m ikes it possible for him to disobey, and 
BO C >me to the required knowledge by a wrong 
way; for the knowledge of good and evil is 
bought dearly by doing ill. 

Shalt surely die] Man, it is implied, was 
created mortal, but had the privilege of attain- 
ing immortality by means of the tree of life. 
But by eating of the tree of the knowledge of 
good and evil man forfeited his liberty to eat 
of the tree of life . This Implies 

that the physical is ti H . consequence of the 
moral death. • Some of the older expositors 
e thai the troubles and Bufferings to 
which mail liable through Bin, are 

nothing else than disturbances of life, the be- 
ginning of deatl ' I).).* 

18-25. Now the other animals and woman 
are formed. The order of Creation la nol the 
Bame as in 1 

18. Help meet] This is not one word but 



two, the former being the noun and the latter 
the qualifying adjective on which the main 
emphasis lies. Man might have many helps ; 
the vegetable and animal creation might minis- 
ter to his welfare and comfort. But though 
these are 'helps,' they are not ' meet,' i.e. suit- 
able for him. Only a creature like himself 
can be an adequate companion; and so woman 
is formed: see v. 20. ig. The giving of a 
name implies a power of discrimination and 
reflection not possessed by the lower animals. 
Even proper names in the Scriptures are 
usually significant and descriptive of some 
quality supposed to be possessed by the person 
who bears it. Cp. e.g. the importance attached 
to the ' name ' by which God is known : see on 
Ex 3 13 . 21. The symbolical account of the 
creation of woman teaches the close relation- 
ship of the sexes, and the dependence of 
woman on man. 23. This is now] Render, 
' This time it is bone of my bones,' etc. It is 
Adam's cry of delight at finding a congenial, 
sympathising companion, after failing to find 
one among the animals (v. 20). She shall be 
called Woman] The similarity of the English 
words ' man,' ' woman ' (wife-man) is also found 
in the Hebrew Ish, Ishshah. 24. The crea- 
tion of one man and one woman in the ideally 
perfect state of Eden implies that monogamy 
is the ideal of the married life. Polygamy 
and divorce were later accommodations to 
man's ' hardness of heart.' But ' from the be- 
ginning' (i.e. in the original purpose of the 
Creator) 'it was not so ' (Mtl9 4 < 8 ). 25. See 
on3 7 . 

CHAPTER 3 
The Temptation and the Fall of Man 

This chapter describes how ' by one man sin 
entered into the world and death by sin' 
(Ro o 12 ). Although there is here no ambitious 
attempt to search out the origin of evil in the 
universe, the biblical account of the Fall 
pierces the depth of the human heart, and 
brings out the genesis of sin in man. The 
description, as already said, is true to life and 
experience. 

There is no certain Babylonian counterpart 
to the biblical narrative of the Fall. 

1. The serpent] The writer here sets him- 
self to answer the question how evil came into 
the heart of man, who was created pure. His 
answer is that it came from without; it did 
not originate with man. And herein lies the 
hope of victory. The wrong approaches us 
from outside ourselves, and is not the native 
product of our own heart. There are present 
in our world beings and objects which, con- 
sciously or unintentionally, draw us towards 
thai which la wrong; channels of sense, intel- 
lect, aspirations by which we may be touched 



on Dillmann, the greatest of all commentatora on Genesis. 

8 



3. 1 



GENESIS 



3. 8 



The narrative tells us that man was tempted 
by some evil power, whose personality remains 
in the background. But this power must have 
made use of a medium, which could not have 
been another human being, seeing there were 
as yet only Adam and Eve. That it was an 
animal was therefore a natural assumption. 
On two grounds the writer was left to fix 
upon the serpent as the medium of the tempt- 
ation. One was the natural habits of the 
creature, its stealthy movements, its deadly 
venom, and the instinctive feeling of repulsion 
which the very sight of it provokes. These 
things are all suggestive of the insidious 
approach and fatal power of temptation. The 
other was the fact that already the serpent in 
older mythologies was associated with the 
powers of darkness. In Babylonian belief 
Tiamat, the power of darkness and chaos, and 
the opponent of the god of light, was repre- 
sented as a gigantic dragon, also known as 
Rahab and Leviathan (Job9 13 RV 26i 2 RV 
Ps74 13 > 1A 89 10 Isa'27 1 Am9 3 ) ; while to the 
Persians the serpent was the emblem of Angra- 
Mainyu, the hostile god. In later times, when 
the power of evil was more definitely personi- 
fied by the Israelites as Satan, the serpent 
remained as the symbol under which he was 
popularly conceived. See e.g. Rev 12 9 20 2 . 

There can be no doubt that our author in- 
tended to teach that an actual serpent was the 
tempter. As one of our deepest thinkers puts 
it : k There was an animal nature in Eve to 
which the animal nature in an inferior animal 
could speak.' We who have been taught that 
k our wrestling is not against flesh and blood, but 
against the principalities, against the powers, 
against the world-rulers of this darkness, 
against the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the 
heavenly places,' are almost irresistibly led to 
think of the serpent as a mere agent of him 
that is called the Devil and Satan (Revl2 9 ) ; 
but we shall miss something of the instructive- 
ness of the narrative if we do not, in the first 
instance, take the simple view originally in- 
tended. St. Paul, we must remember, adhered 
to it : k The serpent beguiled Eve in his 
craftiness ' (2 Cor 1 1 3 ). 

And he said] An ancient Jewish legend 
represents all the animals as having had the 
gift of speech, and using one language, until 
the day when Adam was expelled from Eden. 

The woman] She is first addressed, as an 
easier prey to temptation (cp. 1 Tim 2 14 ). 
Observe that the serpent exaggerates the 
prohibition, and suggests that it is an undue 
curtailment of liberty. Sin usually begins 
as a revolt against authority. 2, 3. The 
woman denies that the prohibition extends to 
every tree. It applies only to one, and its 
object is man's own safety. She also adds 
that the danger is such that they are forbidden 



even to touch the tree. Evil is to be kept at 
arm's length. 4. The serpent grows bolder 
on seeing that the woman is willing to argue 
the matter, and now flatly denies the truth of 
the divine warning. It is due not to a solici- 
tude for man's safety, but to an ulterior motive, 
the envy or jealousy of God. The serpent 
avers that the threatened penalty will not be 
exacted, that God has selfishly kept out of 
their sight a great boon which men may gain ; 
that He is unwilling to see them rise too high. 
So the serpent sows discord between man and 
his Maker, by misrepresenting God's character. 
5. As gods] RY 'as God.' It probably 
means here, as divine beings, like the angels. 
Cg. v. 22. 6. ' Our great security against 
sin consists in our being shocked at it. Eve 
gazed and reflected when she should have fled ' 
(Newman). Here we see the physical basis of 
temptation, the lust of the flesh, which ' when 
it hath conceived bringeth forth sin ' (Jas 
1 15 ). She gave also unto her husband] It 
is not in malice, but with a sincere view to his 
advantage, that she persuades the man to eat 
of the fruit. 

7. They knew that they were naked] The 
serpent's promise (v. 5) is fulfilled, but not in 
the way expected. ' To the pure all things 
are pure ' (cp. 2 25 ), but the act of sin is im- 
mediately followed by the sense of guilty 
shame. ' To innocence, standing in undis- 
turbed union with God, everything natural is 
good and pure (2 25 ). So soon as, however, 
by the act of disobedience, the bond of union 
with God is broken, and the sensuous nature 
of man has released itself from the dominion 
of the spirit which rests in God, it stands 
there naked and bare and calls forth in its 
possessor inevitably the feeling of weakness, 
unworthiness and impurity ' (D.). The first 
result of disobedience is the awakening of 
conscience. ' They lost Eden and they gained 
a conscience ' (Newman). The whole story of 
the Fall is a parable of every sinner's experi- 
ence. In every temptation there are an 
exciting cause without and an answering in- 
clination within : every act of submission to 
temptation is a choice exercised by the will : 
and the result of sin is an uneasy conscience 
and a haunting sense of shame. Aprons] 
RM 'girdles.' There is a Jewish legend to 
the effect that at the moment of the Fall the 
leaves dropped off all the trees but the fig. 

8-13. Conscience is a witness-bearer to God. 
Accordingly the accusing voice of conscience 
is followed by that of God in judgment. 

8. On the anthropomorphism of this v. see 
intro. to 2 4 -3 25 . Cool of the day] lit. 'in 
the evening breeze,' i.e. in the evening when 
the heat of the day is tempered with a cool 
breeze, enabling Orientals to walk abroad ; 
cp. Gn 24 63 Song 2 W. Adam] R V ' the man ' : 



3. 10 



GENESIS 



3.24 



see on 2 7 . Hid themselves] Hitherto they 
have been able to meet God in trustful sim- 
plicity : now conscious guilt moves them to 
hide from His presence. But the attempt is 
vain. io. The man's answer shows that 

a change has come over him. He was not wont 
to be afraid of God. 

ii. The question does not imply that God 
does not already know what has occurred. 
But He compels the man to make a full con- 
fession. 12. Instead of frankly confessing 
his sins, the man lays the blame upon the woman. 
Observe also that he even tries to lay part at 
least of the blame upon God Himself (whom 
Thou gavest to be with me). This is a most 
life-like touch in the picture of the moral state 
which sin produces. 13. The woman in turn 
blames the serpent. Man is always inclined 
to blame the outward incitement to sin, rather 
than the inward inclination. 

14-19. The Judgment. 

14. The serpent, being the tempter and 
prime mover in the transgression, is judged 
first. It would appear that the writer con- 
ceived of the serpent as originally walking on 
feet. Its crawling in the dust, and taking 
dust into its mouth with its food (cp. Isa65 25 
Mic 7 17 and the figurative expression ' to lick 
the dust,' Ps729 Isa49 23 ) are marks of its 
degradation. 

15. Nature's social union is also broken. 
The serpent race is an object of abhorrence, 
even though many kinds of serpents possess a 
remarkable beauty and grace. The curse, 
however, goes beyond this. There is a min- 
gling of the literal and the allegorical in the 
sentence. The serpent, as representing the 
spirit of revolt from God, will continue to 
be the tempter of man. Man and the power 
of evil will be at constant feud. It shall 
bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel] 
cp. Rolli' 20 . While each will hurt the other, 
it is here implied that man will have the best 
of the serpent in the end. The seed of the 
woman means the human race as sprung from 
her. But in the course of history it becomes 
more and more evident that mankind is unable 
of itself to gain the complete victory over evil. 
This has been achieved by One alone, in whom 
this word of bope lias been fulfilled. It is, 
therefore, with justice thai Christiana read in 
this promise the Protevangelium, or first procla- 
mation of the Good Tidings of the final victory 
over sin. It is in Christ that the seed of the 
woman crushes the serpent. 

16. The woman is now judged. Her doom 
is pain, chiefly the pain of child-bearing, and a 
position of subjection to and dependence on 

man. There 1- abnndanl evidence in human 
nature of the close connexion of sin and 

Buffering, though <>m- Lord warns us againsl 

uncharitably arguing hack from the fad of 



suffering to previous sin, in special instances, 
and in the case of others. See e.g. LklS 1 ' 5 
Jn 9 1 " 3 , and cp. the whole argument of the 
book of Job. In the case of child-bearing, it 
is not unreasonable to suppose that the pain 
and danger connected with it have been in- 
creased by the accumulated wrongdoing of 
mankind. Among the lower animals the pro- 
cess of birth is much easier. 

17. The judgment on the man. Work had 
already been appointed as the duty of men 
(2 15 ). But it was not laborious. The change 
from innocence to sin is marked by the change 
of order from the keeping of the garden to 
the tilling of the ground (v. 23). Henceforth 
work is to be done under adverse conditions. 
The connexion between the sin of man and 
the productiveness of the earth is not so easily 
traced, but the conditions of labour are un- 
doubtedly made harder by the evils and 
inequalities of human society due to man's sin 
and selfishness. 19. Till thou return unto 
the ground] The story does not assume that 
man was created physically immortal. But 
the inevitable certainty of death is now seen 
to increase the sadness of his earthly lot. It 
is sin which gives death its sting (1 Cor 15 56 ) ; 
and though the Redemption of Christ has not 
abolished physical death, yet it gives victory 
over death, by removing the guilt and fear 
that make it so appalling and hopeless : cp. 
Heb2i4,i5. 20. Eve] Heb. Hawaii, ' life.' 

21. God does not cease to care for man, 
even though he has rebelled against Him : cp. 
Mt5 45 . 

22-24. Now that man has used his power 
of free-will to disobey God and become alien- 
ated from Him, a perpetuation of his sinful 
life would have been a curse rather than a 
blessing. Physical immortality which, accord- 
ing to the writer, he might have gained by 
eating of the tree of life, is therefore denied 
to him. But the blessing forfeited ' by one 
man's offence ' is restored ' by the obedience 
of one' (Ro5 12 - 21 ). In Christian thought 
Adam is ' a figure of Him that was to come.' 
Adam and Christ are the originators of two 
different streams of humanity ; and as those 
descended from Adam by phj'sical generation 
inherit the consequences of his disobedience, 
in virtue of an undoubted law or principle of 
heredity, or of the solidarity of the human 
race, so those regenerated in spirit through 
Christ enjoy the fruit of His perfect obedi- 
ence, and have a right to the tree of life. 
1 As in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall 
all be made alive.' 

24. Cherubims] RV "the Cherubim' (plur. 
of l Cherub '). These mystic beings are men- 
tioned as attendants of God in various passages 
of theOT.(Psl8W Ezkl and 10). Here they 
appear as the guardians of God's abode : cp. 



ID 



3. 24 



GENESIS 



4. 11 



Ezk28 13 " 1 7, also on Ex 25 is 32 *. When the 
Psalmist says that ' Jehovah rode upon a cherub 
and did fly,' he is obviously describing a 
thunderstorm with its swift storm-clouds ; and 
when he goes on to speak of the ' brightness 
before Him,' he suggests a connexion between 
the flaming sword of this v. and the lightning- 
flash. 

To keep the way of the tree of life] Man, it 
would appear, had not yet eaten of the tree of 
life, not having felt the need of it. But now, 
when his knowledge of evil has brought him 
the fear of death, and he has realised the value 
of this tree, he is prevented even from approach- 
ing it. The tree of life, however, though 
denied to man on this side the grave, will be 
found by those who overcome in the conflict 
with evil, in the midst of the Paradise of God 
(Rev 2 7 222). 

CHAPTER 4 

Cain and Abel. The Descendants of 
Cain 

The narrative, which forms part of the 
Primitive document, impressively shows how 
sin, having once appeared, became hereditary 
in the human race, and speedily developed 
into its most revolting form. Its details en- 
able us to see how jealousy, when indulged, 
leads to hatred and murder, and violates not 
only the ties of humanity but those of family 
affection ; how the sinner casts off all regard 
for the truth and for his natural obligations ; 
how progress in sin adds to the misery of 
man's lot ; and ' conscience doth make cowards 
of us all.' The truths taught are, that God 
looks on the hearts of His worshippers, 
seeks to restrain the sinner ere he yields to 
passion, marks the death of the innocent, and 
graciously mitigates His punishment when His 
mercy is sought. 

The story is but loosely attached to that of 
Paradise. It assumes that there is already a 
considerable population in the world, for no 
explanation is given whence Cain got his wife, 
or who were the people whose vengeance he 
feared. It presupposes the institution of 
sacrifice, of which nothing has been said pre- 
viously, and of blood revenge. Yarious solu- 
tions of these difficulties have been suggested, 
but scholars now generally suppose that the 
story occupied originally a later position 
among the traditions than that in which we 
find it, 

i. Adam] RV 'the man.' Cain] Heb. 
Kayin, l a spear,' in Arabic ' smith ' (see v. 22). 
Here connected with Kanah, ' gotten,' or 
' acquired.' The Hebrews attached a great 
importance to names, which were mostly re- 
garded as descriptive of some characteristic 
in the thing or person on whom they were 
bestowed. In the giving of a name, or in 



explaining one already given, strict regard was 
not paid to the actual derivation of the word. 
It was enough if the name resembled in any 
way a word which might be taken as applicable 
to the subject : cp. Abel, Noah (5 29 ), Babel 
(11 9 ), and the names of Jacob's sons in chs. 29, 
30. From the LORD] RV 'with the help 
of the Lord.' 

2. Abel] perhaps from the Assyrian ablu, 
' a son.' Here it may be connected with Heb. 
hebel, ' a breath,' a fitting name for one whose 
life was so brief : see on v. 1. 3. On the 
nature and origin of sacrifice see Intro, to 
Leviticus. 

4. And the LORD had respect, etc.] The 
characters of the brothers rather than their 
offerings are kept chiefly in view. Many 
passages show that the decisive reason why a 
worshipper is accepted or rejected lies in the 
disposition with which he draws nigh (cp. 1 S 
1522 Isa ln-17 Ps508-i5 Heb 11 4). The man- 
ner in which God's approval was declared 
is not mentioned, but see Jg6 2 i 1K18 38 
2Ch7i. Possibly the contrast between his 
toilsome life in tilling the soil and the easier 
existence of Abel, makes Cain envious. 

7. We may paraphrase thus, ' If thou doest 
well, is there not lifting up of the countenance, 
banishment of depression and gloom ? And 
if thou doest not well, Sin is at the door, 
crouching in readiness to spring on thee and 
make thee a prey, but thou must resist its 
promptings ' (EM ' Unto thee shall be its 
desire, but thou shouldest rule over it '). "What 
is suggested is that, if a sullen and jealous 
disposition is harboured, it will only require 
opportunity to tempt to malice and cruelty. 

8. And Cain told (RY) Abel] Heb. 'said 
unto.' LXX and other versions insert here 
' Let us go into the open country,' showing 
Cain's intention to murder. In his case the 
harboured jealousy tempted him not merely to 
take an opportunity of using violence, but to 
make one. 9. Cain sounds a much lower 
depth of depravity than his parents. Besides 
the guilt of murder, there is the impudent 
denial that he has harmed Abel, and the 
repudiation of responsibility for his safety. 

10. Crieth unto Me] The thought of great 
evils crying to God is frequently met with in 
Scripture : cp. 18 20 19 i3 . The ground, which 
has been unwillingly obliged to drink the 
blood of Abel, is represented as refusing to 
tolerate his murderer, or to make him an 
adequate return for his toil : cp. Jobl6i 8 
3138-40. i n Heb 12 24 the blood of Jesus, 
which appealed for men's pardon, is contrasted 
with that of Abel, which demanded retribution. 

11. The earth] RY ' fche ground.' Cain is 
banished from the ground which he had 
formerly tilled and had now polluted, to the 
wide world (v. 12), a sterner punishment 



11 



4. 14 



GENESIS 



5. 2 



than that of Adam and Eve. 14. From Thy 
face shall I be hid] Cain supposes that God's 
presence and protection are limited to his old 
home. Vagabond] RV ' wanderer.' Who- 
soever findeth me] See prefatory remarks. 

15. Sevenfold] Vengeance should be taken 
upon seven of the murderer's family : cp. 2S 
21 8 . Set a mark upon Cain] RV ' appointed 
a sign for Cain.' Perhaps it was some token 
to assure him of safety, like the rainbow at 
the Flood. Others take it that Cain was 
marked in some way to show that he was 
under God's protection. 16. Went out from 
the presence of the LORD] from the land he 
had before inhabited. See on v. 14. Nod] 
The word, which means 'wandering,' is by 
some regarded as merely a figurative expres- 
sion for a nomadic life, but Cain appears to 
have built a city there (v. 17). 

17-24. The descendants of Cain. In these 
vv. is traced the origin of the different forms 
of civilisation and culture. Their religious 
value lies in the fact that the inventions are 
attributed to men, whereas in heathen myth- 
ologies they were thought to be due to various 
deities. 

It will be observed that great similarity 
exists between the names of the descendants 
of Adam in this c. and those given in c. 5. 
The two accounts come from different docu- 
ments, and although the names differ somewhat 
in form and order, it is now generally supposed 
that they are merely two versions of the same 
traditional list of the Patriarchs before the 
Flood. The most important difference is that, 
whereas in c. 5 Seth and Enos are given as the 
son and grandson of Adam, and Cainan (whom 
we may identify with Cain) appears as the 
great-grandson, in the present c. Seth and 
Enos are put in a supplementary list (vv. 25, 
26) and Cain appears as Adam's son. If the 
list in c. 5 is correct and the Cain of this 
c. be identified with Cainan there, it is evident 
that there must have then existed a consider- 
able population of his tribe. And this is 
indeed presupposed in v. 14 where Cain ex- 
i Ins dread of Abel's avengers, and in 
v. 17 where he is said to have built a city. 

17. Builded a city] The 'city' of course 
would be a collection of huts surrounded by a 
defensive palisade. 19. The first mention 
of polygamy in the Bible. The custom of 
having more than one wile dots not Beem to 
have been uncommon among the Hebrews, 
and we find Legislation on the subject in Dt 

•Jl'" i: ; but the divine intention was that a 
man should have bul one wife: op. 2 M Mt 11' '. 

20. The father] i.e. 'originator'; the first 
to had a pastoral life. 21. Organ] RV 
'pipe.' 

22. Tubal-cain] i.e. 'Tubal the smith' : see 
on 4 l . An instructer of every artificer in] R V 



' the forger of every cutting instrument of.' 
Brass] rather, ' copper ' (RM), or bronze. 

23. I have slain, etc.] RM ' I will slay a 
man for wounding me, and a young man for 
bruising me.' On this rendering it would 
seem that Lamech, rejoicing, perhaps, in his 
son's invention of weapons, boasts that he 
would be able to amply repay any one who 
injured him. The words of Lamech are 
metrical and are the first instance of poetry in 
the Bible. Hebrew poetry does not depend 
on rhythm as with us, but in parallelism of 
ideas in each couplet, as may be traced in this 
instance ; see Intro, to Psalms. 24. See 
v. 15 and note. 25, 26. A supplementary 
note mentioning the birth of Seth and Enos : 
see on v. 17. Seth] 'appointed' or 'substi- 
tuted.' Enos] ' man.' 

26. Then began men to call upon the name 
of the LORD] The Primitive or Jehovistic 
document uses Jehovah as the name of the 
God of Israel from the first ; but the Priestly 
document speaks of the name being first 
revealed to Moses. See Ex 3 14 6 2 . What is 
here suggested is, either that Enos worshipped 
God as Jehovah (reading ' he began to call '), 
or that in his day men began to worship 
Jehovah by public invocation and sacrifice. 

CHAPTER 5 
The Descendants of Adam to Noah 

The purpose of the historian in giving the 
names and ages of the antediluvian Patriarchs 
was, no doubt, to show the glorious ancestry 
of the chosen race, and to account for the 
period between the Creation and the Flood. 
This, according to the Hebrews, was 1656 
years. (See on 10 32 .) Various attempts have 
been made to explain the great ages attributed 
to these Patriarchs, but they are purely con- 
jectural, and the view now generally held is 
that the Hebrews, like all other ancient 
nations, had a tradition that the forefathers of 
the race were vastly longer lived than their 
descendants. The golden age of the Hebrew 
lay in the past ; and he attributed in pre- 
eminent degree to his ancestors in these far-off 
days the blessing he valued most of all — length 
of days upon the earth. 

The similarity of the lists of names in chs. 
4 and 5 has been discussed in a note on 4 17 . 
C. 5 continues the narrative of the Priestly 
document which we met with in 1 ] -2 la . as 
appears from (a) the recurrence of l 27 »- s in 
vv. 1, 2, (b) the phrase 'the generations of 
characteristic of P (see on 2 4a ), (c) the divine 
name God, and (d) the formal statistical style 
of the chapter. 

1. The generations of Adam] i.e. the 
genealogy of Adam's descendants, cp. 2 4 and 
note. 2. Called their name Adam] This 



12 



5. 3 



GENESIS 



6.5 



shows that the word 'Adam' was originally 
applied to the race, and was not a proper 
name. In the previous v. it is so used for 
the first time in the Priestly narrative. 

3. His own likeness] as he himself was 
created in the likeness of G-od. 

21-24. Enoch] the one figure which breaks 
the formality of this c. His conduct is men- 
tioned in a way which implies that the majority 
of men lived differently. In all his actions he 
recognised the duty which he owed to God ; 
from none of his thoughts was God absent ; 
he lived in communion with Him. The mean- 
ing of the expression He was not ; for God 
took him, is, no doubt, correctly given by the 
writer of Hebll, as that Enoch never died, 
but was translated to heaven, like Elijah, as a 
reward for the holiness of his life. In Jewish 
tradition Enoch's walking with God was taken 
to mean initiation into the mysteries of the 
universe, and the secrets of the past and future. 
A whole circle of apocalyptic literature was 
ascribed to him in the post-exilic days, which is 
embodied in the so-called book of Enoch. 
This book is quoted in Jude 14 as the work of 
1 Enoch the seventh from Adam.' 23. The 
days of Enoch] It is noteworthy that the life 
of Enoch is the shortest mentioned in this c. 

29. Noah] here connected with uahem, ' to 
comfort.' The name is really derived from 
nuah, ' to rest.' The comfort may refer to the 
invention of wine, which is attributed to Noah 
in 9 20-27 , a passage perhaps from the same 
source as the present one. 

CHAPTER 6i-4 

The Sons of God and the Daughters 
oe Men 

1-4. This fragment seems to have been 
placed here as an instance of the wickedness 
which necessitated the Flood. Stories of 
unions between deities and the women of 
earth, which resulted in gigantic and corrupt 
races, were common to many nations of an- 
tiquity ; and it is now generally held that we 
have here traces of a similar tradition among 
the Hebrews, which had survived to the writer's 
day. But though the passage retains signs of 
these primitive ideas, it is free from the 
polytheistic and impure features which are 
found in the pages of heathen mythology. 
Probably such passages as 2 Pet 2 4 Jude 6 f., 
which speak of the fall of the angels, are based 
on these verses. 

2. The sons of God] This expression occurs 
in other passages, e.g. Jobl 6 38 7 Dan3 25 RV, 
where it is evident that the angels are meant, 
and this seems the only possible explanation 
here. It used to be supposed that the ' sons of 
God' meant the Sethites, who became corrupted 
by marriage with the Cainites. But the phrase 



is nowhere else used to describe them, and, as 
Bishop Byle remarks, ' the popular assumption 
that Cain's descendants were pre-eminently 
wicked has no foundation either in c. 4 or c. 
6.' Nor could such unions have produced the 
race of giants mentioned in v. 4. The religious 
idea suggested is that the wickedness that pre- 
vailed was too great to be entirely of mere 
human origin. 3. The general meaning is 
that God now sets a limit (an hundred and 
twenty years) to human life, which up to this 
time had been indefinitely long. My spirit] 
refers to the spirit of life with which the fleshly 
nature of man had been endowed. It will not 
sustain man for ever (RV) in this world. 

4. There were giants] RV ' the Nephilim 
were.' The Nephilim, a race of giants, famous 
in popular legend, are represented as being men 
of renown at the same time as these angels 
formed unions with the daughters of men. 
They are alluded to by the spies (Nul3 33 RV) 
as ancestors of the giant races of Canaan : and 
this is probably what is referred to by the 
words and also after that. 

CHAPTERS 6 5 -9i? 
The Flood 

This narrative records the judgment of God 
upon the sinful forefathers of mankind, and 
His preservation of a righteous family, in whom 
the divine purposes for men might be carried 
out. The spiritual teaching of Noah's deliver- 
ance has always been recognised by Christians, 
who see in the ark a symbol of the Church 
into which they are admitted by baptism, God 
thereby graciously providing for their deliver- 
ance from the wrath and destruction due to 
sin. The story of the Flood was fittingly used 
by our Lord and the NT. writers to convey 
lessons of judgment (Mt24 3 < Lkl7 26 2 Pet 
3 5-,r ), righteousness (2 Pet 2 5 ), repentance (1 Pet 
3 20 ), and faith (Hebll 7). 

No section of these early chs. of Genesis has 
excited more interest than the account of this 
terrible catastrophe. Traditions of a great 
primeval deluge, similar to the one here re- 
corded, exist in the annals of many nations 
besides the Hebrews. Of these the Babylonian 
Flood story is the most closely allied to the 
Bible narrative. Josephus and Eusebius both 
preserve fragments of a history of Chaldea 
which was written by Berosus, a priest of 
Babylon 250 B.C., and which he had gathered 
from the archives of the temple of Bel at 
Babylon. Among these fragments is a record 
of the Flood story as it occurred in his country. 
Two thousand years later, in 1872, Mr. G. 
Smith of the British Museum discovered frag- 
ments of a tablet of baked clay at Nineveh, 
inscribed in the cuneiform character, and of 
greater antiquity than the chronicle of Berosus, 



13 



6. 5 



GENESIS 



6.5 



which strikingly confirm the latter's account 
of the Flood. As is well known, the Hebrews 
and Babylonians belonged to the same Semitic 
stock, and the ancestors of the Hebrew race 
came from Babylonia. A comparison of the 
biblical and Babylonian stories shows clearly 
that they are two versions of the same nar- 
rative, although great differences exist in the 
religious standpoint. See art. ' Genesis and the 
Babylonian Inscriptions.' 

The question has been discussed whether 
the Flood was limited in its extent to the early 
home of man and the birth-place of the tradi- 
tion, viz. Central Asia, or whether it was 
world-wide. Various scientific objections to 
a universal immersion of the earth have been 
brought forward, such as its inconsistency 
with the existing distribution of animals, the 
impossibility of the different species of animals 
finding accommodation in the ark, the want of 
sufficient moisture in our world, either in the 
form of vapour or in that of water, to cover 
the highest mountains, and the disturbance to 
the solar system which Avould have been caused 
by the sudden creation of the amount required. 
In considering these objections, we must re- 
member that the impression of a general 
divine judgment would be quite adequately 
produced by the submergence of the com- 
paratively small district inhabited at the time 
by man ; also, that the preservation of the 
record could only be due to the survivors, 
whose ideas of the extent of the catastrophe 
were drawn from their personal experiences, 
and the limited geographical knowledge of 
the time. In this way the statements of 6 17 
and 7 4 ' 21 ' 23 may be satisfactorily accounted 
for. L The language relating to the catastrophe 
is that of an ancient legend, describing a pre- 
historic event. It must be judged as such. 
Allowance must be made, both for the ex- 
aggeration of poetical description and for the 
influence of oral traditions during generations, 
if not centuries, before the beginnings of 
Hebrew Literature 1 (Bishop Ryle). We need 
not hesitate, therefore, to accept the opinion 
now generally held thai the Flood was only 
local in its extent. 

The scene of the Flood is indicated by the 
traditions. Both mention the mountainous 
range on the borders of Armenia. .Mesopo- 
tamia and Kurdistan as the region where the 

ark rested. The Babylonian account also 
places the building of the ' ship ' at Shnrippak, 

a city on the Euphrates. This district was 

the original horns of both Bebrewsand Baby- 
lonians: and it i-> reasonable to conclude thai 

the two account- preserve the tradition of I 
calamitous occurrence in the early annals of 
their race, which 1< ft a lasting impression 
upon the two peoples, and which they both 
regarded as a divine visitation. 



A word must be added regarding the natural 
phenomena which occasioned the catastrophe. 
The chief cause may have been, in addition 
to excessive rains, an earthquake which drove 
the waters of the Persian Gulf over the low- 
lying plains of Babylonia, turning them into 
an inland sea. Something of this kind is sug- 
gested in 7 11 . The same agency may have 
driven the ark towards the mountains. Such 
upheavals of ocean beds, or subsidences of 
the earth, resulting in a disastrous inrush of 
the ocean, have occurred in modern times. 
In 1819, in a district known as the Runn of 
Cutch in India, 2,000 sq. m. of land were 
turned into an inland sea, owing to sudden 
depression of land followed by an earthquake. 

The whole story emphasises the righteous- 
ness of God, who is ' of purer eyes than to 
behold iniquity,' His stern punishment of sin, 
and His abundant mercy towards them that 
fear Him. 

The narrative of the Flood affords an illus- 
tration of the composite character of Genesis. 
Many difficulties in the story are removed if 
we assume that the narrator made use of two 
distinct traditions. To the Priestly document 
may be assigned 6 9 " 22 7 6 > 1 i,i3-i6a,i8-2i,24 
8 12a, 3b, i3a, H-19 91-17. This furnishes the 
groundwork of the story; the vv. assigned to 
the Primitive document are 7 !- 5 > W 12 > 16b > 17 > 22,23 
8 2b, 3a, 6-12, 18b, 20-22. I n 77-10 the Primitive ac- 
count has been modified by the introduction 
of some expressions from the Priestly narra- 
tive. The following are the chief points in 
which the two versions of the Flood story 
differ from each other. According to the 
Priestly narrative only one pair of every kind 
of creature is preserved in the ark; the cause 
of the deluge is the opening of the fountains 
of the great deep as well as of the windows 
of heaven; the waters prevail for an hundred 
and fifty days; it is five months after the be- 
ginning of the Flood when the ark rests on 
the mountains of Ararat; more than two 
months still pass before the mountain tops are 
visible; other two months elapse before the 
waters disappear; and almost two months 
more before the ground is perfectly dry; 
God's promise is. that He will not again 
destroy the earth with a Flood. According 
to the Primitive document, seven pairs of all 
clean beasts and fowls, and one pair of all 
unclean animals, are taken into the ark; the 
Flood is caused simply by a prolonged rain 
which lasts for forty days and nights; forty 
days after the rain ceases, Noah sends forth a 
raven and a dove; seven days later, the dove 
is scut out a second time, and again after other 
seven days; the ground is then dry; God 
promises to curse the ground no more, and to 
maintain the fixed order of all natural seasons. 
God's covenant with Noah is peculiar to the 



1 ! 



6. 6 



GENESIS 



9. 9 



former, and Noah's sacrifice to the latter 
account. 

6. It repented the LORD] The writer, as in 
c. 3, interprets God's acts from man's point of 
view, and explains them on the analogy of 
human motives. See on ll 5 . 9. Perfect] 

i.e. 'upright,' a man of integrity. 13. With 
the earth] rather, k from the earth.' 

14-16. The Hebrew word for ark means a 
1 vessel,' that which contains anything. It 
was shaped like a chest, with a flat bottom 
and a roof. If the cubit measured 18 in., 
the ark was 450 ft. long, 75 ft. broad, and 
45 ft. in depth; and therefore smaller than 
many modern steamships. It had three decks, 
and was divided into compartments. It was 
built of gopher wood, which was probably the 
cypress; and was coated with pitch. The win- 
dow of v. 16 (RY 'light,' KM 'roof') was 
probably an open space for light and air left all 
round the ark, just under the roof, which was 
supported at intervals by posts. 16. In a 

cubit, etc. ] R Y ' to a cubit shalt thou finish it 
upward,' i.e. a space of 18 in. was to be left. 

18. My covenant] see on 9 9 . 

19. Every living - thing of all flesh] This 
comprehensive command is limited in the 
Primitive narrative (7 2 ) to clean animals (such 
as sheep, oxen, and goats), and to beasts that 
are not clean (which by analogy means do- 
mestic animals, such as camels, asses, horses, 
etc.), and fowls. The inclusion of all living 
animals in the ark is the explanation which 
the tradition had to give, to account for a 
fact, otherwise inexplicable on its theory of a 
universal flood; namely, the presence in the 
world of so many different species of animals 
after such a destructive event. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Flood (continued) 

2. By sevens] RY 'seven and seven,' or 
seven pairs. The clean animals might be 
used for food, and would also be required for 
sacrifice. Observe that in 6 19 this distinction 
between clean and unclean is "not noticed, 
and that there also the animals are chosen in 
single pairs, ' two of every sort.' Lists of 
' clean ' and ' unclean ' animals are given in 
Lv 11. 

11. The second month] The year is here 
supposed to begin in autumn (cp. Ex34 22 ), so 
that the second month would be Marchesvan 
(middle of Oct. to middle of Nov.). That 
was about the beginning of the rainy season 
in Palestine. The great deep] See on the 
ancient Semitic conception of the world, 1 6 . 
Evidently some vast inrush of water is in- 
tended, beyond heavy rains. 16. Sit-napisti 
says, ' I entered into the midst of the ship 
and shut my door.' In our narrative Provi- 



dence is nearer at hand, The LORD shut him 
in. 20. Fifteen cubits upward] The waters 
are supposed to be 15 cubits higher than the 
loftiest mountains. The ark is conceived as 
immersed up to 15 cubits; so that whenever 
the waters decreased, the ark grounded on a 
mountain-top (8 4 ). 

CHAPTER 8 
The Flood (continued) 

4. The mountains of Ararat] Ararat is 
the Assyrian ' Urardhu,' the country round 
Lake Yan, in what is now called Armenia; 
but the word also signifies ' highlands,' and 
perhaps it is a general expression for the hilly 
country which lay to the N. of Assyria. Mt. 
Masis, now called Mt. Ararat (a peak 17,000 
ft. high), is not meant here. 11. The olive 
leaf indicated that the tree was above water, 
and as the olive does not grow at a great 
elevation, the inference was that the waters 
had greatly abated. 

21. The LORD smelled a sweet savour] 
A common expression for the favourable ac- 
ceptance of an offering, cp. Lv 19,13,17, 

I will not again curse, etc.] An acknowledg- 
ment of man's innate propensity to evil. If 
wicked thoughts, desires, and actions were 
always to be followed by the judgments they 
merit, disaster would never be far off (Isa 1 5 ). 

22. Practically there are but two seasons in 
the land where this was written : one may be 
called Seed-time, Cold, Winter (middle of 
Sept. to middle of March) ; the other, Harvest, 
Heat, Summer (the rest of the year). 

CHAPTER 9 

The Divine Blessing and Covenant. 
Noah and the Yine. The Curse of Canaan 

1-7. The primeval benediction of man 
(l 28 ) is now repeated and enlarged. Animal 
food is allowed (cp. 1 29 ), but blood is forbidden. 
The blood makes the life manifest, as it were, 
to our senses, and the life belongs to God, and 
must, therefore, be offered to Him. 

5, 6. The ground of the sacredness of human 
life here is the existence of the divine image 
in man. It is not conceived as being wholly 
destroyed by sin. 

9. My covenant] This word occurs some two 
hundred times in the OT., and the idea lies at 
the root of the whole conception of law among 
the Jews. Covenants, as made between men, 
form the beginnings of civilised government : 
cp. 26 26 31 44, etc. The word is also used of 
the relation of God to man ; of His justice, 
His unchangeable nature, and His protecting 
power, on the one side, and the corresponding 
duties devolving upon man, especially as em- 
bodied in the law of Moses, on the other. A 
series of covenants (with Abraham and his 



15 



9. 13 



GENESIS 



10.« 



successors, with Israel in the wilderness, with 
David) runs through OT. history. The par- 
ticular idea in the covenant with Noah is that 
of the uniform working of God in Nature 
(cp. 8 22 ), and of His loving care for His crea- 
tion. On these two ideas are based all physical 
science, which could not exist if there were no 
laws of nature, and all religion, which other- 
wise would become mere superstitious dread of 
unseen powers. Jeremiah (3 1 31 ' 34 ) speaks of 
a new covenant which is to take the place of 
the covenant of the exodus. The New Testa- 
ment claims that this new covenant has been 
introduced by Christ (Lk2220 l Cor 11 25 
2 Cor 3 6 Heb 8). Hence the two divisions of 
the Scriptures are properly not ' Testaments ' 
but ' Covenants.' 

13-17. We are not to understand that the 
bow was now first created. From the begin- 
ning a rainbow would be formed, whenever 
the sunshine and the rain met together. But 
it was now designated to be the token of God's 
gracious promise, and its use for this purpose 
is in harmony with the feelings which it 
naturally excites. The rain-storm is on us, 
but the sun is in the skies : the dark back- 
ground brings out the glorious arc of colour. 
Man need not yield wholly to depression, for 
he knows that the clouds will pass. Hindoo 
mythology calls the rainbow Indra's war-bow, 
laid aside by him after he had vanquished the 
demons. Scandinavian legend speaks of it as 
a bridge built by the gods to join heaven and 
earth. It is also alluded to in the Babylonian 
narrative of the Flood. 

18-27. Noah and the Vine. The curse of 
Canaan. 

The purpose of the passage is (1) to explain 
by a story the origin of the cultivation of the 
fine, and (2) to set forth the moral and re- 
ligious position of Israel among the other 
nations of the world. On the ground of the 
mention of Canaan instead of Ham in vv. 25, 
27, it has been suggested, with some probability, 
that in the Primitive document the sons of Noah 
were originally Shem, Japheth and Canaan, 
and that the explanations in vv. 18, 22 (Ham 
the father of Canaan) were introduced to 
harmonise the Btory with the Priestly docu- 
ment, which speaks of Shem, Ham and 
Japheth. 

18, 19. These vv. are a link, inserted to 

conned the incidenl with the account of the 
Flood, 20. Noah is represented as the first 

Cultivator of the rine. 21. Noah's intoxi- 

cation was not due to deliberate excess, but 
was big practical diacoveryof the properties of 
wine. The Btory therefore contains nothing 
inconsistenl with the character already ascribed 
to him. 25. Canaan represents the nations 
of Palestine subdued by [srael. The justifica- 
tion of the conquest lav in the impure character 



of their worship, which was foreshadowed in 
the immodest conduct of their ancestor. 

26. The Lord God of Shem] EV 'the 
Lord (Jehovah), the God of Shem.' Shem 
was the ancestor of Israel, and these words 
assert Israel's unique position and calling, as 
the chosen people of the true God. Canaan 
shall be] RY ' let Canaan be ' : so in v. 27. 

27. God shall enlarge] RY ' God enlarge 
Japheth.' Japheth represents the remaining 
peoples of the world. They have a share in 
God's favour, even though they do not know 
Him in His true character as Jehovah. He 
shall dwell] RY ' let him dwell,' in friendly alli- 
ance. We may see in the words a forecast of 
the days when the descendants of Japheth 
should come to worship the Lord God of 
Shem : cp. Isa60 3 > 5 . 

CHAPTER 10 

The Nations descended from Noah 

This section gives the origins and situations 
of the nations of the world, as their relation- 
ships were conceived by the early Hebrews. 
Before passing to the history of the chosen 
race, the author traces the ties by which the 
rest of mankind are united with his own people, 
and shows the position of Israel among the 
nations. Each nation is regarded as a unity, 
and is summed up in the person of its sup- 
posed ancestor. The nations being treated as 
individuals, it follows that their mutual rela- 
tions are put in terms borrowed from family 
life ; Gomer is the ' son ' of Japheth, and so 
on. But this relationship is not to be under- 
stood literally. The names are in many cases 
plainly national (the Jebusite, the Canaanite, 
etc.). Others are well-known names of coun- 
tries (Mizraim or Egypt, Asshur, etc.) ; and 
nearly all appear elsewhere in OT. in a 
geographical sense (see especially Ezk 27 and 
38 1-13 ). We may therefore consider that the 
arrangement is determined chiefly by geograph- 
ical considerations, nations in proximity to 
each other being regarded as related. Thus 
the races assigned to Japheth (vv. 2-5) are 
all in the N., those to Ham in the S. (vv. 
G-20), whilst Shem's descendants (vv. 21-31) 
are in the centre. These come last because it 
is this line which is followed out in the sequel. 
The classification of the nations is a rough and 
approximate one, made in far distant days 
when the science of ethnology was unknown. 
The limitations of the Hebrew author's know- 
ledge of the extent of the world are also appa- 
rent. The nations mentioned are mainly those 
which were grouped round the Mediterranean 
Sea. and are generally known as Caucasian, no 
reference being made to Negro, Mongolian or 
Indian races. But it may be truly said that 
the list upon the whole proves itself to be an 



16 



10. c z 



GENESIS 



10. 15 



excellent historico-geographical monument of 
an age from which we no longer have other 
comprehensive sources of information. While 
the groundwork of the section is from the 
Priestly document, this has been combined 
with extracts from the Primitive document 
(1Q8-19, 21, 24-30) 5 w hich do not perfectly har- 
monise with it. Thus Sheba (10 28 ) and Hav- 
ilah (10 29 ) are descendants of Shem, while 
in 10 7 they are Cushites, descended from 
Ham. The identification of the following 
names is uncertain : Abimael, Almodad, 
Anamim, Casluhim, Diklah. Gether, Hadoram, 
Hul, Jerah, Lud, Ludim, Mash, Obal, Resen, 
Sabtechah, Salah. The notes on the names 
follow the groupings of the text. 

2-5. The sons of Japheth. These are 
nations mostly N. or W. of Palestine. 

Gomer] the Cimmerians, near the Crimea. 
Ashkenaz] perhaps, Phrygia. Riphath] per- 
haps, Paphlagonia on S. borders of the Black Sea. 
Togarmah] Armenia. Magog] supposed 

to be Scythians, cp. Ezk 38 2 , where they are 
associated with Gomer. Madai] the Medes. 

Javan] Ionian Greece. Elishah] some coast 
or island in the Greek seas (Ezk 27 7 ) : Crete, 
Cyprus, and Greece (Hellas) have been sug- 
gested. Tarshish] Though of ten mentioned 
in OT., the identity is quite uncertain. Sug- 
gestions are either Tarsus in Cilicia, Tartessus 
in S. Spain, or the Etruscans of Italy. Kittim] 
Citium, the modern Larnaca in Cyprus. Do- 
danim] (in 1 Ch 1 7 Rodanim) Rhodes. Tubal] 
the Tibareni ; Meshech] the Moschi, both SE. 
of the Black Sea. Tiras] uncertain. Per- 
haps the Turusha, a seafaring people men- 
tioned in Egyptian inscriptions, or the Tyrseni, 
a people dwelling on the shores of the iEgean 
Sea. 

5. It is likely that this v. in its complete 
form ran : ' Of these were the coasts and 
islands of the peoples divided. These are the 
sons of Japheth, in their lands, each according 
to his language, after their families, in their 
peoples.' Cp. vv. 20, 31. 

6, 7, 13-19. The sons of Ham. 

6. Ham] a name for Egypt. The 'sons of 
Ham ' means the nations connected with Egypt 
geographically or politically. They were all 
S. of Palestine. Cush] Ethiopia or Nubia, 
S. of Egypt. Phut] probably the 'Punt' of 
Egyptian inscriptions, on the E. African coast. 

7. Seba . . Havilah . . Sabtah . . Raamah . . 
Sheba . . Dedan . . ] all countries bordering on 
the African or Arabian coasts of the Red Sea. 

8-12. This paragraph interrupts the con- 
nexion. Before and after it are simple geneal- 
ogies. The Cush of v. 8 is thought to be dis- 
tinct from the African Cush of v. 7, and to 
stand for the Kashshu or Cossagi, who were 
the dominating power in Babylonia between 
the 16th and 13th centuries B.C. 



8. Begat] was the progenitor of. 

Nimrod] the one personal figure of the 
chapter. Here his name is proverbial as that 
of a. mighty hunter (v. 9). He founds both 
Babylonian and Assyrian civilisation (vv. 10- 
12). There is no trace of Nimrod as an his- 
torical character on the monuments, and it has 
been suggested that the name (as if from 
marad, ' to rebel ') was a deliberate mutilation 
and corruption of that of Merodach, the god 
of Babylon, made by one who wished to deny 
his divine character. If this was the case, the 
heathen deity who caught Tiamat in his net 
has been transformed in the Bible story into 
a mere human huntsman, a creature of the true 
God (cp. before Jehovah, v. 9), and the ancient 
cities that boasted of their divine origin are 
traced to a human founder. 10. Babel] 

Babylon. Erech] Warka, on the left bank 

of the Euphrates. Accad] the ancient name 
of N. Babylonia ; also a city, the capital of 
Sargon I, the earliest historical ruler of all 
Babylonia. Calneh] probably the same as 
Nippur, the modern Niffer, recently excavated 
by the Pennsylvanian expedition. Shinar] 
an ancient name for S. Babylonia. 

11. Out of that land went forth Asshur] RY 
' out of that land he (Nimrod) went forth into 
Assyria.' This v. correctly indicates that 
Assyria owed its civilisation to Babylonia : it 
was also politically dependent until the 10th 
cent. B.C. Nineveh] the modern Kouyunjik 

on the Tigris, the ancient capital of Assyria. 
Its ruins have been excavated in recent years, 
and numbers of tablets, inscriptions, and carv- 
ings collected from its palaces. The city 
Rehoboth] RY ' Rehoboth-ir ' (' broad spaces 
of the city ') : probably a suburb of Nineveh. 
Calah] the modern Nimrud, 20 m. S. from 
Kouyunjik. Resen] not known. 

The same is the (RY) great city] i.e. 
Nineveh and the other three together formed 
the ' great city.' 

13, 14. The descendants of Mizraim. 

Mizraim] the Hebrew name for Egypt. 
The plural form is supposed to indicate Upper 
and Lower Egypt. Lehabim] Libya, W. 

of Egypt. Naphtuhim] perhaps N. of 
Lower Egypt. Pathrusim] S. or Upper 

Egypt. The clause ' Whence went forth the 
Philistines ' (RY) should be placed after 
Caphtorim, or people of Crete, with whom the 
Philistines are elsewhere said to be connected 
(Jer47 4 Am9 7 ). They settled on the SW. 
coast of Canaan, and gave the name Palestine 
to the country. 

15-19. Canaan] Phoenicia and Palestine. 
The Canaanites were a Semitic race, speaking 
a language near akin to Hebrew. They are 
here assigned to Ham, perhaps contemptuously, 
or possibly because Palestine was a province 
of Egypt previous to the exodus. Sidon] 



17 



10. 19 



GENESIS 



11. 4 



the Phoenician seaport. Heth] The Hittites 
are now well known from Egyptian and 
Assyrian inscriptions to have been a powerful 
nation to the N. of Palestine, with Carchemish 
on the Euphrates and Kadesh on the Orontes 
as their chief cities. An offshoot of the nation 
is found at Hebron : cp. Gn233 25 10 . The 
Jebusite] the tribe in and around Jerusalem : 
cp. Josh 1 5 8 > 63 2 S 5 6 " 9 . The Amorite] one 
of the most powerful Palestinian tribes. In 
Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions they are 
called the Amurru, and "Amorite" seems to 
have been a general term for the old inhabit- 
ants of Canaan : see on 12 5 . According to 
Nu 13 29 they dwelt chiefly in the mountainous 
districts. Sihon and Og were Amorite kings. 
The Girgashite] perhaps connected with 
Gergesa, near the Sea of Galilee. The 
Hivite] a petty tribe of Central Palestine. 
The Arkite] the tribe connected with the 
Phoenician city of Arka, 12 m. N. of Tri- 
polis. The Sinite] probably connected with 
a city called Sin, near Lebanon. The Arvad- 
ite] Arvad was a city built on an island off 
the Phoenician coast (now Ruwad). The 
Zemarite] Sinsyra, S. of Arvad. The Ha- 
mathite] Hamath was a city on the Orontes. 
The i entering in of Hamath ' was the 
northern limit of Palestine. Most of these 
tribes were afterwards driven out by the con- 
quering Israelites. 19. The border of the 
Canaanite] from Zidon in the north, to Gaza, 
a Philistine city in the direction of Gerar. 
The other cities mentioned in v. 19 were 
probably, but not certainly, at the S. end 
of the Dead Sea. 

21-31. The sons of Shem. The nations 
connected racially or geographically with the 
Hebrews. 

Shem also, the father of all the children of 
Eber] Attention is thus called to Shem as the 
ancestor of the Hebrews (' children of Eber '). 
The Amarna tablets speak of a tribe called 
the Habiri invading Canaan in the days of 
Joshua, and many scholars identify them with 
the Hebrews. The brother of Japheth the 
elder] RV ' the elder brother of Japheth.' 
This is mentioned to show that though Shem 
is put last, be was not the youngest. 

22. Elam] NE. of Babylonia. Its capital 
was Bnsa. Asshur] Assyria. Arphaxad] 
U V ' Arpachshad': uncertain. Some connect 
it with the Kasdiin or Chaldeans who lived on 
the Persian Gulf and became rulers of Baby- 
lonia. Lud] uncertain, possibly Lydia in 
Asia Minor. Aram] Syria, NE. of Pales- 
tine. Damascus was a Syrian kingdom. The 
Jews in Inter tunes spoke Aramaic. 

23. Uz] probably near Bdom, see Jobl '. 
25. Peleg] 'divided. 1 In his days was 

the earth divided] alluding perhaps to the 
dispersion of man described in c. 11. 



26-30. The sons of Joktan represent various 
Arabian tribes. 

Hazarmaveth] Hadramaut in S. Arabia. 
Uzal] the capital of Yemen. Sheba and 
Havilah] See prefatory remark and on v. 7. 
Ophir] a famous region, the locality of which 
is still in dispute. Some place it in E. Africa 
in Mashonaland, where remarkable remains of 
ancient mining works have been found, some 
in India, and some in S. Arabia. Mesha] 
NE. Arabia. Sephar] SW. Arabia. Unto 
Sephar, etc.] RM ' toward Sephar, the hill 
country of the East.' 

CHAPTER 11 

The Tower of Babel. The Descendants 
or Shem to Abraham 

We have here the ancient Hebrew explana- 
tion of the diversity of human language, and 
of the wide dispersion of the human race. 
Babylon is represented as the original centre 
of human civilisation after the Flood. The 
splendid buildings of Babylonia were among 
the most remarkable achievements of human 
power and pride. But they were repugnant 
to the Jews as being associated with idolatry, 
and their erection is here regarded as rebellion 
against Jehovah, who confounds the language 
of the builders, and brings about their dis- 
persion. ' The story emphasises the supremacy 
of the One God over all the inhabitants of the 
world, and ascribes to His wisdom that dis- 
tribution into languages and nations which 
secured the dissemination of mankind . . and 
provided for the dispersion of civilising influ- 
ences into different quarters of the globe. 
Above all, it teaches that rebellion against 
God is the original source of discord. The 
gift of Pentecost, as the Fathers saw, is the 
converse of the story of the Tower of Babel. 
The true unity of the race, made known in 
Christ (cp. Col 3 n ) is confirmed by the utter- 
ance of the Spirit which is heard by all alike. 
The believer "journeys" not away from God's 
presence, but draws nigh to Him by faith ' 
(Bishop Ryle). The narrative is from the 
Primitive source. 

1. It used to be conjectured that Hebrew 
was the primitive language of mankind, but it 
is now known that that language is only one 
branch, and that not the oldest, of the Semitic 
group of languages including Assyrian. Ara- 
maic. Phoenician and Arabic. 2. From the 
east] RM ' in the east.' The writer is in 
Palestine. Shinar] S. Babylonia. 

3. Brick . . slime (RM ' bitumen ')] These 
were the regular materials of ancient Baby- 
lonian architecture, as the remains of the 
oldest cities still show. There was no stone 
available in these alluvial plains. 

4. A city and a tower] The principal 



is 



11. 5 



GENESIS 



11. 32 



building in every ancient city was its temple, 
and the chief feature of a Babylonian temple 
was its ziggurat or stage-tower. The remains 
of these towers are the most prominent of the 
mounds which mark the sites of ruined cities. 
The pile of vitrified brick near Babylon, 
known as Birs Nimrud, is the best known 
example of such a ziggurat, and early travellers 
supposed it to be the biblical Tower of Babel. 
The most famous temple-tower, however, and 
the one which probably gave rise to the tradi- 
tion here, was that of E-Sagila, the temple of 
Bel in Babylon, built of brick in seven stages, 
the topmost of which formed a shrine for the 
god. It was of extreme antiquity, and was 
restored and beautified by Nebuchadnezzar. 

Whose top may reach unto heaven] cp. 
Dt 1 28 . The expression ' Whose top is in the 
heavens ' has been found on inscriptions con- 
cerning these storied towers, but it seems as if 
the writer regarded the enterprise as an impious 
attempt to scale heaven. Let us make us a 
name, etc.] The tower was meant to procure re- 
nown for its builders, and to serve as a centre 
and bond of unity, so that none would think of 
leaving it. The writer seems to indicate the 
intention of establishing a universal empire. 

5. The LORD came down, etc.] The words 
are meant to teach that God is concerned in 
men's doings. But ' it is not to be thought 
from such modes of expression that human 
characteristics are intended to be ascribed to 
the Creator. In any age it is necessary to 
describe the unknown by the help of the 
known ; and as the mysterious personality of 
God must ever be incomprehensible to men, 
there is no means in which we can represent 
His relations to us, except by using words 
borrowed from our own faculties, emotions, 
and modes of action ' (Geikie). 6, 7. God 
is here represented as dreading lest men make 
themselves so powerful as to become His 
opponents. The v. is a good example of the 
anthropomorphism characteristic of the Primi- 
tive document. 

7. Us] God is conceived as taking counsel 
with the angels His attendants : cp. 3 22 . 

9. Babel] as if from balal, ' to confound.' 
The true etymology, however, is Bab-ilu, 
'gate of God.' See on 4 1 . 

10-32. The descendants of Shem to Abra- 
ham. 

The formal list here is the continuation of 
that in c. 5, and both belong to the Priestly 
document. The early period of the world's 
history from the Creation to Abraham is thus 
represented in the form of a genealogical 
table. The figures given here cannot be 
regarded as literally historical. Only 300 
years are reckoned to have elapsed between 
the Flood and the birth of Abraham (say 
2200 B.C.), whereas the bsginnings of Baby- 



lonian civilisation can be traced back to 5000 
B.C. As in c. 5, the number of generations is 
ten, a number which is common in the lists of 
other ancient nations. It may have been sug- 
gested by the ten fingers, as indicating com- 
pleteness. We may therefore regard the 
present list as a conventional arrangement for 
bridging over the interval between the Flood 
and the beginnings of the Hebrew race, based 
on ancient tradition. It will be observed 
that the ages assigned to the Patriarchs enu- 
merated in this c. are much lower than those 
in c. 5. There is a continuous reduction from 
the 600 years of Shem to the 138 of Nahor. 
The names of the generations from Shem to 
Eber have already been given in 10 22 ' 25 , and 
the latter's Arabian descendants in the line of 
Joktan were there traced. Now (vv. 18-26) 
his successors in another line are followed, until 
the point of supreme interest is reached in the 
Birth of Abraham. 

14. Eber] the ancestor of the Hebrews. 
See on 14 13 . 26. For the meaning of Abram 
and Sarai (v. 29) see on c. 17. 27. Haran] 
son of Terah. The Jewish Book of Jubilees 
declares that he was burnt to death, whilst 
attempting to save some of the images of the 
gods, when Abraham burnt the house in which 
they were. 

31. Ur of the Chaldees] or ' Ur Kasdim.' 
The Chaldeans lived in S. Babylonia. The 
modern Mugheir, near the Euphrates, 125 
m. NW. of the Persian Gulf, marks the 
site of an ancient city called Uru, which 
is by many identified with the Ur of this 
passage. But in the Accadian inscriptions 
the whole province of Accad or N. Babylonia 
was called Uri. Haran, the town (see next 
note), was also in this district, and the difficulty 
of explaining why Terah made the long journey 
of 600 m. from Mugheir disappears, if the Ur 
of Genesis may be identified with Uri. The 
family of Terah was evidently a pastoral one, 
and it was natural that they should make a 
new settlement from time to time. 

31. Haran] (the Roman Carrhce) was a city 
in Mesopotamia. It was an ancient seat of the 
worship of the moon god Sin. Caravan roads 
led from Haran to Syria and Palestine. Terah, 
who had intended to settle in Canaan, remained 
at Haran, and died there. C. 12 tells us how 
Abraham received the divine command to 
leave his home and relatives, and, in reliance 
on God's promise, to settle in a new country, 
there to found a race who should preserve 
the knowledge of the true God, and prove ajr 
blessing to all mankind. 

32. The days of Terah were two hundred 
and five years] According to the Samaritan 
text Terah was 145 years old when he died. 
As Terah was 70 at the birth of Abram (11 26 ) 
and the latter left Haran when he was 75, 



19 



12. 



GENESIS 



.. 



the Samaritan text confirms the statement in 
Ac7 4 that Abram waited till after his father's 
death to leave Haran. 

CHAPTERS 12-25 
The History of Abraham 

At this point the specific purpose of the 
writer of the Pentateuch begins to appear 
more clearly. Speaking generally, that pur- 
pose is to trace the development of the king- 
dom of God in the line of Israelitish history. 
To this subject the preceding chs. of Genesis 
have formed an introduction, dealing with 
universal history, and indicating the place of 
Israel among the other nations of the world. 
The narrative now passes from universal 
history to the beginnings of the chosen people 
and their subsequent fortunes. The connect- 
ing link is furnished in the person of Abraham, 
and interest is now concentrated on him, and 
the promises made to him. 

Abraham is one of the very greatest figures 
in the religious history of the human race. 
Three great religions look back to him as one 
of their spiritual ancestors, and accept him as 
a type of perfect faith and true religion, 
viz. the Jewish, the Mohammedan, and the 
Christian. The world owes to him its first 
clear knowledge of the true God, His spiritual 
and holy nature, and the way in which He is 
to be served and worshipped. How much of 
this Abraham may have brought with him 
from Ur of the Chaldees we do not know. 
Recent discovery points to a very close con- 
nexion between the religions of Babylonia 
and Israel. That need not surprise us, nor 
does it impair the truth and value of the 
biblical narrative. Every religious system, 
not excepting Christianity itself, is based upon 
the foundations of the past. What we find 
in Abraham is a new point of departure. 
Religious beliefs, opinions, laws, and ideals, 
which ho inherited, are, by a power which we 
ctii not explain but can only define as the in- 
spiration of God, purified and elevated, with 
the result that religion starts afresh with him 
on a higher level. The affirmation of the 
truth of monotheism and the rejection of 
human sacrifice in the worship of God would, 
apart from other considerations, make Abraham 
rank among the foremost religious reformers 
tin- world baa Been. 

In recent times an attempt has been made 
to date the beginnings of [Brael's religion from 
Moses, and to represent the patriarchs as 
'shadows in the misl ' of antiquity of whose 
persona] existence and religions views nothing 
can be Baid with certainty. In particular the 
attempt has been made to reduce Abraham, 

Isaac, and Jacob to Inter personifications of 
ancient tribes. The patriarchs, it is said, were 



not individuals but tribes, and what are repre- 
sented as personal incidents in their lives are 
really events, naively and vividly described, 
in the history of the various tribes to which 
the nation of Israel owed its descent. In 
some cases such personification of tribes may 
be admitted ; e.g. Canaan, Japheth, and Shem 
clearly represent tribes in the blessing of 
Noah (Gn 9 25 " 27 10 !- 32 ), cp. also intro. to Gn 
49. The same is true of Ishmael in Gn 16 12 , 
and of Esau, who is called Edom in Gn 25 30 
36 1, 8, 19. But admitting that there may be an 
element of truth in this theory, and that the 
biographies of the patriarchs may have been 
idealised to some extent by the popular feel- 
ings and poetical reflection of later times, the 
view that sees in the story of the patriarchs 
nothing that is personal and historical is 
certainly extreme and improbable. Popular 
imagination may add and modify but it does 
not entirely create. It requires some historical 
basis to start from. That basis in the case of 
Abraham and the other patriarchs is popular 
oral tradition, and that this preserved a genuine 
historical kernel cannot be denied. The 
amount of personal incident, the circum- 
stantiality, the wealth of detail contained in 
the patriarchal narratives, can only be rightly 
accounted for on the ground that Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob were real historical person- 
ages, leaders of distinct national and religious 
movements, who made their mark upon the 
whole course of subsequent history. Some 
time ago, when an utterly impenetrable veil 
of obscurity hung over all contemporary pro- 
fane history, the biblical narrative of the patri- 
archs could find no corroboration elsewhere. 
But of late a flood of light has been thrown 
upon ancient Assyria, illuminating the very 
period to which Abraham belongs. A back- 
ground has been provided for the patriarchal 
age ; and our increasing knowledge of Baby- 
lonian civilisation and religion goes to sub- 
stantiate the historical nature of the stories of 
Abraham and the other patriarchs, and shows 
that they might well be the products of such 
a country and such an age. We may go further, 
aid say that later Jewish history seems to re- 
quire such a historical basis as the patriarchal 
narratives furnish, as its starting-point and 
explanation. Abraham, and not Moses, is the 
father of the Jewish nation, and the founder 
of its distinctive religion. It was no new and 
unknown God in whose name Moses spoke to 
his brethren in Egypt. He was able to appeal 
to Israel in the name of a God who had already 
revealed Himself, in the name of l the God of 
their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God 
of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.' See Ex3 G 4 5 , 
ami note on the former passage. 

The sections of the history of Abraham 
(chs. 12-25) which are attributed to the 



20 



12. 1 



GENESIS 



12. 17 



Priestly source are the following : 1 1 27-32 1 2 5 

13 6, lib, 12 lfil-3,15,16 171-27 1929 21 lb >2b-5 23, 

25 7 - 17 . Those which form part of the Primitive 
narrative are: 12i-M-135,7-iia,i2b-i8 ? ^ ^ 
164-u 18, 19 (except v. 29), 20, 21 (mostly), 
22, 24, 25 1 - 6 ' 18 - 34 . They afford a good ex- 
ample of the characteristic differences in style 
of the two sources, as explained in the art. 
' Origin of the Pentateuch.' 

CHAPTER 12 

The Call of Abraham. The Removal to 
Canaan. The Visit to Egypt 

i. Had said] RV 'said,' when he was in 
Haran. In what manner the call came to 
Abraham, whether through some outward in- 
cident which he recognised as the prompting 
of Providence, or through the suggestions of 
the Divine Spirit in his inmost soul, we do 
not know. Anyhow he regarded it as divine 
and authoritative, and it was too definite to be 
misunderstood. Get thee out of . . and 
from . . and from] The repetition emphasises 
the complete severance of all connexion with 
his early home and friends. A land that I 
will shew thee] The fact that the land was 
not named increased the demand on Abraham's 
faith and made his self-surrender the more 
absolute ; cp. Hebll. 2. Thou shalt be a 

blessing] RV ' Be thou a blessing,' i.e. the 
very embodiment of blessing : blessed thyself, 
and the source of blessing to others. 

3. In thee shall all families of the earth 
be blessed] or, ' bless themselves.' Through 
Abraham and his descendants men everywhere 
would come to know God as One and Holy, 
and to long for ' the Desire of all nations.' 

4. Lot went with him] Haran, Lot's father, 
was dead, ll 28 . 5. They went forth to go] 
Haran, the starting-place, was some 300 miles 
from Canaan. They would go through Syria, 
halting perhaps at Damascus (see 15 2 ), then 
proceeding southwards through Bashan to the 
fords of the Jordan S. of the Sea of Galilee, 
and thence to Shechem in the centre of Pales- 
tine. The souls that they had gotten] i.e. 
their slaves. The land of Canaan] the ancient 
name of Palestine. At this time much of Syria 
and Canaan was ruled by the Amorites, who 
were for centuries the dominant race. 

6. Sichem] RV ' Shechem.' The term ' the 
place of Shechem' intimates that this was an 
ancient sanctuary, and this is confirmed by 35 4 
Dt 1129 27 4 Josh 8 3 3 2426. The 'terebinth 
(or turpentine tree) of the director ' (as we may 
render plain of Moreh) points to the same 
conclusion. Most likely there was a grove 
of trees, the rustling of whose leaves was 
interpreted as an oracle (cp. 2 S 5 24). Oracles 
of this kind were much resorted to. The 
Canaanite] see on 13 7 . 



7. The LORD appeared unto Abram] see 
on v. 1. The faith of Abraham, in leaving 
Haran in obedience to the divine call, is now 
rewarded by the definite promise of possession of 
the land by his descendants. There builded 
he an altar] thus consecrating the place to God, 
who had there manifested Himself to him. 
The building of an altar was the recognised 
act of worship : cp. 8 20 IS 18 , etc. 

8. Beth-el] 5 m. S. of Shechem ; see on 
28 19 . Hai] or, Ai, near Bethel. 

9. The south] or, ' the Negeb,' the district 
between Palestine and the wilderness N. of 
Sinai. It forms a transition from the cultivated 
land to the desert ; and, though not fertile, 
yields much pasture for flocks ; see Josh 15 21 " 32 . 

10-20. Abraham's visit to Egypt. Owing 
to a famine, to which Palestine is sometimes 
liable if the winter rains fail, Abraham moves 
down to Egypt. There, owing to the inunda- 
tions of the Nile and the system of irrigation 
practised, crops rarely failed, and neighbouring 
countries had their wants supplied : cp. Ac 
27 6 ' 38 . Egypt was already a highly civilised 
country in Abraham's time. Many of the 
pyramids were built long before his day. 

The patriarch on this occasion appears in a 
very unfavourable light. Admitting the great 
dangers which threatened him at the hands of 
a licentious despot, admitting also that among 
Easterns duplicity is admired rather than 
scorned, the readiness he showed to risk his 
wife's honour in order to secure his own safety, 
and his lack of trust in God's protection, are 
inexcusable. But we esteem our Bible all the 
more for its candour in not hiding the faults 
of its greatest characters. Of only One can it 
be said that He was ' without sin.' 

13. Thou art my sister] Sarah was Abra- 
ham's half-sister (20 12 ). By this prevarication 
he doubtless thought the danger to himself 
would be less than if he had confessed that she 
was his wife. 

15. Pharaoh] the official title of the kings 
of Egypt; cp. Pharaoh-Necho (2 K 23 29). 
It is the Egyptian word iVo, ' great house,' 
which was originally applied to the royal 
palace and estate, and afterwards to the 
king : cp. our use of the word ' Court ' to 
designate the king and his household. It is 
probable that at this time Egypt was governed 
by Asiatic conquerors known as the Hyksos, 
or Shepherd kings : see Intro, to Exodus. 
16. It is usual in the East to give presents to 
the bride's relatives on such occasions, to make, 
in fact, payment for the bride ; cp. Ex 22 16 Ruth 
4 10 . Camels] It is doubtful if these were 
used by the ancient Egyptians. Perhaps the 
Semitic conquerors of Egypt may have intro- 
duced them from Asia at this period. 17. Cp. 
Psl05 14 , 'He suffered no man to do them 
wrong ; yea, he reproved kings for their sakes.' 



21 



13. 1 



GENESIS 



14. 3 



CHAPTER 13 

The Return of Abraham from Egypt, 
and his Separation from Lot 

i. Into the south] see on 12 9 . 

5, 6. There was not sufficient pasturage 
and water (especially after the recent famine 
and drought) for the two encampments with 
their flocks and herds, which doubtless num- 
bered many thousands. 

7. The Perizzite] ' dweller in open villages.' 
It is thought by some that they were the 
original inhabitants of the country who had 
been subdued by Canaanite invaders. The 
words dwelled then in the land indicate that 
the writer lived long after the conquest of 
Canaan. 8, 9. Abraham's offer was marked 

by a generosity towards his nephew, and a 
readiness to leave his own future entirely in 
G-od's hands, which called forth at once the 
divine approval: see vv. 14-17. 

10. If they were standing on the 'mountain 
east of Bethel' (12» 13 3 ), Lot would look 
eastward over the fertile G-hor or Jordan 
valley, whilst in all other directions only the 
barren limestone hills of Judea would be visi- 
ble. Garden of the Lord] Eden. As thou 
comest unto] i.e. in the direction of. Zoar] 
Zoar was a city near the Dead Sea: see on 14 3 . 
But the Syriac text reads ' Zoan,' i.e. Tanis, 
a city in the Nile Delta. 

11-13. Lot's choice showed that he cared 
chiefly for worldly prosperity ; the evil reputa- 
tion of his neighbours did not affect his decision, 
which proved a fatal one: seechs. 14andl9. The 
sacred narrative now becomes confined to the 
history of Abraham and his direct descendants. 

12. Land of Canaan] see on Nul3 21 . 

14-17. The promises of c. 12 are confirmed 
to Abraham, only more fully and definitely. 

18. Plain] RM 'terebinths'; see on 12 6 . 
Mamre] an Amorite chief. It is evident 
from 14 13 that Abraham now settled down 
among this community of Amorites, and en- 
tered into a confederacy with them. 

Hebron] an ancient city 20 m. S. of Jeru- 
salem, earlier called Kirjath-Arba, 23 2 . From 
its connexion with Abraham it soon came to 
be regarded as a holy place. Joshua appointed 
it to be one of the six cities of refuge, and 
assigned it to the Levites. For 7 years it was 
the seat of David's kingdom (2S5 1 " 5 ). It is 
now culled el-Khalil, 'the friend,' after Abra- 
ham, " the friend of Q-od ' ( Isa41 8 ). Hard by 
is the cave of Machpelah where the patriarchs 
were buried. 

CHAPTER 14 

Tin: Battle ok the Kings, and the 

Capture and Rescue of Lot 

Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, had subdued 
the Canaanites of the Jordan \ alley some years 

before the events narrated in this chapter. The 



latter had rebelled, and a campaign for their 
fresh subjugation was undertaken, which in- 
cluded a general punitive expedition from Syria 
to the Gulf of Akaba. 

Within the last few years Assyrian tablets 
of great antiquity have been found, throwing 
considerable, if indirect, light on this narrative, 
and helping to determine its date. The cunei- 
form inscriptions on them refer to a series of 
campaigns by the kings of Elam NE. of 
Chaldea, perhaps about 2150 B.C. Their con- 
quests extended over the vast territories, 
which became later the Babylonian and As- 
syrian empires, and included Syria and Canaan. 
The names Amraphel, Arioch, and (perhaps) 
Chedorlaomer occur in these inscriptions, and 
help to give a historical setting to the present 
narrative. The Tel-el Amarna tablets dis- 
covered in Egypt testify to the dominion 
exercised by these northern nations over Syria 
and Canaan some centuries later, perhaps 
whilst Israel was still in Egypt ; see on Nu 
13!7. 

1. Amraphel] king of Shinar or Babylonia. 
He eventually expelled the Elamites who had 
invaded his territory. Amraphel has by many 
authorities been identified with Hammurabi of 
the inscriptions. A tablet of laws issued by 
this monarch was discovered at Susa in 1902, 
and has been translated : see art. ' Laws of 
Hammurabi.' Arioch] identified with Eri- 
aku, king of Larsa (Ellasar), on the left bank 
of the Euphrates in S. Babylonia. He was a 
contemporary and rival of Amraphel, and of 
Elamitic family. Chedorlaomer] A name 
read by Prof. Sayce as Kudurlaghgamal was 
found on a tablet of Hammurabi in 1896. 
This reading is, however, questioned. The 
element Kitdttr (perhaps ' servant ') is found in 
the names of other Elamite kings, e.g. Kudur- 
Nahundi. and ' bricks have been found at 
Mugheir (Ur) due to a king Kudur-Mabug who 
calls himself Adda-3Iariu, " ruler of the west 
country," viz. Canaan' (D.). Tidal] identifi- 
cation uncertain. Of nations] RV ' Goiim' ; 
perhaps the Heb. word is intended to describe 
the Guti, a powerful nation N. of Babylonia. 

2. The five towns (Pentapolis) mentioned 
here lay round the Dead Sea. The kings 
were mere chieftains, tributaries of Chedor- 
laomer, who now threw off his yoke. 

3. The vale of Siddim which is the Salt 
Sea] The words imply that what had been 
the fertile vale of Siddim was covered, in the 
author's time, by the Salt (Dead) Sea. It is a 
disputed question whether this vale in which 
were the ' cities of the plain,' was situated at 
its N. or S. end. ' For the N". end, it is argued 
that Abraham and Lot looked upon the cities 
from near Bethel (13 10 ), whence it would be 
impossible to see the S. end of the Dead Sea; 
that the name " Circle (or plain) of Jordan " is 



22 



14. 4 



GENESIS 



14. 14 



inapplicable to the S. end ; and that the 
presence of five cities there is impossible. On 
the other hand, at the S. end of the Dead Sea 
there lay, through Roman and mediaeval times, 
a city called Zoara by the Greeks and Zughar 
by the Arabs, which was identified by all as 
the Zoar of Lot. Jebel Usdum, at the SE. 
end, is the uncontested representative of 
Sodom. The name Kikkar (" circle ") may 
surely have been extended to the S. of the 
Dead Sea ; just as to-day, the Ghor (lower 
Jordan valley) is continued a few miles to the 
S. of Jebel Usdum. Jewish and Arab tradi- 
tions fix on the S. end ; and finally the material 
conditions are more suitable there than on the 
N". end to the description of the region both 
before and after the catastrophe, for there is 
still sufficient water and verdure on the E. 
side of the Ghor to suggest the Garden of the 
Lord, while the shallow bay and long marsh 
at the S. end may, better than the ground 
at the X. end of the sea, hide the secret of 
the overwhelmed cities ' (G. A. Smith). The 
Dead Sea, which is about 46 m. long by 9 m. 
wide, is now nearly divided in two parts 
towards the S. end by a tongue of land jutting 
from the E. shore. This tongue probably 
once joined the opposite shore, and formed 
the S. limit of the Sea: but it is conjectured 
that, by the action of an earthquake, a subsi- 
dence took place, and, as Prof. Smith hints, 
what had been the fertile vale of Siddim 
became a desolate lagoon. The saltness of 
the water (26 per cent, as compared with the 
4 per cent, of the ocean) is due to the presence 
of a mountain of rock salt (Jebel Usdum) at the 
S. end of the sea. Fish cannot live in it, not 
so much owing to its saltness as to the excess 
of bromide of magnesium ; and the extreme 
buoyancy of its waters is well known. The 
position of this salt mountain, taken in con- 
nexion with 19 26 and the occurrence of 
bitumen pits at the S. end (see on v. 10), 
supports the theory of the position of the 
cities just mentioned. The name ' the Dead 
Sea ' occurs nowhere in the Bible, and has not 
been found earlier than the 2nd cent. a.d. 

4. They] i.e. the Canaanite chieftains. 
They refused to pay tribute. 

5 f . The Campaign of Chedorlaomer. Pass- 
ing Hamath in Syria, and Damascus, the in- 
vaders first attacked the Rephaim, a race of 
great stature, who lived in the Bashan dis- 
trict. E. of Jordan. Their chief city was 
Ashteroth Karnaim, meaning, perhaps, 'Ashta- 
roth of the two horns.' ' Ashtoreth, the 
goddess of the Zidonians, and associated com- 
monly with Baal in worship (1 K 1 1 5 2 K 23 13 ), 
was the female or productive principle in nature. 
She is identified with Ishtar (Assyria) and As- 
tarte (Greece and Rome). Sometimes she is 
regarded as the Moon-goddess (Baal = Sun, cp. 



Gnl4 5 ), sometimes as Venus, the goddess of 
love. Her image of wood, cp. Dt 1 6 21 2 K 23 15 , 
was called an Asherah (AV " grove ") ' (' Camb. 
Compn. Bible'). Zuzims] or Zamzummims, 
in the country between the rivers Arnon and 
Jabbok : cp. Dt 2 20. Ham] Perhaps Rabbath 
Ammon to S. of Bashan, or Hameitat, 6 
m. S. of the Dead Sea. The Peshitto and 
the Vulgate render ' among them ' for in Ham. 
Emims] They held what became the land of 
Moab: cp. Dt2 10f . Shaveh Kiriathaim] i.e. 
' the plain of Kiryathaim.' It is mentioned 
on the Moabite Stone, but the site is disputed : 
cp. Nu32 37 . 6. Proceeding S. the invaders 
smote the Horites, cave-dwellers in the moun- 
tainous district of Seir, afterwards held by 
the Edomites, descendants of Esau. This 
district extends from the Dead Sea to the 
Gulf of Akaba. The wonderful rock city 
Petra may have been hollowed out by them. 
Thence they proceeded to Elath, near the 
wilderness of Paran, the scene of the forty 
years' wandering, known as Et-Tih: see on 
21 21 . Turning to the north-west further 
victories were gained over the Amalekites at 
Kadesh Barnea, called also En-Mishpat ('well 
of judgment'), and over the Amorites at Ha- 
zezon-tamar, or Engedi, on the W. side of the 
Dead Sea. 8-10. The vale of Siddim was 
now reached, and was the scene of a fierce 
battle with the five Canaanite kings. 10. 
Slimepits] Wells of inflammable bitumen, a 
mineral pitch allied to naphtha. Masses of 
bitumen are still thrown up in the S. portion 
of the lake. The Canaanite armies seem to 
have been snared in the slimy substance. 
The kings of Sodom . . fell there] This refers 
rather to his army, as we find him welcoming 
Abraham on his return (v. 17). 12. Lot 

with his wealth would be a desirable prisoner. 

13. The Hebrew] Abraham may have been 
so called from his ancestor Eber (ll 14 ). As 
the Heb. ibn, however, means ' of the country 
beyond,' the title may have been given to him 
by the Canaanites because he had come from 
across the Euphrates. LXX renders, ' Abra- 
ham the crosser.' In OT. the word generally 
occurs in the mouth of foreigners or in con- 
nexion with them: cp. Gn40 15 4332 IS 13, 14, 
and some scholars consider it probable that 
the present narrative may come from a 
Canaanite source. The Jews called them- 
selves ' Israel,' ' Israelites.' Plain of Mamre] 
i.e. Hebron: see on 13 18 . 

14. This number of able-bodied men in 
Abraham's household shows that he was now 
a chieftain of great importance. He also 
had allies in the venture : see v. 24. 14. Dan] 
known in Abraham's day as Laish. It was 
near the sources of the Jordan, some 30 m. 
N. of the Sea of Galilee. In later days part 
of the tribe of Dan settled there (Jgl8 2 ?- 29 ). 



23 



14. 15 



GENESIS 



15.5 



15. The Elamite army was doubtless much 
larger than Abraham's following, but the attack 
from different quarters in the darkness created 
a panic, similar to that caused by Gideon's 
men (Jg7). Hobah] N. of Damascus. 

17. The king of Sodom] see on v. 10. 
The king's dale] unknown. Perhaps the 
place where Absalom set up a pillar : see 
2 S 18 1S . Josephus says it was near Jerusalem. 

18. Melchizedek] The word may mean 
k Sidik' (a deity) 4s my king,' although in Heb 
7 the Jewish writer in connexion with his 
argument explains it as 4 King of righteous- 
ness.' In JoshlO 3 , five hundred years later, 
we find another king of Jerusalem whose 
name has the same termination, viz. Adoni- 
zedec, i.e. ' Sidik is my lord.' Melchizedek 
was king of Salem, the chief town of the 
Jebusites, known to us as Jerusalem. The 
Amarna letters (1400 B.C., written in cunei- 
form characters on clay tablets) which passed 
between the rulers of Egypt and their officers 
in Canaan (at that time tributary to Egypt), 
show that its name was then Uru-Salim, 4 the 
city of peace.' Among these tablets are 
letters from its king Ebed-tob to the Pharaoh 
of the time, in one of which he states that 
his office was not an hereditary one, but that 
he owed his position to the Egyptian king. 
Cp. Heb7 3 , l without father or mother.' 

Brought forth bread and wine] to refresh 
Abraham and his party. 

He was the priest of the most high God] 
This Canaanite chieftain was both king and 
priest, a combination not uncommon in 
those days: cp. Jethro (Exl8 12 ). 'He 
(Melchizedek) is designated priest of El 
Elyon, the most high God, whom Abra- 
ham, as we see from v. 22, could in a general 
way acknowledge as his god. This agrees 
very well with the findings of the history 
of religions. There is abundant evidence 
for the name El or 11 as the oldest proper 
name of deity among the Babylonians, As- 
syrians Phoenicians, and Sabeans, . . among 
foreign peoples be was early pushed into the 
background by younger gods who only ex- 
pressed particular aspects of his being .. but 
Melchizedek in his worship still held fast to 
him as the old sovereign god, the ruler of the 
universe '(!>.). 20. Abraham, recognising in 
Eftelchizedek b priesl of the true God, receives 
his blessing, and gives him as God's repre- 
sentative a tithe (tenth part) of the spoils he 
has just taken as a thank offering. Other 
instances of the payment of tithes are G-n28 M 
Lv27 M Nn31 ' '• 2S8 11 . 

21. Give me the persons, and take the goods 
to thyself] The victor used to keep the whole 
booty, including prisoners who became his 
-lives. The king of Sodom proposes thai 
Abraham should restore the captives hut keep 



the spoil. 22-24. Abraham nobly refuses to 
keep anything for himself, but claims their 
share of the spoils for his Amorite allies. 
Possibly the character of the Sodomites made 
any transaction with them odious to him. 

22. I have lift up mine hand] a form of swear- 
ing : cp. Ex 6 8 . The LORD, the most high 
God] Jehovah El Elyon. Note that Abraham 
prefixes Jehovah to the title used by Mel- 
chizedek, ' as if to claim for Him the exclusive 
right to supreme divinity.' 

23. Shoelatchet] or ' sandal thong ' : i.e. a 
thing of the least value. 

Note. Melchizedek is referred to again twice 
in the Bible (PsllO 4 Heb 5-7), and each time 
as a type of the priesthood of Christ. ' The 
Melchizedek type of priesthood is, first, a royal 
priesthood (king of righteousness) ; second, a 
righteous priesthood (king of rigliteousness) ; 
third, a priesthood promotive of peace, or ex- 
ercised in the country of peace (king of 
Salem = king of peace); fourth, a personal, 
not an inherited, dignity (without father, with- 
out mother, i.e. so far as the record is con- 
cerned) ; fifth, it is an eternal priesthood 
(without beginning of days or end of life — so 
far as the record is concerned) ' (HDB. art. 
1 Hebrews '). See on Heb 5, 6, 7. 

CHAPTER 15. 

God Promises an Heir to Abraham and 
the Land of Canaan for his Descend- 
ants. The Promise is Ratified by a 
Covenant 

The passage is from the Primitive source. 
A somewhat similar account from the Priestly 
narrative is given in c. 17. The repetition 
shows the importance attached by the com- 
piler of Genesis to these records of the pro- 
mises as testifying to the divine purposes for 
the Hebrew people. 

1. Vision] probably a trance, with the senses 
dormant, but the mind awake to spiritual im- 
pressions : cp. Nu 24 3 > 4 > 15 > 16 . Fear not] It 
is thought that Abraham was depressed at the 
thought (1) of his childlessness, and (2) of the 
powerful enemies he had made through the 
rescue of Lot. To remove the latter fear God 
promises Himself to be his shield. Thy ex- 
ceeding great reward] RM ' thy reward shall he 
exceeding great. 1 2. What wilt thou give 
me] of what avail are these promised posses- 
sions, with no child to inherit them ? The 
steward, etc.] RV ' he that shall be possessor 
of my house,' i.e. the heir, would lie Eliezer 
of Daniasens. a servant. The Damascenes have 
always boasted a connexion with Abraham. 

4. Abraham is assured that his heir should 
be a child of his own begetting. 5. He 
brought him forth] This was probably part of 
the vision. Tell the stars] i.e. count them. 



24 



15. 6 



GENESIS 



16. 12 



6. He counted it to him for righteousness] 
Faithful Abraham gave up his own will to 
the will of God, did not seek to force his 
way in the world (14 22 ), but awaited God's 
blessing in His good time. And this attitude 
of trust and submission was esteemed by God. 
St. Paul quotes this passage to show that man- 
kind are accepted by God through their faith 
apart from any observance of the Mosaic law, 
which indeed had not at the period referred 
to in this passage come into existence. See Ro 
4 and 5 Gal 3 Hebll Jas2. 

8. Abraham asks for some pledge of the 
fulfilment of the promises. 9. God con- 
descends to confirm the promise of the pos- 
session of the land by a visible sign. Abraham 
is directed to make the usual preparations 
observed in old times when two parties were 
about to make an important covenant or alli- 
ance : cp. Jer34 ls . Certain animals and birds 
used in sacrifice were slain, and the bodies of 
the former divided in two parts : hence the 
expression to ' strike ' or ' cut ' a covenant. 
The two parties then passed between the parts, 
met in the middle, and took an oath of agree- 
ment, the position signifying that if they were 
false to the covenant they merited a similar 
fate to that of the slain animals. 

10. The birds divided he not] see on Lv 
l 17 . Probably they were put opposite one 
another. II. Fowls] R V ' birds of prey ' : 

an omen of the troubles which his descendants 
must encounter before entering into their 
possession. 12. An horror of great dark- 

ness] lit. • a terror, even great darkness,' pre- 
ceding the wondrous sight of v. 17. 

13. Abraham is given a glimpse of the 
fortunes of his descendants. A land that 
is not theirs] i.e. Egypt. Centuries must 
elapse before the family of Abraham had 
grown into a nation fit to take possession of 
Canaan. Much of this time was to be spent 
in Egypt, where trials and afflictions would 
discipline them to become the consecrated 
nation who were to preserve the knowledge 
of Jehovah. 

Four hundred years] see on Exl2 40 . The 
four generations of v. 16 taken in agreement 
with this v. must mean periods of a hundred 
years each, but there are no data by which we 
can verify or correct the figures. 15. Go to 



thy fathers] see on 



?nS 



16. The iniquity 



of the Amorites is not yet full] The Amorites 
here stand for the races of Canaan generally. 
They are to be spared for 400 years, until 
their idolatry and gross vices have exhausted 
the forbearance of God : cp. Dt 7 l and Intro, 
to Joshua. 17. Burning lamp] probably 

• torch,' though the meaning is uncertain. The 
ratification of the covenant now took place by 
a bright light enveloped in cloud, the symbol 
of God's presence, passing between the victims : 



cp. Ex3 2 > 3 40 34 , etc. God gave the promise 
of the inheritance of the land : Abraham's 
part was continued trust, patience, and 
obedience. 

18. The river of Egypt] probably the Wady 
el Arish on the border of Egypt. In the 
days of Solomon the promise was fulfilled 
(1K4 21 . 24 ). 19. Kenites and Kenizzites] 
Tribes of the Xegeb and Southern Desert. 
The Kenites were widely spread from Midian 
to Xaphtali : cp. Jgl 16 4 11 . Kadmonites] of 
the Syro- Arabian Desert. 20, 21. Periz- 

zites] see on 13 7 . Rephaims] see on 14 5 . 

The others were peoples of Canaan : see 
on 10 16 . 

CHAPTER, 1G 

The Circumstances connected with 
the Birth of Ishmaejl 

1, 2. Abraham was now eighty-five years 
old. Sarah was seventy-five, and the promise 
of an heir seemed no nearer fulfilment. 
Despairing of offspring herself, Sarah per- 
suades Abraham to take her Egyptian maid 
Hagar as a secondary wife, intending, accord- 
ing to ancient custom, to regard the issue as 
her own. But her lack of faith in God's 
promises was productive of very unhappy 
consequences. 4. Hagar] The Arabs claim 
descent from Hagar through Ishmael. Her 
name, which means ' flight,' is akin to the 
word Hegira, used of the flight of Mohammed 
from Medina to Mecca (622 a.d.). an event 
from which the Mohammedans date their era. 

Her mistress was despised in her eyes] be- 
cause she was fruitful while Sarah was barren : 
cp. Hannah and Peninnah (1 S 1 6 ). It was 
accounted a great disgrace and a sign of God's 
displeasure to be without offspring : cp. 30 23 . 

5. My wrong be upon thee] i.e. May the 
blame for the wrong done to me (by Hagar's 
conduct) fall on thee. 

7. The angel of the LORD] see on Ex 3 2 . 

Shur] The word means ' wall ' and was 
probably applied to the chain of fortresses on 
the XE. frontier of Egypt. The Desert of 
Shur was the wilderness bordering on these 
fortresses which were built to keep out Asiatic 
invaders. 7, 8. Hagar might flee from the 
presence of Sarah, but not from the knowledge 
and sight of God. He finds her, and addresses 
her, as He did Adam, when he concealed him- 
self in the Garden of Eden : cp. 1 8 > 9 . 

10. A promise fulfilled in the Arab race : 
see on v. 4. 11. Ishmael] 'El (God) 

hears.' 12. A wild man] RY ' as a wild-ass 

among men.' The wild ass is of an untame- 
able nature, ever roving : cp. Job39 5f . Such 
was Ishmael, and such are his Arab descend- 
ants. He shall dwell in the presence of all 
his brethren] i.e. shall preserve his independ- 
ence, though close to them ; a true forecast of 



25 



16. 13 



GENESIS 



17. 25 



the history of Ishmael's descendants. But 
another translation gives, ' He shall dwell to 
the east of his brethren.' 13. Have I also 
here, etc.] Hagar realises that she still lives 
though God has looked upon her. 

14. Beer-lahai-roi] ' the well of the living 
one who hath seen ' God : see on c. 21 for St. 
Paul's references to Hagar. 

CHAPTER 17 
The Covenant of Circumcision 
This c. is from the Priestly document, of 
which it shows marked characteristics : see 
preface to c. 15. 

1. Ninety years old and nine] Ishmael was 
now thirteen years old, and Abraham probably 
expected no other heir. But his faith was 
to be put to a further test. The Almighty 
God] Heb. el Shaddai : the name of power 
shows the ability to perform what was pro- 
mised. Walk before me, and be thou per- 
fect] i.e. always conscious of My presence, 
and living a pious, whole-hearted, upright life. 
These are the conditions required by God in 
connexion with the covenant about to be 
made. 2. God, on His part, promises to 
make Abraham the ancestor of many nations, 
and to give Canaan to his descendants. 

4, 5. The patriarch's name in Babylonia had 
been Abram, meaning, perhaps, 'exalted 
father,' or, according to others, ' Ram (the 
lofty one) is father ' ; cp. Hiram, ' Ram is 
brother.' Under the form Abu-Ramu it 
appears to be a recognised proper name in the 
Assyrian inscriptions. On entering into a new 
relationship with God by covenant, of which 
the sign was circumcision, the patriarch received 
a new name, ' Abraham.' This is probably a 
variation on ' Abram,' but its meaning is un- 
known, the popular explanation ' father of 
multitude ' being considered untenable. In 
commemoration of this event Jewish children 
receive their name when admitted to the 
covenant by circumcision (Lkl 59 ), as do 
Christian children when baptised into the 
Church of Christ. The 'many' nations' of 
\ v. 1 and 6 included not only Israelites but 
also [shmaelites, Edomitea (through Esau), 
Midianites (by Keturah), Arabs (by Hagar). 

10. This is my covenant] i.e. this is the 
rign of the covenant, riz. circumcision. Note 
that both parties undertake obligations here 
as contrasted with the covenanl in c. 15. 

Circumcision] (lit. 'cutting round') is the 
removal of the foreskin. The rite has always 
been practised i>\ the Jews from Abraham's 
time 1<» the presi at day. Other ancient nations 
also observed the ceremony, Buch as the 
pi ians and Phoenicians, bul not the Philis- 
tines, Babylonians, Greeks or Etonians. It 
1- still observed, ao\ onlj bj Mohammedan 

nations who claim to be descended from 



Abraham, but by the Abyssinian, Egyptian, 
Polynesian and other peoples. Among these 
latter the rite is generally performed about 
the age of ten or twelve years, as a preliminary 
to marriage, and as admitting to full civil 
and religious tribal privileges. With the 
Hebrews circumcision had a special significance. 
They regarded it as a sign of the covenant 
between God and His people, and they alone 
of all nations circumcised their infants, thereby 
devoting them from their birth to Jehovah. 
With them, too, the shedding of the blood of 
that part upon which depends the perpetuation 
of life was the symbol of the continuous con- 
secration of the nation from one generation to 
another. The spiritual significance of the rite 
is frequently insisted on by the inspired writers. 
The outward sign must be accompanied by the 
putting away of fleshly and sinful desires : cp. 
Dtl0i6Ro228,29. 

The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles 
to the Romans, Galatians, and Colossians 
witness to the desire of the Jewish Christians 
to impose the obligation of circumcision on 
their Gentile brethren, and to the struggle in 
which St. Paul was successful in freeing his 
converts from the yoke of Judaism. 

11. The flesh of your foreskin] better, 'the 
foreskin of your flesh.' 12. Eight days old] 
Until the eighth day children were considered 
unclean, and so unfit to be offered to God. 

12, 13. The law of circumcision applied to 
all male members of Jewish households, who 
were henceforth regarded as Israelites, and 
shared in the national and religious privileges 
of the chosen race. 14. That soul shall be 
cut off from his people] This expression seems 
usually to mean that the offender is to be 
excommunicated, or cut off from all connexion 
with the Hebrew community, and from any 
share in the blessings of the covenant, nor 
could he claim protection for life or property : 
cp. Ex 12 15, 19 Nu 91 3 19 1 3 . But the sentence of 
death seems sometimes to be added in the case 
of presumptuous sins, such as the sacrificing 
of children to Moloch, and the deliberate 
nonobservance of the sabbath: see Ex31 u 
L v _'0 1 -<•> Nu 1 5 3 °- 3(5 . ' Cutting off ' in such cases 
is plainly equivalent to putting to death. 

15. Sarah's name, like Abraham's, is changed 
on admission to the covenant. Sarah means 
princess' : the exact meaning of Sarai is 
doubtful. 18. Abraham was unwilling that 

[shmael should be deposed from his position 
as heir: but God would prosper him also (v. 20). 

19. Isaac] i.e. he laughs. The name would 
recall an event which made Abraham laugh 
with joy and probably also with wonder. 

20. Twelve princes] see 25 u f . 

25. [shmael was circumcised when thirteen 
years old, the age still observed by Moham- 
medans: cp. on 171°. 



26 



18. 1 



GENESIS 



19. 1 



CHAPTER 18 

The Visit of the Angels to Abraham. 
The Judgment of Sodom announced. 
Abraham intercedes on its behalf 

In this beautiful narrative the writer dwells 
on the unique revelations of (rod's purposes 
with which Abraham was favoured. In after 
times the patriarch received the title of ' the 
friend of God' (2Ch207 Isa41-8 Jas 223). 
The c. is from the Primitive document. 
The religious lessons, the vivid description, 
and the consciousness of God's immediate 
presence and interest in the affairs of men are 
all characteristic of that source. See on ll 5 
Ex24 10 and Intro. Exodus, § 3, for the anthro- 
pormorphisms of the c. 

i. In the plains of Mamre] RV 'by the 
oaks of Mamre,' i.e. Hebron: cp. 13 1S . 

2. Three men] heavenly visitors, angels, as 
appears from 19 l . With one, God identifies 
Himself (v. 13). 

3. My Lord] This was only a title of re- 
spect; it is not Lord, i.e. Jehovah. Abraham 
was entertaining angels unawares (Heb 13 2 ). 

4. The difficulty of procuring the neces- 
saries of life when travelling in the East causes 
the duty of hospitality to be observed to an ex- 
tent unknown to ourselves. Lane, in ' Modern 
Egyptians,' says that we have here a perfect 
picture of the manner in which a modern Beda- 
wee sheikh receives travellers arriving at his 
encampment. He immediately orders his wife 
or woman to make bread; slaughters a sheep 
or some other animal, and dresses it in haste ; 
and bringing milk and any other provisions 
that he may have ready at hand, sets all before 
his guests. If these be persons of high rank, 
he stands by them while they eat, as Abraham 
did in this case. The ready hospitality of 
Abraham is in striking contrast with the con- 
duct of the Sodomites to the same visitors. 
Wash your feet] since they only wore sandals. 

6. Measure] Heb. Seah, nearly a peck and 
half. From Mt 13 33 it seems that three mea- 
sures made a batch of bread. Cakes] thin 
biscuits of meal, baked on an iron plate on the 
heated hearthstone. 7. A calf] Owing to 
the hot climate only fresh meat can be used, 
but it is tender if cooked at once. Animal food 
is very rarely eaten except at festivities, or on 
the arrival of a distinguished visitor. A quick 
method usually practised is to broil slices of 
meat on skewers. 8. Butter] rather, 'curdled 
milk,' which is very refreshing and still con- 
stantly drunk in Palestine and Arabia. Cp. 
Jg 5 25 . The Arabs make butter by shaking 
cream in a leather bag : but owing to the heat 
it does not get firmly set. 

10. According to the time of life] RY 'when 
the season cometh round,' 'at the time reviv- 
ing,' i.e. 'when this time revives, a year from 



now' (D.): cp. 2K41M7. I2 . Laughed] 

in unbelief, not in joy. 14. Is any thing 
too hard, etc.] Cp. the Angel Gabriel's words 
to Mary, 'With God nothing shall be impos- 
sible' (Lkl37). 

17-21. God reveals to Abraham the purpose 
of the visit to Sodom. It was essential that 
His servant as founder of a great nation should 
understand God's dealings with nations gener- 
ally ; that He is concerned in their affairs, and 
that whilst ' slow to anger and of great kind- 
ness ' He is a righteous God who will by no 
means clear the guilty. 19. I know him, 

that he will command] rather, ' I have known 
Him in order that He may command,' etc. To 
k know ' means to take notice of, regard. ' The 
mission of Israel was to preserve a pure faith 
and pure morals amid the corruptions of man- 
kind till the Messiah should come.' 20. Cry] 
i.e. evil report. 21. I will go down now, 

and see] The expression means that in His 
visitations on men God acts with absolute 
justice and a perfect knowledge of all the 
circumstances. I will know] the whole truth. 
22. Stood yet before the LORD] as if to stay 
His departure until he had interceded for 
Sodom, and especially with a thought for his 
kinsman Lot, who dwelt there. 

23-32. We have here ' the effectual fervent 
prayer of a righteous man,' humble, yet earnest, 
and even bold. In his anxious sympathy for 
others Abraham forgot, perhaps, that ' the love 
of God is broader than the measures of man's 
mind,' but he was right in believing that God 
allows His purposes to be influenced by prayer 
and repentance : cp. Jon 3. For we observe 
that God's sentence upon Sodom was not yet 
passed (v. 21) : He would grant the prayer of 
His servant if the necessary conditions were 
forthcoming. They were not, however, as the 
people of Sodom were universally depraved ; 
but Abraham learned that God prefers mercy 
to judgment, and that those who have the least 
claim on His mercy receive it, as was the case 
with Lot and his family. Nor should we 
overlook another side of this narrative, viz. 
the value of a good man. Ten righteous 
men in Sodom will save the city. So our 
Lord calls His disciples 'the salt of the earth,' 
Mt 5 13 . Another point to be noted is that 
while Abraham thought all along that the 
righteous would perish with the wicked unless 
the whole city was saved, God distinguished 
between the innocent and the guilty, and saved 
four persons. 

CHAPTER 19 

The Destruction op the Cities of the 

Plain 

1. The visit of the two angels (who are 

' the men ' of c. 18) may be regarded as the 

final test of Sodom. If they were hospitably 



27 



19. 2 



GENESIS 



20. 4 



received and honourably treated they might 
still be spared. 

In the gate] The entrance gate of walled 
Eastern cities is a great place of resort. In 
front of it the market was held and justice 
administered. See Ruth 4 2S15 2 Am5 1W5 
Job312iDt21i9 Jer387. 

2. We will abide in the street all night] To 
sleep out of doors is no hardship in a hot cli- 
mate. Lot shows that he retained, at all events, 
the virtues of hospitality and of bravery in the 
defence of strangers. 3. Unleavened bread] 
bread made quickly without yeast : cp. Ex 12 39 . 

4, 5. The causes which led to the fall of 
Sodom are alluded to in Ezk 16 49 > 50 . See also 
Christ's comparison of the punishments of 
Sodom and Capernaum (Mtll 20 ). 7. Do 
not so wickedly] So St. Peter speaks of ' just 
Lot vexed with the filthy conversation of the 
wicked,' 2 Pet 2 7 . But Lot himself was only re- 
latively righteous. 8. Lot's sense of the sacred 
duty of hospitality was no excuse for neglecting 
his still greater duty of caring for his daugh- 
ters' honour. 9. He will needs be a judge] 
Evidently Lot had reproved them before this. 

11. Blindness] probably confused or indis- 
tinct vision : cp. 2K6 18 . 

14. Sons in law] By comparing this ex- 
pression with vv. 8 and 16 it seems that the 
men were only betrothed, not married, to 
Lot's daughters. Indeed, E,V has ' were to 
marry ' instead of ' married.' 17. The moun- 
tain] the mountains of Moab, E. of the Dead 
Sea. 18-22. The motive of Lot's request 

is uncertain. He either feared that there 
would not be time to reach the mountain, or 
he was reluctant to leave the place where he 
had long lived ; the latter view seems perhaps 
most in accordance with his character. 

21. Zoar was spared, not because its insigni- 
ficant size excused its sinfulness, but as a refuge 
for Lot. 22. Zoar] l littleness.' perhaps 
at the SE. end of the Dead Sea, but position 
disputed. It is called Bela in 14'-. 

24. A consideration of the probable nature 
of this awful \ isitation will explain the vivid 
statement of the text. As was pointed out in 
c. I I. tin whole neighbourhood of the Dead 
Sea abounds in sulphur and bitumen, furnish- 
ing the materials for 1 lit- terrible conflagration 
which ensued. Probably a convulsion of the 
earth released Boine springB of naphtha which 
flowed through the cities and ignited. In our 

own days when the pet rolcinn Springs at P.akn 
in the Caspian l.ecome accidentally ignited, 

they burn For days. The note on 14 8 explains 
in what Bense the Bite of the guilty cities can 
be sai'l to be covered by the waters of the 
Dead Sea. Their destruction was due to the 

agency of lire, QOl of water. The latter con- 
dition of this once fertile and populous district 

is referred to in Dt29 28 and 2Esdras2 8 > 9 . 



28 



On the religious significance Dean Payne 
Smith says : ' Though God used natural agen- 
cies in the destruction of the cities of the 
plain, yet what was in itself a catastrophe of 
nature became miraculous by the circumstances 
which surrounded it. It was thus made the 
means not merely of executing the divine 
justice, of strengthening Abraham's faith, and 
of warning Lot, but also of giving moral and 
religious instruction for all time.' 

26. She became a pillar of salt] This may 
mean that she was overwhelmed in the rock 
salt of the district which was thrown up by 
the earthquake : see on 14 3 . The story of 
Josephus that this particular ' pillar ' of salt 
was still to be seen in his day may be explained 
by the presence of cones of salt which are to 
be seen standing detached from the salt moun- 
tain of Usdum at the SW. end of the Dead 
Sea : see on 14 13 . Our Lord alludes to the 
fate of Lot's wife as a warning to His follow- 
ers against clinging too closely to the world 
(Lkl732). 

29. God remembered Abraham] i.e. his in- 
tercession for Lot : see c. 18. 

30-38. The only explanation of the shame- 
ful conduct of Lot's daughters, if understood 
literally, is to be found in their motive, which 
was probably based on the strong views enter- 
tained by Orientals regarding childlessness and 
the extinction of the family ; they seem also, 
from v. 31, to have really thought that they 
were the sole survivors of the terrible cata- 
strophe just narrated. The Moabites and 
Ammonites settled to the E. of the Dead 
Sea. They afterwards became bitter enemies 
of Israel who first came into contact with 
them when nearing Canaan at the end of the 
wanderings. See Nu 21-25, also Jg3 IS 11 
1447 2S82 2K3 2Ch20 Isal5 Jer48 Zeph28. 
Some scholars, however, look upon this story 
as the expression of the Hebrews' hatred of 
their two neighbours and enemies. Many of 
the customs of these people were doubtless 
abhorrent to the purer-minded Israelites ; and 
their feelings are expressed in this account of 
a current belief among the people of a later 
age. 

CHAPTER 20 

Ar.i: \IIAM AT GERAR 

1. Abraham leaves Mamre (Hebron) for 
Gerar, SW. of Philistia. It seems from 2134 
that he remained in that district for some 
years. 2. She is my sister] Twenty years 
earlier Abraham had used the same device in 
Egypt and now again lie incurs a rebuke from 
one outside the Covenant. See 12 n - 20 and 
notes. Abimelech] perhaps, ' Molech is my 
father; in honour of the false god. Cp. 
Abijah, 'Jehovah is my father.' 

4. Wilt thou slay also a righteous nation] 






20. 5 



GENESIS 



22. 



Abimelech's people, at all events, had not been country between Canaan and the Peninsula of 



guilty of any sin. 5. In the integrity of my 
heart] Abimelech was 'not consciously violat- 
ing any of his own rules of morality.' Had 
he known that Sarah was Abraham's wife he 
would not have taken her into his harem. 

7. He is a prophet] i.e. one to whom God 
reveals His will, and who in turn declares it 
to men ; and so one who can mediate between 
God and man, as in this case: see on Ex7 x . 

11-13. Abraham explains that he was only 
following an arrangement made with his wife 
when they first came among the licentious 
Canaanites. 12. Cp. 12 13 . Sarah was daugh- 
ter of Terah by another wife, and so was half- 
sister to Abraham. It is thought that these 
marriages between relatives in early days were 
partly intended to keep the blood of the 
family or tribe pure and unmixed. 

16. Thy brother] ironical. Behold, he is, 
etc.] RV k Behold, it is for thee a covering of 
the eyes to all that are with thee ; and in 
respect of all ' (MG or, ' before all men ') ' thou 
art righted.' Apparently this means that the 
gift was to render those with Sarah willing 
to overlook the wrong to which she had been 
exposed. 

CHAPTER 21 

Birth of Isaac. Dismissal of Hagar and 
Ishmael. Covenant between Abraham 
and Abimelech 

8. Weaned] in his second or third year, as 
is usual among Orientals. 

9. Ishmael had no doubt been regarded as 
Abraham's heir until the birth of Isaac. The 
change in his prospects may account for his 
conduct, which St. Paul uses to illustrate the 
persecution of the Christians by the Jews 
(Gal4 29 ). Proud of their natural descent as 
children of Abraham, the Jews scorned the 
idea that God could regard others as His 
spiritual children and allow them to share in 
their privileges and blessings : see Gal 3, 4. 
The story affords painful evidence of the jea- 
lousies and unhappiness caused by polygamy. 

12. In Isaac shall thy seed be called] i.e. 
the promises should centre in Isaac. 

14. Beer-sheba] 30 m. S. of Hebron. 

15. Bottle] (KM 'skin'): made of the 
skin of a sheep or goat. All openings are 
sewn up and made watertight with pitch 
except the neck, which is tied up when the 
skin is full. 17, 18. Formerly (16 7 > 8 ) God 
sought out Hagar to reprove her, and bid her 
go back upon her course : now He appears to 
her to comfort her, and supply her needs and 
those of her child. In both ways, He displays 
His grace. 19. A miraculous supply of 
water is not suggested here. God enabled 
Hagar to see an existing spring of water. 

21. Wilderness of Paran] Et-Tih, the 



Sinai. The descendants of Ishmael, Bedouin 
Arabs, still possess the country. It was the 
scene of the wanderings of the Israelites: cp. 
Dt 119 Nil 10 12. 

22-34. Abraham was still living in the 
neighbourhood of Abimelech, king of Gerar: 
see c. 20. He was now regarded as a chieftain 
of great importance (cp. 23 6 ), and the king 
here seeks to enter into a covenant of friend- 
ship with him. Abraham takes the opportunity 
to secure his right to a well which he had 
made. Abimelech acknowledges Abraham to 
be the rightful possessor by accepting the 
seven lambs which he offers. The place was 
henceforth called Beer-sheba, ' well of the 
seven,' or ' well of the oath,' because the 
covenant had been ratified by the sacred or 
perfect number seven which was the usual 
number of things sworn by. Some very 
ancient wells have been discovered at Beer- 
sheba which marks the southern limit of 
Palestine. 33. A grove] RV ' a tamarisk 
tree ': see on 12 6 . 

CHAPTER 22 

The Offering of Isaac on Mount 
Moriah 

In this narrative we have the crowning 
proof that Abraham was willing to resign all 
that was dearest to him at the bidding of God, 
even that son on whose life depended the ful- 
filment of the divine promises. But his trial 
must be also regarded as the occasion of bring- 
ing about an advance in the moral standard of 
the men of his time, which was gradually to 
become universal. In Abraham's day the 
sacrifice of the firstborn was a common prac- 
tice among the Semitic races, and was regarded 
as the most pleasing service which men could 
offer to their deities. It was the ' giving of 
their firstborn for their transgression, the fruit 
of their body for the sin of their soul ' (Mic 6 7 ). 
The horrible custom was even practised by 
the Jews in the dark days of Ahaz and 
Manasseh : cp. 2K23!0 2Ch283 33 6, and the 
cases of Jephthah (Jgll) and Mesha, king of 
Moab (2K3 27 ). The custom probably pre- 
vailed among the tribes in whose midst 
Abraham dwelt, and it was borne in upon 
him that he should show his devotion to God 
in this way also. Regarding the suggestion, 
however it was made, as coming from God, he 
did not hesitate or delay, though his heart 
must have been wrung by the very thought. 
He had covenanted to give up his own will 
to the will of God, and in fulfilment of his 
obedience he was willing to sacrifice his own 
son. Self-sacrifice is the supreme test of faith, 
and Abraham was not found wanting : cp. 
Hebll 17 - 19 . The will, however, was taken 



29 



22. 1 



GENESIS 



23. 16 






for the deed, and regarded as sufficient proof 
of his loyalty and obedience. And Abraham, 
and through him the world, learnt that, far from 
desiring human sacrifice, Jehovah abhors it : 
that His worship is to be attended by mercy 
and justice and humanity in His followers, and 
that the most acceptable offering is a life of 
obedience and faith and love. 

i. Tempt] RV 'prove,' i.e. put his faith 
and obedience to the proof. 

2. The land of Moriah] only mentioned 
again 2C113 1 , k Then Solomon began to build 
the house of the Lord at Jerusalem in Mount 
Moriah.' Beneath the dome of the Mosque 
of Omar, which now stands on the site of the 
Jewish Temple, is the rock which is tradition- 
ally supposed to have been the scene of the 
sacrifice. It is uncertain whether the two 
places are to be identified, but we may gather 
from v. 14 that the writer wished Jerusalem to 
be understood here. The Samaritans assert 
that Mt. Gerizim was the scene of the event, 
regarding Moriah as Moreh in Sichem. 

5. Abraham's assurance that he would return 
with Isaac indicates his hope that God would 
in some way preserve his son to him. ' He 
accounted that God was able to raise him up 
even from the dead : from whence also he 
received him in a figure ' (Heb 1 1 19 ). He 
could not believe that the solemn promises 
respecting his son would fail of fulfilment. 

6. Fire] embers from the hearth carried in 
a vessel. 10. By this action Abraham in 
spirit and intention completed the sacrifice 
and showed his faith and obedience. 

13. The substitution of the ram involves a 
recognition of God's right to demand sacrifice 
for His sake, and preserves the spirit which 
prompted Abraham's act, while at the same 
time it indicates the objectionableness of 
human sacrifice. 

14. Jehovah-jireh] ' The Lord will see.' 

In the mount . . seen] Render, ' In Jeho- 
vah's mount (the Temple hill) He is seen,' i.e. 
' He sees ' the needs of His worshippers and 
' is seen ' by revealing Himself to them and 
' providing ' (as RV renders) for their wants. 
The words received their highest fulfilment 
when God withheld not His only Son, but 
freely gave Him up for men in this very 
place. 15-18. Abraham's victory of faith 
is rewarded by a confirmation of the promises 
already made to him : cp. Beb6 ,: *. 

20-24. The family of Nahor. The names 
are to be identified with tribes on the eastern 
borders of Canaan. 21. Huz] RV 'Uz.' 
I p. 1<> 23 , where Uz is given as the name of a 
BOD of Aram. Job is described as of the land 
of Uz, and his friend Elihu is called a Bnzite. 
Aram] probably the Syrians. 24. Concu- 
bine] a Becondarj boi lawful wife. By such 
alliances the influence and importance of the 



family in early times were increased. Re- 
garding these names as those of tribes, what 
is suggested here is that the last four were 
related to the main group somewhat distantly. 

CHAPTER 23 

Death of Sarah and Purchase of the 
buryingplace of machpelah by abraham 

This section is from the Priestly source and 
dwells on the legal transaction. 

2. Came] rather, 'went in,' perhaps from 
his own tent to that of Sarah. 3. Stood up 
from before his dead] To sit upon the ground 
was the posture of mourning: cp. Job2 13 . 
Sons of Heth] i.e. the Hittites : see on 10 15 . 

6. After true Eastern custom, there was 
excessive courtesy in the transaction, but a 
large sum was in the end required. ' In 
Damascus, when a purchaser makes a lower 
offer than can be accepted, he is answered, 
" "What, is it a matter of money between us ? 
Take it for nothing, friend, it is a present 
from me " ' (Delitzsch). 

9. The cave of Machpelah] This spot, over 
which now stands the great Mohammedan 
mosque at Hebron, is generally admitted to 
be the original buryingplace of the Jewish 
patriarchs, and the spot where their remains 
still rest. It is most religiously guarded by 
the Mohammedans (who regard Abraham as 
the founder of their race through Ishmael) 
from all intrusion. The cave is a double one, 
and visitors are permitted entrance only to the 
upper storey, where there is little to see ex- 
cept counterfeit tombs. ' Only one European, 
Pierotti, an Italian architect in the service of 
the Sultan, has succeeded, at the risk of his 
life, in entering the lower cavern. He noticed 
there sarcophagi of white stone, the true 
tombs of the illustrious dead, in striking cor- 
roboration of the statement of Josephus, that 
these were of fair marble, exquisitely wrought ' 
(Geikie). Machpelah] is not the name of 

the cave, but the name of the locality in which 
the piece of land containing the cave was 
situated : cp. vv. 17, 19. 

9. For a possession, etc.] RV ' in the midst 
of you for a possession of a buryingplace.' 
Abraham wished that the Hittites should be 
present as witnesses of the purchase. 

10. And Ephron dwelt] RV 'Now Ephron 
was sitting.' 12. Bowed] in thanks for 
granting his request. 13. In the audience 
of the people] The Hittites were thus wit- 
nesses to the agreement. 15. Four hundred 
shekels of silver] Reckoning the shekel at 
half-a-crown, this would be about £50, but 
the purchasing power of silver was much 
greater in those days. 16. Current money'] 
Note that the word ' money ' is not in the 
original. The word ' shekel ' means ' weight,' 



30 






23. 19 



GENESIS 



25. 13 



and it is believed that, in these early days, 
rings of silver of a marked weight were used, 
and not coins bearing a definite value. Abra- 
ham probably weighed them to show they 
were of full value. ' Coined money was not 
known to the Hebrews before the Captivity, 
when first Persian and then Greek or Syriac 
currency was employed, till Simon the Macca- 
bee (about 140 B.C.) struck Jewish coins, espe- 
cially shekels and half shekels, specimens of 
which have been preserved to us ' (Kalisch). 

19. Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Kebekah, 
Jacob and Leah, were all buried here. 

CHAPTER 24 

The Marriage of Isaac and Rebekah 

A charming picture of patriarchal marriage 
customs. It is very characteristic of the 
Primitive source. 

2. Put . . thy hand under my thigh] a form of 
taking an oath, only mentioned again in 47 29 . 
1 It is from the thighs that one's descendants 
come, so that to take an oath with one hand 
under the thigh would be equivalent to calling 
upon these descendants to maintain an oath 
which has been fulfilled, and to avenge one 
which has been broken ' (D.). Modern in- 
stances are recorded of Egyptian Bedouins act- 
ing similarly in making a solemn asseveration. 

3. Marriage with Canaanites was afterwards 
strictly forbidden (Ex34 n - 16 ). 4. My coun- 
try] Haran. in Mesopotamia, where Nahors 
family still lived. 5-8. Isaac was on no 
account to leave Canaan, the land promised by 
God as his inheritance. 

10. The sending of a deputy instead of 
Isaac himself is quite in accordance with 
Eastern custom. The Jews of the present 
day employ a professional matchmaker, the 
Shadchan, who arranges all the preliminaries 
of the marriage contract. For all the goods 
of his master were in his hand] RY ' having 
all goodly things of his master's,' i.e. presents 
for the bride and her family : see 53. 

Mesopotamia] (from Gr mesos, 'middle,' 
VBidpotamos, 'river ') Heb. Aram-Xaharaim, i.e. 
k Aram (or Syria) of the two rivers.' the country 
lying between the Khabour and the Orontes. 

CityofNahor] Haran. 12-14. Through- 
out this beautiful story the direct guidance of 
God in all that happened is emphasised. 

16. Went down to the well] To this day 
there is but one well of drinkable water at 
Haran, and the women still fill their water- 
skins at it. It bears every mark of great age 
and wear. 22. Earring] rather. 'nose-ring.' 
It hung from the left nostril. Such rings are 
still the betrothal present in Arabia : see on 
rings at Ex32 2 . 24. See 22 23 . 

49. Turn to the right hand, or to the left] 
i.e. ' to search in other families for the woman 



he desires ' (D.). 50. Speak . . bad or 

good] say l yes ' or ' no.' 53. See on 

Gn 12 16 . 58. Wilt thou go with this man ? 
And she said, I will go] ' In W. Asia marriage 
consists in the betrothal or the contract, some- 
times written, but more commonly verbal, of 
the parties concerned, after which nothing 
remains but the removal of the bride from 
her father's house to that of the bridegroom 
or of his father. Isaac married Rebekah by 
proxy through a simple verbal contract ' 
(Van Lennep). 59. Her nurse] Deborah. 

Her death is mentioned in 35 8 . In 29 24 > 29 
we have other instances that a handmaid 
formed part, if not all, of the bride's dowry. 

62. Lahai-roi] near Beer-sheba : see 16 14 . 

63. Meditate] naturally, on the bride he 
had not seen and whose coming he awaited. 
But the Syriac version reads, ' to walk in the 
fields.' 64. She lighted off] to show re- 
spect. 65. She took a vail] It is the cus- 
tom for the bride to appear veiled before the 
bridegroom until they are married : cp. 29 23 * 25 . 

CHAPTER 25 

The Sons of Abraham by Keturah. 
Death and Burial of Abraham. De- 
scendants OF ISHMAEL. BlRTH AND 
Youth of Esau and Jacob 

1. It is not known at what period of his 
life Abraham took Keturah as his secondary 
wife or concubine ; for it is clear from v. 6 and 
1 Ch 1 32 that she only held that position. Some 
of the names of Keturah' s children have been 
identified in Arabia as tribes. 2. Midian] 

The Midianites became a considerable nation, 
spreading over the country S. and SE. of 
Palestine from Moab to the Gulf of Akaba. 
6. Concubines] Hagar and Keturah : see on 
22 24 . Sent them away . . eastward] to- 

wards Arabia, where they founded nations. 

8. Gave up the ghost] an expression taken 
from the Genevan Bible. The Hebrew word 
means simply ' to die,' lit. ' come to an end.' 
Was gathered to his people] joined his an- 
cestors in the unseen world. The expression 
cannot refer to the actual burial of Abraham 
with his forefathers, since they lay at Haran 
and Ur. We may probably see in it a vague 
belief in future existence. Cp. David's words 
on the death of his son (2 S 1 2 2 3, also Gn 35 ™). 

13. The descendants of Ishmael settled gene- 
rally in N.Arabia, and with the Joktanites (1 26 ), 
or 'pure Arabs,' of Arabia Felix, formed the 
great Arab race scattered over Syria and the 
shores of the Persian Gulf. Nebajoth] the 
Nabateans became an important people after 
the death of Alexander the Great. Their chief 
town was Petra in Idumeea. The name became 
synonymous with Arabians, and all the land be- 
tween the Euphrates and the Gulf of Akaba was 



25. 16 



GENESIS 



26. 



at one time called Nabatene. Kedar] a people 
often mentioned in OT. : they dwelt between 
Arabia and Babylonia. 16. Towns and 
castles] RV ' villages and encampments.' The 
Arabs may be distinguished as ' nomad ' (wan- 
dering, pastoral) and k agricultural ' (with fixed 
habitations) ; the distinction is already marked 
in this passage. 18. Havilah] near the Per- 
sian Gulf. Shur] the desert between Egypt 
and Palestine. The lands to S. and E. of Pales- 
tine generally are meant. Before Egypt, 
as thou goest toward Assyria] rather, ' E. of 
Egypt in the direction of Assyria,' i.e. in N. 
Arabia. He died in the presence of] see on 16 12 . 

19. Isaac] 'In Genesis Isaac appears 
throughout as the pale copy of his father. He 
is the son of promise and inherits his position, 
and the possessions and the blessings won by 
his father. He follows in Abraham's footsteps 
without his strength of character and purpose. 
In quietness and patience he faithfully pre- 
serves his inheritance, serves his father's God, 
and in turn like Abraham is guided, preserved, 
and blessed by him ' (D.). 20. Padan-aram] 
' the plains of Syria,' the same as Mesopotamia. 
22. The children struggled] significant of the 
contests to come, between the brothers, and the 
nations descended from them, Israel and Edom. 
If it be so, why am I thus ?] i.e. perhaps, If I 
have conceived, what is the significance of 
these struggles ? but RV gives ' If it be so, 
wherefore do I live ?' since I suffer such pain. 
Enquire of the LORD] l Nothing is more natural 
than that the Hebrew author intended to in- 
timate that Rebekah enquired of God through 
Abraham the prophet, her father-in-law, who 
still survived ' (Kalisch). 

23. Note the poetical form of the oracle. See 
RV. Shall be separated, etc.] or ' From thy 
womb they will separate from one another,' i. e. 
be at variance from their birth. The elder 
shall serve the younger] the descendants of 
the elder son (the Edomites) would be subject 
to those of the younger (the Israelites). See 
on 27 40 . The knowledge of this prediction 
explains in some measure the later conduct 
of Rebecca and Jacob. 25. Esau] meaning 
uncertain. Some render ' hairy.' 

26. Jacob] i.e. following at the heel. See 
Beau's allusion to the name (27 3(3 ), giving it a 
sinister sense, as suited to Jacob's plotting 
nature. The words Jacob and Joseph, com- 
pounded with -el or -ilu (= god), have been 
found as names in Assyrian inscriptions earlier 
1 ban tins period. 

27. Cunning] i.e. clever. Plain] RM 
'quirt' or 'harmless.' Dwelling in tents] 
preferring home pursuits. 28. The evil of 
such marked preferences in families appears 
plainly in the narrative. 29. Sod] or 
'seethed." i.e. boiled. 30. Red pottage] 
lit. ' red stuff.' Esau in his haste did not define 



its nature. It was a mess of lentils (3-4). It 
is said that such pottage is, or was, distributed 
at the mosque at Hebron in memory of the 
event. Edom] i.e. 'red.' Probably here, as 
in many other instances in these ancient narra- 
tives of Genesis, we have the popular derivation 
of the names of well-known people and places. 
Edom is so called from the ' red ' colour of its 
sandstone cliffs. Here Esau afterwards settled : 
see c. 36. 

31. Sell me . . thy birthright] The birthright 
included the headship of the family, a double 
portion of the inheritance (Dt21 17 ), priestly 
rights (in these early daj r s), and in the family 
of Abraham heirship to the covenant privileges. 
Perhaps all that was involved in the birthright 
here, however, was the double inheritance ; as 
in 27 36 it is directly contrasted with the bless- 
ing which involved the primacy in the family 

(2728,29). 

The character of Esau has many attractive 
features ; but he cared only for the pleasure 
of the moment and was without any lofty 
spiritual aspirations. His generous, warm- 
hearted spirit attracts sympathy at first sight, 
when contrasted with the wiles of the cold, 
calculating Jacob. But judged by a higher 
standard Esau appears plainly as a worldly, 
irreligious man, indifferent to his parents' 
wishes, uninterested in the divine covenant, 
and unmindful of the privileges and responsi- 
bilities which were to distinguish his race : 
cp. 26 34 27 46 . His character is summed up in 
Hebl2 16 » 17 , where he is called a 'profane,' i.e. 
unconsecrated or common person. 

The character of Jacob is in marked con- 
trast to that of Esau. Craftiness and subtilty. 
even meanness and deceit, mark many of his 
actions ; but, on the other hand, his patient 
endurance, strength of character, and warmth 
of affection call forth admiration. Long years 
of suffering and discipline were needed to 
purify his character from its baser elements, 
and make him worthier of the divine blessing. 
And certainty he was worthier than his brother, 
for he believed in and sought after his father's 
God, held spiritual things in reverence, and 
in the chief turning-points of his life, at Bethel, 
Haran, and Penuel, showed a conviction that 
God was with him to bless and guide. He 
stood out at last as one who has conquered 
himself, and proved himself to be worthy of 
the divine favour and patience, Israel, a prince 
with God. These considerations help us to 
understand why Jacob rather khan Esau was 
selected as heir to the promises. See also 
Bo 9. 

CHAPTER 26 

Isaac at Gerar 

Many of the notes on chs. 20, 21 are applic- 
able to this c. It is thought probable that 



32 



26. 2 



GENESIS 



27. 40 



the present narrative is in the main a repetition 
from another source of events already recorded. 

2. Go not down into Egypt] to get food as 
Abraham did. The covenant blessing is re- 
newed and the possession of Canaan assured 
to Isaac. He is encouraged to stay in Canaan 
in dependence on God. 7. My sister] The 
expression might mean cousins. 

12. An hundredfold] Though very large, 
such a crop is not unknown. Isaac's obedience 
in not going to Egypt had its reward. 

15. It is said that Arabs still fill up the 
wells on pilgrimage roads, if they do not 
receive the toll they demand. The conduct of 
Abimelech's people was a violation of the 
agreement of 21 25 " 31 . Geikie, in his 'Hours 
with the Bible,' gives some interesting informa- 
tion respecting wells in Palestine : — 

' The upper porous limestone of the central 
hills, and indeed of Palestine generally, allows 
the rain to a large extent to filter through it 
to an underlying sheet of hard limestone, 
which slopes towards the sea, forming a shelf 
on which the water flows in a subterranean 
stream below the whole coastplain from N. to 
S. Hence it is only necessary to sink a well 
to reach a copious supply of living water.' 

20-22. Esek] 'contention.' Sitnah] 'En- 
mity.' Rehoboth] 'enlargement,' i.e. room to 
settle. 26-31. Isaac and*Abimelech make 
a covenant to abstain mutually from aggres- 
sions. 30. See on 27 3 . . 

33. Shebah] RV ' Shibah,' i.e. ' oath,' in 
allusion to the covenant. See on 21 31 . 

34. Here we have another proof of Esau's 
indifference to the family traditions and 
covenant obligations. Both Abraham and 
Isaac strongly condemned marriage with the 
inhabitants of the land who were outside the 
covenant of promise : see 24 3 28 1 . 

CHAPTER 27 

Jacob by Subtilty obtains the Blessing 

Urged on by his mother, Jacob attempts by 
unworthy means to secure the blessing of the 
firstborn with all the privileges it involved. 
But the wrongdoing of the actors in the story 
was soon followed by the suffering which 
assuredly waits on sin. To quote Delitzsch : 
' (a) Isaac suffers for his preference for Esau, 
which was not determined by the will of God 
but by his weak affection : (b) Esau suffers 
for despising the blessing of the firstborn : 
(c) Rebekah suffers for her connivance, by 
separation from her favourite son whom 
she never saw again, (d) Jacob, from the 
time when he confirmed himself in the 
possession of the sinfully acquired birthright 
by sinfully acquiring the blessing, had to 
endure a long strain of hardship and 
disappointments which made him feel how 



he had sinned against his father and brother. 
Yet these were at the same time the means of 
his education by which his ignoble nature was 
to be done away, and himself made worthy of 
being one in the line of those who inherited 
the promises.' This c. belongs to the Primitive 
narrative. 

I. Isaac was old] He was about 120, and 
both he and Esau thought that his death was 
at hand (vv. 2, 41). According to 35 27 " 29 he lived 
sixty years longer ; and Jacob and Esau, their 
old strife put away, were present at his burial : 
but it must be noted that that passage is from 
a different (the Priestly) source, which has 
a different chronology from the Primitive 
document. 

4. That my soul may bless thee before I 
die] In purposing to give the blessing to Esau, 
his firstborn son, Isaac was acting in opposi- 
tion to the expressed decree of God: see 25 23 . 

5-14. Rebekah knew that the blessing was 
to be Jacob's ; she therefore used this device 
to prevent an injustice from being done, and 
to obtain the fulfilment of God's purpose. 
That, however, she should have left to God 
to carry out. in His way. Such ' pious frauds ' 
are the outcome of a weak faith in the wisdom 
and method of the divine providence. The 
present narrative disproves the worldly maxim 
that ' the end justifies the means.' 

II. Hairy man] see 25 25 . 15. Goodly 
raiment] RV ' the goodly raiment,' his better 
clothes which were at home in his tent. 

28', 29. The blessing as here recorded refers 
first to the fruitful land the supposed Esau 
would inherit, and then to his lordship over 
his brethren and other tribes. In 28 3 , which 
belongs to the Priestly source, the ' blessing 
of Abraham ' is expressed in another form 
characteristic of that source. 28. The dew 
of heaven] greatly valued in hot climates 
where rain often does not fall from April to 
September. 

33. Yea, and he shall be blessed] Isaac 
evidently feels that the purposes of God are 
not to be thwarted by his own preferences, and 
does not withdraw the blessing from Jacob. 

36. Supplanted] see on 25 26 . 39. Shall 
be the fatness] rather, ' Shall be away from 
the fatness.' Read thus, the prophecy is in 
agreement with the general barrenness of Edom 
or Seir, where the descendants of Esau dwelt. 

40. Shalt serve thy brother] Throughout 
OT. history we read of the subjugation of the 
Edomites to Israel, varied by their throwing 
off the yoke in troublous times : see 2S8 14 
1K11 lChl8 13 2Ch21. About 100 B.C. the 
Maccabean prince, John Hyrcanus, subdued 
the Edomites and compelled them to receive 
circumcision, after which they formed one 
people with the Jews. Herod, the Edomite, 
ruled Judaea in our Lord's day. 



33 



n. 4i 



GENESIS 



41. Days of mourning] see on v. 1. 

44. Tarry with him a few days] It was 

twenty years before Jacob returned from 
Haran ; and Rebekah, so far as we know, 
never saw him again. 45. Deprived also of 
you both] of Jacob by death, and of Esau 
through punishment as a murderer. 

46. This verse must be read in connexion 
with 28 1 ; 27 46 -28 9 are from the Priestly source 
and continue the narrative of 26 34 > 35 , without 
any reference to 27 lA5 . Rebekah suggests to 
Isaac as the reason for Jacob's departure that 
it was desirable that Jacob, as the acknow- 
ledged heir, should seek a wife among his 
relatives at Haran, as Isaac had done before 
him (c. 24). Esau's heathen marriages had 
evidently caused his parents much unhappi- 
ness : see 26 34 > 35 and notes. 

CHAPTER 28 

Jacob departs for Padan-aram. His 
Dream at Bethel 

1-4. Isaac bids Jacob seek one of the 
daughters of his uncle Laban in marriage, 
and assures him that the blessings and pro- 
mises bestowed on Abraham should fall to 
him as heir. 

6-9. Esau's marriage, though well meant, 
was only a union with the seed of the Egyptian 
bondservant, and therefore not one of the 
pure Hebrew race. 

10. After journeying for some days, Jacob 
reaches the district in the mountains of 
Ephraim, where Abraham had rested, when 
entering Canaan, and built an altar (12 8 ). 
The strata of limestone rock, of which the 
hills around are composed, take the form of 
steps rising above each other, and we can 
well believe that as Jacob lay down to rest, 
their form lent shape to the vision which 
followed. In his dream he sees a ladder, or, 
rather, a ' staircase,' uniting earth and heaven, 
and on it angelic messengers ascending and 
descending. Doubtless this was to assure 
him that, although he was in distress and flee- 
ing for his life, he was yet the object of God's 
love and care. He was to learn that all that 
should happen to him in the future was a part 
of the working out of the divine providence. 
Our Lord alludes to this passage in Jnl 61 . 

16. Jacob perceives that, though he has 
left his father's home at Heer-sheha, his father's 
G-od is still watching over hixiL In these early 
days the i<lea of Jehovah as the God of the 
universe, and not of the nation only, was not 

realised : <•,, Jgll28,84 

18. The stone] Jacob set up the stone as 
marking the spot hallowed by God's presence, 
and consecrated it by pouring oil upon it. On 
his return to Palestine (c. 35) he set up an 
altar by it in fulfilment of his vow in this c. 



29.1 



The belief that a stone or pillar was the abode 
of deity was common among primitive peoples. 
The stone which Jacob set up was the symbol 
of the presence of the divine spirit, which he 
probably believed to be in some way connected 
with it, seeing that he called the stone ' God's 
house.' Jacob shared the beliefs of his age, 
and his idea of God, like his character, was 
only gradually purified. In consequence of 
the abuse of these sacred stones in the worship 
of the Canaanites, their erection was forbidden 
by the Law; cp. Lv26 x , where 'standing 
image ' should be rendered ' pillar ' or ' obelisk,' 
also Dtl2 3 . There is a well-known tradition 
that Jacob's stone was brought in after ages 
to Scotland, and finally placed under the coro- 
nation chair in Westminster Abbey. But the 
fact that ■ all the rock at Bethel is limestone, 
whereas the stone in the Abbey is common 
granite ' (Harper), removes any foundation for 
the legend. 

19. Beth-el] 'the house of God.' In the 
period of the Judges, Bethel became the chief 
religious centre of the northern tribes. The 
ark was stationed there (Jg20 18 ); it was fre- 
quented as a place for sacrifice, and. for con- 
sulting the divine oracle (Jg20 18 > 25 RV). 
Under Jeroboam I it became the religious 
capital of the Northern Kingdom. Here and 
at Dan the golden* calves were set up (IK 12). 
Under Jeroboam II the sanctuary reached the 
summit of its renown, but the worship was 
corrupt, and was denounced by Amos and 
Hosea: see Am 3 1 * 4 * HoslO 15 RV. 

19. Luz] an old Canaanite city, after- 
wards called Bethel because of its proximity 
to that sanctuary. 20-22. The first vow 
mentioned in Scripture. Jacob vows that in 
return for God's protecting care, if he is 
spared to return, he will regard this stone as 
a holy spot, and set apart a tithe of all he 
gains to religious purposes. In Am4 4 it is 
said that it was customary to pay tithes at 
Bethel, a practice based perhaps on this oc- 
currence. 

CHAPTER 29 

Jacob in Mesopotamia with Laban 

The divine care and blessing promised to 
Jacob at Bethel (28 15 ) are illustrated in the 
narrative of the sojourn of the patriarch at 
Haran, which apparently lasted for twenty 
years (31 41 ), after which he returned to the 
land of promise, blessed with a numerous 
family, and rich in goods. But equally marked 
is the severe discipline to which he was sub- 
jected in order that the darker features in his 
character might be purified, and that he might 
learn to put his reliance, not in unworthy 
scheming, but in simple faith in the love and 
blessing of the God of Abraham and Isaac. 

1. The land of the people of the east] a 



34 



29. 3 



GENESIS 



30. 35 



general term for the lands eastward of Pales- 
tine, here e.g. Mesopotamia: cp. Job 13. 

3. A well often belonged to two or three 
families. The opening was covered with a 
heavy stone which could only be moved by 
the united efforts of the shepherds of their 
several flocks. By this device it was impos- 
sible for one, more than another, to obtain an 
undue share of the precious water. 4. 

Haran] see on ll 31 . 5. The son of Nahor] 
rather, ' grandson.' Laban was the son of 
Bethuel (28 5 ). II. Wept] with joy at 
finding himself among friends again. 

15. What shall thy wages be?] Laban 
was a covetous man and, as will be seen, took 
every advantage of Jacob to retain his ser- 
vices. 17. Leah was tender-eyed] rather, 
' weak-eyed,' perhaps from ophthalmia, so 
common in the East. Leah means • gazelle,' 
Rachel, ' ewe.' 18. Jacob had no rich gifts 
to offer for Rachel, such as Abraham sent for 
Rebekah (24 53 ). He therefore offered his 
services. Kitto says that ' personal servitude 
to the father is still in some places in the 
East, including to this day Palestine, the price 
paid by young men who have no other means 
of providing the payment which a father has 
always been entitled to expect for his daughter, 
as compensation for the loss of her domestic 
services.' 22. A feast] the wedding feast. 
23-25. Jacob the deceiver is now the de- 
ceived. The bride would be closely veiled 
(see 24 65 ), and, it being night, Leah suc- 
cessfully connived at her father's deception. 
24. The female slave was a usual part of the 
bride's dowry. 26. The custom which La- 
ban pleaded was not uncommon. Among the 
Hindoos it is a law not to give the younger 
daughter in marriage until the elder is married. 

27. Fulfil her week] i.e. celebrate Leah's 
bridal festivities for the usual seven days : cp. 
Jgl4 12 . 28. At the end of the seven days 
Jacob received Rachel as his wife : but he had 
to serve Laban for her other seven years. 
Though the blame in the matter rests with 
Laban rather than Jacob, who must have re- 
garded Rachel as his true wife, we shall see, 
as in the case of Abraham, the unhappiness 
and jealousy which too often attended such 
double unions. 31. Hated] The word means 
no more than that Jacob preferred Rachel: 
see v. 30. 

32-35. Reuben] 'behold, a son.' But the 
writer derives the name from Raah beonyi, 
' looked on my affliction ' : see on 4 l . Simeon] 
1 hearing.' Levi] ' joined.' Judah] ' praise.' 

CHAPTER 30 

Jacob's Children. His Stratagem to 
increase his property 

i. Rachel envied her sister] To be childless 



was regarded as a great reproach: cp. Lkl 25 . 
Fruitfulness meant an addition of strength 
and prosperity to a family. 3. By this 

symbolic act Bilhah's children would be legally 
regarded as Rachel's : cp. 16 x note. 6. Dan] 
' judging.' God had judged her case and decided 
in her favour by giving her, after a fashion, a 
child. 8. Great wrestlings] lit. ' wrestlings 
of God,' an emphatic expression : cp. 10 9 
and 13 13 . Naphtali] ' my wrestling.' Ra- 
chel regarded this child as a victory over her 
more fruitful sister. II. A troop cometh] 

RV ' Fortunate ! ' Gad] RM ' Fortune.' 
13. Asher] ' happy,' or 'blessed.' 14. Man- 
drake] or ' love apple.' A dwarf plant with 
large grey leaves and whitish-green blossoms. 
It yields in the spring a yellow fruit like 
a small tomato, and was believed to pro- 
duce fruitfulness. 18-24. Note double de- 
rivations of names, due to the two traditions. 
18. Issachar] 'there is a reward' or 'hire.' 
20. Zebulun] assonant with Zabal, ' to dwell.' 
It may also mean ' endowed.' 21. Dinah] 
' judgment,' the feminine corresponding to 
Dan. Perhaps Leah chose this name for the 
same reason that Rachel called her son Dan: 
see on v. 6. Jacob had other daughters (37 35 ), 
but probably Dinah is mentioned because of 
the episode in c. 34. 

22. At last Rachel receives a son, though 
not by her human devices, but by God's grace 
and favour. 24. Joseph] i.e. may God 

add a son. ' Taking away ' the reproach of 
childlessness is another meaning. 

27. Learned by experience] R V ' divined ' : 
by omens, etc. Laban does not want to lose 
Jacob. 

31-43. Jacob by a stratagem possesses him- 
self of a large portion of his uncle's flocks. 
The natural craftiness of the patriarch comes 
out very strongly in the transaction, but Laban 
undoubtedly had already obtained Jacob's 
services for fourteen years by mean and un- 
worthy devices, and had given him no oppor- 
tunity of enriching himself, nor had he assisted 
his daughters (31 15 . 16 ). 32. As sheep are 
usually white, and goats either black or brown, 
Jacob proposes that Laban should keep these, 
whilst the few speckled or spotted ones should 
fall to him as his wage. 23- Jacob stakes 
his reputation that Laban shall never find any 
white sheep or black goats in his (Jacob's) 
flocks. 35. Ringstraked] ' striped.' 

35-42. It would appear that Laban, after 
sorting out Jacob's speckled sheep and goats 
from his own pure ones, gave the former in 
charge of his sons to be kept at a distance from 
his own, thereby hoping to prevent there being 
any more spotted ones born in his own flock, 
which he would have to give to Jacob. Jacob 
meanwhile had to remain and look after 
Laban's flocks. But Jacob had other plans for 



35 



30. 36 



GENESIS 



31. 54 



increasing his possessions. By the device der 
scribed in vv. 37, 38 (which he only employed 
when the stronger ewes were breeding, v. 41), 
he brought it about that Laban's pure ewes 
produced speckled lambs, which he claimed as 
his own. In addition he arranged to keep 
these speckled kids and lambs in view of 
Laban's ewes with the same result (v. 40), thus 
gradually acquiring flocks of his own. 

36. Betwixt himself and Jacob] Note that 
LXX and Samaritan versions read 'between 
them (i.e. Jacob's flock) and Jacob.' 

37. Poplar . . hazel . . chesnut] rather, 'sto- 
rax,' ' almond,' ' plane.' 

CHAPTER 31 
Jacob's Return from Haran 
4-13. Jacob attributes his prosperity to 
God's favour. 14-16. Rachel and Leah 
point out that their father had no claim on 
them, since Jacob had won them by his services, 
and Laban had given them no share in the 
profits he had made through their husband's 
labours. They agree to leave their home. 

19. The images] Heb. teraphim. These 
were figures of metal, wood, or clay of vary- 
ing sizes, apparently in human form. They 
probably answered to the ' Lares and Penates,' 
or household gods of the Romans, which 
Were supposed to ward off danger from the 
home and to bring luck. This would explain 
Rachel's reason for stealing them. Laban speaks 
of them as ' my gods ' in v. 30. There is an 
interesting reference to them in 1S19 13 > 16 . 
From Ezk21 21 RV it is clear they were con- 
nected with magic and soothsaying. It has been 
suggested that in some cases the teraphim were 
mummied human heads, perhaps of ancestors, 
and were consulted in some way as an oracle. 
Whatever they were, it is not probable that 
their possession by the Jews interfered seri- 
ously with belief in and worship of God, though 
we find their use rightly denounced as super- 
stitious. The following passages refer to the 
teraphim: Jgl7* 1S15 23 RV 2K2324RV 
Hos3 4 Zechl0 2 RY. Payne Smith remarks 
on ' the tendency of uneducated minds, even 
when their religion is in the main true, to 
add to it soi in' superstitions, especially in the 
way of fashioning for themselves some lower 
mediator.' 

21. The river] the Euphrates. Gilead] 

Hebrew territory E. <>f the Jordan. 

24. Either good or bad] cp. 24 50 . God 
warns Laban to restrain In-- feelings. 

27. Tabret] i.e. 'tambourine.' 30. My 
godsj Bee on v. 19. 34- The camel's furni- 

ture] :i Borl or palanqnin or baskel -seal bonnd 
upon the camel. 40. Frost by night] Hot 
as the days are in the East, it often Incomes 
very cold when the sun goes down. 42. The 



fear of Isaac] the God whom Isaac feared and 
reverenced. 43-52. Laban and Jacob con- 
clude a covenant of friendship. ' The narra- 
tive . . is disconnected, and full of duplications, 
and is certainly the result of a union of several 
sources ' (D.). The main features are the erec- 
tion of a great stone as a memorial pillar by 
Jacob, and the collection of a heap of stones on 
which the covenant meal was held : cp. 26 30 . 
The cairn of stones and pillar were erected as 
witnesses to Jacob's promise that he would 
not ill-treat Laban's daughters, and to an 
agreement pledging both Jacob and Laban to 
regard Mt. Gilead as a boundary which neither 
must cross with hostile motives. The narra- 
tive was of special interest in after times as 
the original settlement of the border between 
Israel and Syria (represented by Jacob and 
Laban). 

47. Jegar-sahadutha . . Galeed] We have 
here the popular etymology of the name 
Gilead. Both words in the text mean ' heap 
of witness,' the former being Aramaic, the 
latter Hebrew. The double designation is due 
to the fact that the place is regarded as a 
boundary between Syria and Israel. It may 
be remarked here that Hebrew is but one 
branch of a great.family of languages spoken 
in Western Asia between the Mediterranean 
and the Euphrates, to which the general name 
of Semitic is applied. This is usually divided 
into (1) the South Semitic, which includes 
Arabic, classical and modern, and Ethiopic ; 
and (2) the North Semitic. The latter 
again comprises three main branches, viz. 
(a) Assyrian-Babylonian in the East, the lan- 
guage of the cuneiform inscriptions ; (b) Ara- 
maic, in the northern parts of Mesopotamia 
and Syria ; it is to this dialect, incorrectly 
styled Chaldee, that the first name in the text 
belongs, and in it certain parts of Ezra and 
Daniel are written. From Isa36 n we gather 
that it was used as the diplomatic language in 
the 8th cent. B.C. ; and it ultimately took the 
place of Hebrew as the language of Palestine. 
The language of the Jewish Targums is a form 
of Aramaic, and so too is Syriac. The third 
branch of the North Semitic language is (c) the 
Canaanitic, which comprises Hebrew, and 
closely connected with it, Phoenician or Punic. 
From this table it appears that Abraham 
coming from the East would find in Canaan a 
dialect very closely akin to that with which he 
was familiar, and that he (or his descendants) 
adopted it, In all probability his native dialect 
was Aramaic, spoken at Haran in Mesopotamia. 
Or he may have spoken the language of 
Assyria, which, as the Tel-el Amarna tablets 
show, was the official language of communica- 
tion between Palestine and Egypt in the 15th 
cent. B.C. 

49. Mizpah] l outlook place.' 54. Did 



36 



31. 55 



GENESIS 



34. 13 



eat bread] in token of friendship. 55. It is 
pleasant to read of this happy ending to years 
of strife. 

CHAPTER 32 

The Approach of Esau. Jacob Wres- 
tles with the Angel 

1. The angels of God] God had given Jacob, 
by an angelic vision, a pledge of His watchful 
love, when he left his home (28 12 ). Now 
that he was returning to Canaan after twenty 
years, and with dangers at hand, God renews 
this assurance by another heavenly vision. 

2. God's host] Heb. Mahanaim. It was an 
important city in Gilead. 3. The land of 
Seir] or Edom, S. of the Dead Sea, where Esau 
settled (36 8 ). 6, 7. Esau's large retinue 
alarms Jacob, since their parting had been a 
hostile one. 

9-12. Jacob's prayer is a pattern of hu- 
mility, earnestness, and faith in God's pro- 
mises. 10. With my staff, etc.] When 
Jacob first left Canaan he was a lonely way- 
farer with no companion but his staff : now, 
blest by God, he returns with a numerous 
family and large possessions. 

22. The ford Jabbok] i.e. 'wrestler.' Read, 
'the ford of the Jabbok,' a stream which flows 
from the neighbourhood of Rabbath Ammon 
into the Jordan opposite Shechem. 

24-32. The writer of this passage, it can 
hardly be doubted, was thinking of a physical 
wrestling. Like the men of his day, he had 
not reached the idea of the purely spiritual 
nature of God, and could only conceive of Him 
in a materialistic way. Practically, it is thus 
God is still thought and spoken of, as pure 
spirit is a condition of being which it is hardly 
possible for us to understand. In the nar- 
rative there is portrayed a spiritual experience 
through which Jacob passed at a critical 
moment of his life, and in which he received 
the final lesson that humbled and broke down 
his self-will, and convinced him that he could 
not snatch the blessing from God's hand, but 
must accept it as a gift of grace. 

28. Israel] 'Perseverer with God.' 'As the 
name was to the Hebrews the symbol or ex- 
pression of the nature, the change of name is 
significant of the moral change in the patriarch 
himself ; he is no longer Jacob the Supplanter, 
the Crafty one, the Overreacher, but Israel the 
Perseverer with God, who is worthy also to 
prevail': cp. Hosl2 4 . ' The incident serves 
to explain further the name Peuuel, " Face of 
God " ; " for," said Jacob, " I have seen God 
face to face, and yet my life is preserved " (in 
allusion to the belief that no one could " see 
God and live," Exl9 21 3320 Jg 6 22 1322). 
The narrator deduces also from this incident 
the custom of not eating in animals the muscle 
corresponding to the one which was. strained 



in Jacob's thigh ; it was treated as sacred 
through the touch of God.' See HDB. art. 
'Jacob.' As a prince hast thou power] 

RV ' Thou hast striven.' 29. Wherefore is 
it, etc.] i.e. Surely you must know who I am. 



CHAPTER 33 

1-16. Jacob and Esau meet peaceably. 

17-20. Jacob settles in Canaan. 

3. Bowed seven times] in token of submis- 
sion to Esau. 4. Jacob's prayer (32 n ) is 
answered, and Esau, whatever his original 
purpose, now shows his brother only goodwill 
and affection. 10. I have seen thy face, etc.] 
i.e. I find thee as favourable to me as God is, 
alluding, no doubt, to the name Peniel (32 30 ). 

11. My blessing] RV ' my gif t ' : the pre- 
sent which accompanied expressions of good- 
will. So Naaman said to Elisha, ' I pray thee, 
take a blessing of thy servant ' (2K5 15 ). 

12-16. Jacob was unwilling to refuse Esau, 
and yet thought it most prudent to keep apart 
from his hasty brother. He therefore made 
an excuse and crossed the Jordan into Canaan. 

17. Succoth] 'booths,' S. of the Jabbok and 
on the E. side of Jordan. Succoth and Penuel 
are mentioned together in Jg8. 18. To 

Shalem, a city of Shechem] RY ' in peace to 
the city of Shechem.' But there is a village 
called Salim 3 m. E. of Shechem. Here Jacob 
settled for some eight or ten years. The 
well which he dug still exists, though nearly 
choked with stones, some 1 J m. from Nablous. 
It was here that Christ conversed with the 
woman of Samaria (Jn 4). 19. Pieces of 
money] Heb. Kesitah, probably bars or rings 
of silver of a certain weight. See on 23 16 , 
also Job 42 n . 20. El-elohe- Israel] i.e. El 
(God) is the God of Israel (Jacob's new name). 

CHAPTER 34 

The Dishonour done to Dinah, and the 
Crafty Revenge of Simeon and Levi 

1. Went out to see the daughters of the 
land] According to Josephus there was a 
festival among the Canaanites at Shechem. 

7. Folly] The term is frequently applied 
in the moral sense as equivalent to immorality : 
see Dt222i Jg206 2 S 13 12, and frequently in 
Proverbs, as 7 7 f . A world of argument lies in 
the scriptural identification of wickedness and 
folly. The moral man is the wise man. In 

Israel] The author anticipates the national 
name. 12. Dowry and gift] The former 

was the price paid to the relatives for the 
bride, the latter the gift to the bride. 

13-17. Simeon and Levi professed to have 
scruples in giving their sister to one who was 
of an uncircumcised race, but they had another 
motive : by procuring the circumcision of 



37 



34. 25 



GENESIS 



37. 



the tribe they were able to carry out their re- 
venge when the Shechemites were suffering 
from the effects of the rite. 25. Simeon, 
Levi, and Dinah were all children of Leah. 

29. Little ones] rather, 'household,' ser- 
vants, etc. 28-30. The murder of the 
Shechemites was a treacherous and cruel act. 
Jacob was deeply incensed at it, and on his 
deathbed (c. 49) denounced and cursed the 
murderers, though at the time he was chiefly 
concerned for the consequences of their con- 
duct. 30. Make me to stink] i.e. to be in 
bad odour, as we say : cp. Ex 5 21 . 

CHAPTER 35 

Jacob journeys by way op Bethel to 
Hebron. Death of Rachel and of 
Isaac 

1. Jacob is commanded to go to Bethel and 
fulfil the vow he had once made there (28 20 > 22 ). 

2. Strange gods] Perhaps the idols of some 
of Jacob's people who had come with him 
from Haran, such as the teraphim which 
Rachel carried off (31 19 ). Be clean, and 
change your garments] rites symbolising puri- 
fication from idolatry. 4. Earrings] worn 
superstitiously as charms, and often inscribed 
with magical formulas. The oak] It was 
here perhaps that Joshua, hundreds of years 
later, bade the Israelites put away the strange 
gods which were among them (Josh 24 23 " 26 ). 

5. They were divinely protected from any 
revenge the Shechemites may have meditated. 

7. El-beth-el] l the God of Bethel,' or ' the 
God of the House of God.' 8. Allon-ba- 
chuth] ' oak of weeping.' Deborah and Eliezer 
(c. 24) are good examples of the honourable 
position assigned to servants in times of patri- 
archal simplicity. Deborah means ' bee.' 

9-13. These vv. give the origin of the names 
' Israel ' and ' Bethel ' from the Priestly source. 
Note the absence of anthropomorphisms as 
compared with the account in 32 --■'*'-. 

14. A pillar] see on 28 18 . A drink offering] 
;i Libation of wine in token of thankfulness. 
Under the Law meat and drink off erings accom- 
panied the burnt sacrifice. 

16. Ephrath] or Bethlehem, 4 m. S. of Jeru- 
salem : cp. 48'Mic5 2 . 18. Ben-oni] 'son 
of my Borrow.' Benjamin] perhaps ' son of 
my right hand,' thai being the fortunate side, 
and BO a name of better omen. Another ren- 
dering is "son of days, 1 i.e. of Jacob's old age 
21. Tower of Edar] lit. ' tower of the flock,' 
probably between Bethlehem and Hebron. 
The name is used symbolically of Jerusalem 
in Mic4 8 . 22. By this crime Reuben, the 
eldest son, forfeited the birthright (49 s - 4 ) like 
Simeon and Levi before him : see on 34*. 

27. Jacob rejoins bis father after thirty 
years' separation. City of Arbah] Hebron : 



38 



see 23 2 . 28, 29. Isaac was buried in the 

cave at Machpelah, 49 81 . 

CHAPTER 36 

The Generations of Esau 

' The amount of detail here arises from the 
fact that Edom was always counted Israel's 
brother, and of great importance in the history 
of Israel. The Horites (" cave-dwellers ") were 
originally in the mountainous country of Seir 
(v. 20) ; the Hebrews under Esau entered and 
amalgamated with them. Esau married the 
Horite Aholibamah, and his son Eliphaz, the 
Horite Timna. They then became rulers of 
Seir to Akaba ; God gave it them as Canaan 
to Israel' (D.). See Dt 25. 

1. Esau, who is Edom] i.e. Esau, who was 
called Edom, and gave to his land his name : 
see on 25 30 . 2. The names of the wives of 
Esau given here vary from those mentioned in 
26 34 28 9 . The difficulties have never been 
explained, and are generally attributed to two 
irreconcilable traditions. Zibeon the Hiv- 
ite] a clerical error : read ' Horite.' Zibeon 
was doubtless a Horite or dweller in Mt. Hor : 
see v. 20. It was by the marriage mentioned 
here that Esau acquired his influence among 
the Horites, the aboriginal inhabitants of Seir : 
see on 14 6 . 

8, 9. The fact is dwelt on that the Edomite 
nation was descended from Esau. Mount 
Seir] a chain of mountains extending from the 
Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba. Mt. Hor is 
towards the centre of the range. Aaron was 
buried there : see on ]STu20 22f . 

12. Amalek] This does not mean that the 
great tribe of the Amalekites was descended 
from Edom, but that a branch became attached 
to the Edomites. 15. Dukes] RM ' chiefs.' 

24. The mules] ' the hot springs.' Such 
springs exist near the Dead Sea, and are 
much prized by the desert wanderers for their 
medicinal qualities. 

31. This v. shows the early development of 
the monarchy in Edom, and also that there 
were kings in Israel in the author's lifetime. 

37. River] either the Euphrates or the 
Wady el Arish : see on 15 18 . 

CHAPTER 37 

Jacob is Hated by his Brethren and 
Sold into Egypt 

With the exception of a few passages chiefly 
in chs. 46 and 49, the rest of the book of 
Genesis is taken from the Primitive source. 

The chief event with which the rest of 
Genesis is concerned, namely, the migration of 
Israel to Egypt, displays the working out of 
God's purposes declared in Gnl5. In Egypt 
the chosen race grew in peace from a tribe to 



37.2 



GEiNESIS 



39.6 



a nation, instead of having to encounter the 
hostility of the Canaanites as their numbers 
increased and their aspirations became known. 
In Egypt, too, they came in contact with a 
highly civilised and law-abiding nation, and 
learnt from them much of the highest value 
for the future. 

There are many points in the history of 
Joseph which remind us of Christ, e.g. in his 
being the loved son of his father, in his being 
sent to his brethren who hated and rejected 
him, in his humiliation and glory, and in the 
benefits he conferred on those among whom 
he came to dwell. 

2. The generations of Jacob] i.e. the history 
of Jacob's descendants, especially of Joseph. 
Their evil report] RY ' the evil report of 
them.' The sins of Jacob's sons in chs. 34, 
37, 38 afford plain evidence of their lawless 
characters. 3. A coat of many colours] 

RM ' a long garment with sleeves,' i.e. reach- 
ing to the ankles and wrists, and worn by 
persons of distinction. The ordinary coat had 
no sleeves and reached only to the knees. 

5. Joseph dreamed] The fact of the dreams 
indicates a contemplative disposition in 
Joseph : their character foreshadows his 
future pre-eminence among his brethren. 

10. Thy mother] According to 35 19 , Rachel 
was already dead : but critics assign that 
passage to a different source. 

13. Jacob was living at Hebron, but he had 
land at Shechem : see 33 18 > 19 . 15. In the 
field] i.e. in the open country. 17. Dothan] 

12 m. N. of Shechem. It was on the caravan 
route between Syria and Egypt. This explains 
the passing of the merchants. 

21 f. The narrative in this chapter appears 
to be drawn from two sources which give 
somewhat varying accounts of the way in 
which Joseph was rescued and sold without 
any attempt to harmonise them. In one it 
is Judah who defends him and Ishmaelites 
who buy him ; in the other it is Reuben and 
Midianites. 

24. A pit] These pits or, rather, cisterns 
are generally dry except in the rainy season. 
They are much smaller at top than bottom, 
that they may be the more easily closed. Some 
are 80 to 100 ft. deep : cp. Jer38 6 . 

25. Spicery, balm, and myrrh] fragrant 
gums from various trees, used in Egypt for 
making incense, and for embalming. 

28. Twenty pieces of silver] ' The price, in 
later times, of a male slave from five to twenty 
years old, the medium price being thirty shekels 
of silver or £4 ' (Edersheim). 29. Reuben 

had evidently been absent during this trans- 
action. 34. Sackcloth] a coarse material 
made of goats' hair, and worn next the skin 
in token of the affliction of the soul. 

35. The grave] the Heb. ' Sheol ' means 



39 



the place of departed souls. 36. Sold him] 
Syrian slaves were highly valued by the 
Egyptians. Potiphar] probably means ' the 
gift of Ra,' the sun-god of the Egyptians. 

Captain of the guard] i.e. of the bodyguard 
who protected Pharaoh's person and executed 
criminals : but some render ' chief of the 
butchers.' 

CHAPTER 38 

The Histoky of Judah 

The sins recorded in this chapter testify 
eloquently to the great need the world had of 
the Greatest of the descendants of Judah, who 
came to teach the virtue of purity and the 
sanctity of family life. The honesty and 
truthfulness of the historian are shown in his 
not concealing the dark spots in the history 
of Judah, whose descendants attained to such 
greatness. The direct purpose of the narrative 
is to show the ancestry of David, who was 
descended from Pharez the son of Judah by 
Tamar : see Ruth 418 MtlA 

1. Adullamite] Adullam was in the lowland 
of Judah, SW. of Jerusalem. 8. The law 
in Dt 25 5_1 °, respecting the duty of a surviving 
brother to marry his deceased brother's widow 
in order to continue the race, will fully explain 
the circumstances here detailed. To inculcate 
observance of this law was probably the aim 
of the historian. Had Judah given Shelah to 
Tamar, as he admitted he should have done 
according to ancient custom, the events re- 
corded here would not have happened : see 
alsoMt2223f. 13. Timnath] on the Philis- 
tine border of Judah. 14. An open place] 
RY ' the gate of Enaim,' near Adullam. 

15. Harlot] RM Heb. Kedeshah, 'that is, a 
woman dedicated to impure heathen worship : 
see Dt23!7 Hos4iV The surrender of their 
chastity as the greatest sacrifice women could 
make was common in heathen worship. At 
Corinth in St. Paul's day it is known that this 
shocking practice formed part of the ritual at 
the temples dedicated to Aphrodite. 

1 8. Bracelets] rather, ' cord ' by which the 
seal was suspended round the neck. 

26. The reason of Tamar's action may be 
found in the strong desire for the perpetuation 
of the family, so often observed in the sacred 
narrative. 

27-30. This incident testifies to the import- 
ance and privileges attached to the firstborn. 

Pharez] ' breach.' Zarah] perhaps ' scar- 
let,' but uncertain. 

CHAPTER 39 
Joseph in the House of Potiphar 

5. Overseer] rather, ' house-steward.' 

6. Potiphar left everything under Joseph's 
control except his own food. There may be 



39.7 



GENESIS 



41. 14 



here an allusion to the strict caste laws of 
Egypt: cp. 4332 4634. 

7. Joseph was yet but a youth, when tempta- 
tions are strongest, and he was far removed 
from all the restraining influences of home. 
But He who was ' the fear of Isaac' (31 42 ) 
was ' the fear of Joseph ' also, and his resolute 
resistance to temptation teaches that the 
prospect of earthly advantage or pleasure 
should never for a moment close our ears to 
the voice of conscience. 

A papyrus has been found called ' The Tale 
of Two Brothers,' which gives in Egyptian 
form some incidents similar to this narrative. 

8. Wotteth] RY ' knoweth.' 9. And sin 
against God] Other passages (e.g. 40 8 41 lt5 51 > 52 
4218 5019.20) s how that Joseph 'made the 
consciousness of God's presence and inter- 
vention in his affairs, a vital principle of his 
actions, the law of his life ' : cp. Neh5 15 . 

20. It is probable from the lightness of 
Joseph's punishment that Potiphar was not 
altogether convinced of his steward's guilt. 

CHAPTER 40 

Joseph interprets the Dreams op 
Pharaoh's Officers 

1. Butler] rather, 'cupbearer,' a high court 
official : cp. Nehl 11 2 1 . Baker] rather, 

' cook.' It is conjectured that these officials 
were accused of plotting to poison Pharaoh. 

8. No professional interpreter was avail- 
able : see on 41 s . Do not interpretations, 
etc.] i.e. It may be that God who sent the 
dreams will give me the interpretation of 
them. 9-1 1. Grape juice mixed with water 
is used as a refreshing drink in the East. 
Among the inscriptions on the temple of Edfu 
is one in which the king is seen with a cup in 
his hand, and underneath are the words, ' They 
press grapes into the water and the king 
drinks.' 16. White baskets] rather, ' baskets 
of white bread. 1 17. Bakemeats] i.e. con- 

fectionery. 19. Hang thee on a tree] rather, 
L impale thee on a stake' after being beheaded. 
Banging as a form of punishment is not re- 
ferred to, except in the book of Esther, the 
Scene Of which is laid in Persia. The birds 

shall eat, etc.] The Egyptians held that after 
.1 -t;i> ol' .'loon years in the unseen world, the 
-011I re-entered its former body, and com- 

menced a fresh existence on the earth. They 

therefore took the greatest pains to preserve 
the bodies of the dead : Bee on 50 2 . For a 
body t<. lie devoured by the l>inls. as Joseph 
Foretold, would be regarded as a terrible 
doom. 

CHAPTER 41 

Tin Di:i LM8 01 Mil LB v '11 WD nil. 
A n\ LNCEMENT OF JOSEPB 

i. Pharaoh] It is believed that a dynasty 



of Asiatic (perhaps Bedouin) conquerors, 
known as the Hyksos or Shepherd kings, 
were now in power in Egypt. Their rule 
lasted for 500 years, until 1700 or 1600 B.C., 
when a native Nubian dynasty from Thebes 
expelled the invaders. The court was at 
Zoan on the eastern frontier of Egypt. The 
elevation of Joseph to an almost royal posi- 
tion, and the welcome extended to his kinsmen, 
were natural at the hands of a dynasty who 
were Asiatic like himself, but very improbable 
had a native dynasty who hated foreigners 
been in power : see on Ex 1 8 . 

1. The river] Heb. Yeor, i.e. the Nile. 
As is generally known, the fertility of Egypt 
depends entirely upon the amount of water 
which overflows the banks when the Nile is at 
its highest. Without that river the land would 
be a desert, the rainfall being extremely slight. 

In recent years great improvements have 
been made for maintaining the water at a 
normal height always. Large ' barrages ' or 
dams have been erected at Assouan, by the 
island of Philoe, for this purpose. The arti- 
ficial irrigation of Egypt is alluded to in 
Dtll 10 , where see note. 

2, 3. The seven well favoured kine] coming 
up out of the Nile signified an abundant over- 
flow for seven years and consequent plenty 
for Egypt, but the ill favoured ones the reverse. 

Meadow] RV l reed grass' which grows by 
the Nile. 5. Seven ears . . upon one stalk] 
This many-eared wheat is still grown in Egypt. 
Specimens have been found in mummy cases 
of very early periods. 6. The east wind] 
the parching SE. wind from the desert ; see 
on ExlO 21 . 

8. Magicians] RM ' sacred scribes.' They 
were the literary caste of Egypt, writing the 
hieroglyphics, or sacred writings, and learned 
in the interpretation of dreams and astrology. 
They attended at the Court of the Pharaohs, 
and their duty was ' to guide every act of the 
king's life, and to interpret the will of the 
gods as shown in visions, omens, or signs in 
the heavens. They did not affect to speak by 
direct inspiration in giving their interpreta- 
tions, but confined themselves to consulting 
the holy books and to performing magical 
rites' ((ieikie). See on Ex 7 n . 

14. He shaved /must'//] so as to be 
ceremonially clean in Pharaoh's presence, a 
distinctively Egyptian trait. 'The Hebrews 
regarded their heard with peculiar pride, 
cultivated it with care, touched it at supplica- 
tions, often swore by it. and deemed its 
mutilation an extreme ignominy: hence, in 
mourning, they shaved their beards and hair ' 
( Kaliseh). The Egyptians, on the other hand, 
never allowed the hair to grow unless they 
were ill mourning, or prisoners, or belonged 
to the poorer classes. To be shaved was 



40 



41. 16 



GENESIS 



42. 11 



regarded as essential to ceremonial purity, as 
well as to cleanliness : see on Ex 8 16 . The 
great beards and head-dresses with which 
Egyptian kings are represented on the monu- 
ments are artificial. There is an ancient 
Egyptian wig in the British Museum, and the 
strap by which the beard was held on the chin 
may be observed on the monuments. 

1 6. Render, k It is not I but God who will 
answer what will profit Pharaoh.'- 

25. The dream of Pharaoh is one] i.e. both 
dreams have the same significance. The nar- 
rative here is a striking fulfilment of the 
words in 39 2 , ' The Lord was with Joseph.' 

34. Joseph's suggestion was that a fifth 
part of the corn crop should be required of 
the people for the next seven years to be 
stored up by the government ; this would 
keep a quantity in the country which would 
otherwise have been sold to other lands. The 
corn tax was already an important part of 
Egyptian revenue, and its increase in years 
of such abundant plenty would be no hardship. 
38. Pharaoh felt that Joseph's wisdom had 
a divine source. 40. Pharaoh makes Joseph 
his grand vizier or prime minister, only reserv- 
ing to himself the supreme authority. 

42. Ring . . vestures . . chain] ' The specu- 
lative mind of the Oriental invests everything 
with a symbolical significance ' (Kalisch). The 
ring was Pharaoh's signet or seal, snowing 
that Joseph was invested with full power as 
to edicts and commands. The king and the 
priestly order only wore the finest linen 
vestures. The chain round the neck from 
which the scarabaeus, or beetle, the emblem 
of immortality, was suspended, was also a 
mark of rank. 43. They cried] i.e. the 
grooms who ran before the chariot, as is done 
to the present day in Egypt. Bow the knee] 
Abrek, the word used here, is still the cry to 
the camel to kneel. 44. The exaltation of 
Joseph, who was a Hebrew, is less remarkable 
if the Pharaohs of this period were themselves 
of Asiatic descent. See on v. 1. 

45. Zaphnaph-paaneah] meaning, perhaps, 
' God, the Living One, has spoken.' It is a 
word of Egyptian origin, but not found earlier 
than the 9th cent. B.C. Asenath] ' One 
belonging to the goddess Neith, the Egyptian 
Minerva, goddess of wisdom.' Poti-pherah] 
'One given by Ra the sun-god.' On] or 
Heliopolis, ' city of the sun,' was 7 m. 
NE. of Cairo. It was the centre of the sun 
(Ra) worship. A great granite obelisk of the 
twelfth dynasty is all that remains standing of 
the temple of the sun, but a similar monolith 
known as ' Cleopatra's needle ' was brought 
from Alexandria to London in 1878, and 
erected on the Thames embankment. It had 
originally been one of the obelisks at Helio- 
polis. It is held that these obelisks were the 



symbol of Ra, the fertilising sun-god. In 
Jer 43 13 On is called Beth-shemesh, ' house of 
the sun.' 

This marriage, no doubt, exalted Joseph in 
the eyes of the Egyptians, but there is 
abundant evidence that he did not forsake the 
faith of his fathers on account of these 
new ties. 

46. Thirty years old] he was seventeen when 
sold into Egypt (37 2 ). 51,52. Manasseh] 
i causing to forget.' Ephraim] ' fruitful.' 

The first name suggests that Joseph felt in 
his present prosperity compensation for his 
early trials. 54. Seven years of dearth] 
A similar visitation took place between the 
years 1064-1071 a.d., and this also was caused 
through the failure of the Nile. There is a 
record on the monuments of a great famine 
in Egypt 3000 B.C. In Canaan such a scarcity 
would be due to insufficient rainfall. 

56. Over all the face of the earth] an 
expression for the countries near Egypt, such 
as Arabia, Palestine, and parts of Africa. 
And Joseph opened all the storehouses] Dr. 
Brugsch has discovered a tomb at El-Kab 
with an inscription which very possibly refers 
to this famine. Its occupant seems to have 
been one of the distributors of corn during 
the famine years. The following extract 
refers to it : 1 1 collected the harvest, for I 
was a friend of the harvest god. I was watch- 
ful at the time of sowing, and now when a 
famine came lasting many years I issued corn 
to the city to each hungry person.' 

CHAPTER 42 

The First "Visit of Joseph's Brethren 
to Egypt 

1. When Jacob saw] The caravans which 
travelled from Egypt to Syria would bring 
the news to Hebron. 3. Dr. Thomson, in 
' The Land and the Book,' says he has often 
met large parties with their donkeys going 
from Palestine to Egypt in time of drought for 
food. Jacob's sons no doubt took servants 
with them and many asses. 

8. Joseph, now a middle-aged man, was 
dressed as an Egyptian, and spoke in Egyptian 
through an interpreter (v. 23). His brethren, 
on the other hand, would not have changed in 
appearance. 9. Ye are spies] Egypt was 
always liable to attack from Asia, and fortresses 
were built along that frontier to repel inva- 
sion. By suggesting that they were foreigners 
who were spying out the nakedness of the land, 
i.e. how far it was open to attack from hos- 
tile nations, Joseph had an opportunity of 
enquiring about his family. We may believe 
also that, though well-intentioned towards his 
brethren, he sought to bring their sin home to 
them. 11. We are all one man's sons. . thy 



41 



42. 13 



GENESIS 



45. 20 



servants are no spies] This was a strong argu- 
ment. No father would have risked the lives 
of all his children at once on such dangerous 
work as that of spies. 13. Is not] i.e. is 
not alive, meaning Joseph. 14. Joseph 
perseveres in this charge in order to have a 
pretext for getting Benjamin to Egypt. He 
hoped too, perhaps, that his father would 
follow when his favourite son had left him. 

15. By the life of Pharaoh] a common 
Egyptian oath : cp. ' As I live saith the Lord,' 
also 2K2 4 . 18. I fear God] ' and so will not 
punish on mere suspicion ' (D.). 

21. Conscience arouses in the brethren the 
fear that the day of reckoning, so long delayed, 
has come at last. 

27. The inn] This would be no more than 
a mere shelter or camping place. Even now, 
when journeying in out-of-the-way parts in 
the East, travellers take their own food and 
bedding with them. 36. All these things 
are against me] So Jacob thought ; but Provi- 
dence was working out a merciful provision 
for the welfare of himself and his family. 

CHAPTER 43 

The Second Visit to Egypt 

11. Balm] or ' balsam,' with healing proper- 
ties. Honey] This was grape-honey, a syrup 
made of grapes and diluted with water for a 
drink. It is still exported from Hebron to 
Egypt. Syria is famous for its pistachio nuts 
and almonds which do not grow in Egypt. 

12. Double money] (1) to repay that put 
in the sack, and (2) to purchase fresh stores. 

18. Again the guilty conscience which 
dreads every fresh event. 30. Bowels] 
regarded as the seat of the affections by the 
Hebrews: cp. 2 Cor 6 12 . 

32. The distinctions observed here were due 
to the existence of various castes among the 
Egyptians. As with the Hindoos, it was un- 
heard of for a man of one caste to eat from 
the vessels used by another. 

34. He sent messes] k Mess ' is derived from 
Lat. mismm, 'sent' : so a dish of meat sent. To 
do t his is an Eastern mark of honour : 2 S 1 1 8 . 
Some times the host personally puts a particu- 
larly choice morsel into the guest's mouth. 
Joseph's love for Benjamin is thus markedly 
shown. 

CHAPTER II 
Tin: Final Test of Joseph's Brethren 

2. Put my cup . . in the sack's mouth of the 
youngest] Joseph evidently did this as an 
excuse r<>r kei ping Benjamin with him. Per- 
haps, too. it was ;i lot of the brethren whether 
thej would act as cruelly in deserting their 
youngest brother as they had dealt with him- 
self. However, they came nobly out of the 



42 



trial, and a complete reconciliation took 
place. 

5. Whereby indeed he divineth] Divination 
by means of bowls of water was very prevalent 
among the ancients. They appear to have 
had a superstitious fancy that if one gazed 
long into a cup, he would see future events 
reflected in its contents. Bowls have been 
found in Babylon, inscribed on the inner sur- 
face with magical words and exorcisms against 
evil spirits. In the method of divination 
called hydromancy ' water was poured into 
a glass or other vessel and pieces of gold, 
silver, or precious stones might be thrown in ; 
then observations were made of the results, 
of the figures, etc., which appeared, with the 
expectation of learning the future or the un- 
known by this means ' (D.). At the storming 
of Seringapatam, during the Indian mutiny, 
the notorious Tippoo Saib is said to have con- 
sulted the divining cup just prior to his death 
in battle. 

18-34. Nothing could be more aff cting 
and generous than Judah's words, especially 
if the brethren believed that Benjamin had 
stolen the cup. and yet refused to accuse him, 
and took the blame on themselves. 

CHAPTER 45 

Joseph makes Himself known to his 
Brethren. Pharaoh invites Jacob 
and his Family to settle in Egypt 

5-7. Joseph declares that the events of the 
past all witnessed to the providential care 
of God. 6. Earing] i.e. ploughing, cognate 
with Lat. aro, ' I plough.' The word is now 
obsolete. 8. A father to Pharaoh] a title 
of honour and respect : cp. Isa22 21 . 

10. The land of Goshen] This w r as a fertile 
district of N. Egypt, lying to the E. of the 
Nile between Zagazig and Tel-el Kebir, 40 
m. NE. of Cairo. The railway from Alex- 
andria to Suez now runs through it. There 
have been discovered in this neighbourhood 
the remains of a town, called on its monuments 
Gesem. The land of Goshen was probably 
the same as the 'field of Zoan ' (Ps78 12 ) and 
the 'land of Rameses ' (47 n ). 18, 19. The 
district of Goshen was well suited to the 
pastoral habits of the Hebrews. There is a 
papyrus of the time of the Pharaoh Merenptah, 
some centuries later than the present events, 
which refers to permission given to some tribes 
of nomad Asiatics (Shasu) to ' pass the fortress 
Ktham in the land of Succoth near the town 
Pi 1 horn to pasture their cattle in that territory.' 
All these places were in the land of Goshen. 

19. Wagons] Those depicted on the monu- 
ments had two wheels and were drawn by 
oxen. 20. Regard not your stuff] Do not 
trouble to bring all your belongings with you. 



45. 24 



GENESIS 



48. 6 



24. See that ye fall not out by the way] 

Joseph perhaps feared that his brothers might 
reproach one another for their treatment of 
him, and so quarrels might arise. 

CHAPTER 46 

The Descent of Jacob jnto Egypt 
The Genealogical Table op the 
Israelites 

1-4. On reaching Beersheba, the southern 
boundary of the Promised Land, Jacob offers 
sacrifices to God. In return God assures him 
of His continued favour and of the fulfilment 
of the promises made to Abraham. 4. Put 
his hand upon thine eyes] i.e. close them in 
death. 5. Little ones] rather, ' household 
servants and their families.' 

6-27. This passage is from the Priestly 
source, and shows its characteristic fondness for 
genealogies. 27. Threescore and ten] This 
number included Jacob and Joseph and his 
two sons. See on Ex 1 5 as to the total number 
of those that went down to Egypt. 

28-34. Joseph was anxious to settle his 
people in Goshen both because the land was 
rich in pasture and because their calling was 
distasteful to the Egyptians. 

34. Every shepherd is an abomination to 
the Egyptians] The reasons for this dislike 
are disputed. ' Herdmen are represented on 
the monuments as uncouth and ill clad. They 
led a rough, unsettled life in the marshes, and 
seem to have been regarded as pariahs by the 
scrupulously clean Egyptians ' (D.). 

CHAPTER 47 

Joseph presents his Brethren and his 
Father to Pharaoh. He makes ex- 
tensive Changes in the Land Tenure 
of Egypt 

6. Rulers over my cattle] The superintend- 
ence of the royal flocks and herds would be a 
position of importance. 9. Few and evil, 
etc.] Abraham was 175 years and Isaac 180 
years old at their death. Jacob, therefore, re- 
garded his years as comparatively few. The 
1 evil ' times in his life are not difficult to trace. 

11. Land of Rameses] or Raamses. Evi- 
dently identical with the ' land of Goshen ' 
(vv. 4 and 6). The name here is probably an- 
ticipatory of the time of the great Rameses, 
who made his court at Zoan : see on Exl n . 

14-25. From being owners of the land the 
people became tenants of the crown. They 
remained on the land, paying one-fifth of the 
produce for state requirements, and retaining 
four-fifths for their own use. In such a fertile 
land as Egypt these conditions must be regarded 
as much more favourable than in some Eastern 
states in the present day, such as Turkey and 



Persia, where the peasants have to hand over 
from a half to three-fourths of the produce of 
the land to the government. See Dillmann, 
and on v. 25. 

16, 17. When Joseph took the people's 
cattle which they were unable to support in 
the dried-up Nile valley, he probably removed 
them to Goshen (cp. v. 6) until the famine was 
ended. 18. The second year] not of the 

famine, but the year after they had given up 
their cattle. 21. It is now generally held that 
the v. should be rendered (with the LXX, 
Vulgate, and Samaritan texts), k As for the 
people, he made bondmen of them from one 
end,' etc. (RM). The people became the 
tenants of the crown : see on vv. 14-25. 

22. The priests were already provided for 
by the state ; it was therefore unnecessary for 
them to sell their land. It is said that in later 
times the king, the soldiers, and the priests 
each owned one-third of the land. 

23. ' The peculiar system of Egyptian land 
tenure, which is here attributed to Joseph, is 
so far in accordance with the evidence of the 
monuments that whereas in the Old Empire 
the nobility and governors of the nomes 
(district) possessed large landed estates, in the 
New Empire (which followed the expulsion of 
the Hyksos), the old aristocracy has made way 
for royal officials, and the landed property has 
passed out of the hands of the old families 
into the possession of the crown and the great 
temples ' (D.). 

25. The people were satisfied with Joseph's 
stipulations. They would be much better off 
when holding their land direct from the state 
under definite conditions, than when suffering 
from the exactions of small feudal rulers, who 
were a great infliction in Egypt. 

29. Put . . thy hand, etc.] see on 24 2 . 

31. Bowed himself upon the bed's head] 
perhaps better, ' worshipped, leaning on the 
top of his staff,' as in Heb 11 21 . The Hebrew 
words for ' bed ' and ' staff ' are very like each 
other. 

CHAPTER 48 

Jacob Blesses Manasseh and Ephraim, 
the Sons of Joseph 

He adopts them as his own sons with privi- 
leges equal to the others, thus making them 
heads of distinct tribes. By so doing he gives 
to Joseph, the eldest son of Rachel, whom he 
probably regarded as his true wife, the position 
of firstborn with a double portion of his in- 
heritance. From the time of Moses we find 
Ephraim and Manasseh giving their names to 
tribes (Nul), which received territory on the 
conquest of Canaan. 

3. Luz] or Bethel : see on 28 19 . 6. Any 
other children of Joseph would be reckoned 
as belonging to the tribes of Ephraim or 



43 



48. 7 



GENESIS 



49. 10 



Manasseh. 7. By me] RM ' to my sorrow.' 
The mention of Rachel here may be only a fond 
reminiscence called forth by the presence of 
her grandchildren. But the v. would be 
perhaps more appropriately placed after 49 31 , 
where Jacob is speaking of the burial of his 
ancestors and of Leah. 

13, 14. Joseph had so arranged his sons 
that Manasseh, as the first-born, would receive 
his father's right hand in the act of blessing ; 
but Jacob, ' guiding his hands wittingly ' as 
taught by God, transferred that honour to 
the younger Ephraim, thus prophetically 
declaring the future superiority of that tribe : 
see v. 19. Owing to its preeminence the 
northern kingdom of Israel was often called 
Ephraim by the prophets, e.g. Isall Ezk37. 

22. Portion] RM 'mountain slope ' (Heb. 
shechem). The reference is to Shechem in the 
mountainous territory of Ephraim. Jacob 
gives Shechem to Joseph as his advantage 
over the others. The acquiring of Shechem by 
Jacob by force of arms represents a different 
tradition to that mentioned in chs. 33, 34. 

CHAPTER 49 
Jacob Blesses his Twelve Sons 
It is generally considered that in its present 
form, this c. gives us indeed the last utterances 
of the dying patriarch respecting the future of 
his sons, but with additions and developments 
of a later date. As it stands we have not the 
broken utterances of a dying man, but an 
elaborate piece of work full of word-plays and 
metaphors (see on vv. 8, 13, 16), and of those 
parallelisms in the vv. which are the chief 
feature of Hebrew poetry (cp. vv. 11, 15, 22, 
25). It is in fact a poem, in which the fortunes 
of the tribes, which are impersonated by their 
ancestors, are delineated as they were at one 
special period, viz. after the Conquest of 
Canaan, when their territories had been finally 
settled, and their political importance or weak- 
ness had become recognised. Judah and, 
perhaps, Joseph are alluded to as ruling tribes 
(vv. 10, •!{')). No reference is made to the 
tunes of the exodus or the captivity, but 
only to the beginnings of the monarchy ; and 
ii was probably during this period that the 
original Blessing was developed in its present 
poetical form. This conclusion is strengthened 
when we find the wonl "Israel' used of the 
nation, not of the person, and also that facts 
happening after the Conquest of Canaan are 
alluded to as past events : cp. w. 14, 15. It is 

also significant ili;it man v definite political and 

geographical d< bails are given, in a way which 
is inconsistent with the general character of 

the predictions of the Hebrew prophets on 

such matters. With the Blessing of Jacob 
si ion Id be compared that of Moses in Dt33 
and notes there. 



1. Which shall befall you] what will be the 
fortunes of the tribes descended from you. 

In the last days] RV ' in the latter days,' 
i.e. in the future. 

3, 4. The prediction concerning Reuben. 
Reuben was Jacob's eldest son, but the tribe 
never attained to any distinguished position. 
It was situated on the E. side of Jordan, and 
exposed to many attacks from the peoples 
surrounding them. 'Even so early as under 
the Judges the tribe showed itself indifferent 
to the national struggles ( Jg 5 15 f -), and it con- 
tinued to isolate itself more and more until in 
the period of the early monarchy it had prac- 
tically disappeared as part of Israel ' (D.). 
See Dt 33 6 . 3. Excellency] rather, ' pre- 
eminence.' 4. Unstable] rather, 'unre- 
strained,' descriptive of ungoverned passion. 
Reuben's sin is mentioned in 35 22 . Excel] 

rather, ' have the preeminence.' 

5-7. The prediction respecting Simeon 
and Levi. Simeon and Levi were both sons 
of Leah ; but they also were brethren in 
the cruelty of their attack on the Shechemites 
(34 2 5). The scattered state of both these 
tribes in their after history is well known. 
When the territories were assigned in the 
days of Joshua, Simeon only had some 
cities within the possessions of Judah : see 
Josh 1 9 1_9 . The Levites as priests had forty- 
eight towns given them throughout the country, 
but had no inheritance of land, Josh 2 1 1 * 40 : 
cp. also the picture in Jgl7-19 of the wander- 
ing Levites. 5. Instruments of cruelty, etc.] 
better, 'their swords are weapons of violence.' 

6. Secret] RV ' council,' referring to the 
treachery of c. 34. They slew a man] see 
3425,20. They digged down a wall] RV 
' they houghed an ox,' by cutting the sinew 
of the thigh: perhaps a reference to the 
Shechemites' cattle which they raided (34 28 ), 
maiming in their destructiveness those which 
they could not carry off. 

8-12. Judah now receives the chief blessing 
which his elder brothers Reuben, Simeon, and 
Levi had forfeited. He is assured of the 
headship of the tribes and a fruitful territory. 

8. The name Judah (' praise ') suggests the 
honour in which the tribe would be held. 
Thy hand, etc.] The tribe of Judah took a 
leading part in the conquest of Canaan and 
was first to secure their territory: cp. on 
Nu2*. In the time of David they held the 
headship of Israel. 9. The tribe is com- 
pared for its bravery to a lion. The figure of 
a lion on a pole became the standard of Judah. 
and our Lord Himself is called ' the Lion of 
the tribe of Judah' (Revo 5 ) owing to His 
descent from David. 10. A lawgiver] RV 

' the ruler's staff.' From between his feet] 

This most probably refers to the custom of 
planting the sceptre or staff of a prince or 



44 



49. 11 



GENESIS 



49. 33 



chieftain in the ground between his feet as 
he sat. 

This verse has always been regarded by 
both Jews and Christians as a remarkable 
prophecy of the coming of the Messiah. The 
Versions generally read Sheloh instead of 
Shiloh, and the words until Shiloh come (AY) 
should then be, ' till he come whose it is ' 
(RM). The Jewish Targums paraphrase thus: 
k until the time when the King Messiah comes 
to whom it belongeth.' On the rendering 
given above, the whole verse foretells that 
Judah would retain authority until the advent 
of the rightful ruler, the Messiah, to whom 
all peoples would gather. And, broadly speak- 
ing, it may be said that the last traces of 
Jewish legislative power (as vested in the 
Sanhedrim) did not disappear until the coming 
of Christ and the destruction of Jerusalem, 
from which time His kingdom was set up 
among men. Gathering of the people] RV 
' obedience of the peoples.' Note the world- 
wide rule implied. n, 12. These verses 
dwell on the fertility of the land of Judah. 
There were famous vineyards at Hebron and 
Engedi, as well as pasture lands about Tekoa 
and Carmel. 

13. Zebulun shall dwell] The blessing is 
connected with the word Zebulun, ' dwelling.' 
The land of this tribe was between Asher 
and Naphtali. It may have touched the coast- 
land of Phoenicia represented here by Sidon. 
So in Dt33 19 it is said that Zebulun should 
' suck of the abundance of the sea,' profiting 
by maritime traffic : cp. Ezk27. 

14, 15. Issachar occupied part of GTalilee 
and the fertile plain of Jezreel. Between 
two burdens] RV ' between the sheepf olds ' : 
as at Jg5 16 , which see. 'The bright side of 
the saying is that Issachar will become a 
robust and hardy race (a strong ass) and 
receive a pleasant country inviting to repose. 
The dark side is that through his tendency 
to gain and comfort he will rather submit to 
the yoke of foreign sway than risk his people 
and possessions by warlike efforts (a servant 
unto tribute)' (Delitzsch). A number of Cana- 
anite towns maintained themselves independent 
and powerful in this tribe. 

16. Again a play on the name of the tribe, 
for Dan means ' judge.' Though small in 
territory it should retain its tribal independ- 
ence and self-government : cp. Dt33 22 . 

17. Dan shall be a serpent] or, l May Dan 
be,' etc., a wish for the tribe's success in war: 
cp. the conquest of Laish, Jgl8 27 . The 
territory of Dan lay between Ephraim and 
Simeon. The Danites were hard pressed by 
the Philistines, and part of the tribe emigrated 
to Laish in the N. of the Holy Land, and 
called it Dan. An adder in the path, that 
biteth the horse heels] What the poet por- 



trays is not as in the case of Judah an open 
contest decided by superior strength, but the 
insidious efforts of the weaker against the 
stronger ' (D.). 

18. The connexion of this verse with the 
preceding is uncertain. Kalisch says, ' the poet, 
identifying himself with the oppressed and 
embarrassed tribe, utters in its name, with 
mingled reliance and resignation, the fervent 
prayer " In hope of Thy help, O Lord." ' 

19. The name Gad is here connected with 
a Hebrew word meaning a troop or marauding 
band. The Gadites were settled E. of Jordan, 
in the land of Gilead. They were much op- 
pressed by the Ammonites whom Jephthah 
conquered : see JglO and 11: cp. Dt33 20 . 

20. The tribe of Asher settled along the 
productive land on the coast between Mt. 
Carmel and Lebanon. Shall be fat] Asher 
was famous for its produce of olive oil: see 
on Dt33 24 . 

21. A more probable rendering of this v., 
supported by LXX, is ' Naphtali is a spreading 
terebinth producing beautiful branches.' The 
tribe was settled in a fertile district between 
Lebanon and the Sea of Galilee: cp. Dt33 23 . 

22-26. The blessing of Joseph. The 
branches are Ephraim and Manasseh. 

23. The archers] perhaps Canaanite and 
Arab peoples bordering on these tribes. 

24. From thence, etc.] or, ' By the name 
of the Shepherd, the Stone of Israel.' The 
name 'Rock' is often given to God in OT.: cp. 
Moses' Song, Dt324,i3,3i, an a p ss 89 94 95. 

25. Blessings of heaven] Earthly prosperity 
of all kinds, rain and sunshine from heaven, 
springs from the earth, fruitfulness both of 
man and beast. 26. The blessing of Moses 
on the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, Dt 33 13 , 
may be studied in connexion with this difficult 
v. Render with RM, ' The blessings of thy 
father have prevailed above (exceed) the 
blessings of the ancient mountains, the desirable 
things of the everlasting hills.' ' The meaning 
is that the blessings comprised things higher 
than merely the admirable products of the 
lovely mountain country (Ephraim, Gilead, 
Bashan), i.e. doubtless power, respect, honour, 
and political consequence, and, above all, the 
promises. In bestowing these on Joseph, 
Jacob makes him his father's successor, and 
names him Nazir among his brethren, one 
separated and consecrated, a prince ' (D.). 

27. Benjamin was a very warlike tribe. 
Saul, the first king of Israel, was a Benjamite ; 
and so was that other Saul who ' fought a 
good fight ' under his great Captain, 2 Tim4 7 . 

33. He . . was gathered unto his people] his 
shade joined those of his forefathers in the 
other world. The expression may be held to 
embody a rudimentary hope of immortality : 
see on 25 8 . 



45 



50. 2 



GENESIS— EXODUS 



INTRO. 



CHAPTER 50 
The Burial of Jacob, and Death of Joseph 

2. For the importance attached by the 
Egyptians to the preservation of the corpse 
see on 40 19 . The process, which was so 
thorough that mummies of Joseph's time may 
be seen in our museums in a state of good 
preservation, was briefly as follows. The 
brain and intestines were removed, and the 
stomach cleansed and filled with spices (em- 
balmed). The body was then steeped in a 
mixture of salt and soda (called natron), for 
forty or more days, to preserve it from decay. 
Next, it was bound up in strips of linen 
smeared with a sort of gum ; and finally it was 
placed in a wooden case, shaped like the human 
body, and deposited in a sepulchral chamber. 

4. When the days of his mourning were 
past] It could not have been that cause which 
prevented Joseph from going personally to 
Pharaoh. ' More probably it was not usual 
to take steps in a matter which personally 
concerned the minister, without the mediation 
of other exalted personages' (D.). 

10. Threshingfloor of Atad] unknown. 

Beyond Jordan] i.e. E. of Jordan, implying 
that the writer is in Canaan: see on Dtl 1 . 



11. Abel-mizraim] ' the meadow of Egypt.' 
1 The name may be historically explained 
owing to the long period of Egyptian domina- 
tion in Palestine in pre-Mosaic times, as we 
learn from the Tel-el Amarna letters, but 
the narrator connects the name with Ebel, 
" mourning " ' (D.). 

19. Am I in the place of God ?] i.e. to judge 
or to punish. 

20. The selling of Joseph by his brethren 
had been a sinful action, but through his 
coming to Egypt God had brought about a 
great blessing to many. So He often brings 
good out of evil, though evil is not to be done 
in order that good may come. Joseph himself 
here sums up the great lesson of his career, so 
far at least as his brethren are concerned. 

23. Were brought up upon] RV ' were born 
upon.' Joseph took the newborn children on 
his lap and so recognised them as his de- 
scendants: see 30 3 . 

25. Cp. Hebll 22 , 'By faith Joseph when 
he died made mention of the departure of the 
children of Israel, and gave commandment 
concerning his bones.' Joseph's instructions 
were carried out at the time of the exodus 
(Ex 13 19 ) and his body was buried at Shechem : 
see Josh 24 32 . 



EXODUS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Title and Contents. The second book 
of the Pentateuch is designated in Hebrew, 
from its opening words, Elleh Shemoth, 
1 These are the names,' or simply Shemoth, 
' The names.' Exodus is the Latin form of the 
title prefixed to the book by the Greek trans- 
lators of the OT. It means • exit ' or • de- 
parture,' and refers to the main event which 
the book records, viz. the departure of the 
Israelites from the land of Egypt. 

The book of Exodus continues the narra- 
ti\e of Gtanesifl and carries it down to the 
erection of the Tabernacle at Sinai, in the 
firsl month of the second year of the depart are 
from Egypt. It is mainly historical, but 
contains important Legislative matter. It falls 
naturally into three greal divisions: Parti. 
Israel in Egypt : their Oppression and De- 
liverance, chs. 1-15- 1 . In this section the 
events leading op to the deliverance of the 
Israelites by the hand of .Moses are described. 
Part 2. The March from the Red Sea to 
Mount Sinai, chs. 15---18- 7 . Part 3. Israel 



at Sinai, chs: 19-40. This last section 
really extends from Ex 19 to NulO 10 , and 
covers in all a period of eleven months. 
During this time the people were encamped 
in the vicinity of Mt. Sinai, and were engaged 
in receiving that Law, both of morals and 
ceremonies, which was the basis of the cove- 
nant between them and Jehovah, and the 
foundation of their distinctive national and 
religious life. 

2. Origin and Composition. The question 
as to the authorship of the Pentateuch is dis- 
cussed in a separate article. Here it will 
suffice to say a few words as to the confirmation 
given to the history and legislation contained 
in Exodus from other sources. 

With regard to the historical part of the 
book, while it cannot be said that the residence 
of the Israelites in Egypt and their departure 
from it are directly confirmed by the records 
of profane history and the monuments, what 
we know from the latter as to the history and 
condition of Egypt in early times at least 



46 



INTRO. 



EXODUS 



INTRO. 



leaves room for the biblical account and har- 
monises with it. (a) The Pharaoh of the 
Oppression is usually supposed to have been 
Eameses II, and the Pharaoh of the exodus 
his son and successor Merenptah, who began 
to reign about the year 1300 B.C. Reckoning 
back 430 years, the extent of the sojourn in 
Egypt, we reach a time when Egypt was ruled 
by an alien dynasty, called the ' Hyksos ' or 
Shepherd kings. These were of Asiatic origin, 
and would be naturally inclined to favour the 
Hebrews. There can be little doubt that the 
Pharaoh to whom Joseph was Prime Minister 
was one of these Hyksos kings. A famine is 
recorded to have occurred during the reign of 
one of the last of this dynasty, Apepi, who 
may have been the Pharaoh of Joseph. But 
the Hyksos were expelled by a native Egyptian 
dynasty who would look with disfavour on 
everything Asiatic. This revolution, with the 
consequent change of treatment afforded to 
the Hebrew settlers in Egypt, agrees with 
what is said at the beginning of the book of 
Exodus that ' there arose up a new king over 
Egypt, which knew not Joseph.' See 1 8 and 
note in the commentary there, (b) Again we 
read that the Israelites built for Pharaoh store 
cities, Pithom and Raamses. The former has 
been discovered at Tel-el Maskhuta, and is found 
to have been a store city built by Eameses II 
and dedicated to Turn, the god of the setting 
sun. The site of Raamses has not been dis- 
covered, but the city is mentioned in the Egypt- 
ian texts as having been built byRamesesII(see 
on 1 n ). (c) Egyptian history is silent on the 
plagues and the incidents accompanying the 
exodus, but that is not surprising when we take 
into account the little that we know of the 
history of Egypt, and the improbability that the 
monuments would be employed to perpetuate 
the memory of such untoward events. The 
biblical account, however, is full of local colour. 
The plagues are just such as might well occur 
in Egypt, being for the most part aggravations 
of evils natural to the climate of Egypt, and 
owing much of their force to the fact that 
they strike at the superstitions of the Egyp- 
tians, (d) The route of the exodus and the 
various halting-places are not fully identified, 
but so far nothing has been discovered that 
cannot be harmonised with the biblical account. 
The discovery that the Red Sea at one time 
extended much further north than it does at 
present, removes much of the difficulty for- 
merly attaching to the account of its crossing. 
So far, then, the biblical account has been 
confirmed instead of contradicted by modern 
discovery. It is not unreasonable to expect 
that, as discovery proceeds, further con- 
firmation will be obtained and obscurities 
removed. For the present we have every 
reason to believe that in the main the story 



of the origin of the Israeli tish nation is 
trustworthy. 

As regards the legislation contained in 
Exodus, it is generally admitted that at least 
the Ten Commandments, the Book of the 
Covenant (chs. 20-23), and the laws in c. 34. 
may well go back to the time of Moses. To 
what extent the laws he promulgated were 
modified and expanded in later times, we may 
never be able precisely to determine; but the 
investigations of most recent times seem to 
point to the possibility of ascribing more, 
instead of less, of the legislation of Israel to 
Moses than was formerly allowed. It has 
been usual, e.g. to argue that the legislation of 
the Pentateuch is too advanced to have origin- 
ated at such an early period as the exodus. 
But the force of this argument is considerably 
weakened when it is found that the legislation 
of Israel, both moral and ceremonial, has 
many points of contact with that of the earlier 
civilisations of Babylonia and Egypt. It has 
come to light in recent times that Babylo- 
nian and Egyptian influences extended over 
Canaan and the Sinaitic peninsula before the 
time of the exodus, and that Babylonia and 
Egypt had much to do with each other at a 
very early date. Consequently, laws and 
practices, which were supposed to have first 
come into existence at a comparatively late 
period in the history of Israel may really have 
been introduced much earlier. See on Nu 13 21 . 

The question of the originality of the 
legislation of Moses has quite recently come 
prominently to the front as a result of inves- 
tigations and discoveries made in connexion 
with the earlier religions of Egypt and 
Babylonia. It is an undeniable fact that many 
of the laws and rites of the Pentateuch bear 
a resemblance to what we find among these 
other nations of antiquity. The Babylonians, 
e.g. observed laws of ' clean and unclean ' ; 
they kept the seventh day rest; they knew of 
peace offerings, heave offerings, and sacrifices 
for sin. The Egyptians practised circumcision 
and offered incense; the description of the 
tabernacle is full of allusions to Egyptian 
customs; the strict rules for the purifying of 
priests, the ephod of the high priest, the 
pomegranate decoration of the hem of his 
robe, his breastplate and his mitre, had all 
their counterpart among the Egyptians. The 
newly discovered Code of Hammurabi displays 
many features similar to the legislation of 
Moses: see art. 'Laws of Hammurabi.' Of 
course resemblance does not prove derivation; 
but even should it have to be admitted that 
many elements in the moral and ceremonial 
law of the Israelites were taken from other 
civilisations, this need occasion neither surprise 
nor dismay. God is not the God of the 
Hebrews only ; k He has made of one blood 



47 



INTRO. 



EXODUS 



INTRO. 



all nations of men to dwell on all the face of 
the earth,' and it is not strange that the 
Gentiles who have not the (Mosaic) Law, 
should ' do by nature the things contained in 
the Law ' (Bo 2 14 ). What is distinctive in the 
Mosaic legislation is the new spirit which it 
exhibits. It is emphatically ethical; and it 
lifts morality to a higher plane, in accordance 
with its fundamental conception of a spiritual 
and holy God, who enters into a covenant re- 
lationship with His people on a moral basis. 
The aim of the Mosaic legislation was 'not 
so much to create a new system as to give a 
new significance to that which had already 
long existed among Semitic races, and to lay 
the foundation of a higher symbolism leading 
to a more spiritual worship.' The glory of 
the Mosaic law, and its indefeasible claim to 
divine inspiration, reside in the fact that it 
took existing customs and ceremonies and in- 
fused into them a new spirit, elevating, puri- 
fying, and transforming them. 

3. Religious Value. It is well nigh impos- 
sible to overestimate the religious value of the 
book of Exodus. Nowhere else save in the 
Christian revelation is there to be found so 
sublime a conception of the nature of God, or 
a loftier and purer idea of morality as springing 
out of man's relationship to Him. In the OT. 
itself Exodus holds a fundamental position. 
It depicts the early civic and religious develop- 
ment of a people destined to occupy a unique 
place among the nations, and to exert upon the 
world the very greatest spiritual influence. In 
this book we see the beginning of the fulfil- 
ment of the promise made to Abraham, the 
original ancestor of the Hebrew people, ' in thy 
seed shall all the nations of the earth be 
blessed.' The events which it records in con- 
nexion with the birth of the nation, and its 
deliverance from bondage, stamped themselves 
indelibly on the memory and imagination of 
succeeding generations, and are frequently 
employed by prophets and psalm- writers, to 
enforce lessons of duty and faithfulness, trust 
and hope, warning and encouragement : see 
e.g. Eos2lfi L2»13 4 Am 2™ Mic6M ^78^- 
1 l(i.V--'f- 106 114 136. Much of the sub- 
sequent teaching of the OT. is but the inter- 
pretation and enf'orreiiieiit of the spiritual and 
moral tenths communicated to Israel at the 
time of the exodus. 

The greal underlying idea of the book is 
thai of revelation. (Jo<l is everywhere repre- 
sented as in the acl of Belf-manifestation. He 
manifests His power over nature, in Egypt, 
:it the Red Sea, and at Mt. Sinai. In every 
event His hand is discernible. 'He made 

know 11 I lis ways unto BfoseS, His acts unto the 

children of [srael. 1 Be constantly BpeakB to 
Moses, giving to His servanl His counsel in 

times of emergency, ami the knowledge of 

48 



His nature and will to be communicated to 
the people. We cannot read the book with- 
out being impressed with the writer's convic- 
tion that God, while exalted far above the 
comprehension of His creatures, who are able 
to see, not His face, but only His ' back parts ' 
(33 23 ), does not dwell remote from the world, 
but is everywhere present and active in nature 
and in history. This sense of the personal 
agency of God is expressed frequently in a 
very bold and anthropomorphic way, somewhat 
startling to us with our more abstract and 
spiritual conception of the divine nature and 
the method of its operations : see e.g. 4 24 
1424,25 24 !0, 11. In their more fervid utter- 
ances, OT. writers in general do not hesitate 
to transfer human conditions, actions, and 
passions to the Divine Being, though the ex- 
tent to which they do so diminishes with the 
course of time. The frequency with which 
this form of thought appears in Exodus is 
an eloquent testimony to the intensity of 
religious feeling that pervades the book. To 
us, whose conception of God tends always to 
be more and more abstract and attenuated, 
this insistence on the truth of the nearness of 
God and His active interference in the world 
of human affairs is not the least necessary and 
valuable lesson conveyed by the book of 
Exodus. 

Another characteristic and fundamental idea 
of the book is that Israel is the chosen people 
of Jehovah. It is nowhere asserted that 
Jehovah is the God of the Hebrews only. 
He rules over the land of Egypt, and He is 
the Creator and Lord of nature. All the 
earth is His (19 5 ). But He has chosen Israel 
to be ' a peculiar treasure ' unto Him above all 
people (see on 19 3 " 6 ), and He enters into a 
covenant with them on the basis of the moral 
law (24 3 - 8 ). This idea of the election, or 
selection, of Israel runs all through the OT., 
and even passes over to the Christian Church 
under the ' new covenant ' (see on 19 6 ). It is 
essentially an election, not to privilege, but to 
duty. Israel is chosen, enlightened, instructed, 
disciplined, in order to communicate to the 
world the knowledge of God and prepare the 
way for the perfect revelation of His grace in 
Christ. It is a noble idea, that of a theocracy, 
a 'kingdom of God,' a people who are each 
and all 'priests' unto God (19* 5 ). Hence 
the duty of personal holiness and national 
righteousness ; hence the minute ceremonial 
system, with its detailed prescriptions regard- 
in- the tabernacle, its furniture, the priesthood, 
sacrifice, etc., all emphasising the lesson that 
God is holy and must be served and worshipped 
by a holy people. 

The book of Exodus lias been in all ages a 
source whence both Jews and Christians have 
drawn lessons of encouragement and warning, 



INTRO. 



EXODUS 



1. 15 



applicable to the individual soul no less than 
to the Church of God. The bondage in Egypt, 
the deliverance, and the experiences of Israel 
in the wilderness, have very naturally been 
regarded as types of man's deliverance from 
the bondage of sin and error, and of God's 
grace and providence in guiding, defending, 
and supplying the wants of His people all 
through the pilgrimage of life. In Israel men 
have seen themselves, their need of redemp- 
tion, their sin and weakness, their continual 
dependence on God, and their proneness to 
forget and mistrust Him to whom they owe 



everything ; while in the record of God's 
gracious dealings with Israel they have read 
their own experience of the power and grace 
of the Covenant God whose name is still 
' The Lord, the Lord, a God full of compas- 
sion and gracious, slow to anger, and plenteous 
in mercy and truth ; keeping mercy for thou- 
sands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and 
sin: and that will by no means clear the 
guilty,' and whose promise to those who trust 
in Him is still, 'My presence shall go with 
thee, and I will give thee rest' (Ex34 6 > 7 RY 
3314). 



PART 1 

(Chs. 1-15 21 ) Israel in Egypt: their Oppression and Deliverance 



CHAPTER 1 

Oppression of the Israelites 

5. Seventy souls] Jacob himself is included 
in the number : cp. Gn 46 8 " 27 . Of the seventy, 
sixty-eight were males. If to the direct de- 
scendants of Jacob we add the wives of his 
sons and grandsons, and the husbands of his 
daughters and grand-daughters, and all their 
servants with their families, it appears that 
the total number of those who entered Egypt 
was very considerable, several hundreds if not 
thousands. This fact, as well as the acknow- 
ledged prolificness of the Hebrew nation, 
serves to account for their rapid increase in 
Egypt. At the time of the exodus they must 
have numbered about three millions : see on 
12 37 . 7. Observe the number of words de- 
noting increase. The land is the land of 
Goshen in the Delta of the Nile. 

8. This verse marks the turn of the tide in 
the fortunes of Israel. Hitherto they have 
been tolerated and honoured ; now they are 
feared and oppressed. The change of treat- 
ment is here said to be connected with a change 
in the government of Egypt. As mentioned 
in the Introduction, Egypt for several hundred 
years was ruled by an alien dynasty, called 
the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings. These were 
Asiatics, and would therefore naturally tolerate 
the Hebrew race with whom they may have 
had affinity. But the Hyksos were at length 
expelled, and a native dynasty once more oc- 
cupied the throne of Egypt. It is usually 
supposed that this new dynasty is meant by 
the new king . . which knew not Joseph. One 
of the most famous kings of the nineteenth 
dynasty was Rameses II (about 1340 B.C.). 
He was a great architect, and many monuments 
remain to attest his greatness, such as the 
temples at Luxor, Abydos, etc. He is gen- 
erally held to be the Pharaoh of the Oppres- 
sion, and his son and successor (Merenptah or 
Mineptah) the Pharaoh of the exodus : see 
on 14 28 . Against this, however, is to be 



considered the fact that this Merenptah has left 
monuments in which he records that he has 
invaded Palestine and destroyed the Israelites, 
who are represented as living there at his 
time. Accordingly the oppression and exodus 
of the Israelites are by some placed much 
earlier than the time of Rameses and Meren- 
ptah, as early as the 15th cent. B.C. 

11. Treasure cities] store cities, situated on 
the frontier, and serving both as strongholds 
for defence against invasion and as military 
depots of provisions and arms. Pithom] i.e. 
the ' Abode of the Setting Sun,' has been identi- 
fied with Tel-el Maskhuta, between Kassassin 
and Ismailiyeh. The walls of this ancient 
city are found to have been constructed of 
bricks made of Nile mud and chopped straw. 
Raamses] or Rameses, has not yet been identi- 
fied, but is supposed to have been situated at 
the modern Tel-el Kebir. It was in existence 
at the time of Joseph, as appears from Gn 47 n , 
so that it was probably repaired or enlarged 
at a later date. 12. The more they multi- 
plied] The whole history of the exodus and 
sojourn in the wilderness is designed to show 
that nothing can destroy the people of Israel, 
or thwart the divine purpose with regard to 
them. 14. Service in the field] This refers 

to the construction of irrigation canals and 
embankments, as well as to the making of 
bricks for building. With what rigour the 
system of forced labour was employed may be 
judged from the fact recorded by Herodotus 
that 120,000 workmen lost their lives in the 
construction of a canal connecting the Nile and 
the Red Sea in the time of Pharaoh Necho. 
In modern times Mohammed Ali's canal from 
the Nile to Alexandria cost 20,000 lives. 

15-22. Failing to weaken or diminish the 
Israelites by such severe labour, the Egyptian 
king has recourse to a more direct method, 
that of infanticide. He orders the slaughter of 
all the Hebrew male children at birth. This 
also fails, Pharaoh's own daughter becoming 
one of the links in the chain of deliverance. 



49 



/ 



1. 15 



EXODUS 



% 25 



With Pharaoh's edict may be compared that 
of Herod ordering the Massacre of the Inno- 
cents of Bethlehem (Mt2i6). 

15. The names of only two of the mid- 
wives have been preserved. These two were 
probably connected with the royal palace. 
16. Stools] KY ' birthstool.' 

19. There was, no doubt, some truth in 
what the midwives said, though their womanly 
instincts led them to evade the unnatural com- 
mand of the king. 21. Made them houses] 
i.e. blessed them with marriage and many 
descendants : cp. Ruth 4 u 2 S 7 2 ? 1 K 1 1 38. 

CHAPTER 2 

Birth and Early Life of Moses 

1. The names of the father and mother of 
Moses were Amram and Jochebed respectively 
(see 6 20 ). Two children were born to them 
before Moses. The oldest was a daughter 
called Miriam (i.e. Mary), who was a young 
woman at the time when Moses was born (see 
v. 8) ; and the second was a son, Aaron, who 
was born three years before Moses (see 7 7 ) and 
presumably before Pharaoh's exterminating 
edict: cp.]STu26 M . 

2. Hid him three months] This defiance of 
the king's edict is called an act of faith in 
Heb 1 1 23 . 3. Ark of bulrushes] a chest made 
of the stalks of the papyrus reed which grew 
at the side of the Nile and in marshy places. 
The stalks and leaves of papyrus were em- 
ployed in the manufacture of various arti- 
cles, such as boats (Isal8 2 ), sails, mats, ropes, 
and paper. This last, which gets its name 
from the papyrus, was made of thin strips 
of the inner bark pasted together, and com- 
pressed. The slime used as a watertight coat- 
ing for the ark was bitumen, imported into 
Egypt from Mesopotamia and the vicinity of 
the Dead Sea ; it was employed as mortar in 
building and as a preservative in the process 
of embalming. 5. Daughter of Pharaoh] Jo- 
sephus calls her Thermutis, but Eusebius 
calls her Merris. The Nile was regarded as a 
sacred river, and bathing in its waters was part 
of a religions ceremony : cp. 7 16 . 10. The 
mother kept the child probably till he was 
weaned, which would be two or perhaps three 
years. He w;is then adopted by Pharaoh's 
daughter and would receive the education of 
an Egyptian prince. St. Stephen says that 
'Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the 
Egyptians and was mighty in words and in 
deeds.' Josephus says that Moses became 
general of the Egyptian army and defeated 
the Ethiopians, also that Pharaoh's daughter, 

having no child of her own. intended to make 
him her Father's SUCCeSBOr. The name Moses, 

which she gave him. ie an Egyptian, not a He- 
brew word, and means ' child ' or ■ son.' It 

50 



appears in names like Rameses, Thothmes, 
etc. It is only therefore by a play upon words 
that it is connected with the Hebrew word 
mashah, ' to draw out.' 

11. In those days] According to Ac7 23 
Moses was at this time 'full forty years old.' 
This incident shows that the patriotism of 
Moses had not been destroyed by his Egyptian 
upbringing, also that he was by nature pos- 
sessed of an impatient and ardent spirit which 
required the long discipline of the sojourn in 
Midian to school him into that strength and for- 
bearance necessary in a leader of men : see on 
3 n . At the same time, it is made clear that his 
countrymen were not yet ready for emancipa- 
tion. 15. Land of Midian] The south-eastern 
part of the peninsula of Sinai. There is reason 
to believe, however, that the home, or head- 
quarters, of the Midianites, who were probably 
a nomadic tribe, lay outside the peninsula 
on the E. side of the Gulf of Akaba : see 
Gn37 25 and on Nu 22 4 . 16. The priest or 
prince of Midian. In early times, before the 
multiplication of ritual necessitated a separate 
religious order, the head or chief of the clan 
performed priestly functions : see on 19 22 . 
He is called Reuel in v. 18 and Jethro in 
c. 18, while in Jg4 n , and perhaps also in Nu 
10 29 , he is called Hobab. On this apparent 
confusion see the note there. 17. In the East 
wells are of great importance, and frequent 
disputes arise over rights of watering : see 
e.g. G-n 26 2 °- 22 . 21. Moses stayed in Midian 
forty years (cp. 7 7 ), so that his life falls into 
three equal portions. The first forty years he 
spent in Egypt (Ac 7 23 ), the second forty in 
Midian, and the last forty in the wilderness (cp. 
Dt 34 7 ). It may be observed, however, that 
in Scripture forty is frequently used as a round 
number. Here the forty years signify a gene- 
ration : so that Moses simply waited in Midian 
till a new set of people arose in Egypt : see 
e.g. Gn7* Ex 2418 34 28 Nul3 2 5 1433 1S1716 
1 K 1 9 8 . With the preparatory sojourn of 
Moses in Midian may be compared that of 
the Baptist in the wilderness (Lk 1 80 ) and of 
St. Paul in Arabia (Gal 1 17 ). Zipporah] see 
on NU12 1 . 22. Gershom] The name is de- 
rived either from the Heb. ger, ' a sojourner,' 
and ,s7/am, ' there,' or from the verb garash, k to 
expel.' In either case it shows that the 
heart of Moses was with his countrymen in 
Egypt. Another son, Eliezer, is mentioned in 
18 4 : cp. lCh23i6,i7. 

23. The king of Egypt] see on 1 8 . 

24. His covenant] see Gnl2? 15 18 17 1 ' 14 
26M 28 13 - 15 . When it is said here, as else- 
where, that God remembered His covenant, it 
is not implied that He had previously forgotten 
it, but that the opportunity had now come of 
fulfilling His merciful purpose. 25. Had 
respect unto] RV 'took knowledge of. 1 



3. 1 



EXODUS 



a 15 



CHAPTER 3 

The Call of Moses and his Commission 
to be the Deliverer of Israel 

i. Horeb] The names Horeb and Sinai seem 
to be synonymous, though it has been suggested 
that Horeb is the name given to the entire 
mountain range, while Sinai denotes the par- 
ticular mountain where the Law was given. 
Assuming that the Pentateuch is composed of 
different documents, it is better to believe 
that Horeb is the name used by one set of 
writers and Sinai by another. Horeb is here 
called the mountain of God by anticipation. 
The reason of the appellation follows in c. 19. 
At the same time, it is not improbable that 
there was a sanctuary on Mt. Sinai from 
earliest times, connected with the worship of 
the Babylonian moon -god Sin. 

2. Angel of the LORD] i.e. of Jehovah (see 
on v. 13). In v. 4 it is Jehovah Himself who 
speaks ; in 23 20 > 21 > 22 divine attributes are 
ascribed to the ' angel of the Lord,' God's 
' name ' is in him (see on 3 13 ), and his voice is 
identified with that of Cod. It would there- 
fore appear that the Angel of Jehovah is not 
a created angel but Jehovah Himself in the 
act of self -manifestation : see on ' my pre- 
sence ' in 33 14 . On the other hand, there are 
passages like 32 34 where the angel seems to 
be distinguished from Jehovah, the explana- 
tion being probably that the mere manifesta- 
tion of God gives rise to a distinction between 
what He is in Himself, and what He is in His 
special appearance. In this distinction between 
God in Himself and God in self -manifestation, 
we may see an adumbration of the Incarn- 
ation of God in Christ. By many, the Angel 
of the Lord is identified with the Second 
Person of the Trinity. It is to be observed 
that on this occasion Moses saw no human 
form : cp. Dt 4 15 . In a flame of fire] Fire is 
a frequent emblem of God in the Scriptures 
on account of its illuminating, purifying, and 
destructive properties, and appears as the 
accompaniment and indication of His pre- 
sence : seel3 21 19 18 2417 Dt4 24 Ps97 3 Ezkl 4 
Ac2 3 , etc. On this occasion the bush, though 
enveloped in flame, was not consumed. This 
may be symbolical of the graciousness of God 
who spares the unworthy and restrains the 
fierceness of His anger while He communi- 
cates with them : see on 24 9 " 11 . 5. Every 
place where God manifests Himself is holy. 
To take off the shoes is an ancient as well as 
modern way of expressing reverence in the 
East. The Mohammedan takes off his shoes 
when he enters the mosque. The action sym- 
bolises the removal of the defilement caused 
by sin or contact with the world on entering 
the presence of Him with whom ' evil cannot 
dwell.' 



6. The patriarchs are mentioned to show that 
it is no new or unknown God who speaks, but 
One who made a covenant with the fathers of 
the nation and who still remembers it. These 
words are cited by our Lord as a proof that 
God's people continue to live after death : cp. 
Mk 12 26, 27. Moses hid his face] cp. the act 
of Elijah, 1 K 1 9 13 , and see on 1 9 9 33 18 . Eever- 
ence is not only due to God, but is the first con- 
dition of receiving divine truth. God mani- 
fests Himself to the lowly. 8. Flowing 
with milk and honey] A proverbial expression 
indicating fertility and abundance. On the 
tribes inhabiting Canaan see on Gn 10 Nu 34 1_15 . 

11. With the hesitation of Moses compare 
that of Jeremiah, Jerl 4 " 8 . Forty years be- 
fore Moses was more self-confident (cp. Ac 7 25 ). 
In the long sojourn in Midian he learned to 
mistrust himself, and was on that account all 
the more fitted to be the instrument of Him 
whose ' strength is made perfect in weakness.' 
Moses here puts forward four excuses, each of 
which is in turn overborne. He pleads (1) 
that he is personally unfit (vv. 11, 12), (2) 
that the Israelites will not know who sent 
him (vv. 13-22), (3) that they will not believe 
that Jehovah has sent him (4 1 * 9 ), and (4) that 
he does not possess the gift of persuasive 
eloquence (4 10 - 17 ). 12. I will be with thee] 
The guarantee of fitness and success : cp. 
our Lord's promise, Mt28 20 . A token] The 
token was still in the future: cp. 1S2 34 
2 K 1 9 29 Isa 7 14 . Experience corroborates the 
ventures of faith. For the fulfilment of this 
sign see c. 19. 

13. What is his name?] The name of God 
is His revealed character : see 23 21 34 5 ' 7 . 
Here God reveals Himself by the name 
Jehovah. As already explained (Gn2 4 ) the 
word ' Jehovah ' is the result of a combination 
of the consonants of the original name (the 
consonants alone are written in ancient 
Hebrew) and the vowels of its substitute 
' Adonai.' Most scholars believe that the 
original form of the name was ' Jahve ' or 
' Yahve.' Now this resembles in form the 
third person singular masculine imperfect of 
a Hebrew verb, and is here connected with 
the verb haiva or hay a', ' to be.' God calls 
Himself ' Ehyeh,' i.e. I am. When He is 
named by others, He is ' Jahve,' i.e. He is. 
The name denotes the absolute self -existence 
of God. He alone truly exists : cp. Dt4 35 
Isa 45 6 Revl 4 . Some scholars, however, 
prefer to take the word as a future, 1 1 will 
be,' in which case the name expresses rather 
the faithfulness of God, the assurance that He 
will be with His people as their helper and 
deliverer. Others, again, take the word to be the 
causative form of the verb, in which case it will 
mean, ' He who causes to be,' l the Creator ' : 
see RM and on 6 3 . 15. My memorial] i.e. my 



51 



3. 16 



EXODUS 



4.21 



name, the designation by which I will be 
remembered. 

1 6. Elders of Israel] The heads or repre- 
sentatives of the tribes and families. It 
appears from this that even in Egypt the 
Israelites had some kind of organisation. In 
the Pentateuch, when the people of Israel are 
addressed, it is frequently the ' elders ' who 
are meant. They are the usual medium of 
communication between Moses and the people, 
and act as the representatives of the latter : 
see e.g. 175 19* Dt27i 319.28. 

1 8. God of the Hebrews] To the Israelites 
God is ' Jehovah, the God of your fathers ' (v. 
16), a designation which would appeal to their 
hearts as it reminded them of God's covenant 
with their forefathers and His faithfulness 
to it. See on v. 6. But to Pharaoh He is 
simply ' the God of the Hebrews.' 

Three days' journey into the wilderness] i.e. 
most probably to Horeb, the ' wilderness ' 
being a general term for the region lying 
between Egypt and Palestine. There was no 
intention to deceive Pharaoh in this request. 
Had Pharaoh been willing to grant the people 
entire release this would have been asked at 
first, But God, knowing that Pharaoh was 
not willing to let them go, enjoined Moses to 
make only this moderate request, so as to 
emphasise the obstinacy of the king. 

19. No, not by a mighty hand] This means 
either ' in spite of the fact that I will lay My 
hand heavily upon him ' ; or better, with a 
slight change of reading, as LXX has it, l un- 
less I lay My hand heavily upon him.' 

22. Shall borrow] KV 'shall ask.' The 
word is the common Hebrew verb meaning 
1 to ask,' as used e.g. in Jg5 25 1K3 11 2K210 
Psl22 6 , where there is no idea of asking 
under a promise of giving back what is 
received. Spoil] The same word is ren- 
dered ' recover ' in 1 S 30 22 , which suggests 
that if there was any ' borrowing ' it was on 
the part of the Egyptians, who had been 
taking the labour of the Israelites without 
any recompense. For the fulfilment, see c. 
I 285,86, 

CHAPTER 4 

Signs Attesting the Commission of 
Moses. His Return to Egypt 

Muses still hesitates, and now objects that 
the people will not believe him when he bells 
then that Jehovah has sent him. He is 
granted the power of working three signs by 
way of substantiating his commission. 

2. A rod] probably his shepherd's staff. 

3. Fled from before it] A graphic trait, 
showing thai 1 lie change was real, and thai 

1 was not prepared for it. 4. By the 

tail] Snake channels usually take snakes 
by the neck to prevent them biting. It is 



much more dangerous to seize them by the 
tail. When Moses did so with impunity his 
own faith would be strengthened as well as 
that of the people : cp. our Lord's promise, 
Mkl6 18 . 6. Leprous as snow] i.e. as white 
as snow. Leprosy was common in Egypt. 
The form here meant is that in which the 
skin becomes glossy, white, and callous. This 
is the worst form of leprosy and was regarded 
as incurable. This incident, taken together 
with the fact that the white leprosy was most 
common among the Israelites, may have given 
rise to the tradition, related by the Egyptian 
priest and historian Manetho, and quoted by 
Josephus, that Moses was a leper, and that 
the Israelites were expelled from Egypt be- 
cause they were afflicted with the same disease. 

9. The river] the Nile. This sign is similar 
to the first of the plagues (see 7 20 ), with the 
difference that here only part of the water is 
changed on being poured out on the dry land. 

10. Moses now pleads his want of eloquence. 
Jewish tradition says that he had an actual 
impediment in his speech, being unable to 
pronounce the labials. His words here, how- 
ever, do not necessarily imply any positive 
defect of this kind. He wishes to be excused, 
and urges that a more eloquent man than he 
is required to persuade the king of Egypt to 
release Israel, and the Israelites also to trust 
themselves to the guidance of Jehovah. For 
this he is rebuked, but not excused. Aaron 
is given to him as spokesman. 12. Cp. 
Jerl6-9 Lk 2 114.15. 13, 14. This request is 
equivalent to a refusal to go. Moses says, 
' send some one else, but not me.' Accord- 
ingly 'the anger of Jehovah was kindled 
against him.' His punishment takes the form 
of diminished privilege. Aaron henceforth 
shares in his distinction. The Levite] This 
means not merely the ' descendant of Levi,' 
but l the priest,' as the tribe of Levi was after- 
wards consecrated to the service of the sanctu- 
ary. The title is here used by anticipation. 

16. Cp. 71. Instead of God] Because 
Aaron would receive God's message at the 
mouth of Moses. 17. Signs] RV ' the signs,' 
i.e. the appointed signs. 

18-26. Moses takes leave of Jethro and 
returns with his wife and children to Egypt. 

19. Cp. Mt2!9. 20. His sons] Only one 
has been previously mentioned, but a second 
had been born in Midian : see 2 22 . 

21. I will harden his heart] God proposes 
to harden Pharaoh's heart, in order to have 
the opportunity of displaying His power in 
the deliverance of His people, and exhibiting 
His character to the Egyptians. Some take 
the expression as due to the Eastern and 
fatalistic, way of regarding all that happens 
in the world as the result of the direct inter- 
vention of God. On this interpretation it is 



52 



4. 22 



EXODUS 



5. 12 



simply synonymous with ' Pharaoh's heart was 
hardened' (7 22 ), and 'Pharaoh hardened his 
heart ' (8 15 ). Where we speak vaguely of the 
operation of moral and physical laws and of 
secondary causes, the Oriental frankly says 
that ' God did this.' He says ' kismet ' : ' it 
was fated to be ' : see on v. 24. We prefer 
to say that the hardening of Pharaoh's heart 
was due to his own obstinacy in refusing to 
yield to the warnings he received ; the Eastern 
moralist means the same when he says that 
God hardened his heart. The inevitable result 
is regarded as the divine purpose. It happens 
in accordance with laws which God Himself 
has ordained. ' He will not ' leads inevitably 
to ' he cannot ' : cp. Ro 1 28 . It should be 
observed that this, however, is not equivalent 
to a denial of moral responsibility. It is a 
man's own fault if he allow himself to be 
entangled in this chain of inevitable con- 
sequences. He is, therefore, responsible for 
the ultimate hardening of his heart through 
repeated acts of wilful transgression : see on 
10 3 . 22. Israel is my son, even my firstborn] 
This expresses God's choice of Israel as His 
peculiar people : cp. Dtl-i 1 ' 2 Hosll 1 Jer31 9 , 
and see on 19 5 . The term 'firstborn' indi- 
cates the high honour conferred upon Israel, 
and at the same time contains a hint of the 
ultimate inclusion of the Gentiles also in 
the covenant. 23. For the fulfilment of 
this warning see 12 29 > 30 . 

24. In the inn] RV ' lodging-place,' not 
necessarily a building. Sought to kill him] 
This probably means no more than that Moses 
was struck with some grievous sickness and 
was in danger of death. It is another 
example of the Eastern way of attributing 
whatever happens to the direct interposition 
of God, referred to in the note on v. 21. It 
would appear from this mysterious incident 
that Moses had neglected to circumcise his 
youngest son, on account perhaps of the 
mother's objection to the rite. Circumcision 
was not peculiar to the Israelites, but they 
alone circumcised infants. What Zipporah 
objected to, therefore, may not have been the 
rite itself, but its performance at such an early 
age. But now seeing the danger her husband 
was in, and recognising that his sickness was 
the chastisement of disobedience, she over- 
came her reluctance and performed the cere- 
mony herself, with the result that Moses' life 
was spared (v. 26). The incident is designed 
to show the importance of circumcision as the 
sign of the covenant between God and His 
people and the sin and danger of neglecting it. 

25. A sharp stone] Even in later times than 
this flint knives were employed in circumcision, 
being regarded as purer than knives of metal : 
see Josh 5 2 , where ' sharp knives ' should be 
' knives of flint,' as in RV. Flint knives were 



used by the Egyptians in opening bodies for 
embalming. They are said to be carried by 
the Bedouin of the Syrian desert at the 
present day. A bloody husband art thou to 
me] RV ' a bridegroom of blood.' As the Jews 
to this day call a circumcised child a ' bride- 
groom of the circumcision ' it is possible that 
Zipporah's exclamation was addressed to the 
child. It is usually, however, understood as 
addressed to Moses, whom his wife reproaches 
as being the cause of bloodshed. 26. He 
let him go] i.e. God let Moses go, removed 
his sickness and allowed him to recover. It 
was probably at this time that Moses sent his 
wife and children back to the house of his 
father-in-law. They rejoined him at Sinai 
after the exodus from Egypt : see 18 2 > 6 . 

27. The mount of God] Horeb or Sinai : 
see on 3 1 . The two brothers had not met for 
forty years previous to this. 

CHAPTERS 5-11 
The Contest with Pharaoh 

CHAPTER 5 
Increase of the Oppression 

1. Pharaoh] probably P. Merenptah. See 
on 1 8 . His court may have been at Zoan or 
Tanis during the events that ensued : cp. 
Ps 78 1 2 » 43. The LORD God of Israel] Heb. 
' Jehovah the God of Israel ' : see on 3 13 > 18 . 
Similarly in the next v. Pharaoh says, ' Who 
is Jehovah ? . . I know not Jehovah.' Jehovah 
not being known and worshipped in Egypt, 
Pharaoh does not acknowledge His right to 
command him. 3. See on 3 18 . 4. Let 
the people] i.e. hinder them, as in Isa43 13 
Rolls 2Th27. 6. The taskmasters are 
the Egyptian officials, and the officers (lit. 
' scribes ') are the Hebrew clerks under them 
whose duty it was to keep an account of the 
bricks made : see v. 14. 7. Straw to make 
brick] The bricks were made of Nile mud to 
which chopped straw was added to give it con- 
sistency. They were sometimes stamped with 
the name of the reigning king. Some have 
been found bearing the name of Rameses II, 
the father of Merenptah, and wooden stamps 
and moulds have also been discovered. 

8. The tale] i.e. the number, as in 1S18 27 
1 Ch928. To ' tell ' in Old English means to 
count, and is used in this sense in Gnl5 5 
2Ch2 2 Ps22i7 48> 2 147*, etc. The counter 
of votes in Parliament is still called the 
' teller.' 

12. Stubble instead of straw] RV ' stubble 
for straw.' The word rendered ' straw ' means 
straw cut into short pieces and mixed with 
chaff. This required little labour, if any, to 
make it fit for use in brickmaking. What is 
called ' stubble ' is not what we know by that 



53 






5. 21 



EXODUS 



7. 12 



name, but includes all kinds of field rubbish, 
small twigs, stems, roots of withered plants, 
etc., which were used for fuel. To make this 
fit for brickmaking it had not only to be 
gathered, but chopped up and sorted, thus 
entailing double labour on the part of the 
Israelites. 21. Our savour to be abhorred] 
i.e. as we say ' to be in bad odour ' : cp. 
Gn3430. 22. The faith of Moses was se- 
verely tried, seeing that what he had done by 
God's commandment had the effect of making 
matters still more grievous for the Israelites 
meanwhile. But the opening words of the 
next c. show that their ' present affliction will 
work a far more exceeding weight of glory.' 

CHAPTER 6 

The Renewal of the Promise. Geneal- 
ogies or Reuben, Simeon, and Levi 

i. The strong hand is the hand of Jehovah, 
not of Pharaoh. So RV renders, ' by a strong 
hand,' i.e. under the compelling force of 
Jehovah's judgments : see on 3 19 . 

3. The name of God Almighty] Heb. El 
Shaddai, which occurs first in the revelation 
made to Abraham (Gnl? 1 ; cp. also 28 3 48 3 ). 
It is here said that God was not known in the 
patriarchal times by the name Jehovah. This 
constitutes a difficulty, as the name has been 
already used in passages earlier than this, e.g. in 
Gn 2 4 3 4 1 1 1_9 , etc. Two explanations have 
been given : (1) The use of the name Jehovah 
in these earlier passages may be due, not to the 
speakers themselves, but to the writer of those 
parts of the book of Genesis in which it is 
found, to whom it was familiar, and who used 
it by anticipation. (2) While the name Je- 
hovah may have been known from earliest 
times, its full spiritual significance may not 
have been revealed or apprehended till the 
time of Moses. Traces of the antiquity of the 
name Jehovah may be found in its employment 
by Abraham as part of a proper name : see 
Gn22 14 . The name of Moses' mother, Joche- 
bed (Kx6 20 ), also contains the name Jehovah 
aa its first element. 5. See on 2 24 . 

6. Redeem] deliver from oppression. 

7. See on 1 9 6 » 6 . 12. Uncircumcised lips] 
I lircumciaioo is the sign of consecration, so that 

ink iicuiiH ision ' is used metaphorically of 
what is unclean or inadequate to the service 
of < i . »< i : Bee <>n I>\ t '.*-'■'. 

14-27. The object of this section is to in- 
dicate the genealogy of the deliverers. Moses 
and Aaron. The family of Levi is therefore 
given in detail. Those of Reuben and Simeon 
are prefixed merely to show the position of the 
family of Levi among the sons of Jacob, and 
are then lore Bummarily described. 

14. Hanoch] the Hebrew form of Enoch. 

20. Jochebed] l Jehovah is glory ' : see on 



v. 3. Observe that marriage with a father's 
sister was not forbidden before the giving of 
the Law : see Lvl8 12 . It is not improbable 
that the genealogy of Amram has been short- 
ened here by the omission of certain names. 
Joshua, who was a younger contemporary of 
Moses, was of the tenth generation from 
Joseph : see 1 Ch 7 20 " 2 7. The designation 
1 daughter of Levi ' applied to Jochebed in 2 l 
may, therefore, be equivalent to ' descendant 
of Levi.' But see Nu26 59 , where Miriam's 
name is also inserted : see on 2 1 . 26. Their 
armies] Israel left Egypt as an organised host : 
see on 3 16 , and see 12 17 > 51 13 18 . 

CHAPTER 7 

The Rod of Moses turned into a 
Serpent. The First Plague 

I. A god to Pharaoh] see on 4 lt5 . Thy pro- 
phet] A prophet is a spokesman. The pro- 
phets of God are those who declare His will. 
In doing this they may foretell His judg- 
ments and predict the future ; but predic- 
tion is a secondary feature of prophecy, and 
is not contained in the original and proper 
sense of the word in which it is used here, 
where Aaron is called the prophet or mouth- 
piece of Moses. To prophesy sometimes means 
to declare God's praise in song. Thus Miriam 
is called a prophetess in 15 20 . Eldad and Medad 
are said to have prophesied in Nu ll 25 (see note 
there), Deborah was a prophetess (Jg4 4 5 1 ), 
and in 1 Ch 25 1-s the sacred musicians in the 
temple are said to ' prophesy with harps ' : cp. 
alsolS10 10 19 20f - lCorl4i f . 4,5. The pur- 
pose of the miraculous events connected with 
the exodus was not only the deliverance of the 
Israelites, but the manifestation of Jehovah's 
character to the Egyptians : see on 4 21 . 

7. See on 2 21 . 9. Thy rod] Moses had 
entrusted his rod to Aaron : cp. v. 15, which is 
spoken to Moses. 

II. Magicians] lit. 'engravers, sacred 
scribes' : cp. Gn41 8 RY. They are depicted 
on the monuments with a quill pen on their 
heads and a book in their hands. A belief in 
magic was universal in Egypt and had a most 
potent influence in every department of thought 
and conduct. The magicians were a recognised 
body of men whose services were very fre- 
quently employed to interpret dreams, to avert 
misfortune, or to bring discomfiture upon an 
enemy : cp. on Nu22 5 . Here Pharaoh calls 
his magiciana to a trial of strength with Moses 
and Aaron, and they are able to imitate some 
of the wonders. In the end, however, they 
confess themselves beaten (8 l9 ). According to 
Jewish tradition two of the magicians who 
•withstood Moses' were called Jannes and 
Jambrea : see 2Tim3 8 . 12. They became 
serpents] Serpent charming is still practised 



54 



7. IB 



EXODUS 



8. 22 



in Egypt and has been described by several 
travellers. What was done on this occasion 
was probably a clever piece of sleight of hand. 
The magicians when they were called in might 
know what was expected of them, and be 
prepared to imitate what was done by Aaron. 

13. He hardened Pharaoh's heart] This 
should be ' Pharaoh's heart was hardened,' 
as in RV. The Heb. is the same here as in 
v. 22 : see on 4 21 . 

14-25. The First Plague :— The Water of 
the Nile turned into Blood. 

The Nile was regarded as a god to whom 
worship and sacrifice were offered. The defile- 
ment of its waters, therefore, was a severe 
blow to the religious prejudices of the Egypt- 
ians. It was also a great calamity, as the Nile 
was the source of all the fertility of Egypt, and 
its fish were largely used for food, some kinds 
being regarded as sacred. 15. He goeth out 

unto the water] either to bathe or to pay his 
devotions to the sacred river : see on 2 5 . 

19. Streams , . rivers] the various canals 
and branches of the Nile. 20, 21. At the 
annual rising of the Nile its waters frequently 
turn a dull red colour owing to the presence 
of mud, vegetable debris, and minute animal- 
cules. This plague, therefore, like the follow- 
ing, may have been an aggravation of a natural 
phenomenon. It is to be observed, however, 
that whereas the natural discoloration of the 
water has no pernicious effect on the fish of 
the Nile, these all died under the plague. 

22. The magicians probably obtained some 
water by digging near the Nile (see v. 24), 
and in some way were able to convince 
Pharaoh, who of course was willing to be con- 
vinced, that they could imitate the sign wrought 
by Moses and Aaron. Their sign, however, 
must have been on a much smaller scale, seeing 
that all the Nile water was already trans- 
formed. 25. The plague lasted seven days. 
Nothing is said of its removal. 

CHAPTER 8 
The Second, Third, and Fourth Plagues 

1-15. The Second Plague: — Frogs. 

This plague, like the first, was not only in 
itself loathsome, but an offence to the religious 
notions of the Egyptians. The frog was a 
sacred animal, and regarded as representing 
the reproductive powers of nature. At least 
one divinity was represented with a frog's 
head. This sacred sign became an object of 
abhorrence under this plague. This also was 
an aggravation of a natural phenomenon, but 
its supernatural nature was attested by its 
sudden occurrence in accordance with a pre- 
vious intimation (v. 2). 3. Ovens] These 
were large earthenware jars or pots about 
3 ft. high, which were heated by being 



filled with burning brushwood. The dough 
was baked by being laid in thin layers on the 
hot sides of the jar. Sometimes the oven 
consisted of a hole dug in the ground outside 
the house and plastered with clay. It was 
heated in the same manner as before, and 
after the fuel was withdrawn, the oven was 
wiped out and the dough pressed to the hot 
sides. Kneading-troughs] wooden bowls. 

7. The plague would not be difficult to imitate, 
seeing the frogs abounded everywhere. But 
the magicians could not remove the plague. 

9. Glory over me] RV 'Have thou this 
glory over me': an expression of courtesy 
equivalent to 'I am at your service.' 13. 

The frogs died] They did not return to the 
Nile, but remained to pollute the land. The 
removal of the plague in a manner intensi- 
fied it. 

16-19. The Third Plague: — Lice. 

16. Lice] RM ' sandflies,' or 'fleas.' Opinion 
has been divided both in ancient and modern 
times as to the nature of these insects. From 
the fact that they are here said to have at- 
tacked the beasts as well as man, and to 
have come out of the dust, it has been in- 
ferred that they were gnats or mosquitoes. 
Several kinds of small stinging insects are 
known to breed in the sand, and these pests 
are particularly prevalent after the fall 
of the Nile and the drying up of the pools. 
On the other hand, RY has good authority for 
retaining the rendering ' lice ' in the text. 
Rawlinson says that lice in N. Africa 
constitute a terrible affliction, and he quotes 
Sir S. Baker to the effect that ' at certain 
seasons it is as if the very dust of the land 
were turned into lice.' It will be observed 
that the third plague came without warning. 
18. The magicians fail to imitate this plague, 
and acknowledge its supernatural origin. 
They said, ' This is the finger of God,' or ' of 
a god.' This does not amount to an acknow- 
ledgment of Jehovah. They may have been 
thinking of their own gods. 

20-32. The Fourth Plague : — Flies. 

21. Swarms of flies'] The nature of the 
pests is not indicated, as the Heb. word 
means simply ' swarms.' The LXX calls them 
'dog-flies': cp. Isa7 18 . A general opinion is 
that they were beetles, of a peculiarly destruc- 
tive sort. If this is correct, then the plague 
was again a severe blow to the religious 
notions of the Egyptians. The beetle was 
sacred, and was regarded as the emblem of 
the Sun-god. k It was sculptured on monu- 
ments, painted on tombs, engraved on gems, 
worn round the neck as an amulet, and hon- 
oured in ten thousand images ' (Geikie). A 
colossal figure of a scarabaeus beetle is in the 
British Museum. 22. It is implied here that 
hitherto the Hebrews had suffered along with 



55 



8. 24 



EXODUS 



9. 31 



the Egyptians. But now the exemption of 
the Hebrews from the plagues would show 
that it was the God of the Hebrews who was 
working on their behalf, and not one of the 
gods of the Egyptians as the magicians had 
suggested (v. 19). 24. Was corrupted] MG 
' was destroyed.' 25. In the land] of Egypt. 
Pharaoh was unwilling to lose the services of 
the Hebrews. 

26. The abomination of the Egyptians] 
Animal worship was very prevalent in Egypt, 
certain kinds of animals being regarded as 
peculiarly sacred and on no account to be 
slaughtered. For the Israelites to sacrifice 
cattle, sheep, and goats would be to outrage 
the religious feelings of the Egyptians, and 
might lead to war and bloodshed. That 
Moses had good grounds for his fear on this 
account cannot be questioned. Diodorus, the 
historian, tells of a Roman ambassador who 
was put to death for accidentally killing a 
cat. A modern instance of the danger of 
offending religious prejudices may be seen in 
the Indian Mutiny, which is said to have been 
occasioned by the serving out of greased 
cartridges to the Bengal troops. The end of 
the cartridge was usually bitten off before 
being inserted in the musket, and of this 
these men, who were Hindus and forbidden 
by their religion to eat cow's flesh, had a 
superstitious abhorrence. 

27. See on 3 18 . 

29. Deal deceitfully] see vv. 8, 15. 

CHAPTER 9 

The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Plagues 

1-7. The Fifth Plague : — Murrain, i.e. cattle 
plague. 

Visitations of cattle plague are not uncommon 
in Egypt. An outbreak in 1842 carried off 
40,000 oxen. The miraculous nature of the 
plague recorded here consisted in its occurring 
;it a set time (v. 5), and in the exemption of 
the cattle of the Israelites, and of the cattle 
that were housed. This plague was, so far, 
the most destructive in its effects, entailing a 
much more serious loss of property than the 
former. 

3. Cattle] A general term including the 
Bpecii s mentioned in this verse. In the field] 
Those that were housed escaped, to suffer 
afterwards from the plague of hail : sec w. 
I 9, 25. The vrords in 1 . 6, all the cattle . . died, 
are to be understood with this limitation. 
Horses were a comparatively recenl importa- 
tion into Egypt, and chiefly used in military 
operations. They are frequently mentioned 
in the OT. in connexion with Egj pi : « 
Gn47 17 K\ 1 1" Di 17" ; note, Esa31 l . 

8-12 I'll.- Sixth Plague : — Boils. 

This plague affected i»<>tli man and beast, 



and, unless we may suppose that the narrative 
is condensed, was sent without warning. 

8. Furnace] i.e. the brick-kiln. The scat- 
tering of the fine ashes upon the wind was 
probably intended to be symbolic of the 
spread of the disease. 9. Boil breaking 

forth with blains] An inflamed swelling with 
pustules. In Dt28 27 it is called the 'botch 
of Egypt.' Certain skin diseases are communi- 
cated to man from cattle, and the sixth plague 
may have been connected in some way with 
the preceding. 11. Could not stand before 
Moses] i.e. could not withstand Moses. They 
were attacked themselves, and could neither 
imitate nor remove the plague. 12. Hardened 
the heart of Pharaoh] see on 4 21 . 

13-35- The Seventh Plague :— Hail. 

14. All my plagues] Pharaoh must not 
think that God has exhausted His means. 
There are others which will prove sufficient 
for His purpose. 15, 16. Better with RV, 
' For now I had put forth my hand, and 
smitten thee . . and thou hadst been cut off . . 
but in very deed for this cause have I made 
thee to stand ' (i.e. have preserved thee alive), 
' for to shew thee my power, and that my 
name may be declared throughout all the 
earth.' God might have delivered His people 
by summarily destroying Pharaoh and all his 
subjects, but He has restrained the full extent 
of His vengeance for His greater glory : cp. 
^0922,23 l S a489. 18. Very grievous hail] 
Hail and thunderstorms are not unknown in 
Egypt, but are rare and seldom dangerous. 

Since the foundation thereof] i.e. since it 
was inhabited : cp. v. 24. 20. Some of the 
Egyptians, at all events, had been impressed 
with the previous plagues, and had come to 
believe the predictions of Moses. 23. Fire 
ran along upon the ground] RV 'ran down 
unto the earth.' Hailstorms are frequently 
accompanied with electrical disturbances. 

25. Brake every tree] Broke the bough so 
that, in the case of fruit trees, there could be 
no prospect of. fruit. 27. I have sinned 
this time] I acknowledge this time that I have 
sinned. 28. For it is enough] RV 'for 

there hath been enough.' 31. Flax] Largely 
grown for making linen which was worn by 
the priests, and used, among other purposes, 
for swathing mummies. The word rendered 
boiled, i.e. podded, is explained in RM as 
mea nin g ' was in bloom.' It means, rather, 
' was in bud.' Flax flowers as a rule in Febru- 
ary, and barley comes into ear about the same 
time. Wheat is a month later than barley, 
and spelt (here incorrectly called rie, which is 
not grown in Egypt) is sown and ripens at the 
same time as wheat, The condition of the 
crops indicated here fixes the time of the 
plague at about the end of January. 



56 



10. 1 



EXODUS 



12. 2 



CHAPTER 10 
The Eighth and Ninth Plagues 

i-20. The Eighth Plague : — Locusts. 

2. See on 7 4 > 5 . 3. This question shows 
that Pharaoh was responsible for the harden- 
ing of his heart : see on 4 21 . 4-6. Tra- 
vellers are unanimous in bearing witness to 
the terrible ravages caused by a visitation of 
locusts. They fly in dense swarms, sometimes 
miles in length, so that the air is darkened 
with them. Wherever they alight they devour 
every green thing, not sparing the bark of 
trees. For a description of a locust plague see 
Joell 1-7 2 1 " 11 , where the locusts are com- 
pared to an army of horsemen. 10. Let the 
LORD be so with you . . ] This is spoken in 
scorn, and is equivalent to a refusal to let 
them go. Evil is before you] i.e. your in- 
tentions are evil : cp. PslOl 3 . II. Ye that 
are men] Pharaoh means to keep the women 
and children as a pledge that the others will 
return : cp. v. 24. 13. An east wind] Lo- 
custs are known frequently to have come from 
the East, being bred in Syria and Arabia. In 
this instance they were removed by a west 
wind which carried them into the Red Sea 
(v. 19). 17. This death] A graphic descrip- 
tion of the desolation caused by the plague. 

19. Red Sea] The Gk. name, given perhaps 
on account of the red coral which lines its 
floors and sides. The Heb. name is Yam Suph, 
which means ' Sea of Reeds.' 

21-29. The Ninth Plague :— Darkness. 

21. This plague, like the third and sixth, 
was sent without warning. It is not said how 
the darkness was produced, but in all pro- 
bability it had a natural basis, like the other 
plagues. It resembles the darkness caused by 
the khamsin, a S. or SW. wind, excessively 
hot and charged with fine dust, which blows 
about the time of the vernal equinox. The 
darkness is often local, covering a belt or 
strip of the country. The unusually dense 
gloom would excite the superstitious fears of 
the Egyptians, who worshipped the sun-god 
Ra. For a vivid description of the terrors of 
this plague, see book of Wisdom, c. 17. 

24. Cp. the former concession of Pharaoh 
in v. 11. He is now willing to let the people 
go, but wishes to retain their flocks, in order 
to ensure their return. 26. We know not 
with what we must serve the Lord] a reason 
for taking all their flocks with them. The 
feast was new, and they did not know what 
they might require. 

29. The present interview does not terminate 
with these words, but is continued in the next 
c. Moses leaves the presence of Pharaoh at c. 
II 8 . The first three vv. of c. 11 may be re- 
garded as a parenthesis. 



CHAPTER 11 
The Tenth Plague threatened 

2. Borrow] R V ' ask ' : see on 3 22 . 

4. Moses is here speaking to Pharaoh. This 
v. is the continuation of 10 29 . About mid- 
night] The particular night is not specified, 
though it is implied that it is the night follow- 
ing the day on which this interview takes place. 
On the other hand, 12 3 » 6 prescribes a four days' 
preparation for the Passover. But see on 12 1 . 

5. Firstborn] The Heb. word means the 
firstborn male. The death of the firstborn 
may be regarded as a punishment for the 
slaughter of the Hebrew children (see 1 16 > 22 ) 
and the oppression of Israel, the ' firstborn of 
Jehovah ' (see on 4 22 > 23 ). 

Behind the mill] What is meant is the 
hand-mill, which consisted of two circular 
stones about 18 in. in diameter lying one 
above the other. The upper stone is turned 
round a pivot, which rises from the centre of 
the lower, by means of a handle fixed near its 
circumference. The grain is poured into a 
funnel-shaped hole in the upper stone sur- 
rounding the central pivot, and the meal 
escapes between the two stones at the cir- 
cumference. The mill rests on the ground, 
and the maid-servant sits 'behind the mill.' 
Sometimes two servants turned the stone, in 
which case they sat facing each other, each 
grasping the handle : cp. Mt24 41 . Grinding 
was considered menial work, fit only for women 
and slaves : cp. Jgl6 21 Isa47 1 > 2 Lam5 13 . 

7. Move (lit. ' whet ') his tongue] a pro- 
verbial expression : cp. Josh 10 21 . 

9, 10. These vv. sum up the purpose and 
effect of the preceding series of nine plagues. 

CHAPTER 12 

The Institution of the Passover. The 
Tenth Plague, and the Departure 
of Israel 

1. In the land of Egypt] These words sug- 
gest that what follows was written independ- 
ently of the foregoing narrative, and an ex- 
amination of this c. shows that it contains 
two separate accounts of the institution of 
the Passover, one extending from vv. 1-20, 
the other from vv. 21-28. The latter is the 
proper continuation of c. 11. 

2. The beginning of months] The exodus 
is regarded as an ' epoch-making ' event (cp. 
Jgl9 30 1K6 1 ), and to mark its importance 
the month in which it occurs is to be reckoned 
the first month of the ecclesiastical year. This 
is the month Abib (see 13 4 23 15 3418 DtlG 1 ), 
i.e. the month of ripening ears, and corresponds 
to the end of March and the beginning of 
April. After the exile it was called by the 
Babylonian name of Nisan : see e.g. Neh2! 



57 



12. 3 



EXODUS 



12. 14 



Esth3 7 . The sacred feasts were computed 
from this date : see Lv 23 4 > 5 « 15 > 2 *. The civil 
year began in autumn with the first day of 
the seventh month after Abib, called by the 
Babylonians Tishri and in OT. Ethanim : see 
1K8 2 . With this change of reckoning may 
be compared the reckoning of the Christian 
Year, which begins with Advent, and of the 
Christian Week, which begins with the Lord's 
Day. 

3. Unto all the congregation] by means of 
their representatives : see on 3 16 . A lamb] 
The word may also mean a kid, but practically 
a lamb was always chosen : cp. v. 5. 

4. Too little] According to Josephus the 
lower limit was fixed at ten persons. He also 
says that in his time (between the death of 
Christ and the destruction of Jerusalem) 
250,000 lambs were sacrificed at the Passover 
and partaken of by 2,700,000 people. 

5. In accordance with the principle that 
whatever is offered to God must be the best 
of its kind, the law of sacrifice required that 
the sacrificial animal should be a male (the 
superior sex) and without blemish : see intro. 
to Lv 2 1 and on Lv 22 17-25. g Christ ' offered 
Himself without spot to God ' (Heb 9 14 ) as a 
1 lamb without blemish and without spot ' 
(1 Pet 119). 

6. Keep it up until the fourteenth day] This 
is to ensure that no blemish shall pass un- 
detected. In the evening] lit. ' between the 
evenings,' i.e. probably between sunset and 
darkness. Darkness was supposed to begin 
when three stars became visible. Josephus 
says that the time of sacrifice was from three 
to five in the afternoon. Observe that the 
Passover lamb was sacrificed and the blood 
sprinkled on the doorposts by each head of a 
household, there being at this time no taber- 
nacle nor order of sacrificing priests. In later 
times the lamb was killed in the temple court 
by the head of the household and the blood 
poured out at the altar, after which the lamb 
was carried home to be eaten : cp. L v 1 7 3-6 
Dtl6 fi -*. 7. Upper door post] RV ' lintel.' 
The shedding of the blood signified the offer- 
ing of the life to God. The sprinkling of the 
lintel was not only a sign to the destroying 
angel, bui an indication that atonement had 
been made on behalf of Hie inmates of the 
bouse. 8. Roast with fire] The flesh of 
sacrificial animals which were eaten by the 
offerers was usually boiled: cp. 1S2 18 » 14 . 

In the preseni case the roasting was probably 
to ensure haste (v. 39) and to prevent the 
dismemberment of the animal : see vv. 9, 46. 
And unleavened bread ; and with bitter 
herbs] Leaven, as causing fermentation and 
corruption, is regarded as unclean, and its use 
in sacrificial meals is accordingly forbidden. 
In NT. it is used as a symbol of sin and moral 



uncleanness : see lCor5 8 and on v. 14. The 
bitter herbs, probably some kind of wild let- 
tuce or endive, were meant to symbolise the 
bitter bondage which the Israelites had endured 
in Egypt : see l 14 . 9. His head with his 
legs, and with the purtenance (RY ' inwards ') 
thereof] The entrails were taken out, cleansed, 
and replaced, and the lamb was then roasted 
whole: cp. v. 46, 'neither shall ye break a 
bone thereof.' The unmutilated lamb sym- 
bolises the unity of Israel. St. John sees in 
it also an emblem of the unbroken bones of 
Christ: see Jnl9 36 . 10. This prohibition 
is meant to prevent what remains of the sacri- 
fice from being profaned. Burning was the 
regular mode of disposing of the remains 
of every sacrificial animal : see 29 34 Lv4 12 7 17 . 

11.* The passover is to be eaten with every 
indication of haste. With your loins gird- 
ed] To gird up the loins is to gather up the 
long flowing skirt of the outer robe under the 
girdle, so as to leave the limbs free in working 
or running : see 1 K 1 8 46 Lk 1 2 37 1 7 8. At the 
present day (as in the time of Christ) the 
Jews eat the Passover in a recumbent posture 
to signify that there is no longer need of 
trepidation, God having given His people rest 
and security. It is the LORD'S passover] 
Heb. pesach, Gk. form pascha. The English 
rendering 4 passover ' represents not amiss both 
the sound and the sense of the Hebrew name. 
The rite commemorated the ' passing over ' of 
Jehovah, i.e. His sparing of His faithful 
people. The word is used in this sense in 
Isa31 5 . 12. Against all the gods of 

Egypt] The gods of Egypt would be power- 
less to avert the judgment of Jehovah. As 
in Egypt many deities were worshipped in 
the form of animals, the destruction of the 
firstborn of beasts would be felt as the exe- 
cution of a judgment upon these gods. 

14. For ever] The Jews still keep the 
feasts of the Passover and Unleavened Bread. 
They now offer no sacrifice, seeing that Jeru- 
salem has passed from their possession, but 
they look forward to the time when they 
will return to Jerusalem and the sacrifice 
be resumed. Each celebration is closed 
with the pathetic words, expressive of un- 
dying faith and hope, ' Next year in Jeru- 
salem!' To Christians the death of Christ 
gathers up and fulfils all that was signified 
by the Jewish Passover, and therefore super- 
sedes it. 'Christ our passover hath been 
(RV) sacrificed for us; therefore let us keep 
the feast ' (RM ' keep festival,' i.e. the 
festival of unleavened bread which followed 
the passover) '. . with the unleavened bread 
of sincerity and truth': lCor5 7 > 8 . Here 
Christ is regarded as typified in the paschal 
lamb, as He is also in the Fourth Gospel (19 3C ), 
which places the Crucifixion at the time of the 



f>8 



12. 15 



EXODUS 



12. 43 



Passover, and regards the fact as significant; 
His death redeems His people from their 
spiritual bondage; His blood, sprinkled on 
their hearts, delivers them from the guilt and 
consequences of sin. The old Passover sacri- 
fice is fulfilled, once for all, in His sacrifice of 
Himself, which is commemorated, not repeated, 
in the sacrament of Holy Communion. That 
sacrament, accordingly, takes the place of the 
Passover. It differs from it in so far that it 
is not a recurring sacrifice, but the continual 
remembrance of the one great sacrifice offered 
by Christ, the true Passover lamb. The sacri- 
fice is past, and Christians now live in the 
time of unleavened bread, and must therefore 
put away from them the ' leaven of malice 
and wickedness.' 

15. The seven days beginning with the 
Passover are to be kept as a feast of un- 
leavened bread. The Passover (pesach) and 
feast of Unleavened Bread (mazzoth) are really 
distinct, but as they were always celebrated in 
succession the name Passover is sometimes 
used to cover both: cp. Lk'22 1 . Shall be 
cut off] This does not necessarily mean put to 
death, but excommunicated and cast out of 
the congregation of Israel. A person so cut 
off becomes like one of a heathen nation. 
He is reduced to the level of an uncircum- 
cised person, being outside the covenant and 
having no more part in the privileges of the 
chosen people : see on G-n 17 14 > and cp. Mt 18 17 
Eph2 12 . 16. An holy convocation] The 
word denotes a gathering of the people for a 
religious purpose: see NulO 2-10 . The ab- 
stention from work enjoined here is not so 
strict as on the sabbath and the Day of 
Atonement: cp. Lv23 8 with vv. 3, 28, and 
with Ex 35 3 . 19. A stranger] a foreigner 

who had entered the congregation by circum- 
cision, a proselyte, in contradistinction to 
' one born in the land,' i.e. the land of Canaan 
(another indication of later date), a native 
Israelite. 22. Hyssop] supposed to be wild 
marjoram, which grows in Egypt and Sinai 
and Palestine. Its powder, which has a pun- 
gent aromatic flavour like that of mint, is 
used as a condiment. It was supposed to 
have cleansing properties, and a bunch of 
hyssop was frequently used in ceremonial 
sprinkling, for which it was naturally suitable, 
several stalks growing from one root: cp. 
Lvl4 4 Ps51 7 Nul9 6 . 26. What mean 

ye by this service?] To this day, at the 
Jewish celebration of the Passover, the 
youngest child present who is able to do so 
is made to ask this question, which is an- 
swered by a recitation of the circumstances 
attending the original institution of the feast. 
An interesting description of a modern Pass- 
over will be found in Zangwill's ' Children of 
the Ghetto,' c. 25. 



The Tenth Plague :— Death of the First- 
born. 

29. At midnight] the Passover night, follow- 
ing the 14th day of Abib. The Jewish day 
is reckoned from sunset to sunset : see on ll 4 . 

31-42. The Departure from Egypt. 

32. Bless me also] intercede for me, that 
no further plague come upon me for your 
sakes. 34. Before it was leavened] This 

shows the haste with which they departed: 
see v. 39. On the kneading-troughs see on 
83. 35. Borrowed] RV l asked,' as in 3 22 

ll 2 . 36. Lent unto them . . required] RV 
' let them have what they asked.' 37. Ra- 
meses] see on l 11 . Succoth has been iden- 
tified with the Egyptian Thuku, the region 
whose capital was Pithom: see on l 11 . Six 
hundred thousand on foot that were men] i.e. of 
twenty years old and upwards, fit for war. 
This implies a total of perhaps three millions. 
On the number see intro. to Nu 1, and on 
14 21 . 38. A mixed multitude] of foreigners 
and Egyptians who were associated with the 
Israelites through marriage and as slaves. 
We read of these again in Lv24 10 Null 4 . 
Very much cattle] On the resources of the 
wilderness and its ability to support a mul- 
titude of people with flocks and herds, see 
intro. to Nul. 

40. Four hundred and thirty years] This 
agrees with the prophetical statement in On 
15 13 . But the Samaritan text of the OT. and 
LXX after the words ' in Egypt ' here add 
' and in Canaan,' thus making the 430 years 
run from the immigration of Abraham into 
Canaan, and reducing the stay in Egypt after 
the immigration of Jacob to 215 years. St. 
Paul accepts the LXX chronology (see Gal 
3 17 ), and it is supported by the genealogy in 
Ex 6 14_2 °, which allows only four generations 
between Jacob and the father of Moses. But 
it is difficult to believe that the descendants of 
Jacob could have increased so much in 215 
years, and there is reason to think that the 
genealogical table in c. 6 has been abridged : 
see on 6 20 . On the whole, it seems more 
reasonable to accept the reading of the Heb. 
text represented by the English version, and 
understand the 430 years as running from the 
descent of Jacob into Egypt. 41. The self- 
same day] on the 15th day of Abib : see v. 
29. 42. A night to be much observed] 
This rendering rests on the injunction in v. 
14. The Heb. is literally ' a night of watching 
unto the Lord,' i.e. a night of vigil or watch- 
festival. 43~49- These directions regarding 
the lawful participants in the Passover seem 
to be introduced here in consequence of what 
is said about the ' mixed multitude ' in v. 38. 
The Passover is only for those who through 
circumcision have entered into the covenant 
with Jehovah. Similarly, in the Christian 



59 



12. 46 



EXODUS 



14. 2 



church baptism, which corresponds to circum- 
cision as an initiatory rite, is necessary to par- 
taking of the Lord's Supper. 46. See on vv. 
9, 10. 49. One law] i.e. of the necessity of 
circumcision to participation in the Passover. 

CHAPTEK 13 

The Consecration of the Firstborn. 
The March to Etham 

1-16. The Consecration of the Firstborn. 

All Israel was holy unto the Lord : see on 
19 5 > 6 . But the firstborn of man and beast 
were specially consecrated to Him, as the part 
representing the whole. There was a special 
fitness in the consecration of the firstborn, see- 
ing they had been spared in the destruction 
which overtook the Egyptians. The firstborn 
of mankind were to be consecrated to the 
service of Jehovah as priests ; the firstborn of 
animals were to be offered in sacrifice, if clean 
animals ; if not, they were to be redeemed at 
a price. Afterwards the whole tribe of Levi 
was consecrated to the priestly service in lieu 
of the firstborn : see Nu3 40 " 51 . The firstfruits 
of the field were also claimed by Jehovah : 
see e.g. 22 2 9. 

2. Openeth the womb] What is claimed is 
the firstborn male. 8. See on 12 26 . 

9. A sign . . upon thine hand] a figurative 
expression meaning that they were never to 
lose sight of this duty. In later times the 
Jews understood this injunction literally, and 
to this day at times of prayer they attach to 
their left arm and forehead small cases con- 
taining pieces of parchment inscribed with cer- 
tain passages of the Law. These cases are 
called in NT. ' phylacteries ' : see further on 
Dt6 8 . 

12. Matrix] the womb. 13. The ass is here 
mentioned as a representative of ' unclean ' 
domestic animals (see Lv 11 2f -) which could not 
be offered in sacrifice. For such, a lamb was 
to be substituted ; if not, its neck must be 
broken. This would ensure its redemption, 
as every one would prefer parting with a lamb 
to losing an ass. Human sacrifices are strictly 
forbidden, hence firstborn males must be re- 
deemed. The tribe of Levi was substituted 
for them, and in addition the sum of five 
shekels was paid as the redemption price of 
each Brstborn male : see Nu8 16 18 15 > 16 . To 
this day the Jews solemnise the ' redemption of 
the firstborn 1 OH the thirtieth day after birth. 
This was the rite performed by Joseph and 
Mary on behalf of the child Jesus as recorded 
in Lk 222,88. 

17-22. The March to Etham. 

17. The most direct route to Canaan from 

ftaamsea in the Eastern Delta where the host 
had mustered, would have been northeastwards 

along the Mediterranean coast. This would 



have implied a journey of not more than 150 
or 200 miles. But it would immediately have 
brought them into collision with the Philistines, 
a very warlike tribe inhabiting the south- 
western part of Canaan, and would have been 
too great an obstacle for the people's strength 
and faith. Accordingly the route of march 
was deflected southeastward into the penin- 
sula of Sinai. The further object of leading 
the people to Mt. Sinai to be instructed in 
the Law is not expressly stated here, but 
neither is it excluded. 18. Harnessed] RV 

' armed ' in organised array : see on 6 26 . 

19. See Gn 5025 j os h24 32 . 20. Succoth] 
see on 12 37 . Etham] not identified. It 

was probably one of the frontier fortifications. 
The wilderness is probably that of Shur (cp. 
15 22 , and see on Gnl6?). In Nu338 it is 
called the 'wilderness of Etham.' 

21. There was only one pillar, which in 
daylight had the appearance of smoke and by 
night glowed with fire : see 14 20 > 24 . It was 
the symbol of the divine presence with the 
host (see on 3 2 ), and was their signal and 
guide on the march : see 40 34 " 38 , and cp. 
Nu 9 15_23 . It is clearly understood here to be 
miraculous. It was usual to carry fire signals 
at the head of an army on the march in early 
times. Go by day and by (RV) night] It is 

suggested that the Israelites marched during 
part of the night as well as by day : cp. N"u 9 21 . 

CHAPTER 14 

Crossing the Red Sea 

2. At Etham the Israelites reached the 
Egyptian frontier, travelling in a north- 
easterly direction. Instead of crossing the 
frontier to the E. side of the Bitter Lakes 
they are commanded to turn southwards, 
keeping the Red Sea on their left. The 
reason for this change of route may have been 
a repulse by the garrison of one of the line of 
fortresses on the E. border of Egypt. None 
of the places mentioned here has been identi- 
fied with certainty. There is even a doubt as 
to what is meant by the sea. Some have 
understood it to be the Mediterranean, in 
which case the host must have turned north- 
wards, and the supposed Red Sea (Heb. ' sea 
of reeds ' ; see on 10 19 ) would be the Ser- 
bonian Lake, a large bog lying on the shore 
of the Mediterranean between Egypt and the 
SW. extremity of Canaan. It is usual, how- 
ever, to understand by the ' sea of reeds ' what 
is now called the Gulf of Suez. There is 
little doubt that at the time of the exodus the 
Gulf of Suez extended much further north 
than it does now, and that the modern Lake 
Timsah and the Bitter Lakes were connected 
with each other and the Gulf of Suez by necks 
of shallow water which in certain conditions 



GO 



14. 3 



EXODtfS 



15. 12 



might be swept almost dry. It is pretty 
certain that the Israelites crossed at some 
point north of the modern Suez. 

3. The wilderness is the Egyptian wilder- 
ness, a tract of desert land lying between the 
Nile and the Red Sea. To the south, in front 
of the advancing host, rose an impassable 
mountain chain, so that they found themselves 
entangled in the land. 7. The Egyptian 
chariots were low two-wheeled, cars open 
behind and drawn by two horses abreast. 
Each chariot contained a driver and a warrior, 
sometimes two. The chosen chariots were 
probably those of the king's bodyguard. The 
Hittites are known to have brought 2,500 
chariots into the field against Rameses II. 

8. With an high hand] Confidently, boldly. 

9. Horsemen] It is doubtful whether the 
Egyptians at this time used cavalry. The 
horsemen may be the charioteers. 

11. No graves in Egypt] cp. NU14 1 * 3 . 

14. Hold your peace] The victory will be 
entirely the work of Jehovah. It is the part 
of His people to trust in Him and cease from 
murmuring : cp. Isa 30 15 2 Ch 20 15 ' 17 . 

19. Angel of God] see on 3 2 , and cp. 13 21 . 

21. In delivering His people, as in bringing 
the plagues on the Egyptians, God may have 
made use of natural means. A strong east 
wind blowing all night, and acting with the 
ebbing tide, may have laid bare the shallow 
neck of water joining the Bitter Lakes to the 
Red Sea, allowing the Israelites to cross in 
safety : see on v. 2. Indeed, an Egyptian 
tradition says that Moses waited for the ebb 
tide in order to lead the Israelites across. 
The real difficulty in connexion with the pas- 
sage of the Red Sea lies not in the baring of 
the sea bottom, but in the fact that the Israel- 
itish host must have numbered about three 
millions : see on 12 37 . This enormous multi- 
tude, encumbered as it was with young and 
old herds of cattle, must have taken a long 
time to cro^s the soft floor of the estuary. It 
is not impossible, however, that the number 
stated was the total of those who escaped 
from Egypt, but that they left in several 
companies, that led by Moses being the main 
detachment : see on Nul. 

22. A wall unto them] This need not mean 
that they stood up like a wall, but that the 
water on each side was a defence, preventing 
a flank attack by the enemy : cp. for this use 
of the term 'wall' 1S25 16 . 24. In the 
morning watch] between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m., 
the last of the three watches into which the 
Hebrews divided the night, in earlier times : 
cp. Lam 2 19 Jg 7 19 1 S 1 1 n . The Roman di- 
vision was into four watches: see Mkl3 35 
Mtl4 25 . It is here implied that the previous 
part of the night sufficed for the passage of 
the Israelitish host : see on v. 21. 



25. Took off] RM 'bound' : made them 
stick fast. They became clogged with the soft 
ooze in the sea bed. 27. The sea returned] 
In 15 10 this seems to have been effected by a 
change of wind. 28. And all the host] RV 
4 even all the host.' It is not said that Pharaoh 
himself perished. The supposed discovery in 
modern times of the mummy of Merenptah 
is no argument against his being the Pharaoh 
of the exodus or against the truth of this 
narrative. Even though he did lead his host 
in person into the middle of the sea and 
perished with the others his body might after- 
wards have been recovered and preserved : 
see on l 8 . 31. This notable deliverance 
naturally made a deep impression upon the 
Israelites. It justified their faith in Jehovah 
and it also confirmed the right of Moses to be 
regarded as their leader. And believed the 
LORD, and his servant Moses] But when they 
turned away from the scene of their deliver- 
ance and faced the stern realities of the desert 
march, they were only too ready to give way 
to mistrust and murmuring : cp 15 24 16 2 > 3 etc. 

CHAPTER 15 

The Song or Moses 

On the further shore of the Red Sea the 
Israelites celebrate their deliverance in a 
magnificent hymn of praise. It consists of 
three strophes or stanzas of increasing length, 
viz. vv. 2-5, 6-10, 11-18. The first v. is 
introductory and may have been repeated as a 
chorus after each stanza : see on v. 21. On 
the structure of Hebrew poetry see Introduc- 
tion to the Psalms. In language and style the 
song bears many marks of high antiquity. 
There can be little objection to attributing the 
first two stanzas at least to Moses. The third 
presupposes the conquest and settlement in 
Canaan : see on vv. 13-19. The original song 
may have been modified and expanded at a 
later date, with a view to being used as a festal 
song at the Passover when the deliverance 
from Egypt was celebrated. 

1. The LORD] Jehovah — so throughout 
the song, in which the might of Israel's God 
is contrasted with the powerlessness of the 
Egyptian idols: see e.g. vv. 3, 6, 7, 11. 

2. I will prepare him an habitation] RV 
' praise him.' 8. Blast of thy nostrils] re- 
ferring to the east wind (14 21 ). The whole 
v. is figurative and highly poetical. 

10. See on 14 27 . n. The gods] see on 
v. 1, and on 7 4 > 5 . At this period the gods of 
other nations might be conceived as real 
beings, though infinitely inferior to Jehovah. 
Gradually, however, the Hebrews rose to the 
truth of one God, the so-called gods of the 
nations being nonentities : see on 20 3 32 *, and 
Ps965 115 4f - Isa 41 2 9. 12. The earth] a 



(51 



15. 13 



EXODUS 



15. 27 



general term including the sea. 13. Thy 

holy habitation] The land of Canaan is 
meant, or perhaps more particularly Mt. 
Moriah, where the Temple was erected. This 
is an indication that the Song assumed its 
present form after the occupation of Canaan. 

14. The people] heathen nations dwelling 
in the wilderness and in Canaan. Palestina] 
properly the land of the Philistines. The 
name was afterwards extended to the whole 
land of Canaan. 15. Dukes] leaders, princes, 
rulers. 16. Purchased] Jehovah's proprie- 
torship in them was secured by redemption. 
Hence His claim upon their gratitude and 
obedience: cp. e.g. Dt4 34 " 40 and the ground 
on which the Ten Commandments are based, 
Ex 20 2 , where see note : cp. also 2 Cor5 14 > 15 
1 Pet 1 18» 19. 

17. Mountain of thine inheritance] The 
highlands of Canaan : cp. Jer 2 7 . In the place 



. . in the Sanctuary] The fixed abode of the 
ark is meant here, perhaps Shiloh its first rest- 
ing-place : see Josh 18 1 . 19. This v. is a later 
addition indicating the occasion on which 
the Song was composed. Its insertion here 
suggests that the Song had a separate exist- 
ence prior to its incorporation in the book 
of Exodus. It is unnecessary where it now 
stands. 

20. Miriam the prophetess] the sister of 
Moses : see on 2 1 . As Aaron was the elder of 
the two brothers, she is here described as his 
sister. On the meaning of the term ' prophet ' 
see on 7 1 Null 25 . Timbrel] i.e. tambourine, 
still used by Eastern women to accompany their 
singing and dancing. 21. Answered them] 
The pronoun is masculine. Miriam and the 
women sang the refrain to the stanzas sung by 
the men. With these triumphal strains the 
first part of the book of Exodus closes. 



PART 2 
(Chs. 15 22 —18) March from the Red Sea to Mount Sinai 



CHAPTER 15 (continued) 
Leaving the shore of the Red Sea, 



Israelites enter the peninsula of Sinai, the 
triangular area lying between the two northern 
arms of the Red Sea. The centre of the 
peninsula is a vast limestone plateau of an 
average elevation of 2,000 ft. above the sea 
level. It is almost waterless, and bare of 
vegetation save in the ' wadies,' or watercourses, 
at certain seasons. To the south the point of 
the peninsula is occupied by the exceedingly 
rugged mountain district of Sinai. To the 
north stretches the wilderness of Paran, lying 
between the peninsula and the southern part 
of Canaan, and having on its western side the 
wilderness of Shur, and on its eastern the 
wilderness of Sin. The peninsula of Sinai was 
inhabited from very early times by various 
wandering tribes. During their sojourn there, 
the Israelites fell in with the Amalekites and 
the Kenites. The Egyptians are known to 
have worked copper mines in certain districts, 
and to have maintained fortresses for the pro- 
tection of the miners. Recent travellers assert 
that the present barrenness of the peninsula is 
due largely to neglect, and that there are evi- 
dences of its having at one time supported a 
considerable population. This Pad has an 
important bearing on the credibility of the 
Scripture oarrative, according t<> which the 
[graelitefl spent some forty years in the penin- 
sula. Sec intro. to Nu 1. 

22. Wilderness of Shur] Between the coast 
of the Gulf of Sue/, and the high central table- 
land is a strip of level country. The northern 
half is part of the wilderness of Shur. The 
southern pari 18 called the wilderness of Sin 



in 1 6 1 . The Israelites march southwards along 
this narrow maritime plain, 
the 23. Marah] lit. ' bitterness ' : cp. Ruth 1 20 . 
This station is by some identified with Ain 
Suweirah, 30 m. S. of the present head of 
the Gulf of Suez. The bitterness of the 
springs in this district is attested by all travel- 
lers. It is caused by the abundance of natron 
in the soil. 25. The LORD shewed him 
a tree] There are certain plants whose bark 
and leaves are employed to sweeten bitter 
water. Lesseps mentions a kind of thorn found 
in the desert possessing anti-saline properties. 
Here, as in the case of the Plagues in Egypt, 
the miracle was effected by means of a natural 
agent. The miracle consisted in God's direct- 
ing Moses at this particular juncture to the use 
of the right means. The tree would not have 
been employed had it not possessed the property 
required. He made for them a statute] The 

subject is most probably God, not Moses. God 
used this occasion to teach the people that such 
troubles as the present were intended to ' prove ' 
them, i.e. to test their loyalty to Him, and 
that if they stood the test He would protect 
and provide for them. 26. That healeth 
thee] lit. ' thy physician.' The term is em- 
ployed with reference to the ' healing ' of the 
noxious waters : cp. Psl03 3 107 19 > 20 . 

27. Elim] The word means ' trees.' Elimis 
probably the modern Wady Ghurundel, ' where 
there is a good deal of vegetation, especially 
stunted palms, acacias, and tamarisks, and a 
number of water-holes in the sand.' The 
minuteness of the description in this v. sug- 
gests the testimony of an eye-witness. There 
would be no occasion for it in a fictitious 
narrative. 



62 



16. 1 



EXODUS 



16. 29 



CHAPTER 16 

Third Murmuring. Sending of the 
Manna 

i. Pursuing their march southward, the 
Israelites come at the end of the first month 
after their departure from Egypt to the 
wilderness of Sin, forming the SW. border of 
the peninsula: see on 15 22 . All the stations 
in the march are not mentioned. . In Nu 33 10 
allusion is made to an ' encampment by the 
Red Sea ' between Elim and the wilderness 
of Sin. It must be remembered also that, 
owing to the vast extent of the host, there 
must have been a simultaneous encampment 
at different places. From Elim, the Israelites 
might have gone by a more direct route to 
Sinai, but this would have led them past the 
copper mines among the mountains, where 
there was an Egyptian garrison. 

2. This was the third murmuring. The 
first was at Pi-hahiroth (14 10 - 12 ), the second at 
Marah (15 24 ). The supplies which the Israel- 
ites had brought with them out of Egypt 
being now exhausted, they expect to perish 
with hunger, and begin to regret having left 
Egypt, where, with all their hard bondage, 
they had been well fed : see on Null 4 - 5 . 

4. A certain rate every day] RY ' a day's 
portion every day' : see vv. 16-21. That 
I may prove them] The miracle had a moral 
purpose. It was intended not merely to 
satisfy their hunger, but to teach them de- 
pendence upon God and obedience to Him. 
The goodness of God should lead to repent- 
ance (Ro2 4 ). 5. The sixth day] the day 
before the sabbath, an indication that the 
sabbath was known previous to the giving of 
the law at Sinai : see on Ex20 8 . On the 
method of preparing the manna, see Nu ll 8 . 

6. Ye shall know] by the quails. 

9. Before the LORD] This common phrase 
denotes the place where God specially mani- 
fests Himself : see w. 33, 34. Here it seems 
to mean at the pillar of fire in front of the 
host. 10. Toward the wilderness] As they 
are at present in the wilderness, this must 
mean ' towards the interior of the wilderness,' 
in the direction of the march and the guiding 
pillar. The glory of the LORD] Here a 
special radiance is meant. God's self-mani- 
festation is frequently accompanied with an 
appearance of fire : see on 3 2 , and cp. 19 18 
24 17 29 43 40 M . 13. Quails] The quail 
is a bird belonging to the partridge family, 
about 7 in. long, and of a buff colour. Its 
flesh is considered a great delicacy. Quails are 
migratory. In spring vast flocks pass north- 
wards from the interior of Africa to Syria, 
crossing the peninsula of Sinai in their flight. 
They also cross the Mediterranean in great 
numbers. In a single season, 160,000 have 



been netted on the small island of Capri. 
Quails always fly with the wind. After a sea 
flight they are easily captured, as they fly low, 
their bodies being heavy and their wings wet : 
see on Null 4 " 3 !. Here, again, God employed 
a natural means in providing deliverance for 
His people. The miracle did not consist in a 
new creation, but in the timely arrival and vast 
quantity of the quails. 

15. It is manna] Heb. 'what is it?' so 
rightly in RV. What is now known as manna 
is a sweet gum which exudes from various 
shrubs and from the tamarisk tree, and is used 
medicinally. None of its varieties corresponds 
to the description given here. These are 
found only in small quantities, in special 
localities and at certain seasons, from about 
May to August ; they are not suitable for 
food, and cannot be cooked as manna was 
(see v. 23 Nu 1 1 8 ). Moreover, the manna of 
commerce can be kept for an indefinite time 
(cp. v. 20). What is meant here is clearly a 
miraculous substance. Whether, again, the 
miracle took place on the basis of a natural 
product cannot with certainty be made out. 
This is not improbable in the light of the 
previous wonders. Our Lord employs the 
manna as a type of Himself, as giving eternal 
life to those who believe in Him : see Jn 6 31 " 58 . 
St. Paul calls it ' spiritual meat,' and regards 
it as a type of the Lord's Supper wherein the 
faithful are made partakers of the life that is 
in Christ : see lCorl0 3f . 

16. An omer is a little more than seven 
pints. Ten omers make an ephah, which is, 
roughly, equal to a bushel : see v. 36. The 
pint measure is called a ' log ' : see e.g. Lv 14 10 . 

18. Mete] i.e. measure : cp. Mt7 2 . The 
total quantity of manna amounted exactly to 
an omer per head. This is evidently regarded 
here as miraculous, and designed to check 
want of trust and greed on the one hand and 
over anxiety on the other. Those who gathered 
too much wasted their labour, and those who 
gathered too little were at no disadvantage. 
St. Paul cites this fact as an incentive to 
brotherly charity ; the rich ought to make up 
the deficiency of the poor : see 2Cor8 14 > 15 . 

20. God's gift is spoiled by selfish and 
miserly hoarding. 21. Every morning] cp. 
the petition l Give us this day our daily bread.' 

22. See on v. 5. The divine sanction of 
the sabbath is shown by the cessation of the 
manna on that day as well as by the double 
quantity sent on the previous day. The people 
are to observe the sabbath by resting from the 
labour of gathering manna : see v. 30. Those 
who faithlessly and disobediently persist in 
looking for manna find none. 29. Let no 
man go out of his place] Jewish legalists in- 
terpreted this commandment to mean strictly 
that throughout the sabbath day a man must 



63 



16.31 



EXODUS 



17. 11 



maintain the same posture in which he was 
found at its commencement, As this was 
practically impossible it was held to be allow- 
able to walk on the sabbath day a distance 
not exceeding 2,000 ells, which was supposed 
to be the distance from the centre of the camp 
to its circumference. 31. Coriander] an 
annual plant much cultivated in the East, 
The seeds have an aromatic flavour, and are 
used as a seasoning in cookery and also medi- 
cinally. Wafers] thin cakes. 

32-34. These vv. seem to be a later inser- 
tion, as they presuppose the erection of the 
tabernacle (vv. 33, 34). There would be no 
need to gather a pot of manna for preserva- 
tion till the end of the wanderings and the 
cessation of the manna. 

34. The Testimony] the Law which ' testi- 
fies ' to God's will, inscribed on the two tables 
of stone and deposited in the ark (Ex25 16 ), 
which is accordingly called the ' ark of the 
testimony' (Ex25 22 Nu4 5 ) and sometimes 
simply ' the testimony ' ; see Nu 17 4 . The tent 
containing the ark is called the ' tent or 
tabernacle of the testimony ' : see Nu 9 15 . 
The pot of manna is here said to have been 
deposited before the testimony ; but according 
to Heb9 4 it was in the ark. The pot of 
manna was a favourite symbol among the 
Jews. From the remains of the synagogue 
at Capernaum it seems that a pot of manna 
was carved on the lintel of the door of that 
synagogue. This must have given point to 
our Lord's discourse on the k bread of life ' 
there: see Jn6 24f . 35. See Josh 5 10 " 12 . 

CHAPTER 17 

Rephidim. Murmuring for Water. 
Opposition of Amalek 

Leaving the maritime plain the Israelites 
now strike inland, and after halting at Doph- 
kah and Alush (see Nu 33 12 > 13 ) they come to 
Rephidim. This is usually identified with 
the modern Wady Feiran, lying about 20 m. 
N. of Sinai. It is one of the oases of the 
peninsula, very fertile and usually well watered. 
On this occasion the brook was dry. 

1. After their journeys] RV 'by their jour- 
neys ' ( KM • Btages'). 2. Tempt the LORD] 
challenge His power and willingness to pro- 
vide for them, put Him to the proof by their 
unbelief: cp. v. 7; see also Nul4 2 ~ 20 u 
Dt6 16 Mt47. Their unbelief was the less 
warranted aa they had lately experienced 
God's providence in supplying their wants. 
This is the fourth murmuring : see on 16 s . 

5, 6. The elders] aa representing the people 
(see on 3 1,; ). are to be the witnesses of the 
miracle. The people, perhaps on account of 
their sin, are to stand at a distance : cp. ID 17 . 
Thy rod] see on 4 2 > 20 . The river is the 



Nile: see 7 20 . 6. Horeb] see on 3 1 . Tra- 
dition identifies the rock with a great detached 
fragment under the ridge of Ras es-Sufsafeh. 
This, however, is a long way from the supposed 
site of Rephidim. At the same time Moses 
and the elders are represented as going on 
before the people, so that the people obtained 
the water not at the rock, but some distance 
down the stream that flowed from it. If the 
stream continued to flow for some time, as 
seems natural to suppose, perhaps during the 
eleven months of the sojourn in that neigh- 
bourhood, the people would drink it at various 
points. This is probably the origin of the 
rabbinical legend, alluded to by St. Paul 
(1 Cor 10 4 ), that the rock followed the Israelites 
on their march. The apostle spiritualises the 
rock, making it a type of Christ, from whom 
flows a perennial stream of grace to Hi^ 
people. 7. Massah] ' trial ' or ' proving.' 

Meribah] ' chiding.' The names are formed 
from the words used in v. 2. Meribah is the 
name given to the place where water was again 
provided (see Nu20 13 ), but to distinguish it 
from the present Meribah it is called Meribah- 
Kadesh in Dt32 51 . Some commentators hold 
that the account given here and that in Nu20 
refer to the same occurrence. The resem- 
blances are striking, but there are also manifest 
points of difference. 

8. Amalek] The Amalekites, here described 
collectively in the singular number, were a 
nomadic tribe, very fierce and warlike, roaming 
over the desert country S. of Canaan, in- 
cluding the Sinaitic peninsula where the 
Israelites first encountered them. They pro- 
bably regarded the Israelites as their rivals 
for supremacy. They gave them much trouble, 
not only at various times during the desert 
wanderings (see e.g. Nul3 29 l4 2 M3-45) ? DU t 
down to a late period of their history : see 
Jg63 IS 15 1-8 30 lCh4« 

9. The first mention of Joshua. He was an 
Ephraimite, the son of Nun. He appears 
here as captain of the host, and later as the 
personal attendant of Moses (24 ™ 3217 33 11). 
He was one of the spies sent to view the land 
of Canaan (Nul3 8 14 6 ), and was afterwards 
chosen as the successor of Moses : see Nu 27 Ks ■*■ 
and on v. 18. His name was originally Oshea, 
k help' or 'salvation.' Moses afterwards 
changed his name to Joshua, ' Jehovah is my 
sa hat ion.' The Gk. form of Joshua is 
Jesus : see Mtli 2 . In Ac7 45 Heb4« Joshua 
the son of Nun is meant : see Intro, to Joshua. 

10. According to Jewish tradition, Hur was 
the husband of Miriam : see on 3 1 '-'. 

11. The holding up of Moses' hands signi- 
fied an appeal to God in intercession. His 
holding up the ' rod of God ' in his hand was, 
at the same time, an appeal to his fighting men 
to remember what God had already done for 



64 



17. 14 



EXODUS 



19.4 



them. The rod was associated with many 
wonderful deliverances, notably that at the 
Red Sea, so that the sight of it would inspire 
the warriors with courage and hope. On both 
grounds one can understand how it was that 
the fortune of the battle corresponded to the 
steadfastness with which Moses held up his 
hands. The story illustrates the value of 
prayer, in particular of intercessory prayer, 
and, at the same time, the necessity of prayer 
being accompanied with believing effort. 
Moses praying on the hill while the people 
are fighting in the valley is also an emblem 
of Christ interceding in the heavenly places 
for His people struggling upon earth : see 
Heb4 1 4-i6. 14. Write this .. in a book] 

Written records, contemporary with the events 
described in them, were no doubt preserved 
for many generations, and would afford 
material for future historians. One of these 
early records was called the ' Book of the Wars 
of Jehovah' : see on Nu21 14 . 

15. Built an altar] for the double purpose 
of offering sacrifices of thanksgiving, and of 
commemorating the victory by means of a 
monument: cp. Gn33 20 35 * Josh 22 26, 27. 
Jehovah-nissi] ' Jehovah is my banner,' 
meaning, l under His banner, in His name and 
strength, I fight and conquer' : cp. Ps20 5-7 . 

16. For he said] RV ' and he said.' The 
words following are literally, ' because a hand 
upon the throne (of) Jan,' which may be 
rendered, ' because his (i.e. Amalek's) hand is 
against the throne of Jehovah, (therefore) 
will the Lord,' etc. 

CHAPTER 18 
The Visit of Jetheo 
1. On the name Jethro, see 2 16 , and on 



Midian, 2 15 . 2. Sent her back] see on 4 26 . 
3, 4. See on 2 22 . 5. The mount of God] 

Horeb or Sinai : see on 3 1 . 

11. See on 15 n . The second half of the 
v. is obscure. RV reads, ' yea, in the thing 
wherein they (the Egyptians) dealt proudly 
against them (the Israelites).' 12. The 

burnt offering was wholly consumed upon the 
altar, and signified the complete devotion of 
the offerer to God : see Lvl. The sacrifices 
were peace offerings, and were consumed by 
the offerers in token of fellowship with God 
and each other: see Lv3 and on Nu22 40 . 
Before God] at the place consecrated by the 
offering of the sacrifices : see on 16 9 and 19 22 . 

15. To enquire of God] This phrase is 
explained by the words that follow at the end 
of the next v., I do make them know the 
statutes of God, and his laws : cp. 1 S 9 9 . 
Already we see that the decisions given by 
Moses are regarded by the people as possess- 
ing divine sanction. 19. And God shall be 
with thee] RV ' and God be with thee,' i.e. 
may God grant thee the needed wisdom. 

21. Hating covetousness] A judge must be 
above bribery. Bribery was, and still is, a 
common Oriental vice, and is frequentlv 
referred to in Scripture: cp. 23 8 1S8 3 12 3 
Psl5 5 Isal 23 Am5 12 Mic3 9 " n . 23. If.. 
God command thee so] Jethro does not pre- 
sume to dictate to Moses. The matter must 
be referred to God for sanction : cp. Dt 1 9 ' 18 . 
To their place] Each one to his tent, satis- 
fied with the expeditious settlement of his 
case, instead of waiting all day, as hitherto : 
see v. 13. 

25. According to Dtl 13 it appears that 
Moses left the selection of the ' able men ' to 
the people. Cp. Ac6 3 . 



PART 3 

(Chs. 19-40) Arp.ival at Sinai and Sojouen there 



CHAPTER 19 
Preparation for the Giving of the Law 

1. The same day] the 15th day of the 
month : cp. 1 2 18 » 29 1 6 1 . Marching slowly, with 
long halts at the various stations on the route, 
the host took two months to traverse the 150 
m. between Egypt and Sinai. Here they 
remained eleven months (see NulO n > 12 ), 
during which time the nation entered into a 
formal covenant with Jehovah on the basis of 
the moral law received from God by Moses, 
and promulgated by him. 

Wilderness of Sinai] This must not be 
confounded with the ' wilderness of Sin ' (see 
on 16 1 ). The wilderness of Sinai is gen- 
erally identified with the modern Wady 
Er-Rahah. a plain fully 2 m. long by half-a- 
m. wide, l enclosed between two precipitous 



mountain ranges of black and yellow granite, 
and having at its end the prodigious mountain 
block of Ras es-Suf saf eh,' which Dean Stanley 
and others take to be the mount on which the 
Law was given. Ras es-Sufsafeh is some 
7,000 ft. in height, and rises sheer from the 
plain ' like a huge altar.' Some, however, 
believe that the actual mount of the Law was 
another peak of the same mountain mass S. of 
Sufsafeh, called Jebel Musa, the traditional 
site. The whole district has been described 
as one of the most awe-inspiring regions on 
the face of the earth, and as such it accorded 
well with the dread revelation of the divine 
majesty here given to Israel. 

4. I bare you on eagles' wings] God's grace 
and care were the source of Israel's duty of 
obedience and loyalty: see on 15 16 . The 
image here employed to illustrate the watchful 



65 



19. 5 



EXODUS 



20. 1 



solicitude of God is true and beautiful. When 
the eaglets first attempt to fly, the parent bird 
is said to hover round them and beneath them, 
so as to support them on its expanded 
wings when they are exhausted: see Dt32 n . 
Brought you unto myself] i.e. to Sinai, the 
' mount of God,' where He was about to make 
a special revelation of Himself. It is possible, 
however, to take the words in a spiritual sense, 
as denoting the divine nurture and education 
of the Israelites in the fuller knowledge of 
the true God: see on v v. 5, 6. 5. If ye will 
obey] Although God's grace preceded the 
covenant (see previous v.), the latter was 
made upon condition of perfect obedience. 
But as the law only serves to accentuate man's 
feeling of inability to keep it, it becomes a 
' schoolmaster to lead to Christ,' and the 
redemption that is by faith in Him: see 
Ro 7 22-25 Gal 3 23, 24. a peculiar treasure] a 

private and treasured possession. In later 
times the Jewish nation presumed upon their 
privilege as a chosen people, and believed in 
their unconditional possession of God's favour. 
From this false security it was the task of 
the prophets to rouse them: see e.g. Jer7 4 " 16 
Mt3 9 8 n . 12 2131. Above all people] RV 

'from among all peoples.' All the earth is the 
Lord's, but Israel belongs to Him in a special 
degree: cp. 33 16 Am9 7 . 6. A kingdom of 
priests] a kingdom of which every member is 
consecrated to the service of God, and so ' a 
holy nation ' : see on Lv20 24 . The designation 
expresses also the high calling of Israel. They 
are to be the medium of communicating the 
knowledge of the divine nature and will to 
the world. In general, it may be allowed 
that the Jewish nation has fulfilled its destiny. 
It has taught the world true religion. Through 
its rejection of the Messiah its sacred function 
has passed over to the Christian church, to 
which St. Peter transfers the titles given to 
Israel in these two vv. : see 1 Pet 2 9 Rev 1 6 . 

7. The elders] see on 3 16 . 9. In a thick 
cloud] No one, not even Moses, is able to gaze 
upon the unveiled majesty of God: see 3 6 
33 20 Lv 1 6 2 Jg 13 22 . Hence when He appears 
it is in a cloud, which becomes the symbol 
and vehicle of the divine presence: see 13 21 , 
also Null25 lKS^.n IsaG4Mtl75 26<aiTh 
4 17 Rev 1 1. And believe thee] The superior 
favour shown to Moses as the direct recipient 
of the divine revelation would attest his 
authority. See on Nul2 7 ' 8 . 

10. Sanctify them] bid them sanctify them- 
selves. The outward preparation consisted in 
washing their persons and clothes, and in absti- 
nence from sexual intercourse!: see v. 15 and 



cp. Lvl5 



Hi- 18 



These outward purifications 



symbolised the inward purity required in those 
who draw near to God: see [sal "' Ps51 6 »? 
lPet32i. 12. Set bounds unto the people] 



This was intended to impress the people with 
the unapproachable holiness of God. They 
could only draw near to God in the person of 
the mediator whom God Himself had chosen. 
The NT. writers emphasise the superior privi- 
lege of Christians, who enjoy access into the 
holiest through Christ ' the mediator of the 
new covenant': see Heb lO 19 " 22 1218-24. 

13. They shall come up] not the mass of 
the people, but their privileged representatives: 
see vv. 23, 24, and cp. 24 *> 2 . 22. The priests] 
The Levitical priesthood was not yet insti- 
tuted, but among the Hebrews, as among other 
nations of antiquity, there were those, mainly 
the heads of tribes and families, who exercised 
priestly functions. Melchizedek was prince 
and priest in Jerusalem at the time of 
Abraham (Gnl4 18 ), and Jethro was both 
prince and priest of Midian, and offered 
sacrifice as such (Ex 2^ 3 1 18M2). 

CHAPTER 20 

The Ten Commandments (vv. 1-21). 

Chs. 20-23, containing (1) the Decalogue 
(Gk. = ' Ten Words ' or ' Commandments ') and 
(2) a code of laws regulating the religious 
and social life of the people, and called the 
Book of the Covenant (see 24 7 ), form perhaps 
the most important part of the Pentateuch. 
It is the nucleus of the entire Mosaic legisla- 
tion, and in all probability existed for long as 
a separate document. 

1-17. The Decalogue. In c. 3428 Dt4 13 
this is called the ' Ten Words ' or ' Command- 
ments.' It is also called the ' Testimony ' in 
Ex25 16 (see on 16 34 ), and the ' Covenant' in 
Ex34 28 Dt9 9 . These words were uttered in 
the hearing of the awe-struck people (19 9 
20 19 Dt4 12 ), and afterwards graven by the 
finger of God on two tables of stone (31 18 
Dt4 13 ). On witnessing the apostasy of the 
people Moses broke these tables (32 19 ), but 
they were afterwards replaced by another 
pair on which the same words were written 
(341 DtlO 1 - 4 ). When the ark was made the 
two tables of the testimony were deposited in 
it (DtlO 5 Heb9 4 ). As the ark itself stood 
in the innermost sanctuary of the tabernacle, 
this position of the Tables of the Law bore 
emphatic witness to the great truth that the 
beginning and end of all religious observances 
is the keeping of the commandments of God: 
cp. Mtl9 1 7Ro225 lCor7 19 . 

Two versions of the Ten Commandments 
are preserved in the Pentateuch, the second, 
exhibiting a few variations, being given in 
Dt5 8 " 21 . Most scholars agree that the version 
given in Exodus is the older and purer of the 
two, the variations in Deuteronomy being due 
to the characteristic ideas and style of the 
writer of that book. The main divergences 



66 



20. 2 



EXODUS 



20. 7 



occur in the fourth and fifth commandments. Deuteronomy, where it is reiterated over and 



There is a good deal to be said for the view 
that the commandments as originally promul- 
gated were shorter than either form, that they 
consisted merely of the precepts without the 
reasons annexed, the second e.g. reading sim- 
ply, l Thou shalt not make unto thee any 
graven image,' and the fourth, ' Remember 
the sabbath day to keep it holy ' : see on v. 11. 
That the commandments, at least in this terser 
form, are really Mosaic, there is no reasonable 
ground to doubt. 

The Ten Commandments were inscribed on 
two tables and divided into two parts, but 
opinions differ as to their enumeration and ar- 
rangement. The Jews themselves regard v. 2, 
usually called the Preface, as the First Word, 
and maintain the number ten by uniting 
vv. 2-6 (the first and second) and calling 
these the Second Word. The Roman Catho- 
lics and Lutherans combine the first two, and 
split up the tenth. Our common enumeration 
is that of Philo and Josephus, who are fol- 
lowed by the Greek and Reformed Churches. 
As to their arrangement, some have assigned 
five commandments to each table ; while others 
have divided them in the proportion of four 
to six. According to the latter division the 
first four are religious, defining the duties man 
owes to God (' Thou shalt love the Lord thy 
God'); the last six are moral, defining the 
duties men owe to each other (' Thou shalt 
love thy neighbour as thyself '). On the other 
hand, seeing that in ancient times filial duty 
was regarded more as a religious than a moral 
obligation, there is something to be said for 
placing the fifth commandment on the first 
table: see on 21 15 . 

Christians, while freed from the obligations 
of the Mosaic law of ceremonies, are still 
bound, bound more than ever (see Ro6), to 
• the obedience of the commandments which 
are called moral.' What our Lord did with 
regard to the Ten Commandments was (1) to 
sum them up under the two obligations of 
love to God and love to our neighbour, which, 
again, are the two sides of the one law of 
universal Love (' love is the fulfilling of the 
law'); (2) to widen and deepen their scope, 
making them apply not only to the outward 
act, but to the inner spirit and motive, and (3) 
to change them from mere negative commands 
to abstain from certain sins to positive obliga- 
tions, which are never exhausted and involve 
a perpetual advance in holiness where mere 
abstention from evil acts implies moral stag- 
nation : see Mt 22 37-40 517-48. 

2. Redemption is the ground of obedience 
which springs, not from fear, but from gratitude 
and love : see Ro 1 2 1 2 Cor 5 14 Un 4 ». This 
evangelical truth of obedience springing from 
gratitude is the great theme of the book of 



over again : see e.g. Dt4 32 - 40 and Intro, to 
that book, § 3. 

3. Before me] RM ' beside me.' Monotheism 
is implied rather than expressly enunciated 
here. It was only gradually that Israel rose 
to the truth that there is but one God. Israel 
was led to this truth along the way of prac- 
tice. By ceasing to worship other gods they 
would cease to believe in their existence. It 
is true still that the sure result of discontinu- 
ing the worship of God is the denial of His 
existence : see on 15 11 32 1 . 

4. If the first commandment implies the 
truth of God's unity, the second implies that 
of His spirituality. Israel is forbidden to 
worship even the true God under any external 
form. God is not like anything that human 
hands can make. In Egypt the Israelites had 
been familiar with the worship of images. 

The water under the earth] This refers to the 
belief of the time that the earth was a flat 
disk (Isa 40 22 ) resting on an abyss of waters : 
see Gn 16 7 n Ps 24 2. 5. A jealous God] Hu- 
man jealousy is usually of an ignoble kind, the 
fruit of suspicion. But there is a holy jealousy, 
the pain of wounded love. The heart of God 
is grieved when His love is rewarded with in- 
difference and unfaithfulness. He will brook 
no rival in the affections of His people : see 
Dt 32 16,21 Ps78 58 Isa 42 8, and on c. 3415. 

Unto the third and fourth generation] RY 
' upon . .' It is a law of the divine government 
that the penalty of one man's sins is shared by 
those connected with him : cp. Josh 22 20 . If 
this seem hard it must be remembered that 
the law cuts both ways. The benefits of a 
man's good deeds are likewise distributed over 
a large area. We cannot enjoy the one result 
without taking the risk of the other. The 
law relates, however, only to the consequences 
of sin, not its guilt. The latter adheres to the 
sinner personally : cp. Ezkl8 2-4 . 

6. Unto thousands] i.e. unto a thousand 
generations, as in Dt7 9 . It as implied here 
that God's mercy in rewarding righteousness 
infinitely transcends His anger in punishing 
the sinful. The consequences of righteous- 
ness are more enduring and far-reaching than 
those of iniquity. 

7. This prohibition applies strictly to per- 
jury or false swearing, the breaking of a pro- 
mise or contract that has been sealed with an 
oath in the name of God. He will not allow 
His name to be associated with any act of false- 
hood or treachery. His name must not be 
taken in vain, i.e. lightly or heedlessly. This 
forbids also the careless or profane use of the 
divine name and titles. Jesus extended the 
scope of this commandment so as to prohibit 
the use of oaths entirely. A man's mere word 
should be his bond : see Mt5 33 ' 37 . 



67 



20. 8 



8. What is laid down here is not the insti- 
tution of the sabbath rest, but its strict observ- 
ance. The sabbath rest was known to the 
Babylonians before this time, and there are 
indications of its being previously known to 
the Israelites : see on 16 5 . Hence, probably, 
the use of the word remember. To keep it 
holy] The seventh day is to be distinguished 
from other days (the root meaning of the word 
rendered ' hallow ' is to separate : see on 
Lv 20 24 ), by abstinence from labour. Nothing 
is said here as to the religious observance of 
the day. But after the institution of the 
Levitical priesthood, the morning and even- 
ing sacrifices were doubled on the sabbath (see 
Nu28 9 ' 10 ), and in later times the day was 
naturally that on which a ' holy convocation ' 
was held : see Lv23 3 Isa66 23 . After the exile, 
when synagogues were established, divine ser- 
vice was always celebrated on the sabbath. 

9. It is sometimes forgotten that the fourth 
commandment ' enforces the six days' work as 
well as the seventh day's rest.' 10. Shalt 
not do any work] such as gathering manna 
(see on 1 6 22 ), lighting a fire (35 3 ), gathering sticks 
(Nul5 32 " 36 ), agricultural labour (cp. Ex34 21 ), 
carrying burdens (Neh 13 15 " 19 ), buying and sell- 
ing (NehlO 31 ). The Jewish legalists deve- 
loped the negative side of this precept to such 
an extravagant and absurd extent that the 
sabbath, instead of being a day of rest, became 
the most laborious day of the seven. The 
philanthropic motive for its observance (cp. 
23 12 Dt5 14 ) was almost entirely lost sight of 
till our Lord said, ' The sabbath was made for 
man, and not man for the sabbath ' (Mk 2 2T ). 
Thy manservant] The command is specially 
addressed to heads of families and employers of 
labour, and requires (1) that they must them- 
selves rest from labour, and (2) allow those 
in their employment to rest also. 11. In 
Dt5 14 ' 15 another reason is given for the ob- 
servance of the sabbath rest, in accordance with 
the philanthropic spirit which pervades the 
whole of that book : cp. 23 12 . Both reasons 
are probably later amplifications of the original 
commandment. Blessed . . and hallowed 
it] consecrated it to Himself with a special 
blessing upon it. The unusually frequent men- 
tion in OT. of the duty of observing the sab- 
bath is an indication of its importance. It is 
often referred to as constituting along with 
circumcision the sign of the covenant between 
God and Israel : see on 31 13 . 

12. This is the 'first commandment with 
promise' (EphG 2 ). The promise has been 
understood l>\ sonic as applying to the nation 
as a whole. Undoubtedly the nation takes its 
character from tin: home, and well-ordered 
family life is the prime condition of national 
welfare and stability : seeonDt21 18 . But the 
promise is also to the individual. ' Righteous- 



EXODUS 20. 19 

ness tendeth to life ' (Prov 1 1 19 ). A promise 
of long life and material prosperity is frequently 
attached in OT. to moral precepts : see e.g. 
23 2 5 f - Lv26 Dt7i 2f - 28 Psl 34 ™*- 37. The 
doctrine of present rewards and punishments 
had an important educative value at a time 
when the truth of a future life was not yet 
clearly revealed. But the manifest exceptions 
which experience of human life afforded to 
this simple view of the divine government 
proved a great trial to faith, as the book of 
Job in particular shows, and such passages as 
Ps 73 Jer 12 *> 2 , etc. That faith was able even 
in these circumstances to triumph over doubt 
is shown e.g. in Hab3 1 M8 Ps73 23 - 26 , in which 
it may be said that the high-water mark is 
reached of a trust in God that is superior to 
and independent of all outward circumstances. 
In later times, when the belief in a future life 
was more consistently held, it was only natural 
that the rewards and penalties should be re- 
garded as in many cases postponed to find their 
full completion in the next world : see on 
Dt22?. 

13-16. These commandments are given to 
safeguard a man's life, domestic peace, property, 
and reputation. For the way in which our 
Lord extended the scope of the sixth and 
seventh commandments so as to apply not 
merely to the outward act but to the inner 
thought and motive lying at its root, see 
Mt5 21 - 3 °. 

16. It is noteworthy that of the ten com- 
mandments, two (the third and the ninth) 
refer to sins of speech. For the penalty pre- 
scribed in cases of false witness, see Dtl9 15-21 . 
The spirit of the ninth commandment forbids 
all lying and slander. 

17. Of all the commandments, the tenth is 
the one that goes deepest. What is condemned 
is not an action, but a thought or desire : cp. 
Prov 4 23 Mt 1 5 18 ' 20 . This commandment shows 
that the Decalogue is more than a mere code 
of civil law. Human laws cannot take cogni- 
zance of the thoughts of the heart. 

19. The Decalogue was given in the hearing 
of the people. The following commandments 
were given to them through their mediator 
Moses : see vv. 21, 22, c. 21 1 . 

CHAPTERS 20 2 2-23 33 
The Book of the Covenant 
This section comprises a number of laws de- 
signed to regulate the life of an agricultural 
community living under comparatively simple 
conditions. The laws are mainly of a civil 
order with a small admixture of rudimentary 
religious enactment (see e.g. 20 23 -26 23 10 " 19 ). 
The principle of their arrangement is not clear, 
but the three sections 2112-36 22 i- 2 ~ 23 l ' 8 seem 
to be amplifications of the sixth, eighth, and 



G8 



20.23 



EXODUS 



21.7 



ninth commandments of the Decalogue respec- 
tively. The Book of the Covenant occupies 
an intermediate position between the brief and 
general principles enunciated in the Decalogue 
and the minute and detailed legislation set 
forth elsewhere in the Pentateuch. For the 
relationship between the legislation of Moses 
and that of earlier civilisations, see Intro. § 2, 
and art. ' Laws of Hammurabi.' 

23. RY is preferable, ' Ye shall not make 
other gods with me ; gods of silver, or gods 
of gold, ye shall not make unto you.' This 
is a repetition of the first and second com- 
mandments. 24. An altar of earth] i.e. of 
the simplest form and material, as a precau- 
tion against idolatrous representations : cp. 
v. 25 Dt27 5 > 6 . On the different kinds of 
sacrifice see Lvl-7, and on 18 12 . Record 
my name] lit. ' cause my name to be remem- 
bered,' by some special manifestation of power 
or grace. A plurality of sacrificial places is 
here expressly sanctioned, and the historical 
books of OT. record numerous instances of 
altars being erected and sacrifice offered in 
many different places down to the reformation 
of king Josiah, which took place in the year 
621 B.C. In the book of Deuteronomy a 
plurality of sacrificial places is condemned, and 
worship restricted to a central sanctuary : see 
onDtl2<M3f. 25. See on v. 24. 26. With 
the same object, to prevent exposure of the 
person, it is afterwards prescribed that the 
priests be provided with linen drawers while 
officiating at the altar : see 28 42 > 43 . The top 
of the altar of burnt offering, which was four 
and a half ft. high, was reached, according to 
tradition, by means of a sloping ramp of earth : 
cp. 27 5 , and see on Lv9 22 . 

CHAPTER 21 

The Book of the Covenant (continued) 

I— II. Regulations regarding the Treatment 
of Hebrew Slaves. 

Slavery was universal in ancient times, and 
the Mosaic Law does not abolish it. Among 
the Hebrews, however, slavery was by no 
means the degrading and oppressive thing that 
it was among other nations. ' Manstealing, 
upon which modern systems of slavery are 
based, was a crime punishable by death (see 
v. 16), and the Law of Moses recognises the 
right of a slave to just and honourable treat- 
ment. A Hebrew slave might occupy a high 
position in his master's household and be re- 
garded as a trusty friend, as the case of Eliezer 
shows (G-n 24). He could not be bound for more 
than six years at a time ; in the seventh year 
he obtained his freedom if he desired it (see 
v. 2) ; he might hold property and come to be 
able to redeem himself (Lv25 49 ) ; he was pro- 
tected from the violence of his master (vv. 20, 



21) ; he could claim compensation for bodily 
injury (vv. 26, 27) ; and he was entitled to the 
sabbath rest (20 10 ). If a Hebrew girl became 
her master's concubine he could not sell her 
to a foreigner, but must let her be redeemed 
(v. 8) ; if his son married her he must treat 
her as a daughter (v. 9) ; if he took a second 
wife he must not degrade her, but use her as 
liberally as before (v. 10). In general the 
Hebrew master was to treat his slave rather as 
a brother or hired servant than as a chattel, 
and the principle which was to govern his 
treatment was the humane precept l thou shalt 
not rule over him with rigour ; but shalt fear 
thy God' (Lv25 43 ). These laws, it is true, 
apply to the slave who was an Israelite, but 
the lot of even the foreign slave who had been 
captured in war was only a little less favour- 
able. If it be asked why the Mosaic Law did 
not at once abolish slavery the answer must 
be that the time was not ripe for that. Christ 
Himself did not abolish it ; and His apostles 
tolerated it (see 1 Cor7 2 °- 24 and the Epistle to 
Philemon). Christianity did not violently over- 
throw existing social institutions or abolish 
class distinctions. But it taught the brother- 
hood of all men, and by quietly introducing the 
leaven of justice, humanity, and brotherly love 
into society, gradually abolished the worst 
social abuses and made slavery impossible. 

2. If thou buy an Hebrew servant] A 
man might voluntarily sell himself for debt 
(Lv25 39 ), or he might be judicially sold for 
theft (see 22 3 ), or he might be sold by his 
parents (v. 7). If the year of Jubilee fell 
before the seventh year of his servitude he 
went free then: see Lv25 40 > 41 . Life-long 
compulsory servitude was therefore unknown. 
3. If he were married] before coming into 
slavery. If he married after becoming a slave, 
the case contemplated in the next verse, he 
would do so subject to the consent of his 
master, in which case the wife and children 
remained with the master. 5. Slavery may 
be preferable to freedom. This shows the 
mild nature of slavery among the Hebrews. 
6. Unto the judg;es] RY ' unto God.' The 
expressions are really identical, for the judges 
would be the priests, or the high priest, and 
the transaction would take place at the sanc- 
tuary and have the sanction of the divine 
judgment: see on 22 8 > 28 RY. Bore his ear] 
The fastening of the ear to the doorpost signi- 
fies his perpetual attachment to the house of 
his master : cp. Dt 15 17 . The ear is pierced as 
being the organ of hearing and, therefore, of 
obedience. 

7. To be a maidservant] The word denotes 
a slavewife, a consort of inferior rank, like 
Hagar (Gn 16 3 ). Her position was permanent. 
She did not go out at the end of six years, 
which would have been a degradation. If she 



69 



21. 10 



EXODUS 



%% 17 



were the wife of the master of the house, she 
was to be treated as a wife ; if of the son, as a 
daughter. If she were dismissed, it must be 
in an honourable way (vv. 8, 11), and without 
repayment of the purchase money. 

10. Polygamy, like slavery, was tolerated 
by the Law of Moses. Its cessation in Chris- 
tian lands has naturally followed the nobler 
teaching of Christianity regarding woman : 
cp. the remarks on the cessation of slavery. 

12-17. Three Offences Punishable by Death, 
viz. murder, manstealing, and the smiting or 
cursing of parents. 

13. For the appointment of cities of refuge 
as an asylum in the case of accidental homicide, 
seeonNu35 9 " 34 . 14. From mine altar] The 
altar seems to have been the place of refuge 
at first : see 1K1 5 ° 2 2 « f . 15. Smiteth] not 
necessarily with fatal effect. Reverence to- 
wards parents was regarded in ancient times as 
more a religious than a social duty, and a breach 
of the fifth commandment, like blasphemy, 
was a capital offence : see intro. to the Deca- 
logue, and cp. Dt21 18f . 16. Mansteal- 
ing is to be punished as severely as murder. 
17. Cursing, like blessing, is always looked 
upon as efficacious. It is a solemn appeal to 
God, who will not permit His name to be taken 
in vain. He will not respond to the child who 
invokes His power to the injury of a father or 
mother. And such an impious appeal is itself 
a serious crime. 

18-32. The Law of Compensation for Injury 
to Life or Limb. 

19. Shall . . be quit] i.e. of the charge of 
murder. But he must pay for the injured 
man's loss of time and medical treatment. 

21. He is his money] The master himself 
loses by his servant's inability to work, and is 
sufficiently punished in this way. If the 
injury is of a permanent nature the slave is 
entitled to his freedom: see vv. 26, 27. 

23. Any mischief] beyond the loss of the 
child (v. 22). The law of retaliation (' like 
for like') is common to all early stages of 
civilisation: cp. e.g. art. 'Laws of Hammurabi.' 
It is a rough and ready kind of justice, but it 
involves many difficulties and is generally 
abandoned in favour of a system of fines and 
penalties. It should be observed that the law 
of retaliation is not the same as private 
revenge. The equivalent penalty is inflicted 
by the judge, not by the injured person: cp. 
Lv24 17 " 21 DtliH*-- 1 . Christ refers to this 
passage in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt5 38f -), 
forbidding the spirit of revenge, and enforcing 
the duty of forbearance in imitation of the 
heavenly Father. 28. The following enact- 
ments are a good illustration of the spirit of 
even-handed justice displayed by the Mosaic 
Law: cp. Gta9*. His flesh shall not be 

eaten] This would serve to emphasise the 



horror connected with such an accidental 
death. It was also in accordance with the law 
forbidding the eating of blood as unclean. 
An ox killed by stoning would not be bled: 
see on Lvl7 10 - 16 , and cp. 22 31 . 29. In this 
case the owner is morally responsible and is 
liable to be put to death. The death penalty 
may, however, be commuted by a fine, the 
amount of which would be fixed by the rela- 
tives of the person killed, with probably an 
appeal to the judges. 32. The silver shekel 
was in value a little more than half-a-crown. 
The ordinary price of a slave, therefore, was 
about £3 10s.: cp. Zechll 12 . 13 Mt26 15 . From 
the latter passage it will be seen that our 
Lord's life was reckoned of the same value as 
that of a slave. 

33-c. 22 15 . Law of Compensation for Injury 
to Property. 

34. The dead beast shall be his] It is 
assumed that he has paid the full value of the 
live animal. 

CHAPTER 22 
The Book of the Covenant (continued) 

1. Four sheep] The larger compensation 
required in the case of the ox is probably due 
to the fact that it is an animal used for labour, 
and of proportionately higher value, therefore, 
than a sheep: cp. 2S12 6 . 2. Breaking up] 
RV ' breaking in.' 3. If the sun be risen 
upon him] i.e. if the housebreaking be com- 
mitted in daylight. The nocturnal burglar 
is more dangerous and cannot be so easily 
detected. In a case of daylight robbery it is 
less necessary to resort to extreme measures 
for defence. In English law a similar dis- 
tinction is made between housebreaking by 
night and by day. 

5. Of the best of his own field] This is a 
case of wilful damage. In the next v. the 
damage is accidental, such as might result from 
the burning of weeds or thorns, in which case 
an exact equivalent only is required. 

7. Deliver unto his neighbour] This practice 
was common in days when there were no banks. 
Otherwise, treasure might be buried in a field: 
cp.Mtl3 44 . 8. Unto the judges] RV 'unto 
God.' See on 216. „. Oath of the LORD] 
an oath invoking Jehovah as witness. On the 
solemn nature of such oaths, cp. 20 7 . 

13. Let him bring it] i.e. what remains of 
it, in order to show the cause of the injury. 

15. It came for his (i.e. 'its' ; see on Lv25 5 ) 
hire] RM 'it is reckoned in its hire.' The 
owner is understood to have taken the risk of 
injury into account in fixing the price of hire. 

16-31. Miscellaneous Laws. 

16, 17. Endow her] RY rightly, 'pay a 
dowry for her' : e.g. to her father. The dowry 
was not the portion brought by the wife into 
the husband's house, but the price paid by the 



7() 



22. 18 



EXODUS 



2& 19 



bridegroom to the father or brothers of the 
bride, by way, it would seem, of compensation 
to the bride's family for the loss of her 
services: cp. G-n34 12 , also Gn29 18 . Seeing that 
among the Hebrews, as among the Arabs at 
the present day, a woman who has been un- 
chaste has almost no chance of marriage, the 
seducer, it is here enacted, must marry her, or, 
if the father object, make good the dowry. 
In Dt 22 29 the dowry is fixed at fifty shekels. 
The seduction of a betrothed damsel is 
punishable with death: see on Dt22 23f . 

1 8. A witch] RV ' sorceress.' The word is 
the same as that in 7 n . Sorcery, or the pre- 
tended holding communication with evil spirits, 
is a form of idolatry or rebellion against 
Jehovah, and punished as such: see v. 20, and 
cp. Dtl8 10f - Lvl9 2 ' 3 . 31 . 

2i. Cp. Lvl9 33 > 34 . The Mosaic Law re- 
peatedly emphasises the duty of kindly con- 
sideration of the weak and oppressed, the 
afflicted and the poor. God is the champion 
and the avenger of all such : cp. Psl46 7 " 9 . 

25. If thou lend money to any of my people 
that is poor by thee] RV ' to any of my people 
with thee that is poor' : interest is forbidden 
on loans to a fellow Israelite, but is expressly 
allowed in dealing with a foreigner: see Dt 
23 19, 20^ an( j C p. Lv 25 35 . The loans referred to 
here are loans without interest. The Israelites 
are commanded to help the poor by giving 
them free loans, the wisest form of charity. 
Commercial loans, for trading purposes, are 
not contemplated at all, and were in all proba- 
bility unknown among the Israelites in early 
times and in a primitive state of society. 

26. While the taking of interest is forbidden, 
the taking of a pledge for repayment of a loan 
is sanctioned, and frequent reference is made 
in Scripture to the practice: see e.g. Am2 8 
Job 22 6 249 Dt 24 6 . The outer garment of 
the Israelite (the simlah) is a kind of cloak 
or plaid about 4 ft. square, which may be 
used as a coverlet by night. In the case of a 
poor man this might be the only thing he 
could give as a pledge, in which case he is 
to be allowed the use of it each night: cp. 
Dt24 12 > 13 , and for a similar humane precept, 
v. 6 of that chapter. 

28. The gods] RV 'God.' RM 'judges' 
is also possible : see on 21 6 . But cp. St. 
Peter's injunction (lPet2 17 ). 

29. The first of thy ripe fruits] RV 
' the abundance of thy fruits,' etc. : see on 
131-16. 30. On the eighth day] The mini- 
mum age of a sacrificial animal is eight days. 
The animal must be in a fit condition, which 
it could hardly be during the first week : cp. 
Lv22 27 . The eighth day was also prescribed 
for the circumcision of children : see Gnl7 12 . 

31. Holy men] See on 19*, 6, 10. The 
numerous regulations with regard to outward 



purity, of which one example is given here, 
were intended to be a symbol and a reminder 
of that purity of heart which God's people 
must exhibit. Torn of beasts] This pro- 
hibition rests on the general law that the 
blood, as the seat of life, belongs to God and 
must not be eaten. The flesh of such an 
animal would not be properly drained of 
blood : see on 21 28 . 

CHAPTER 23 

The Book of the Covenant (concluded) 

1 -1 9. Miscellaneous Laws. 

1. Raise] RV 'take up,' i.e. give ear to. 
This is an extension of the ninth command- 
ment : cp. the Arabic proverb, ' In wickedness 
the listener is the ally of the speaker.' 

2. To decline after] RV ' to turn aside 
after.' 3. Countenance] Give undue favour 
to. As judgment is to be without fear (v. 2), 
so is it to be without favour, whether of rich 
or poor : cp. v. 6. 

4, 5. Thine enemy's ox] The Mosaic Law 
inculcates the duty of kindness to animals : 
see e.g. 20 10 Lv22 27 > 28 Dt226,7 25 4. In 
Dt22 1 " 4 it is a friend's beast that is to be 
relieved. Here it is the beast of an enemy : 
cp. Mt5 43 > 44 . 

8. Gift] A bribe in any form : see on 18 21 . 

10, 11. On the law of the Sabbatical Year, 
see on Lv 25 1 " 7 . 12. On the reason annexed 

to the fourth commandment, see on 20 10 > n . 

14-17. The Three Great Annual Feasts are 
Passover and Unleavened Bread in the month 
of Abib, Feast of Weeks or Pentecost fifty 
days afterwards, and Feast of Booths or Taber- 
nacles, here called Feast of Ingathering, at 
the end of the agricultural year : see on 
Lv 23 4 ' 22 > 33 ' 43 . 15. None shall appear before 
me empty] As these festivals are all com- 
memorative of God's goodness they are to be 
celebrated with thankfulness and rejoicing. 
And in token of their gratitude the people are 
to present gifts and entertain the poor : cp. 
Dt 1 6 16, 17 Neh 8 10. The same principle under- 
lies the custom of making offerings of money 
as a part of Christian worship. It is expres- 
sive of the worshipper's thankfulness for all 
the divine mercies, temporal and spiritual, of 
which he is the recipient, and must never be 
omitted. 17. Three times in the year] 

These annual pilgrimages served to maintain 
a conscious unity of race and worship. 

18. Leavened bread] see on 12 8 . Fat, like 
blood, must not be eaten, but burnt upon the 
altar : see on 29 13 . 

19. Thou shalt not seethe, etc.] This pro- 
hibition may be intended to preserve the 
natural instinct of humanity : cp. Dt22 6 > 7 . 
But it more probably refers to a superstitious 
practice of using milk prepared in this way to 



71 



;. so 



EXODUS 



24. 10 



sprinkle fields, as a charm against unfruitful- 
ness : see Dtl4 21 , where the prohibition is 
connected with the law of unclean meats. 
On account of this law, the Jews to this day 
abstain from mixing meat and milk in the 
same dish ; nor will they partake of the one, 
except at a considerable interval after the 
other. 

20-33. The Book of the Covenant closes 
with an exhortation in which a promise is 
made of God's presence, guidance, and help in 
overcoming their enemies, of wide dominion, 
and of material prosperity, on condition that 
they serve Jehovah alone and make no cove- 
nant with the heathen nations or their gods. 

20. On the Angel of Jehovah, see on 3 2 . 

25. See on 20 12 . 28. Hornets] The 
hornet is a large and fierce kind of wasp. It 
is doubtful whether the promise here is to be 
understood literally or figuratively (cp. also 
Dt7 20 Josh 24 12 ). It seems to be taken liter- 
ally in Wisdom 1 2 8 . But it is more probably 
a figurative way of describing the terror which 
would fall upon the nations on hearing of the 
victorious march of Jehovah's people : see 
the previous v. and Dt2 25 , and cp. Dtl 44 
Psll8 12 Isa7 18 . Or the 'hornets' may be 
intended to describe the Egyptians, who were 
frequently at war with the inhabitants of 
Canaan. Rameses III is known to have 
broken the power of the ancient kingdom of 
the Hittites, which would be about the time 
of the Israelites' sojourn in the wilderness, 
supposing the exodus to have taken place 
towards the end of the nineteenth dynasty. 

29, 30. The book of Judges shows that 
the conquest of Canaan was effected gradually. 

31. The sea of the Philistines] the Mediter- 
ranean ; the river is the Euphrates. These 
bounds were reached in the reign of Solomon : 
see 1K421, and cp. Gnl5 18 Dtll 24 . 

32, 33. The commandment to expel the 
Canaanites and to destroy their idols and 
places of worship was only partially fulfilled, 
with the result that the evil influence of 
Canaanitish idolatry and immorality made 
itself felt over and over again in the history 
of Israel and was the cause of its final over- 
throw : see Josh 16 10 17 12 . 13 Jgli9, 2 7-36 
IK 11 1-10 14 22 - 24 2K12 3 176- 2 3. With this 
passage cp. 34 12 ' 17 Nu33 5 °- 5G Dt7 ; and see 
on Nu25 

CHAPTER 24 
Tin: Ratification of the Covenant 
1. And he said] The first two vv. of this 
c. are a continuation of the narrative from 
20 21 , which was interrupted by the insertion 
of the Book of the Covenant, originally a 
separate document. C. 23 33 is continued in 
v. 3. Nadab, and Abihu] the two oldest 

sons of Aaron : see G'-' 3 . Seventy of the 



elders] a selection from the heads of the 
tribes and families : see on 3 16 . 3. And 

Moses came and told the people] after he had 
ascended the mountain and received the 
' words and the judgments ' contained in chs. 
20 22 -23 33 : cp. 211. 4. And Moses wrote] 
see on 1 7 14 . The altar symbolised the presence 
of Jehovah, the twelve pillars represented the 
twelve tribes of Israel. These pillars were 
single unhewn stones which were smeared 
with the blood of the sacrificial animal or 
with the oil of a vegetable offering : see on 
Gn28 18 . The use of pillars is an evidence 
of the antiquity of the rite of sealing the 
covenant recorded here, as they were after- 
wards forbidden owing to their association 
with heathen worship : see Dtl6 22 , and see 
on 34 1 3 . 5. See on 18 * 2 . 6. The 

sprinkling of the altar with half the blood 
and of the people with the other half (v. 8) 
signified that both parties, Jehovah and Israel, 
entered into fellowship and bound themselves 
by the terms of the covenant, the people 
promising obedience and Jehovah promising 
His help and blessing. See 23 2 °- 31 . In the 
New Covenant the blood of Christ takes the 
place of the blood of the sacrificial animal, 
and by faith in His sacrifice, Christians enter 
into communion with God : see Mt26 28 
Heb 9ii- 28 1 Pet 1 2 . 8. Concerning all these 
words] RM ' upon all these conditions.' 

9-1 1. The ratification of the covenant is 
concluded with a sacrificial meal (v. 11), which 
usually followed the peace offering and sym- 
bolised the harmonious relationship existing 
between the offerers and God : see Lv3. At 
this meal, which took place on the mount, the 
representatives of the people were vouchsafed 
a vision of God Himself, not as previously 
with terror-inspiring accompaniments of 
thunder, lightning, and smoke (20 18 > 19 ), 
but in grace, mercy, and peace. The sight 
of God, otherwise fatal in its effects (see 33 20 
and on 19°), does not injure them. God does 
not smite them ; on the contrary they are 
able to eat and drink in His presence, having 
entered into covenant relationship with Him 
(v. 11). 

10. They saw the God of Israel] A very 
bold anthropomorphic way of describing the 
experience of these favoured persons, which 
the Gk. (LXX) Version, made many centuries 
later, avoids by translating ' they saw the place 
where God stood.' At the same time it is 
noticeable that the sacred writer evinces a 
great reserve in speaking of this vision of 
God. He makes no attempt to describe the 
appearance of God, only what was under His 
feet. Similarly Isaiah, who says that he too 
' saw the Lord,' describes only the accompani- 
ments of his vision (Isa 6) : see 33 18 > 19 > 23 . 
In Dt4 12 Moses is represented as reminding 



72 



24. 12 



EXODUS 



25. 



the people that they 'saw no similitude' of 
God at Horeb ; and in Jnl*8 (cp. 5 37 6 4 <5) we 
read that ' no man hath seen God at any time.' 
The apparent inconsistency between these 
passages and the present is to be accounted 
for on the principle of the progressiveness of 
revelation. Divine truth can only be com- 
municated to men in the measure and in the 
manner in which they are able to receive it. 
In early times men were like children in re- 
gard to spiritual things, which therefore could 
only be apprehended by them under material 
forms of expression. The essential and per- 
manent truth underlying the present repre- 
sentation is that the majesty and the will of 
the invisible God were brought vividly home 
to the minds of these men by means of the 
Moral Law, and that this Law was not a dis- 
covery by Moses but a thing revealed to him 
by God. Cp. what is said on anthropo- 
morphisms in Intro, to Exodus, § 3. 

A paved work of a sapphire stone] The 
ancients regarded the sky as a solid vaulted 
dome stretched over the earth : see on Gn 1 6 " 8 . 

Body of heaven in his clearness] RY ' the 
very heaven for clearness.' 

12. Moses receives another command to 



come up into the mount and receive the 
tables of the Law and other directions con- 
nected with the outward service of religion. 

Tables of stone] From Dt5 22 we learn 
that these contained the Ten Commandments, 
and the same is implied in c. 34 28 , which 
relates to the second tables, doubtless exact 
copies of the first which Moses broke. The 
other regulations which follow in c. 25, etc., 
seem to have been given orally. The words 
which I have written should perhaps follow 
tables of stone. The expression may be 
understood as indicating the immediate divine 
origin of the Law (cp. 31 18 ). 13. Minister] 
servant, attendant ; cp. Lk4 2 0RV Acl3 5 . 

14. Said unto the elders] not merely the 
seventy spoken of in v. 1, but all the repre- 
sentatives of the people. They are to see 
that the camp is not removed from the plain 
during the absence of Moses. 15. Moses 

went up] Joshua accompanied him part of 
the way, and seems to have awaited his return 
somewhere on the mountain side : see 32 17 . 

18. Forty days and forty nights] The later 
account adds that during this time he neither 
ate nor drank (Dt 9 9 ). On the number forty 
see on 2 21 . 



(Chs. 25-31) The Tabernacle and the Priesthood 



CHAPTER 25 

The Vessels of the Sanctuary 
Chapters 25-31 are taken up with prescrip- 
tions regarding the Construction of a Taber- 
nacle, i.e. a tent, to form the visible dwelling- 
place of Jehovah in the midst of His 
people, the place where He would meet 
them and receive their worship. The entire 
structure consisted of three parts. There 
was an outer Court, 100 cubits by 50, open to 
the sky, the sides of which were composed of 
curtains supported on pillars. The entrance 
was at the eastern end; inside, facing the 
door, was the altar of burnt offering, and 
behind that the brazen laver. Within this 
court and towards the western end was a 
covered tabernacle, divided by a hanging cur- 
tain into two chambers. The outer of these, 
called the Holy Place, contained the Table of 
Shewbread, the Candlestick, and the Altar of 
Incense. The Inner chamber, the Holy of 
Holies, or Most Holy Place, contained the 
Ark of the Covenant which supported the 
Mercy seat and the two golden Cherubim. 
The three parts, of which the entire structure 
was composed, were of increasing degrees of 
sanctity. Into the outer court came the wor- 
shippers when they brought their offerings. 
Into the Holy Place went the priests to per- 
form their sacred offices; while into the Most 



alone, and that only once a year on the great 
day of Atonement with special ceremonial. 
It has been questioned whether a tabernacle 
of this somewhat elaborate design and costly 
workmanship could have been erected by the 
Israelites in their present circumstances. 
This difficulty, however, has been exaggerated. 
In Egypt the Israelites were familiar with 
arts and manufactures, and they left Egypt 
with spoil of precious metals (ll 2 12 35 > 36 ). 
Another difficulty has been discerned in the 
fact that no references to such an elaborate 
structure occur in the historical books previous 
to the time of Solomon. Some scholars ac- 
cordingly hold that many of the details de- 
scribed here are of an ideal nature, the pre- 
scription of what ought to be rather than 
of what actually was carried out, ' the attempt 
of a devout and imaginative mind to give 
concrete embodiment to some of the loftiest 
and purest spiritual truths to be met with in 
the whole range of scripture.' This difficulty, 
like the other, is of a negative kind, and we 
should be careful not to over-estimate it. In 
any case, the symbolism underlying the con- 
struction of the tabernacle with its furniture 
and ritual is unmistakable. The costliness 
of the materials teaches the lesson that God 
is to be served with the best that man can 
give. The harmony and exact proportions of 



Holy Place, which was the immediate Presence its parts are a reflection of the harmony and 
Chamber of Jehovah, went the high priest perfection of the divine nature. The increasing 

73 



25. 1 



EXODUS 



25. 23 



degrees of sanctity which characterise the 
Court, the Holy Place, and the Holy of 
Holies, emphasise the reverence due by man 
to Him whose dwelling is in the high and holy 
place, and who yet condescends in His grace 
to tabernacle with man and to accept his im- 
perfect worship 

1-9. Gifts of materials for the tabernacle. 

2. ' God loveth a cheerful giver ' (2 Cor 9 7 ). 

3. Brass] rather, ' bronze,' an alloy of copper 
and tin: see on Dt8 9 . 4. Blue, etc.] the 
yarns of which the hangings were to be woven 
by the women: see 35 25 39 K 5. Rams' 
skins dyed red] red leather made of sheep 
skins. Badgers' skins] RV 'sealskins,' EM 
' porpoise-skins.' Shittim wood] RV ' acacia 
wood. ' The acacia (Heb. shittah, plur. shittim) is 
the characteristic tree of the Sinaitic peninsula. 
The wood is very durable and much used in 
furniture making. 7. On the ephod see 28 6 f . 

8. That I may dwell among them] Strictly 
speaking, God cannot be said to dwell in one 
place more than in another. But as men 
realise His presence most vividly when they 
are consciously engaged in His worship, the 
place of worship becomes in a special sense a 
' meeting-place ' with God (see v. 22) and a 
' house, or dwelling-place, of God ' : cp. Gn 
28 17 . The expression is anthropomorphic 
at the best, and is felt to be inadequate as the 
spiritual nature of God is more fully realised : 
see Jn4 20 " 24 . In later times Jewish writers 
avoided saying that ' God dwells ' in any 
place, even in heaven itself. They said that 
He ' makes His Shekinah to dwell ' there. 
The ' Shekinah ' is the manifestation of God, 
especially in the bright cloud (see 40 34 > 35 ). 
The word is connected with the Heb. word 
for dwelling (miskkari) used in the next verse. 

9. Pattern] This does not imply any visible 
or material model. It expresses the fact that 
Moses, during his long retirement with God 
on the mount, was divinely directed as to the 
most fitting way in which God might be wor- 
shipped. This inspiration does not exclude 
the exercise of the natural faculties, but pre- 
supposes them as the basis on which it may 
operate: see on 31 4 . Nor does it exclude the 
appropriation, under divine sanction, of ideas 
suggested by certain features in the ritual of 
other nations with which Moses was already 
acquainted. See Intro, to Exodus, § 2, near 
the end. 

Tabernacle] lit, ' dwelling.' Here it seems 
to denote the entire fabric. The name is 
applied in particular to the sacred tent, stand- 
ing in the midst of the court: see 26 l . 

10-22. The Ark of the Testimony. 

10. Ark] i.e. a chest or coffer. A cubit 
is about 18 in. Such sacred arks were well 
known to the Egyptians and Assyrians. They 
contained some image of the deity wor- 



shipped, and were carried with great pomp in 
processions at national festivals. It is signifi- 
cant of the spiritual nature of the Hebrew 
religion that the ark made by Moses contained 
no image, but instead a copy of the Moral Law. 
After the conquest of Canaan the ark remained 
for a long time at Shiloh (Josh 18 1 1 S3 3 ), and 
was at last brought by David to his capital at 
Jerusalem (2S6 lChl3). Solomon placed it 
in the temple which he built (1K8 1 ), after 
which there is no further record of it. It may 
have been carried off by Shishak to Egypt 
(1K14 26 ) or by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon 
(2K25 8-17 ). There seems to have been no ark 
in the second temple. 

1 1 . Crown] i.e. a ' rim ' or ' moulding ' which 
projected above the top edge of the ark to 
keep the ' mercy seat ' in its place. 16. Testi- 
mony] see on 16 34 . 17. Mercy seat] RM 
' covering. ' This is not to be regarded as a mere 
lid or covering of the ark, but has an independent 
significance. It is the golden throne of God 
where the people's sins are ' covered,' i.e. ex- 
piated or forgiven : see on Lv 1 4 . 

18. Two cherubims] 'Cherubim' is the 
Heb. plural of ' cherub.' The exact form of 
these cherubim is doubtful. Some suppose 
they were winged bulls such as are represented 
on Assyrian monuments as guardian spirits at 
the doors of temples or houses : cp. Gn3 24 . 
Others take them to be of human form. They 
figure very often in Hebrew sacred art. They 
were introduced into the pattern of the curtain 
which screened off the Holy of Holies (26 31 ). 
In Jewish thought the cherubim occupy the 
highest rank among the angels of heaven, and 
are the bearers or upholders of the throne of 
Jehovah, who is accordingly said to sit upon 
or between the cherubim (2 K 19 15 Ps 18 10 80 1 
99 1 ). In Ezk 10 the cherubim are identified 
with the four living creatures of c. 1 (see 
Ezkl0 20 andcp. Rev4<3f.). The figures of the 
cherubim upon the mercy seat were of course 
small ; those in Solomon's temple were of 
colossal dimensions (2 Ch 3 10 " 13 ). 19. Of the 
mercy seat] RV ' of one piece with the mercy- 
seat.' 20. Toward the mercy seat shall the 
faces . . be] This is probably what is alluded 
to in 1 Pet 1 12 . 22. I will meet with thee] 
Hence the tabernacle is called the ' tent of 
meeting,' i.e. the place where Jehovah meets 
with Moses and Israel, not the place where 
worshippers assemble, as the AV rendering 
' tabernacle of the congregation ' seems to 
imply: see 29 4 M 3 33 7. 

23-30. The Table of Shewbread. 

The ark alone stood in the innermost 
chamber. The table here described, on which 
lay twelve loaves (see on v. 30), stood in the 
second chamber, the Holy Place. On the Arch 
of Titus, still standing in Rome, there are 
sculptured the Table of Shewbread and the 



74 



25. 25 



EXODUS 



26. 14 



Golden Candlestick which the Emperor Titus 
carried off from the Temple of Herod after 
the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 a.d. 
These were not the original table and candle- 
stick, but were no doubt exact copies of them. 

25. Border] The representation of the table 
on the Arch of Titus referred to above shows 
a narrow rail running round the table about 
halfway down the legs, keeping them in posi- 
tion. This is probably what is meant here by 
the ' border.' 27. Over against] RY ' close 
by.' The rings would be nearly halfway down 
the legs. 29. The dishes were the plates on 
which the loaves were brought to the table ; 
the spoons were small vessels to hold the in- 
cense which was laid upon the bread (Lv 24 7 ) ; 
the covers (RY ' flagons ') and bowls held the 
wine of the drink offering which accompanied 
every meal offering. For to cover withal read 
with RY ' to pour out withal.' 30. Shew- 
bread] lit. ' bread of the presence,' RM ' Pres- 
ence-bread.' This consisted of twelve loaves 
of unleavened bread, which were laid upon the 
table, in the presence of God, and changed 
every sabbath day. It was a kind of thank- 
offering, expressive of man's constant indebted- 
ness to God for his daily bread : see on Lv 24 5 ~ 9 . 

31-40. The Golden Candlestick. 

This also stood in the Holy Place. Being 
made of pure gold, it is called the ' pure candle- 
stick' in 31 8 , etc. It was really a lampstand. 
From a central shaft three curved arms sprang 
on each side, one above the other, rising to the 
same height as it. On each of these seven 
supports rested a lamp, in shape like a bowl or 
saucer. The shaft and the arms were orna- 
mented with representations of almond buds 
and blossoms, introduced three times into each 
arm and four times into the shaft (v. 34). 

31 . Bowls] (RY ' cups ') are the open leaves 
surmounting the knops or ' calyx ' of the flower. 
The topmost bowl held the lamp. On the oil, 
see on 2720,21, an a C p. Lv 241-4 NU8 1 " 4 . 

Shall be of the same] RY ' of one piece with 
it ' : so in vv. 35, 36. 

33. Candlestick] the central shaft, which 
may have had in all seven knops. 

37. The lampstand stood on the south side 
of the Holy Place with its arms parallel to the 
wall. On these the lamps, in the form of oval- 
shaped saucers, were placed crosswise with 
their nozzles pointing northwards, so that 
they cast their light over against the lampstand, 
i.e. on the space in front of it. 38. The 
tongs are the snuffers ; the snuffdishes are for 
receiving and removing the pieces of charred 
wick. 39. A talent of gold is estimated at 
about £6,000 of our money : see on 38 24 . 

CHAPTER 26 
The Tabernacle Proper 
This, which in the Hebrew is called ' the 



dwelling' (see on 25 9 ), consists of an oblong 
tent, 30 cubits long, 10 broad, and 10 high, 
and stands within the ' court of the tabernacle ' 
(27 9 " f -). It is formed of a frame of open 
woodwork, over which are spread four layers of 
coverings, the undermost being of linen em- 
broidered with figures of cherubim, the second 
of goathair cloth, the third of ramskin, and 
the outermost of sealskin. Internally, there- 
fore, the tabernacle had the appearance of 
rows of panels enclosing a pattern of cherubim. 
The tabernacle was divided into two chambers 
by means of a veil suspended from the roof at 
a distance of 10 cubits from the back wall. 
The innermost chamber, or Holy of Holies, 
was therefore in shape a perfect cube of 10 
cubits in the side. The roof, of which nothing 
is said, is best understood as flat. At the time 
of the conquest and settlement in Canaan, we 
hear of a tabernacle being set up at Shiloh, 
where it seems to have remained during the 
time of the Judges (Josh 18 1 Jg21™ IS 13). 
In the time of David it seems to have been at 
Nob (1 S21 1), and afterwards at Gibeon (1 Ch 
21 29 ), where it was at the beginning of Solo- 
mon's reign (2 Ch 1 13 ). After the building of 
Solomon's temple we hear no more of it, its 
furniture being then transferred to the more 
permanent building. 

1-14. The Coverings. 

1-6. The undermost covering. This is of 
linen ornamented with cherubim of ' cunning 
work,' i.e. of tapestry or embroidery. Ten 
pieces of material, each 28x4 cubits, are sewn 
together in two sets of five (v. 3), which are then 
joined at their edges by means of loops and 
golden ' taches,' i.e. clasps (vv. 4-6), to form one 
large covering 40 cubits long and 28 wide. Of 
this length, 30 cubits are taken up with the 
roof, leaving 10 cubits to hang down the back. 
The front is left open, to be afterwards closed 
with a separate hanging (v. 36). Of the breadth, 
10 cubits form the roof, leaving 18 to hang 
down and form the two sides. The covering, 
it will be observed, does not reach the ground 
at the sides, but this is not necessary, as there 
is a base running all round supporting the 
wooden frame (v. 19). 7-13. The second 
covering. This is of goathair and is spread 
over the first. By joining eleven pieces, each 
30 X 4 cubits, a covering is obtained 44 cubits 
long and 30 wide. The ampler width allows 
this covering to reach the ground at the sides. 
The extra length of 4 cubits is partly taken 
up by doubling back the edge a distance of 
2 cubits, leaving 2 cubits the distribution of 
which is not clear (vv. 12, 13). 14. The 

outer coverings. Over the goathair covering 
are spread two others, one of red leather made 
of ramskin, and the other, the outermost, of seal- 
skin : see on 25 5 . The purpose of these opaque 
and heavy curtains is to exclude the light. 



75 



26. 15 



EXODUS 



27. 20 



15-30. The wooden framework supporting 
the coverings. 

15. The boards, as they are here called, are 
not solid, as then they would have been very 
heavy, and the cherubim embroidered upon 
the inner covering would not have been visible 
at all. It is best, with Professor Kennedy, to 
take them to be open frames consisting of two 
uprights connected with cross rails. These 
frames are 10 cubits in height and 1^ in width, 
and are kept upright by being let down with 
tenons and mortises into sockets (v. 19), which 
rest side by side upon the ground, and form a 
continuous base or plinth all round. Rigidity 
is secured by means of long bars running 
round the structure (v. 26). 18. The length 
of the side being 30 cubits, twenty frames are 
required for each side. 22. Sides] RY 

' hinder part ' : the W. end is meant. The 
tabernacle is 10 cubits in width, measured 
from curtain to curtain. As only six frames, 
amounting to 9 cubits, are required for the 
end, it would appear that 1 cubit was taken 
up with the thickness of the side frames with 
their stiffening bars. The frames were probably 
6 in. deep and the bars 3 in. 

23, 24. The exact meaning of these vv. is 
obscure, but they suggest that the two corners 
of the back wall were strengthened by means 
of an extra frame in the form of a sloping 
buttress. In v. 24 read with RY, ' they shall 
be double beneath, and in like manner they 
shall be entire unto the top thereof unto one 
(or, the first) ring.' The foot of the additional 
frame would be set back a little, giving the 
appearance of being ' double beneath,' and the 
frame would slope in to the top of the up- 
right, where it would be fastened to it. 

25. Eight boards] i.e. six upright and two 
extra for the sloping buttresses. 

26-28. In order to give rigidity to the up- 
right frames five bars are run along the three 
sides of the tabernacle through rings attached 
to the frames. The middle bar runs from end 
to end ; the others, it is implied, do not (v. 28). 

27. The two sides westward] RY ' the 
hinder part westward,' as in v. 22. 

31-33. The dividing veil. This is of the 
same material as the inner covering, linen 
tapestry, embroidered with cherubim, and is 
supported upon four pillars at a distance of 10 
cubits from the back wall or 20 cubits from the 
entrance (see on v. 33). It screens off the Most 
Holy Place. 

33. Under the taches] under the joining of 
the covering forming the roof which was at a 
distance equal to five widths of the material 
counting from the entrance : see on vv. 1-6. 

36. The hanging curtain forming the door, 
RV ' the screen.' This closes the tabernacle 
on the E. side, and is supported by five pillars 
dividing the entrance into four equal spaces. 



CHAPTER 27 

Thr Altar of Burnt Offering. The 
Court of the Tabernacle. The Oil 
for the Lamps 

1-8. The Altar of Burnt Offering. 

This is a hollow chest of acacia wood over- 
laid with bronze, and stands within the court, 
midway between the outer entrance and the 
door of the tabernacle. 

1. The approximate size of the altar is 1\ ft. 
square and 4^ ft. high : see on 20 26 . 

2. The horns] The form and significance of 
these horns are doubtful. They were very 
important, and seem to have been regarded as 
the most sacred part of the altar (cp. Am 3 14 ). 
The blood of sin offerings was smeared upon 
them (Lv4 18 ), and this was done also at the 
consecration of the priests (Ex29 12 Lv8 15 ). 
Criminals clung to them as an asylum (1 K 1 50 
2 28 ). Whether sacrificial victims were bound 
to them is doubtful, as the text is corrupt in 
the only passage where this practice seems to 
be alluded to (Psll8 2 ?). It has been sug- 
gested that the horns of the altar have some 
connexion with the worship of Jehovah in the 
form of a bull : cp. 32 4 . Of the same] RY 
' of one piece with it.' 

4. A grate] The position and purpose of 
this grating are not clear. It may have been 
a grating suspended by rings inside the altar, 
allowing the ashes, blood, and fat of the victims 
to drain off into the earth with which in all 
probability the hollow altar was filled. Or it 
may have been intended to carry the fire, or the 
victims over the fire. Some take it to be a 
piece of ornamental open-work extending 
downwards on each side, from the ledge to the 
ground, or the ledge itself : see on v. 5. 

5. Compass of the altar] RY ' ledge round 
the altar.' This seems to have been a kind of 
projecting step or narrow platform running 
round the altar halfway up, on which the 
officiating priests stood. 

9-19. The Court of the Tabernacle. 

This is a sacred enclosure, open to the sky, 
surrounding the tabernacle, formed of a fence 
of linen curtains 5 cubits in height suspended 
on pillars of bronze. In form it is an oblong 
100 cubits by 50. The Court is open to all 
worshippers. 10. Fillets] Probably rods 

connecting the pillars with each other. 

14. The hangings of one side] The entrance 
is in the middle of the E. side and is 20 
cubits wide, leaving 15 cubits at each side of 
it. 19. Pins] Tent pegs. 

20, 21. The Oil for the Lamps. 

20. Pure olive oil beaten RY] Oil extracted 
by beating olives in a mortar without heat. It 
is the purest kind of oil. To burn always] As 
there was no window in the tabernacle it is 
probable, though nowhere asserted, that the 



76 



27. 21 



EXODUS 



28. 36 



lights burned day and night : cp. LV24 1 " 4 

2i. Tabernacle of the congregation] RY 

'tent of meeting.' So always; see on 25 22 . 
Before the testimony] see on 16 34 . Order it 
from evening to morning] This may mean 
that the lamps were trimmed evening and 
morning : see on the preceding v. 

CHAPTER 28 - 
The Priestly Garments 

i . All Israel is a ' kingdom of priests ' (see 
on 19 6 ), but for the special service of the sanc- 
tuary Aaron and his descendants are selected 
and solemnly consecrated : see Lv 8, 9. Nadab 
and xlbihu died (Lv 10) and the priesthood was 
continued in the descendants of Eleazar and 
Ithamar : see 1 Ch 241-6, and on Nu25 12 . 

2. Holy garments] The garments are holy 
because they are specially set apart and con- 
secrated for use in the sanctuary. 3. Whom 
I have filled with the spirit of wisdom] God is 
the source not only of all spiritual grace, but 
of every intellectual faculty and artistic gift : 
cp. Isa28 23 " 29 Jasl 1 ?, and see on 31 4 . 

6-12. The Ephod. 

This is a kind of waistcoat, made of varie- 
gated material, supported by straps passing 
over the shoulders and bound round the waist 
with a girdle. On each of the shoulder-straps 
is an onyx stone engraved with the names of 
six tribes of Israel. On the front of the ephod 
and attached to it by means of gold chains and 
rings is a pouch called the ' breastplate ' (v. 15 f -). 

6. The gold was in the form of threads 
worked into the pattern ; see on 39 3 . Cunning 
work is again embroidery as in 26 *. 8. Cu- 
rious girdle] RY ' cunningly woven band ' : i.e. 
embroidered. 

9-12. The engraving of gems was an art well 
known to the Egyptians. The names were 
those of the twelve tribes. In v. 12 the stones 
are called stones of memorial unto the children 
of Israel. The high priest wore these stones 
when he ministered before the Lord, as the 
representative of the people. They served as 
a kind of visible supplication of His gracious 
remembrance. 13. Ouches] The word, which 
is properly ' nouche,' means a rosette or button 
of gold filigree in which the stone is set. 

14. The chains are for attaching the breast- 
plate to the ephod : see vv. 22-25. 

15-30. The breastplate] This is really a 
pouch, one span, or half a cubit, square, made 
of the same material as the ephod, and orna- 
mented on the outside with twelve jewels set 
in four rows, each stone being engraved with 
the name of a tribe. The pouch is intended to 
hold the Urim and Thummim, by means of 
which God's judgments are declared (see on v. 
30), and is therefore here called the breast- 
plate of judgment. 



16. Doubled] so as to form a pouch. 

17-21. It is not easy to identify the stones 
mentioned in this and the following vv., the 
meaning of the Hebrew words being doubtful. 
The stones in the first row are probably a red 
jasper, a yellowish green serpentine, and an 
emerald. In the second row a red garnet, a 
lapis lazuli, and an onyx. In the third row 
a yellow agate, a black and white agate, and 
an amethyst. In the fourth row a yellow jas- 
per, a beryl, and a dark green jasper. With 
this list of stones may be compared that in 
Ezk28 13 , and that in Rev21i9. 2 ° (the founda- 
tions of the walls of the heavenly Jerusalem). 

22. Chains at the ends of wreathen work] 
RY ' chains like cords, of wreathen work.' 

30. The Urim and the Thummim] The literal 
meaning of these words is given in RM, ' the 
Lights and the Perfections.' The Urim and 
Thummim are nowhere described, but there 
can be no doubt that they were material objects, 
as they are said to be put in the breastplate, 
which was a pocket : cp. also Lv8 8 . From 
1 S 28 6 we learn that the Urim (and Thum- 
mim) served as one of three ways by means of 
which the divine will might be ascertained : 
cp. Nu27 21 . In all probability they were two 
images or jewels, engraved with distinguishing 
characters, used in casting lots. In this con- 
nexion 1S14 38 - 42 is instructive. Y. 41 in our 
Hebrew text there is evidently mutilated. The 
Gk. and Lat. versions read, ' If the iniquity be 
in me or Jonathan my son, give Urim ; and if 
the iniquity be in the people, give Thummim.' 
On the casting of lots see on Nu26 55 . and cp. 
Lvl68 1S239-12 30^.8 Acl 2 <5. 

31. The robe of the ephod] This is a frock 
or cassock, woven entirely of blue, without 
sleeves, drawn over the head, and worn 
under the ephod. Its chief characteristic is a 
row of golden bells attached to the skirt which 
sounded when the high priest moved, and 
enabled the people to follow him with their 
thoughts and prayers when he went into the 
Holy Place as their representative before God. 

32. Habergeon] A sleeveless jacket. 

33. Hem] RY ' skirts.' The pomegranate 
is a tree with a fruit like an apple, with a 
juicy pulp and full of seeds (hence the name, 
which means grained or seeded apple), exten- 
sively cultivated and highly prized in the 
East. The Heb. name is rimmon, which 
enters into many place-names. The pome- 
granates here are embroidered on the skirt of 
the robe. The bells are hung upon it. 

35. His sound] i.e. its sound : see on Lv 
25 5 . That he die not] To enter God's pre- 
sence carelessly is profanation and punishable 
with death. 

36-38. The mitre] This is made of fine 
linen, and is in the form of a turban. Fas- 
tened in front of it is a plate of pure gold 



77 



28. 38 



EXODUS 



29. 22 



with the inscription HOLINESS TO THE LORD 

(RV ' Holy to the Lord'). 

38. The iniquity of the holy things] The 
' holy things ' are the offerings of the people. 
As no offerings are ever worthy of God, their 
acceptance by Him is an act of grace. The 
high priest, when he enters the divine pre- 
sence in the manner prescribed by God Him- 
self, ' bears the iniquity of the holy things,' 
which are accepted in spite of the unworthi- 
ness necessarily attaching to them. For the 
lofty ideal of the sanctification, not only of 
what is used in divine service in the narrower 
sense of the term, but in every department of 
what is called secular life, see Zechl4 20 > 21 . 

39. The coat is different from the robe (see 
29 5 ). It is an under-garment or shirt of fine 
linen fastened with an embroidered girdle. 

40. Bonnets] RV 'headtires': close fitting 
caps, probably of a different shape from the 
turban of the high priest. 41. Anoint them] 
see on 29 7 . Consecrate] lit. ' fill the hand.' 
The expression probably refers to some sym- 
bolic action indicating the giving of authority 
at a ceremony of installation to a sacred office : 
cp.29 24 . 

CHAPTER 29 

The Consecration of the Priesthood 
Cp. Lv 8 9. The form of consecration 
consists of four things, (1) ablution (v. 4), (2) 
investiture with the holy garments (vv. 5-9), 
(3) anointing with holy oil (v. 7), and (4) 
offering of sacrifices (vv. 10 f ). 

1. Without blemish] see on 12 5 . 

2. Unleavened bread] see on 12 8 . Tem- 
pered] RV ' mingled.' Oil is a common ingre- 
dient of cakes in the East: see e.g. 1K17 12 , 
and cp. Lv2 5 > 6 . 

4. Wash them with water] A symbolic 
action representing the need of inward purity 
in those who approach God. Washing is 
frequently enjoined as an act of ceremonial 
purification: see e.g. 30 17 " 21 Lv 11 25 148 1513, 
etc., and cp. Mk7 3 > 4 . The symbol is retained 
in Christian baptism: cp. lPet3 21 . 

6. Holy crown] the golden plate with the 
sacred inscription: see 28 36 . 

7. Anointing oil] This oil was specially 
prepared: see 30 23-25 . Anointing with oil is 
an act symbolising a special consecration to 
the service of God. Jacob anointed the stone 
at Beth-el with oil (Gn 28 18 ; cp. 3 1 13 35 14 ), and 
the tabernacle and its furniture were also 
anointed (see 30 26 ' 29 Lv8 10 . n ). Priests were 
consecrated by anointing (as here) and also 
kings (see 1S10 1 16 13 2K11 12 ), who arc ac- 
cordingly called the ' Lord's anointed '(IS 26 ' ' 
2 S 1 14 Ps 2 2 89 38 > 39 ). The Hebrew word for 
'anoint' is mashach^ whence is derived the 
word Messiah, which is used figuratively to 
describe one who is consecrated by God for a 



special purpose: cp. e.g. Isa45 1 . In a unique 
sense it denotes the Messiah or Christ, the 
latter word being the Greek equivalent of the 
Hebrew term: seeIsa61 1 Lk4is. In NT. Chris- 
tians are called the anointed of God, as having 
received the unction of the Holy Spirit: see 
2Corl 2 i Un2 2 o,27. 

10-37. The sacrifices of Consecration. 

These signify the self -surrender to God of 
those on whose behalf they are presented, 
symbolised by the laying of the hands upon 
the head of the victim and its subsequent 
slaughter: see onLvl 4 . 10. The bullock] 
is for a sin offering on behalf of Aaron and his 
sons. For the significance of this sacrifice 
see Lv4. 12. Cp. Lv4 7 . Upon the horns 
of the altar] see on 27 2 . 

13. The internal fat, like the blood, is 
regarded as the seat of life, and must always 
be offered to God by burning upon the altar: 
see on 23 18 and Lv3 3 . The caul that is above 
the liver] RV ' caul upon the liver,' is the fatty 
covering of that organ. 14. Shalt thou burn] 
see Lv4 n ' 12 , and on Lv4 26 . 

15. One ram] one of the two already men- 
tioned (v. 1), to be a whole burnt offering. 
It is entirely consumed upon the altar : see on 
Lvl. 17. Unto his pieces, and unto his 
head] RV ' with its pieces, and with its head.' 
The dismemberment of the victim is to secure 
its rapid consumption upon the altar. 

18. A sweet savour] This phrase is fre- 
quently employed in connexion with sacrifices 
to indicate gracious acceptance on the part of 
God to whom they are offered: see e.g. Gn8 21 , 
and cp. Ex5 21 . 

19. The other ram] called in v. 22 the ram 
of consecration, lit. ' of filling (the hand).' See 
on 28 41 . Its blood is used to sprinkle Aaron 
and his sons and their garments ; its most 
sacred parts are waved in their hands, and then 
burnt upon the altar ; after which the flesh is 
boiled and eaten by them at a sacrificial feast. 
The ritual here resembles that of the peace 
offering, for which see on Lv3. 

20. This action symbolises the purification 
and consecration of the bodily faculties to the 
service of God. A similar ceremony was per- 
formed at the cleansing of a leper : see Lv 1 4 14 > 17 . 

21. The head of Aaron is already anointed 
(v. 7), so that this sprinkling with blood and 
oil may refer only to the garments of himself 
and his sons. It is uncertain whether any 
save the high priest was anointed upon the 
head. In Lv4 3 > 5 > 16 'the anointed priest' is 
the high priest (cp. Lv21 10 ). On the other 
hand, Ex28 41 enjoins the anointing of Aaron's 
sons, which, however, may refer to this second 
anointing. 

22. The rump] RV rightly, 'the fat tail.' 
The tail of one species of the Syrian sheep is 
very long and broad, weighing sometimes from 



78 



29. 23 



EXODUS 



30.6 



ten to fifteen pounds, and requiring to be sup- 
ported on a little wheeled carriage. It is 
considered a great delicacy, its fat being used 
for cooking instead of butter. 

23. The meal offering which usually ac- 
companies a peace offering: see Lv2 7 11 " 21 . 

24. Put all in the hands of Aaron] thus 
inducting him and his sons into the duties of 
their office. The ' waving ' consisted in moving 
the offerings horizontally in the direction of 
the sanctuary, in token that they were first 
presented to God and then returned by Him 
to the officiating priests. This ceremony was 
performed at the presentation of a peace 
offering (Lv 7 28-34^ f the first fruits of harvest 
(Lv23 n > 12 ), and of the two loaves at the Feast 
of Weeks (Lv23 20 ),and also in connexion with 
the cleansing of a leper (Lvl4 12 > 24 ): see also 
on Nu8 2 i. 26. It shall be thy part] The 
law of the wave offering prescribes that the 
breast should be assigned to the officiating 
priest ; on this occasion to Moses : see Lv 7 28 ' 34 . 
After their consecration the ceremony is per- 
formed by the priests, who receive the breast 
and right shoulder as their portion. See vv. 
27,28. 27. Heave offering] 'Heaving 'and 
' waving ' seem to refer to the same ceremony 
of presenting the parts first to Gk>d. 

29. Shall be his sons' after him] cp. Nu20 26 . 
Here ' sons ' is a general term signifying de- 
scendants. The priesthood was hereditary in 
the family of Aaron. 30. Shall put them on 
seven days] see on v. 35. 

31. The characteristic feature of the peace 
offering was the sacrificial meal partaken of 
by the offerers, expressive of their communion 
with God and one another : see on Lv3. 
In the holy place] In the court before the 
door of the tent of meeting : see Lv8 31 . 

33. Stranger] One not a priest, a layman : 
cp. 30 33 Lv22io Nul^l 3 1( > : see also on 1219. 

34. See on 12 10 . 35. The ceremony is 
to be repeated each day for seven days : cp. 
Lv 8 33 , and for the fulfilment of the injunc- 
tion, Lv8 9. 36. When thou hast made] 
RY ' when thou makest,' or, rather, l by thy 
making.' The altar was consecrated by anoint- 
ing : see Lv8 10 > n , and see on v. 7. 

37. Shall be holy] see on Lv2 3 . 

38-42. The Daily Sacrifice. Every morning 
and evening a lamb is to be offered as a burnt 
offering on behalf of the whole community as 
an act of public worship : see on Lvl. It is 
accompanied with a meal offering and a drink 
offering, which are sacrifices of thanksgiving. 
It was offered regularly from the time of its 
institution down to the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, except for a short period (168-165 B.C.) 
during the wars of the Maccabees. 

40. Tenth deal] tenth part of an ephah : 
see on 16 16 . A hin is about a gallon and a 
half. 41. Meatoffering] RY ' meal off er- 

79 



ing ' : see Lv2. 42. Tabernacle of the con- 
gregation] RY ' tent of meeting ' : see on 
25 22 . 43. Sanctified by my glory] see 40 34 , 
and on 3 2 16™. 

CHAPTER 30 
The Altar of Incense. The Ransom 

Money. The Laver. The Anointing 

Oil. The Incense 
1 -10. The Altar of Incense. The use of 
incense in worship was probably due to the 
worshipper's desire to honour God by offering 
to Him what he enjoys himself. ' Ointment 
and perfume rejoice the heart ' (Prov27 9 ). It 
served also to counteract the strong smell of 
burning flesh, and was therefore usually pre- 
sented as an accompaniment of sacrifice, and 
offered either in censers (Lv 10 * 16 12 Nu 16 *?), 
or on an altar erected for the purpose, as here. 
In Scripture incense is an emblem of prayer, 
probably because its smoke ascends to the 
clouds, where God is supposed to dwell : see 
e.g. Ps 141 2 Rev 5 8 8 3 . The existence of this 
altar of incense at the time of Moses has been 
disputed. In about one hundred places men- 
tion is made of ' the altar ' as if there was 
only one, that of burnt offering ; no mention 
is made of an altar of incense in Lvl6, where 
it might have been expected ; it is not alluded 
to among the furniture of Solomon's temple ; 
and the directions given here for its construc- 
tion would have stood more naturally in c. 25 
or 26, where the omission is somewhat strange. 
It is accordingly supposed that this passage, 
and others where an altar of incense is spoken 
of, are of later date : see on v. 6. Indeed, 
the whole of chs. 30, 31 is believed by some 
to be a later addition. Observe the solemn 
conclusion at the end of c. 29. 

2. On the horns, see on 27 2 . Of the same] 
see on 25 31 . 

3. Pure gold] Hence this altar is called 
'the golden altar' (39 3 « 40 ™ Nu4H Heb94 
RM, etc.), to distinguish it from the altar of 
burnt offering, which is called the ' brazen 
altar ' (39 39 ). Crown] i.e. rim or moulding, 
as in 25 n . 

6. Before the vail] This means outside the 
veil and, therefore, in the Holy Place, not in 
the Holy of Holies, where it would be in- 
accessible save once a year, when the High 
Priest entered on the Day of Atonement 
(Lvl6) : see on 40 5 . In Heb9 4 , however, it 
is said to have stood within the Holy of 
Holies. There seems to have been some 
doubt, therefore, as to its position in the 
tabernacle, a fact which is reflected in the 
construction of this v., which is overloaded 
and apparently self -contradictory. The altar 
is before the veil, and it is also before the 
mercy seat. The LXX omits the words 
' before the mercy seat . . testimony.' This 



30. 9 



EXODUS 



81. 4 



confusion corroborates the view that this altar 
did not belong to the original furniture of the 
tabernacle : see on vv. 1-10. 

9. Strange incense] i.e. incense prepared 
differently from that prescribed in vv. 34-38 : 
see on LvlO 1 . Meat offering] RV 'meal 
offering' : see on Lv2. 10. Make atone- 
ment upon it] RV 'for it.' Owing to the 
imperfection of all human worship, the altar 
itself needs to be cleansed with a special rite : 
see on 28 38 29 36 . The reference here is to 
the ceremonial of the yearly Day of Atone- 
ment, for which see Lvl6. Most holy] see 
on Lv2 3 . 

1 1 -1 6. The Ransom Money. It is here 
enacted that, when a census is taken, every 
person above the age of twenty shall pay half 
a shekel as his ransom. At the time of a 
census the people would be impressed with 
the great privilege of membership in G-od's 
chosen nation, and at the same time with their 
unworthiness to be reckoned in a ' kingdom 
of priests': see on 19 5 > 6 . This need of 
atonement underlies the payment of a money 
ransom, which is here called a ' ransom, or 
atonement, for your souls.' It is to be dis- 
tinguished from the money given as a redemp- 
tion for the firstborn, for which see 13 13 . 
For the use made of the ransom money, see 

3825-28. 

12. When thou takest the sum] A census 
of the people was probably in contemplation 
at this time, and was made twice during the 
forty years' sojourn in the wilderness : see 
Nul and 26. Whether it was done regularly 
does not appear. In time the half shekel 
became an annual tax devoted to the mainten- 
ance of the public sacrifices in the Temple : 
see e.g. Mtl7 24 . Plague] as the result of 
disobedience. 13. Half a shekel] A silver 

shekel was equal to fully half-a-crown. The 
shekel of the sanctuary seems to have been 
a standard weight, and was probably preserved 
by the priests in the sanctuary. 

14. Twenty was the age when liability to 
military service began (Nul 3 ). 15. All 

give alike, for it is a ransom for the soul or 
life, and all souls are equal in the sight of 
God. 16. For the service of the tabernacle] 
see 38 25 " 28 . 

17-21. The Laver. This was of bronze 
(see on 25 3 ), and stood in the court of the 
tabernacle between the altar of burnt offering 
and the door of the sanctuary, and held the 
water required for the ablutions of the priests 
(vv. 19-21 ; see on 29 4 ). According to 38 8 
it was made of the mirrors of the serving 
women : see on Nu4 n . Solomon's Temple 
hadtenlavers(lK727-43). 

22-33. The Holy Anointing Oil. 
23. Calamus] The word means ' reed ' or 
' cane.' Several species of aromatic reed are 



known in the East. 24. Cassia] a kind of 
cinnamon of a very pungent flavour. An hin] 
about a gallon and a half. 25. Apothecary] 
RV ' perfumer.' In the warm East ointments 
and perfumes are greatly employed as cos- 
metics, and the art of preparing these is 
carried to a high degree of perfection. Among 
the Jews there was a guild of perfumers in 
later times. 29. Most holy] see on Lv2 3 . 

32. Upon man's flesh shall it not be poured] 
It must be reserved for the priests, and not 
used as an ordinary unguent : see v. 33. 

33. Stranger] one who is not a priest, as 
in29 33 . Cutoff] see on 1215. 

34-38. The Incense. 

34. Stacte] a kind of gum, probably myrrh. 
Onycha] part of the shell of a shell fish. It 
burns with a pungent odour. Galbanum] a 
gum resin. Frankincense] a fragrant gum 
obtained by slitting the bark of an Indian tree, 
which was also to be found in ancient times 
in Arabia: see e.g. Isa60 6 Ezk27 22 . The 
substance called in modern times ' common 
frankincense ' is obtained largely from fir- 
trees. The English word means 'pure 
incense.' 35. RV ' and thou shalt make of 
it incense, a perfume after the art of the 
perfumer, seasoned with salt, pure and holy.' 
Salt, as preventing corruption, is the symbol 
of purity and durability ; it was used with all 
sacrifices both animal and vegetable : see 
Lv2i 3 Ezr69 Ezk43 24 Mk9 4 9. Among the 
Arabs salt is the emblem of fidelity and lasting 
friendship. To have ' eaten salt ' with a 
person, and so partaken of his hospitality, is 
equivalent to a pledge of mutual and indisso- 
luble amity. Hence in OT. a ' covenant of 
salt ' is one that cannot be broken : see Lv 2 13 
Nul8!9 2Chl35, and cp. Ezr4* 4 (AM) and 
Mk9*o. 

37. This particular compound is not to be 
used for any profane purpose : cp. the similar 
direction in the case of the holy anointing oil 
(vv. 32, 33). 

CHAPTER 31 

The Appointment op Bezaleel and Aho- 
liab. The Keeping of the Sabbath 
2. By name] indicating a very special call : 
cp. 33 1 2 Isa43i 45 LM JnlO 3 . Bezaleel] 
RV k Bezalel ' : see 1 Ch 2 18-20. For the identi- 
fication of the grandfather of Bezaleel with 
the Hur of Exl7 10 there is nothing beyond 
the similarity of names. 3. See on 28 3 . 

4. To devise cunning works] Divine in- 
spiration does not reduce man to a mere ma- 
chine or passive instrument. It is compatible 
with originality of invention. This applies not 
only to the mechanical arts as here, but also to 
intellectual gifts. It heightens and purifies, 
but does not supersede the normal faculties. 
Observe that 'cunning' is used here in its 



80 



31. 10 



EXODUS 



etymological sense of 'knowing' or 'skilful.' 
See Ps 137 5. 

io. Cloths of service] RV 'finely wrought 
garments,' a general term including what 
follows : see 39 L 41 . 

12-17. The reason why the injunction to 
observe the sabbath is repeated here and again 
in 35 l ' 3 before the account of the carrying out 
of the preceding instructions is probably the 
close connexion of the worship of the tabernacle 
with the observance of the day of rest. 

13. A sign] Like circumcision the sabbath is 
a sign or sacrament marking the covenant rela- 
tion between Jehovah and His people. Cp. 
for circumcision G-nl7 n Ro4 n , and for the 
sabbath Ezk20 12 Isa56 4 > 6 . Ancient profane 
writers frequently refer to these two things as 
the distinguishing characteristics of a Jew. 

14. Shall be put to death . . shall be cut off] 
The two expressions are not always synony- 
mous ; see on 12 15 . 

18. Two tables of testimony] cp. 16 34 25 16 . 
Written with the finger of God] see on 24 12 . 

CHAPTER 32 

The Idolatry of the People 
1-6. The historical narrative is here re- 
sumed from 24 18 . Becoming impatient at the 
prolonged absence of Moses on the mount 
(forty days, 24 18 ), and despairing of his return, 
the people prevail upon Aaron to make a god 
to go before them. From the earrings of the 
men and women he accordingly makes a golden 
bull, to which divine honours are paid. 

1. Unto Aaron] Aaron and Hur had been left 
in charge by Moses ; see 24 14 . Make us gods] 
RM ' a god.' The Hebrew word for G-od has a 
plural form. In making this demand it is doubt- 
ful whether the people intended to abandon the 
worship of Jehovah altogether, or wished simply 
to have a visible representation of Him, in other 
words, whether their sin was a breach of the 
first commandment of the Decalogue or the 
second. The words of Aaron in vv. 4, 5 seem 
to indicate that he at least regarded the golden 
bull as an image of the true G-od ; but in v. 8 
the people are charged with deserting Jehovah 
for another god. The one sin naturally leads 
to the other. The worship of G-od by means of 
images degrades God, and the image gradually 
usurps His place in the mind of the worshipper. 
See on 15 " 20 3, 4 . 

2. Earrings] RY ' rings.' Taken by itself 
the word may mean either earrings or nose-rings. 
Here the former are expressly intended, but 
in 35 22 both may be included. Among Eastern 
peoples earrings were formerly worn both by 
men and women (' your sons ' here ; cp. Jg 8 24 ), 
not only as ornaments but as amulets or charms. 
In modern times men have discontinued the use 
of earrings, and nose-rings are worn only by the 
Bedouin women. 

6 81 



4. After he had made it] read with RV, ' and 
made it.' The calf was really a bullock. It is 
usually supposed that the symbol was derived 
from the worship of the Egyptians. But it 
was a living bull, not an image, that was wor- 
shipped in Egypt. More probably, therefore, 
the symbol was connected with the worship 
of the Chaldeans and Assyrians, of which some 
traces may have survived among the descend- 
ants of Abraham. A common image with the 
Assyrians is that of a bull with wings and a 
human head, emblematic of strength and 
wisdom. See on the cherubim, 25 18 , also 
IK 12 28. 

5. A feast to the LORD] i.e. to Jehovah. 
See on v. 1. Feasting was a common ac- 
companiment of sacrifice ; see on 24 9 ' 11 . On 
the nature of the play in this case see vv. 18, 
19, 25, where we learn that it included sing- 
ing and dancing. Cp. Exl5 20 > 21 Jg21 19 - 21 
2S6i 2 "i 4 lK18 2 6 m g- Isa30 29 . 

7-14. God tells Moses of the sin of the 
people and of His purpose to destroy them. 
At the intercession of Moses they are spared. 

7. Thy people which thou broughtest out] 
By their own act the people have broken the 
covenant bond uniting them to Jehovah. In 
v. 11 Moses pleads that they are the people 
of Jehovah. 9. Stiffnecked] This common 
metaphor is taken from a stubborn ox that 
refuses to submit to the yoke. Cp. Zech7 n 
Hos 4 16 (R V ' stubborn heifer '), Jer 1 7 ™ Neh 3 5 
Ps75 5 . 10. Cp. the promise made to Abra- 

ham in Gnl2 2 . The people having judged 
themselves unworthy of the promise (cp. 
Acl3 46 ), a fresh start will be made with 
Moses who will be the founder of a new 
nation. Cp. NuU* 2 . 

11. In a spirit of noble generosity Moses 
effaces himself and intercedes with all his soul 
for the people. See on v. 31. He does not 
minimise their sin (cp. v. 31), but with a holy 
boldness he pleads (1) that they are God's own 
people whom He has redeemed from Egypt 
(v. 11, cp. 33 13 ), (2) that their destruction will 
be misunderstood by the Egyptians (v. 12), and 
that (3) it will make the promises to Abraham 
of no effect (v. 13). 12. See on Dt32 2 *, 
and refs. there. 13. Israel] This name is 

employed rather than Jacob because it sug- 
gests the 'prince that had power with God 
and prevailed' : see Gn32 28 . 

15-29. The suppression of the idolatry. 

15,16. See intro. to c. 20 and on 24 12 . 17. 
Joshua] see on 24 15 . 19. And brake them] The 
people had already broken the law contained in 
them which was the basis of the covenant. 

20. Burnt it] It was probably not solid, but 
consisted of a wooden core overlaid with gold: 
cp. Isa40 19 . 20 44 12 - 19 . The total abolition of 
the idol is indicated in the threefold treat- 
ment of burning it, reducing it to powder, 



32. 22 



EXODUS 



\. 12 



and casting it into the water : cp. Dt9 21 . This of thy book] The figure is taken from the 



last action was more than a means of dispers 
ing the very atoms of which it was composed. 
The people were made to drink the water, a 
grim symbol of retribution, with which may 
be compared the procedure in connexion with 
the ' water that causeth a curse ' in Nu 5 23 > 24 : 
see also 2K23 6 . 

22. Mischief] RV ' evil ' : Aaron tries to put 
the whole responsibility on the people. He 
pleads that they intimidated him. 24. There 
came out this calf] as if by accident, a 
manifestly poor apology. Observe that Aaron's 
two pleas of compulsion and accident are 
in various forms most commonly adduced 
in palliation of wrongdoing. From Dt 9 20 we 
learn that Aaron's abetting of the people's 
sin evoked the severe displeasure of God, and 
that his life was only spared on the interces- 
sion of Moses. 

25. Were naked] RV ' were broken loose.' 
For the use of the word in the literal sense 
see e.g. on Nu5 18 . Here it is most probably 
used in the metaphorical sense of ' unruly ' : 
cp. 2Ch28i9. Read on with RV, 'for 
Aaron had let them loose for a derision 
among their enemies,' i.e. not with the in- 
tention, but with the result, that they be- 
came a derision. The lapse of professedly 
religious people is not only sinful, but brings 
religion itself into disrepute. 

26. Who is on the LORD'S side?] The 
contrast between the characters of Moses and 
Aaron is strikingly brought out all through 
this narrative. Aaron appears as timid and 
compliant; while Moses is rigidly loyal, fear- 
less, ready to stand alone if need be on the 
Lord's side, impulsive (v. 19) and yet wholly 
unselfish (v. 32). Observe that it is the sons 
of Levi, members of the same tribe to which 
Moses belongs, that come to his call. 

29. Consecrate yourselves] lit. 'fill your 
hands'; see on 28 41 . For upon read with 
RV ' against.' The claims of kinship must 
yield to those of God and duty: cp. MtlO 37 
Lkl426 and Mt 12 46-50. The zeal of the Le- 
vites is rewarded with a blessing, by which 
doubtless is meant the priesthood: see on 
Dt33 9 , and cp. the similar reward of Phinehas, 
Nu25i2. 

30-35. Intercession of Moses. 

30. Make an atonement] Something more 
was required than the punishment that had 
been inflicted on a portion of the people. 

32. If thou wilt forgive their sin] This 
form of sentence is used in Hebrew to express 
an earnest desire or passionate entreaty, and 
is equivalent to ' O that thou wouldest ' . . or 
'O if thou wouldest but'..Cp. e.g. Ps95 7 
RV, ' To-day, O that ye would hear,' and 
1 Ch4 10 , ' O that thou wouldest bless me,' lit. 
' If thou wilt bless me.' If not, blot me . . out 



registers in which the names of citizens were 
enrolled: see e.g. Isa43 Jer2230 Ezkl3 9 . So 
God is represented as having a book in which 
are inscribed the names of those who are to 
be preserved alive. When He blots out a 
name that person dies. The Book is therefore 
a Book of Life: cp. Ps69 2 8 Danl2! LklO 20 
Phil 4 3 Rev 3 5 13 8 20 1 2 2219. The Jews be- 
lieve that on New Year's Day God determines 
who shall live and who shall die in the course 
of the year, and that the decision is made final 
ten days afterwards on the Day of Atone- 
ment. Moses's prayer, therefore, is an ex- 
pression of his willingness to bear the penalty 
of the people's sin. For a similar instance of 
absolute self-sacrifice cp. St. Paul's words in 
Ro9 3 . 33. Whosoever hath sinned] cp. 

Ezkl84. 

34. Mine Angel] see on 3 2 . The angel 
here seems to be distinguished from God Him- 
self: see 33 3 . On the other hand, the angel 
is virtually identified with God, for God's 
' presence ' goes with them (33 14 ). I will 

visit their sin upon them] Though the people 
were not at once destroyed they did not escape 
all the consequences of their sin. 

CHAPTER 33 

The Intercession of Moses (continued) 

6. By the mount Horeb] RV ' from mount 
Horeb onward ' : this implies that they ceased 
wearing their ornaments. Their humiliation 
was lasting. Horeb] i.e. Sinai: see on 3 1 . 

7. Moses took the tabernacle] RV ' Moses 
used to take the tent, . . and he called it, 
The tent of meeting': see on 25 22 . The 
tent here is most probably not the Tabernacle 
whose construction is prescribed in chs. 25-31. 
The words describe the practice of Moses be- 
fore its erection, the account of which follows 
in chs. 35-40. 9. Descended] from the 
top of the mount. After the erection of the 
Tabernacle the cloud rested upon it: see 
40 34-38. I0# Worshipped] bowed themselves 
to the ground. 

11. Face to face] A peculiar privilege: 
cp. 19 9 Nu 126-8 Dt34!0. Verse 23 shows 
that the expression ' face to face ' is not to be 
pressed literally, but to be understood as dis- 
tinct from a revelation by means of dreams or 
visions : see especially Nu 1 2 °- 8 . Joshua] see 
on 17 9 . The priests and Levites were not yet 
formally consecrated to the service of the 
sanctuary. 

12-17. The promise of God to go with the 
people is renewed. 

12. Thou hast not let me know] The whole 
of this passage from v. 7 may be independent 
of what goes before (cp. the expression ' used 
to take ' in v. 7). Otherwise we must suppose 
that Moses has not clearly understood the 



82 



33. 13 



EXODUS 



34. 29 



meaning of the promise ' I will send an angel 
before thee ' in v. 2. I know thee by name] 
see on 31 2 . 13. Thy way] thy purpose. 

Thy people] see on 32 7 > n . 

14. My presence] lit. ' my face.' The ex- 
pression is equivalent to ' myself in person ' : 
cp. e.g. 2 S 17 n , where the words are literally 
' and that thy face go into battle.' The 
' angel of God's presence ' (cp. Isa 63 9 ) is not 
the angel that stands in the presence of God 
but in whom the personal presence of God is 
manifested : see on 3 2 . Will give thee rest] 
i.e. a peaceful settlement in Canaan : cp. Dt 3 20 
Josh21 44 23 1 . 16. Separated] see on 19 4 ' 6 
Nu23 9 . 

18-23. A divine manifestation asked and 
promised. 

18. Shew me thy glory] What Moses asks, 
not out of curiosity but as a confirmation of 
the promise in v. 14, is impossible. No man 
can look upon God's unveiled glory and live 
(v. 20 : see on 19 9 24 9 ' 11 ). Even the angels 
cannot do so (Isa6 2 ). 19. My goodness] A 
revelation is vouchsafed, but it is one accom- 
modated to human capacity. It is not further 
described, but probably consisted in the pro- 
clamation in the following chapter, vv. 6, 7. 
This gracious veiling of the ineffable glory and 
the revelation of God in mercy are both ful- 
filled in the person of Christ : see Jn 1 14 
2 Cor 46. 23. My back parts] Not the full 
manifestation of the divine radiance, but its 
afterglow. The most that human faculties 
can comprehend of God even in their exalted 
moments is a faint reflection of His essential 
glory : cp. 1 Cor 13 12 . 

CHAPTER 34 

The Renewal of the Covenant 
In token that the people are forgiven, God 
renews His covenant relation with them. The 
conditions are the same as before. The Deca- 
logue is inscribed on two fresh tables, and the 
main provisions of the ceremonial law are 
repeated. 

1. Which thou brakest] There is no re- 
proach in these words. Moses is nowhere 
blamed for his righteous indignation. He was 
' angry and sinned not.' 3. See on 19 12 > 13 . 

5. See on 33 19 . On the name of The LORD 
see on 3 13 . 

6. RY ' The Lord, the Lord, a God full 
of compassion and gracious, slow to anger, and 
plenteous in mercy and truth ' : this is perhaps 
the highest utterance of revelation, and is 
frequently quoted by OT. writers : see e.g. 
Neh9i7 Ps86i5 103 8 145 8 Joel2i3 Jon4 2 , 
also Nu 14 18 . The divine attributes here pro- 
claimed are not God's dread majesty and 
power, but His mercy and truth. He is merci- 
ful, but He cannot overlook transgression. 
7. That will by no means clear the guilty'] 



i. e. will not allow the guilty to pass unpunished. 
The same words are rendered in 20 7 ' will not 
hold him guiltless,' and in Jer30 n 'will not 
leave unpunished.' Visiting the iniquity of the 
fathers] see on 20 5 . 

12-17. The warning against idolatry is 
solemnly repeated, and the people are for- 
bidden to make covenant or intermarry with 
their idolatrous neighbours in Canaan. See on 
233 2 ,33 an donNu25i6-i8. 

13. Images] RV 'pillars,' or 'obelisks' : see 
24 4 . Groves] i.e. 'things graven,' RV'Asherim.' 
The Canaanitish shrine contained an altar, 
near which stood a stone pillar and an Asherah 
(plur. Asherim). The latter was a wooden 
pole or stump of a tree planted in the ground : 
seeJg6 2 6 1K15 1 3 2K17i0 237,andonlK14i5. 
Immoral rites were practised at these shrines in 
honour of the reproductive forces of nature. 

14. Whose name is Jealous] on name, see 
on 3 13 , and on Jealous, on 20 5 . 

15. Whoring after their gods] The cove- 
nant bond between Jehovah and Israel is 
frequently compared with a marriage (see 
e.g. Jer3 14 Hos2 19 > 20 ), and idolatry, which is 
unfaithfulness to Jehovah, is regarded as 
adultery, a view all the more natural seeing 
that idolatry and immorality so frequently 
went together (see on ' groves ' v. 13 and on 
Lvl9 29 ). For this conception of idolatry, see 
e.g. Lvl77Nul433 Jer3!- 2 ° 13 2 ? Hos2 (es- 
pecially vv. 13, 16) Ezk2030,3i. i n NT. the 
Church is called the Bride of Christ. See 
Eph5 2 3-3 2 Revl9?- 9 21 2 , 9 >i7. 

18-26. See on 23 12 "i 9 . 

21. Earing] i.e. ploughing. At these busy 
and critical seasons there would be a special 
temptation to work upon the sabbath day. 

24. Desire thy land, when thou shalt go up] 
i.e. take advantage of your absence to despoil 
your homes. God will protect their property 
while they are worshipping Him. 

28-35. Moses descends from the Mount with 
the new Tables. 

28. Similar fasts are recorded of Elijah 
(1 K 19 8 ) and of our Lord (Mt4 2 ) : see on 2 21 . 
He wrote] The subject is God : see v. 1. 

29. Wist not] knew not. Shone while he 
talked with him] RY ' shone by reason of 
his speaking with him.' His face was lit up 
with a radiance which was the reflection of the 
divine glory, and served to attest the message 
he delivered to the people. Compare what 
is said of our Lord at His Transfiguration 
(Mtl7 2 ) and of Stephen at his martyrdom 
(Ac6 15 7 55 ). The present instance is a fine 
illustration of the power of unconscious in- 
fluence. The Heb. verb rendered ' shone ' in 
this passage is derived from the word meaning 
' horn,' which is used figuratively to denote rays 
or flashes of light proceeding from a luminous 
object (see e.g. Hab 3 4 with mg.). The Vulgate 



83 



34. 33 



EXODUS 



39. 39 



(Latin version) accordingly says of Moses' face 
that it was cornuta, which has led to the curious 
representation of Moses with horns, as seen in 
early art. 

33. Till Moses had done speaking with 
them] RY ' when Moses had done speaking 
with them.' Moses usually wore the veil, only 
putting it off when he entered the presence of 
God or spoke to the people. An interesting 
reminiscence of this is said to be seen in the 
Jewish synagogue, where the priest, in pro- 
nouncing the Aaronic benediction (Nu6 24 ' 26 ), 
veils his face with his tallith (see on Nu 1 5 37 " 41 ), 
1 lest the utterance of the words should bring 
up the glory that shone in the face of Moses 
and strike the people dead.' St. Paul refers 
to this incident in 2 Cor 3 7 " 18 , and evidently 
understands that Moses wore the veil in order 
to hide the fading of the glory in his face (see 
vv. 7, 13). He accordingly sees in Moses' 
action an illustration of the inferiority of the 
Jewish dispensation as compared with the 
Christian. The glory of the former was fading, 
transitory, and partly obscured ; that of the 
latter is permanent, unobstructed, ever in- 
creasing, and shared by all. 

35 1-3. The Sabbath Law. See 31 15 , and on 
208-n. 

3. Kindle no fire] an act involving work. 
This law is observed by pious Jews at the 
present day. They have fires in their houses 
on the sabbath, but they employ a gentile to 
light and tend them : see on 12 16 . 

CHAPTERS 35 4 -4038 

An Account of the Construction of the 

Tabernacle and its Furniture. 

This section is an almost verbal repetition 
of chs. 25-31, describing the carrying out of 
the commands in those chapters by Moses 
and the people. 

4-29. Moses invites the people to contribute 
the materials required, which they do with 
great liberality : cp. 36 5 " 7 . See on 25 !" 9 . 

22. Tablets] RY ' armlets,' or ' necklaces ' : 
cp. Nu31 50 . 23. Red skins of rams] i.e. 
leather of rams' skins dyed red, as in 26 14 . 
30-35. See on 31 Wl . 

CHAPTER 36 

The Work Begun. The Liberality 
of the People 

Cp. 1 Ch296-9 Ezr268-70 Neh770-72. 

8-38. The construction of the Tabernacle : 
see c. 26. 

8. Made he them] The subject down to 
3831 i s Bezaleel : cp. 37 1 3822. 

CHAPTER 37 

1-9. The Ark and Mercy seat : see 25 10 ' 22 . 
IO-16. Table of Shewbread : see 25 23 - 30 . 
17-24. The Candlestick : see 25 31-40. 



25-28. The Altar of Incense : see 30 1- 5 . 
This is mentioned here in its natural position 
along with the other furniture of the Holy 
Place. 29. The Holy Oil, and the Incense : 
see 30 22 -38. 

CHAPTER 38 
The Holy Furniture 

1-7. The Altar of Burnt Offering : see 
271-8. 

8. The Laver : see 30 ^-21. Read with RY 
' mirrors of the serving women which served 
at the door of the tent of meeting.' "What 
service these women rendered is not said. 
They are only mentioned once again, in 1 S 2 22. 
They may have helped in the liturgical part of 
the worship by their singing and dancing. 
The Heb. word which indicates their service 
here is used of the Levites in Nu 4 23 8 24. 

9-20. The Court of the Tabernacle : see 
279-19. 

21-31. The Sum of the Precious Metals. 

21. Ithamar] the youngest of the four sons 
of Aaron : see 6 23, and on 28 1. 24. The gold 
shekel is estimated to have been worth about 
£2 of our money, and the gold talent, which 
contained 3,000 shekels, about £6,000. The 
silver shekel was worth fully 2s. 6c?., and the 
silver talent about £400. 26. The number of 
persons given here is identical with the result 
of the census taken in the second month of the 
second year : see Nu 1 46 . This suggests that 
the computations recorded here were made not 
exactly at this time but after the erection of 
the tabernacle. It is to be observed that the 
silver mentioned here is not that contributed 
voluntarily but what was obtained as ransom 
money (30 11 * 16 ). The latter amount may for 
some reason have been substituted for the 
former in this passage. 

CHAPTER 39 

The Making of the Holy Garments 

See c. 28, where the order is slightly 
different. 

1. Cloths of service] RY 'finely wrought 
garments,' as in 31 10 . 

2-7. The Ephod : see 286-12. 

8-21. The Breastplate : see 28 15 "30. 

22-26. The Robe of the Ephod : see 28 31-35. 

27-29. The Other Garments for the Priests : 
see 28 3< - M3 . 

30, 31. The Plate for the Mitre (v. 28) : 
see 28 3 «-38. 

30. Holy crown] see on 29 6 . 

32-43. The completion of the work and its 
approval by Moses. Everything must be in 
accordance with the pattern shown him in the 
Mount (258,40). 

38. The golden altar] the Altar of Incense : 
see on 30 3 . 39. The brasen altar] the Altar 
of Burnt Offering : see 27 2 . 



84 



40. 1 



EXODUS— LEVITICUS 



INTRO. 



CHAPTER 40 

The Tabernacle erected 

i-i6. Moses is commanded to uprear the 
Tabernacle and consecrate it, together with its 
furniture, and the priests by anointing them. 

2. On the first day of the first month] i.e. 
of the month Abib (see on 12 2 > 41 ) in the 
second year after the exodus from Egypt (v. 
17). They left Egypt on the fifteenth day 
of Abib, and arrived at Sinai in the third 
month : see 19 1 . 

4. The things . . to be set . . upon it] i.e. 
the shewbread (see v. 23 and on 25 30 ). 

5. Before the ark] in a line with it but out- 
side the Holy of Holies : see v. 26, and see on 
30 6 . 9. Anoint the tabernacle] cp. 30 26 " 29 . 

12. See28 41 294,7. 

17-33. The Uprearing of the Tabernacle. 



19. The tent over the tabernacle] Heb. ' the 

tent over the dwelling.' See on 25 9 , 26 intro. 

20. The testimony] the two tables of stone : 
see on 16 34 . 21. Vail of the covering] RV 
' veil of the screen ' : see on 26 3 " 33 . 

28. Hanging at the door] RV ' screen of 
the door ' : see 26 36 . 

29. Moses offers the first daily sacrifice 
(29 40 ). 33. The court round about the 
tabernacle] see 27 919 . 

34-35. The Dwelling being prepared, the 
cloud descends and the glory of the Lord 
occupies the sanctuary. 

34. A cloud] RV ' the cloud ' : it is the 
same cloud that has been so frequently men- 
tioned already : see 13 21 , 19 9 and note there, 
33 9 . The glory of the LORD] see 16 10 24". 

35. Cp. Lv 16 2 lK8io.11 2Ch5 13 .i 4 7 2 . 
36-38. See on 13 21 , and cp. Nu9 15 - 23 . 



LEVITICUS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Title and Contents. The title Leviticus 
is prefixed to this section of the Pentateuch in 
the Greek Version of the OT., but it is not 
particularly appropriate, as the Levites are 
hardly mentioned in the book. Jewish writers 
call it Vayikra (Heb. ' and He called '), from 
its opening word, or the ' Law, or Book, of 
Priests,' or the ' Book of Offerings.' It may 
be described as a manual of religious cere- 
monies composed for the guidance of priests 
and worshippers. Its specific character is 
evident at a glance. It differs from the other 
books of the Pentateuch in being almost en- 
tirely a book of laws. There is very little 
narrative, and historical indications are scanty. 
Reference is made to Mt. Sinai as the scene 
where some at least of the laws were promul- 
gated (25 1 26 46 27 34 ) ; in some passages it is 
implied that Israel is still leading a camp-life 
in the wilderness (4 12 14 3 16 10 ) ; the con- 
secration of Aaron and his sons is described 
in detail (8-10) ; and two incidents are nar- 
rated illustrating the punishment following a 
breach of the regulations (Nadab and Abihu, 
10 !- 7 , the blasphemer, 24 1 °- 1 6). With these 
few exceptions, which are more apparent than 
real, the incidents being introduced simply as 
illustrations (see on 24 16 ), the contents of 
Leviticus consist entirely of laws, and these 
mainly of a ceremonial character (see intro. 
to c. 17). 

The twenty-seven chapters forming the book 



fall into four well-marked divisions as fol- 
lows. Part 1. The Law of Sacrifice, chs. 1-7. 

This again consists of two sections : (a) Direc- 
tions addressed to the Worshippers regarding 
the five main types of sacrifice, viz. the Burnt 
Offering (c. 1), the Meal Offering (c. 2), the 
Peace Offering (c. 3), the Sin Offering (4-5 13 ), 
and the Guilt Offering (5 14 -6?), and (b) 
Directions addressed to the Priests in con- 
nexion with these sacrifices, which are dealt 
with in the same order, except that the Peace 
Offering comes last. Part 2. The Consecra- 
tion of the Priesthood, chs. 8-10. This com- 
prises the consecration of Aaron and his sons 
(c. 8), their installation into office (c. 9), and 
the death of Nadab and Abihu (c. 10). Part 3. 
The Law of Clean and Unclean, leading up to 
the ritual of the Day of Atonement, chs. 11-16. 
This division treats of the uncleanness of 
certain meats (c. 11), of childbirth (c. 12), of 
leprosy (chs. 13, 14), of sexual discharges 
(c. 15), and the ceremonial of the Day of 
Atonement (c. 16). Part 4. The Law of 
Holiness, chs. 17-26. This is a miscellaneous 
collection of laws, many of them of a moral 
and religious character. It treats of sacrifice 
and eating of blood (c. 1 7), unlawful marriage 
and unchastity (c. 18), various moral and social 
duties, such as justice, kindness, purity, etc. 
(chs. 19, 20), duties of priests and matters of 
ritual (chs. 21, 22), the sacred seasons (c. 23), 
the shewbread and law of blasphemy (c. 24), 



85 



INTRO. 



LEVITICUS 






INTRO. 



the Sabbatical Year and Year of Jubilee 
(c. 25), and concludes with exhortations to 
keep the law (c. 26). The book closes with 
a chapter on Vows and Tithes with the man- 
ner of their commutation, in the form of an 
appendix (c. 27). 

2. Origin and Composition. The general 
question of the authorship of the Pentateuch 
is treated in a separate article, to which refer- 
ence should be made. It will suffice to say 
here that, while much of the legislation con- 
tained in the book of Leviticus is of Mosaic 
origin, the book in its present form bears 
evidence of having been put together out of 
separate collections of laws. It is observed 
e.g. that the literary style is not uniform 
throughout, chs. 17-26 occupying in this 
respect a position quite by themselves (see 
the introductory note to this section in the 
commentary) ; that laws relating to the same 
subject are not always placed together ; that 
sometimes the same laws are repeated in 
different parts of the book ; and that the 
contents appear in the form of groups, many 
of which are provided with separate headings 
and conclusions (see e.g. 7 3 ^ 8 1146,47 1359 
1454-57 1532,33 26 46 , and the introductory 
notes to chs. 21 and 25). Such features make 
it tolerably certain that in its present form 
Leviticus is ' a collection of smaller collections, 
or a collection added to from time to time.' It 
need not be thought surprising that this is so. 
In itself, ritual is subject to the law of change 
and development, and many regulations, origin- 
ally framed for a people leading a nomadic 
life in the wilderness, would require modifica- 
tion when that people dwelt in cities, built 
their temple, and led a settled agricultural 
life. We may believe, therefore, that some 
details in these laws are of later date than 
others, and that what we have in the book 
of Leviticus is the final form of a process of 
collection, editing, and adaptation carried on 
subsequently to the time of the great Law- 
giver. The book is, in fact, a codification of 
laws originating in the Mosaic legislation. At 
what time it was cast into its present form 
we may never be able to determine with 
certainty. It may be that it was done under 
the influences which led to the restoration of 
the Temple in the sixth century B.C., and that 
the book was used as a kind of liturgy of the 
Second Temple. But we are not obliged to 
believe that the laws themselves originated at 
this later date. Some of them, as was said 
above, imply that they were given to a people 
leading a camp-life in the wilderness. At 
whatever time they were finally collected and 
incorporated in the Pentateuch, in substance 
the laws in Leviticus are derived from Moses. 
In other words, the contents are much older 
than the vessel in which they are contained. 



3. Religious Value. To the ordinary reader 
of the Bible the book of Leviticus may seem 
dry and uninteresting. It treats of matters 
which for Christians have lost direct interest, 
and of a system of religious observances which 
they have never known. Its laws, being 
mainly of a ceremonial nature, have little or 
no practical bearing on the life of the present 
day. For this reason readers of the Bible 
may be inclined to pass it by. Yet Leviticus 
is anything but an uninteresting book. To 
the student of comparative religion it is of 
the greatest possible value. Its religious rites 
and social customs have numberless points of 
contact with those of other early nations, and 
it is interesting and instructive to observe how 
primitive customs were adopted and trans- 
formed, purged in many cases of immorality, 
cruelty, injustice, and idolatry, transfused 
with a new spirit, and made to subserve a 
moral and spiritual purpose. The ceremonial 
legislation of Leviticus is certainly not the 
final stage in the progress of revelation, but 
it marks a great step forward, and prepares 
the way for better things. Its moral teaching, 
its insistence on the duty of justice and mercy, 
of kindness to the poor and strangers, to the 
weak and slaves, and even to the lower animals, 
of chastity and truthfulness, is not without its 
application to the present day, while beneath 
its forms and ceremonies, its laws of clean 
and unclean, its ritual purifications, its sacri- 
fices and sacred festivals, its tithes and offer- 
ings, it is not difficult to read similar lessons 
of religion and morals in type and figure. 
The entire system is penetrated with the 
thought that Israel is called to be a holy 
people consecrated to the service of a holy 
God. Its spirit is expressed in the words, 
' Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your God 
am holy.' That its minute and multifarious 
regulations served to impress upon the hearts 
of the devout in Israel a sense of the holiness 
and grace of God, of the hatefulness of sin, 
of the need of cleansing and restoration, cannot 
be doubted. It may be that the Israelites did 
not altogether escape the danger, incidental 
to the observance of all ceremonial laws, of 
formalism, hypocrisy, and contentment with 
an external standard of religion ; it may be 
that at times they fell far short of their ideal ; 
still no people had ever a loftier conception 
of the nature of God and of their relationship 
to Him and consequent obligation to lead a 
life of righteousness. A holy God, dwelling 
amid a holy people in a holy land — it would 
be unfair to say that there were not many in 
Israel who saw this truth beneath the surface 
of ceremonial, and were by its means prepared 
for the coming of Him who ' is the end of 
the law for righteousness to every one that 
belie veth ' (RolO 4 ). 






86 



INTRO. 



LEVITICUS 



INTRO. 



PABT 1 
(Chs. 1-7) The Law of Sacrifice 



What is recorded here is not the institution 
of the rite of sacrifice, which is assumed to be 
already in existence (see l 2 ), but its regulation 
in matters of detail. It did not originate 
among the Israelites ; it is a primitive and 
universal custom, based apparently upon a 
natural instinct, and found in one form or 
other in all parts of the world. Sacrifice is 
an act of worship, whereby the offerer either 
expresses his sense of the harmony and com- 
munion existing between himself and his god, 
or endeavours to restore these when by any 
means they have been destroyed. In all pro- 
bability the former idea is the earlier, and the 
origin of sacrifice is to be found in the con- 
ception that the god of a tribe stands in a 
very close relationship to it, and in some 
respects has a common life and interests with 
it. In primitive times the god was conceived 
in a crude and material form. He was sup- 
posed to require food and drink (see on 3 n ). 
And, as eating and drinking together is a com- 
mon token of good relationship, it may well 
be that sacrifice in its primitive form was re- 
garded as a common meal partaken of by the 
Deity and his worshippers in good fellowship. 
Part of the offering was eaten by the latter, 
and the portion for the god was laid out, and 
left for him, in some place where he was sup- 
posed to dwell. As the god came to be re- 
garded as a more or less ethereal being, means 
were taken to send his portion to him, as it 
were, by converting the solid parts into smoke 
by burning and pouring out the liquids, wine, 
blood of the sacrificial victim, etc., and letting 
them sink into the earth. Traces of this 
primitive idea of sacrifice, as a feast or com- 
mon meal partaken of by the god and his 
worshippers, may be discovered among the 
Israelites in Bible times : e.g. in the sacrificial 
feast which followed the making of the cove- 
nant between Jehovah and His people in Ex. 
24 (see on vv. 9-11), and in the feast at the 
' high place ' to which Saul went (1 S 9 13 f -)- See 
also the note on the Shewbread(Lv24 5 " 9 ) and 
on the Peace Offering (Lv3); and see for a 
protest against this materialistic conception of 
God Ps508- 15 . 

Alongside of this idea, and perhaps growing 
out of it, is that which regards the sacrifice as 
a gift made to the god to procure his favour 
or appease his vengeance. The worshipper 
makes his offering as before, by burning or by 
libation ; but hopes, in consideration of its 
value, to procure protection from danger, deli- 
verance from calamity, or success in enterprise. 
This was probably the meaning of the Burnt 
Offering in Lv 1 , and of such human sacrifices 



as are referred to in Lv 18 21 (see note there and 
references). 

It is probably not the earliest but the latest 
view of sacrifice which sees in it a means of 
expiating the sins of the offerer. When God 
has come to be regarded as a holy Being to 
whom all sin is offensive, the sinner feels him- 
self to lie under His wrath and curse. He 
is conscious that the good relationship that 
ought to exist between himself and the Deity 
has been interrupted by his transgression, and 
seeks a means of restoring harmony. He finds 
this in the offering of sacrifice, which is said 
to have a ' covering ' efficacy : see on Lv 1 4 . 
Wherein this atoning efficacy lay is not certain. 
Some have found it in the idea of substitution. 
The offerer feels that his life is forfeited by 
his sins, but believes that he is graciously per- 
mitted to substitute a victim, to which his 
sins are in some way transferred, and which 
dies in his stead : see on Lvl 4 16 8 > 2 °- 22 , and 
cp. 17 n . Others have held that the efficacy of 
the atoning sacrifice consists in its being an 
expression of the offerer's feelings and desires, 
his penitence, humility, and prayer for for- 
giveness, and that it is the latter that procures 
the remission of his sins. In the Levitical 
system the idea of expiation and atonement is 
specially emphasised in the Sin Offering and 
Guilt Offering (see Lv4-6 7 and notes there, 
and cp. what is said on the ritual of the Day 
of Atonement, Lvl6). 

In considering the various forms of sacrifice 
prescribed in Leviticus, it must be borne in 
mind that the book is a collection or codifica- 
tion of the law of ritual, and contains there- 
fore regulations dating from different times. 
Of the five main types specified (see Intro. 
§ 1, and the notes prefixed to chs. 1-4), the 
first three, the Burnt Offering (c. 1), the 
Meal Offering (c. 2), and the Peace Offering 
(c. 3) are, generally speaking, sacrifices ex- 
pressive of harmony between the worshipper 
and God ; they are sacrifices of joy, of whole- 
hearted devotion, of thanksgiving. The other 
forms of sacrifice, the Sin and Guilt Offerings 
(chs. 4-6 7 ), are expressive of the sense of 
interrupted communion ; they are sacrifices of 
atonement and expiation. In them the sense of 
sin comes more into prominence. 

The Levitical system of sacrifice underlies 
the worship of the OT. Like all systems of 
rites and ceremonies it was liable to abuse. 
From the writings of the prophets we learn 
that a common fault of Israel was to place 
reliance on the performance of the outward 
ceremony, and to neglect the weightier mat- 
ters of the law. It was not the least part of 



87 



1. 



LEVITICUS 



2. 



the work of the prophets to counteract the 
tendency to formalism, perfunctoriness, and 
externality, and to remind the people of Israel 
that ' to obey is better than sacrifice,' that 
God ' desired mercy and not sacrifice, and the 
knowledge of God more than burnt offerings,' 
and that ' the sacrifices of God are a broken 
spirit.' At the same time, the entire nation 
could hardly ever be blind to the fact that 
' gifts and sacrifices could not make him that 
did the service perfect as pertaining to the con- 
science.' OT. forms of expiation accordingly 
have an anticipatory function, and find their 
fulfilment in the NT., wherein we are taught 
that Christ shed His blood ' for the remission 
of sins,' and that He ' put away sin by the 
sacrifice of Himself.' He is the ' Lamb slain 
from the foundation of the world.' In His 
death the whole endeavour of God's saving 
love, represented and illustrated in the OT. 
sacrifices, reaches its attainment, and other 
sacrifices are superseded. They are rendered 
needless because the goodwill of God to men 
is fully expressed in the incarnation, life, suf- 
ferings, and death of His only begotten Son, 
and because Christ has offered to God the 
only real sacrifice for the sins of humanity, in 
His life of perfect obedience, crowned by His 
death of free and absolute submission to the 
will of God. 

CHAPTEE 1 

The Burnt Offering 
This is mentioned first as being the most 
general form of sacrifice. Its characteristic 
feature is the consumption of the entire 
animal by fire upon the altar, for which reason 
it is also described as the ' whole burnt offering' 
(1S7 9 , cp. Ps51 19 ). The victims are oxen, 
sheep, or goats, for which, in the case of poor 
persons, turtle doves or young pigeons may be 
substituted (v. 14). The animal must be a 
male, i.e. of the superior sex, and without 
blemish (v. 3). The ritual of the sacrifice is 
as follows. (1) The animal is presented at 
the door of the tabernacle by the offerer, who 
solemnly dedicates it by laying both his hands 
upon its head (v. 4). (2) It is then slaughtered, 
by the offerer himself it would appear (v. 5). 
(3) The blood is caught in a bowl by the 
priest in attendance and flung round the altar 
(v. 5). (4) The carcase is then skinned and 
divided, the entrails and legs washed with 
water, and the whole, with the exception of 
the skin, which falls to the priest (7 8 ), laid 
upon the altar and burned (vv. 6-9). In the 
case of pigeons, their small size and moderate 
quantity of blood necessitate some differences 
of detail (vv. 14-17). 

The Burnt Offering, being wholly consumed 
upon the altar, signified the complete self- 
surrender of the offerer to God. It was the 



sacrifice of devotion, and formed therefore the 
main element of individual and collective 
worship. It was offered in daily service, 
morning and evening, on behalf of the entire 
community (the ' continual burnt offering ' : 
see on Ex 29 38-42). 

i. Tabernacle of the congregation] BY 

' tent of meeting ': see on Ex25 22 . 

2. Children of Israel] The instructions in 
chs. 1-6 ? are for the laity. Those addressed 
to the priests follow in chs. 6 8 -7 38 . Offering] 
BY ' oblation ' : the general name for a sacri- 
fice or votive offering. The Heb. word is 
Corban, which means a thing ' brought near ' 
or presented : see Mk 7 n BY. 

3. Male without blemish] What is offered 
to God must be the best of its kind : see on 
22 17-25 and on Ex 1 2 5. 4. p u t his hand upon 
the head] This signifies the surrender of the 
animal to God, and, though this is not so clear, 
the transference of the offerer's guilt to it. 
In doing so he made a confession of his sins: 
cp. 3 2 . Make atonement] lit. 'put a cover- 
ing over him,' i.e. screen his unworthiness, 
protect him in the presence of the holiness of 
God. 5. He shall kill] The subject is the 
offerer. The blood represents the life, and is 
sprinkled upon the altar in token that the 
offerer yields his life to God, in expiation of 
his sins and in consecration to His service. 

11. Northward] On the E. side was the 
place for ashes and refuse (v. 16) ; on the W. 
stood the laver and the Holy of Holies ; the 
ascent to the altar was on the S. side. The 
3ST. side, accordingly, was the most convenient 
place of slaughter. 17. A sweet savour] 
see on Ex 29 18 . 

CHAPTEB 2 

The Meal Offering 
The rendering of AY meat offering is liable 
to misunderstanding, as meat now suggests 
flesh meat. But this is a vegetable, or blood- 
less, sacrifice, a consecration to God of the 
produce of the field. Its principal constituent 
is fine flour, which may be presented either 
raw (vv. 1-3), or baked into cakes in the oven 
(v. 4), or in a pan (vv. 5, 6), or boiled in a pot 
(v. 7). The meal is mixed with oil and salt, 
as when used for food, but no leaven or honey 
must be used, as these cause fermentation and 
are symbolical of uncleanness (v. 11). As an 
offering of firstf ruits, parched ears of wheat or 
barley are presented along with oil (vv. 14, 15). 
Incense is always an accompaniment of a meal 
offering (vv. 2, 15). Part of the meal offering 
and all the incense are burned upon the altar 
(vv. 2, 9, 16). What remains becomes the 
portion of the priests, and is eaten by them in 
the sanctuary (v. 3, 6 16 ). A meal offering 
might be presented independently, but was 
frequently an accompaniment of an animal 



88 



% 1 



LEVITICUS 



4. 3 



sacrifice (Ex 29 40 Nu 1 5 1-1 5 ). A meal offering 
might be used as a substitute for a sin offering 
in the case of a poor person, but without oil 
or frankincense (5 11-ls ). A special form of 
meal offering is the Shewbread: see 24 5_9 
Ex 25 30. 

i. Frankincense] see on Ex 30 mo, 34-38. 

2. Memorial of it] the term applied to that 
part of a meal offering burned upon the altar 
(cp. 24 7 ), so called probably as intended to 
bring the offerer to the favourable remem- 
brance of God. But the exact meaning is 
doubtful: cp. Ps20 3 AclO 4 . 

3. A thing most holy] The materials of the 
offerings are of two degrees of holiness. Some, 
as e.g. the peace offerings, are ' holy ' (23 20 ) 
and may be eaten in any clean place by the 
priests and their families (10 M 22 10-13 Nul8 n ); 
others, as the sin and guilt offerings (6 17 > 25_28 
7 1-6 ) and the shewbread (24 9 ), are 'most holy,' 
and may only be eaten in the court of the 
tabernacle by the priests alone (Nul8 9 > 10 ). 
The latter, moreover, communicate ' holiness ' 
to whatever comes in contact with them: cp. 
Ex 29 3 7 Lv 6 is, 27-29. r 3. Salt of the cove- 
nant] see on Ex 30 35. 

CHAPTEE 3 
The Peace Offering 
This form of sacrifice takes its name from 
a Heb. word meaning a ' requital ' or giving 
of thanks, and is therefore called by some the 
Thank Offering. It is an animal sacrifice, the 
characteristic feature of which is the disposal 
of the carcase. The kidneys and the internal 
fat, and, in the case of sheep, the fat tail also, 
are offered to G-od by burning upon the altar 
(vv. 3-5). The choice parts, the breast and 
the right thigh, fall to the lot of the priests 
after being dedicated to God in a peculiar way 
by waving them before Him (see on 7 28_34 ). 
The rest of the flesh is eaten by the offerer 
and his family at a sacrificial meal (7 15 > 16 ). 
The Peace Offering represents, it is thought, 
the earliest form of sacrifice, in which the 
Deity and the worshippers exhibit their good 
relationship by sharing a common meal. It is 
therefore the sacrifice expressive of harmony 
between God and His people. It is a feast of 
communion : see e.g. Ex24 9 -n. 

2. Lay his hand] see on l 4 . Whereas at 
this point in the sacrifice of a burnt offering, 
the offerer made a confession of his sins, in 
the case of the peace offering he uttered a 
prayer of thanksgiving. This indicates the 
difference in the signification of the two 
sacrifices. 

3. The internal fat, along with the blood, is 
regarded as the seat of life and possessing a 
peculiar sanctity. It must, therefore, never 
be eaten by man, but always offered to God by 
burning: see Ex 23*8 29 i3Lv 316-17 7 22 " 2 ? 1710-16. 

89 



4. Caul above the liver] see Ex 29 1 3 . 

5. Upon the burnt sacrifice] There would 
always be some portion of the daily burnt 
sacrifice smouldering upon the altar. The 
peace offering is to be laid upon it. The fire 
never went out : see 6 9 > i2 > 13. 

9. The whole rump] R V ' the fat tail entire ' : 
see on Ex 2 9 22 . 

11. Food of the offering] a general epithet 
applied to sacrifices: cp. 21^ 22 ^ Nu28 2 > 24 
Ezk44 7 Mall 7 (where the altar is called the 
' table of the Lord '). For a protest against 
this anthropomorphic conception of God as 
requiring food for His sustenance or delight 
see Ps50 8 -i 5 . 

CHAPTER 4 

The Sin Offering (41-51 3 ) and the Guilt 
Offering (5i 4 -6 7 ) 

These are later and specialised forms of the 
Burnt Offering. They presuppose a state of 
matters in which the good relationship between 
God and the offerer has been interrupted by 
sin, and the purpose of both is to make atone- 
ment for, or cover, the sin of the guilty person 
or persons. The difference between the two 
seems to be that while the sin offering is pro- 
vided for those offences which could not be 
undone or repaired, the guilt offering is pro- 
vided for those cases where reparation and 
restitution are possible, a fine or penalty being 
imposed on the transgressor in the latter in- 
stance (5 16 6 4 > 5 ). The ritual of the two sacri- 
fices is different. While the victim of the 
guilt offering is usually a ram (5 i5 ) and some- 
times a he-lamb (Nul5 24 ), the victim of the 
sin offering varies according to the rank of the 
offender. For the high priest it is a young 
bullock (4 3 ), for the congregation the same 
(4 i4 ) or a he-goat (Nul5 24 ), for a ruler a he- 
goat (4 23 ), and for an ordinary person a she- 
goat (4 28 ), a ewe-lamb (4 32), a pigeon (5 7 ), or 
a meal offering (5 n ). The important feature 
of the sin offering is the manipulation of the 
blood. Part of it is applied to the horns of 
the altar of incense and the rest poured out at 
the base of the altar of burnt offering. But 
when the sin offering is on behalf of the high 
priest or congregation, part of the blood is 
also carried into the tent and sprinkled seven 
times before the veil of the sanctuary (4 5 » 6 , 
16, 1 7 ). On the great Day of Atonement the 
sprinkling takes place within the veil, on or 
before the mercy seat (16 i4 : see notes on that 
chapter). 

2. Through ignorance] RV 'unwittingly.' 
The word applies to sins not only of ignorance 
but also of weakness and rashness. It must, 
however, be observed that the Levitical law 
provides no sacrifice for deliberate or pre- 
sumptuous sins, sins committed k with a high 
hand'(Nul530, C p.Hebl0 2 6 f .). 3. Thepriest 



4. 15 



LEVITICUS 



7. 35 



that is anointed] i.e. the high priest : see on 
Ex29 21 . According to the sin of the people] 
RV ' so as to bring guilt on the people.' 

Horns] see on Ex27 2 . Altar of sweet 
incense] see on EX30 1 * 10 . 

15. Elders of the congregation] The repre- 
sentatives of the people. 26. The flesh of 
the sin offering for a ruler or ordinary person 
is eaten by the priests (6 26 ), who, however, 
must not eat their own sin offering nor that 
of the congregation which is to be entirely 
burned (411.12,21 6 30 ). 35. According to] 
RV ' upon ' : see on 3 5 . 

CHAPTER 5 
The Sin Offering and the Guilt Offer- 
ing (continued) 
1-6. Special cases in which it is proper to 
offer a Sin Offering. Such are the withholding 
of testimony (v. 1), touching a carcase or un- 
clean person or thing (vv. 2, 3), making rash 
oaths (v. 4). 

1. Sin, and hear] RV ' sin, in that he hear- 
eth ' : cp. Prov 29 24 Jg 1 7 2 . 2. See 1 1 2 ?> 28, 
31-40 15 7 f. if it be hidden from him] Vulgate 
renders, ' if he f orgetteth his uncleanness,' i. e. 
omits to make the prescribed ablutions. 

7-13. Substitutes for the goat or lamb of 
the Sin Offering in cases of poverty. The 
Mosaic Law is always considerate of the poor, 
and makes special provision for such in sacrifices 
of atonement and purification, so that a man's 
poverty may be no excuse for his remaining 
under sin or disability connected with cere- 
monial impurity, or any bar to his obtaining 
forgiveness : see also 114-17 12 8 14 2if . 

11. Ephah] about a bushel. 

514-67. The Guilt (or Trespass) Offering. 
Two cases are mentioned in which it is 
proper to bring a guilt offering. The first 
(v. 15) is that of a person who occasions loss 
to the sanctuary by either consuming or keep- 
ing back some ' holy thing ' (see on 2 3 ). He 
is required to restore the value of the thing 
plus one fifth by way of a penalty (v. 16), and 
to present a guilt offering. The second case 
is that of a person who causes loss to his 
neighbour. The same is required of him (6 4 -7), 
see Nu 5 5-io. 

15. Shekel of the sanctuary] a standard 
weight of silver, equal to rather more than 
half-a-crown in value : see Ex30 ]3 . 16. The 
fifth part] the usual proportion in cases of 
restitution : see 26 1M1 . 

CHAPTER 6 
1-7. These vv. should be reckoned as part 
of c. 5. The Hebrew chapter begins at 
6 8 . Our chapter and verse divisions are a 

late invention, dating from the 13th and 14th 
centuries. 

2. RV 'deal falsely with his neighbour in a 



matter of deposit, or of bargain (or pledge), or 
of robbery' : cp. Ex 22 7*. 

6 8 ~7 38 . Directions addressed to the Priests 
regarding the ritual of Sacrifice : see on 
l 2 . 

9-13. The Burnt Offering. The daily or 
continual burnt offering is meant : see on c.l. 
The private or occasional burnt offering is 
referred to in 7 8 . 9. It is . . ] RV 'The 

burnt offering shall be on the hearth upon the 
altar all night unto the morning ' : the offering 
of devotion to God must never cease. 

14-18. The Meal Offering. This again is 
the daily meal offering presented along with 
the daily burnt offering : see intro. to c. 2. 
17. Most holy] see on 2 3 . 

19-23. The Meal Offering for the High 
Priest, presented daily, morning and evening 
(v. 20), by Aaron and his successors in office on 
their own behalf (v. 22). 20. In the day 

when he is anointed] meaning on and from that 
day, as appears from the term ' perpetual ' in 
v. 20 and the statement in v. 22. 23. The 
priest does not eat of his own sacrifice : see on 
4 26 . 

24-30. The Sin Offering. 26. Shall eat 
it] i.e. unless it is the sin offering for himself : 
see on v. 23. 30. Reconcile] make atone- 
ment, as in 1 4. 

CHAPTER 7 
Directions to the Priests (continued) 

1-10. The Guilt Offering. Vv. 8-10 refer 
to private offerings and the priest's share in 
them. 

11-21. The Peace Offering. Three kinds 
of peace offerings are distinguished here, viz. the 
thank offering (v. 12), and the votive and free 
will offerings (v. 16). The former, as its name 
implies, would be presented after a benefit had 
been received ; the latter, while the benefit 
was still expected, as an accompaniment of 
supplication. 

12. The animal sacrifice is accompanied with 
a meal offering of four kinds of cakes, one of 
which is leavened. Of each of these one cake 
is heaved before the Lord (see on Ex29 24 ) and 
appropriated by the priests, the others are 
eaten by the offerer along with his share of 
the peace offering : see intro. to c. 3. 

21. Shall be cut off] excommunicated : see 
on Ex 12 is. 

22-27. Prohibition to eat fat or blood. The 
fat is the internal fat : see on 3 3 . 

28-34. The Priest's share of the peace 
offerings. This consists of the choice por- 
tions, the breast and right thigh which are first 
heaved or waved before the Lord: see Ex 29 24 . 

35. Portion of the anointing] RM ' Portion.' 
Vv. 35-38 form a conclusion to the first part 
of the book of Leviticus, that dealing with 
Sacrifices. 



90 



LEVITICUS 



10. 16 



PAKT 2 

(Chs. 8-10) The Consecration of the Priesthood 



CHAPTER 8 

The Consecration of Aaron and 
his Sons 
This chapter relates the fulfilment of the 
injunctions given in EX29 1 " 37 . 

CHAPTER 9 
Installation of Aaron and his Sons 
The ceremonial of consecration is repeated 
daily for seven days (8 33 ; see Ex29 35 ). On 
the eighth day Aaron and his sons formally 
assume office. Aaron first sacrifices for himself 
(vv. 7-14) and then for the people (vv. 15-21). 
The solemn blessing of the people follows 
(vv. 22, 23), after which fire from the Lord 
descends and consumes the sacrifices upon the 
altar (v. 24). 

7. Aaron did not approach the altar till 
called on by Moses to do so, showing that he 
did not take this honour to himself, but that 
it was the call of God by Moses: cp. Heb 
5 4 > 5 . ' No man taketh this honour unto him- 
self, but he that is called of God, as was 
Aaron.' 

8. Aaron, having now been consecrated, dis- 
charges the priestly duties. During the seven 
days of his consecration these were performed 
by Moses : see 8 15 . n. The flesh and the 
hide he burnt] They were wholly burned 
because the sacrifice was offered by Aaron on 
behalf of himself : see on 4 26 . 

22. The form of the Benediction is given in 
Nu 6 - 2 -' 27 . As Aaron is here said to have come 
down, the benediction seems to have been pro- 
nounced from the top of the altar, or from its 
ledge: see Ex 20 26 27 5 RY. 

23. Moses takes Aaron into the tent of 
meeting, in order to induct him into the duties 
connected with it, and to hand over the sacred 
furniture to his charge. Glory of the LORD] 
cp. Ex40 34 > 35 . 

24. This was not the first kindling of the 
sacred fire, as there was already fire upon the 
altar (v. 10, etc.). But instead of the sacrifices 
burning for a long time they were suddenly 
consumed before the eyes of the people. This 
was accepted by them as a token that God not 
only accepted these sacrifices but also approved 
the consecration of Aaron and his sons to the 
priesthood : cp. Jg6 2 °> 2 i 1K18 3 6> 3 9 2Ch7i- 3 . 

CHAPTER 10 
Sin and Death of Nadab and Abihu 
An illustration of the necessity of a punc- 
tilious observance of the regulations. We have 
no means of ascertaining the precise nature of 
the trespass committed by the two eldest sons 



of Aaron. In view of Lvl6 12 (cp. Nul6 4 <5 
Rev8 5 ) we may suppose that the sin lay in 
the use of common fire, instead of fire taken 
from the altar. But the phrase strange fire is 
wide enough to cover any breach of the laws 
regulating the preparation and use of incense 
(see Ex 30 i" 10 - 34 " 38 ). Lv 1 6 1. 2 might also lead 
us to infer that Nadab and Abihu presumptu- 
ously penetrated into the Holy of Holies. 
Yv. 16-20 of the present chapter show that 
the trespass was committed on the day of their 
entering upon office (cp. 9 lf -). From the fact 
that the prohibition against the use of wine by 
priests on duty follows immediately upon this 
incident (vv. 8, 9) it has been inferred by later 
Jewish writers and many modern commentators 
that Nadab and Abihu sinned when in a state 
of intoxication. There is, however, no real 
ground for this supposition, as vv. 8, 9 form a 
separate and disconnected fragment. 

3. Them that come nigh me] i.e. the priests 
(cp. Ex 19 22 Ezk42i 3 43 19). The greater the 
privilege the greater the responsibility. Judg- 
ment begins at the house of God (1 Pet4 17 ). 
Held his peace] acknowledged the justice of 
the penalty. 4. See Ex 6 22 . It would not 
have been unlawful for the surviving brothers 
to perform this office (see 21 1 ~ B ), but probably 
to spare their feelings the cousins of Aaron 
were selected for the duty. 6, 7. Uncover 
not your heads] RY ' Let not the hair of your 
heads go loose.' Aaron and his sons are for- 
bidden to exhibit the usual signs of mourning, 
dishevelled hair and rent garments, or to in- 
terrupt their priestly functions, as an object 
lesson of submission to righteous judgment. 

8, 9. The priests were not absolutely for- 
bidden the use of wine, but only when per- 
forming their priestly duties : see prefatory re- 
marks, and cp. Ezk44 21 . 10. It was the 
duty of the priests to instruct the people in 
their religious duties, and to set an example 
to them: cp. Ezk44 23 . 

16-20. Goat of the sin offering;] i.e. the 
people's sin offering (9 15 ). Aaron's own sin 
offering had been burned in accordance with 
the law (9 8 " 11 ). But instead of eating the 
flesh of the people's sacrifice, as prescribed in 
6 26 , he had burned it also. When charged 
with contravening the law, Aaron pleaded that 
he and his sons had felt themselves to be de- 
filed by the death of Nadab and Abihu, and 
that it would have been inconsistent for them 
to eat the sin offering, an act which signified 
the acceptance of the people by God and their 
full communion with Him. Moses admitted 
the justice of the plea in the exceptional 
circumstances. 



91 



11. 



LEVITICUS 



11.28 



PART 3 

(Chs. 11-16) The Law of Clean and Unclean 
deals with the subject of chew the cud is undoubtedly more wholesome 



This section 
ceremonial uncleanness and the method of 
its purification. Four main types of unclean- 
ness are referred to, viz. that of meats (11 1_23 ), 
of carcases (ll 24 " 40 ), of leprosy (chs. 13, 14), 
and of certain bodily functions and conditions 
(chs. 12, 15). The effect of ceremonial un- 
cleanness is that it disqualifies a person for 
the worship of God. Its duration varies ac- 
cording to the cause, from a few hours, as in 
the case of touching the carcase of a clean 
beast (ll 39 ), to eighty days, as in the case of 
a woman who has given birth to a girl (12 5 ). 
The ritual of purification consists of washing 
the body, sometimes also the clothes, and in 
the case of greater defilement, the offering of 
sacrifice. 

The distinction of clean and unclean did 
not originate at the time of Moses, nor is it 
confined to the Hebrews. It is to be found in 
all religions, particularly in their earlier stages. 
It is not easy to account for it. The restric- 
tions may be due to a natural instinct of 
aversion from disgusting objects and conditions. 
Or they may rest upon reasons of health; for 
undoubtedly many of them possess sanitary 
advantages. Or, as many believe, a religious 
idea may lie at the root of them, certain 
objects being regarded as the seat of evil spirits. 
Whatever be the origin of these regulations, 
they were adopted by Moses and made to 
subserve a sacred purpose. Things cere- 
monially unclean were used as types of moral 
defilement. The outward purifications served 
to impress upon the hearts of the people the 
need of absolute purity in the service of 
Jehovah. They were a constant reminder of 
the precept, 'Ye shall be holy; for I am holy' 
(see e.g. 11 44 > 45 ). And if it be the fact that at 
least some of the 'unclean' animals were wor- 
shipped by the Canaanitish tribes, then these 
regulations served still further to guard the 
people of Jehovah from the contaminating 
influences of their surroundings: see 20 25 > 26 . 

CHAPTER 11 
Law of Clean and Unclean Meats 
The animals whose flesh may or may not be 
eaten are treated in. four classes, viz. large 
land animals (vv. 3-8), water animals (vv. 9-12), 
birds (vv. 13-19), winged creeping things 
(vv. 20-23). 

3. Of the large land animals, those are 
clean which both clu;w Hie cud and divide the 
hoof. Unless they satisfy both these con- 
ditions they are unclean and cannot be eaten. 
The practical effect of this is to exclude all 
beasts of prey. The flesh of animals that 



than that of those which live on prey. "With 
this list of animals should be compared that in 
Dtl4, where a list of clean animals is given. 

4. The camel's foot, though divided above, 
is united beneath into a broad sole. 

5. Coney] The word means a rabbit. But 
the animal meant here is the rock-badger, 
which somewhat resembles a guinea-pig, and 
is common in Palestine. 6. The hare does 
not really chew the cud, but the action of its 
jaws resembles that of ruminants. 

7. Swine are uncleanly in their habits and 
food, and the use of their flesh is believed to 
be the cause of certain diseases in man. The 
Jews still abstain from eating it. 

8. All dead bodies defile. But it should be 
observed that contact with a living unclean 
animal did not defile. The ass e.g. was un- 
clean for food, but was the common beast of 
burden among the Israelites. 

9-12. Water animals. The condition of 
cleanness here is the possession of fins and 
scales. It follows that shellfish and eels are 
forbidden as food. 

13-19. Birds. No signs are given to dis- 
tinguish clean from unclean birds. The latter 
are specified, being mostly birds of prey and 
feeders on carrion. 13. Ossifrage] RV 

'the gier eagle,' the largest of the vulture 
tribe. The name 'ossifrage,' which means the 
' bone-breaker,' is derived from the practice of 
the bird in dropping the bones of its prey from 
a height on to a rock so as to break them and 
get at the marrow. The ospray is the ' short- 
toed eagle,' the commonest of the eagle tribe 
in Palestine. 

14-19. Vulture] RV 'kite.' Kite] RV 
'falcon.' After his kind] i.e. including others 
of the same species. Owl] RV 'ostrich.' 
Cuckow] RV 'seamew.' Swan] doubtful; 
RV has 'horned owl.' Lapwing] RV 
'hoopoe,' a bird of foul habit. 

20-23. Fowls that creep] Read with RV, 
' All winged creeping things.' What are meant 
are insects and small reptiles that move hori- 
zontally, go upon all four. Four kinds of 
locusts are exempted and may be eaten. The 
locust resembles a large grasshopper, and is 
still eaten in the East. It is usually prepared 
by being thrown into boiling water, after 
which the head and wings are removed and 
the body dried in the sun. 

24-40. Uncleanness contracted by contact 
with dead bodies. 

28. Until the even] till the close of the 
day. The Hebrews reckon the day from 
sunset to sunset. 



92 



11.29 



LEVITICUS 



13. 47 



29. Tortoise] Jewish authorities regarded 
the tortoise as a clean animal. What is meant 
here is probably a kind of lizard. So RY. 

30. The names here are uncertain. RV 
renders, ' the gecko, and the land-crocodile, 
and the lizard, and the sand-lizard, and the 
chameleon.' 

33. An earthen vessel, being porous, is sup- 
posed to absorb the uncleanness so that it 
cannot be removed with washing. 35. 

Oven] an earthenware jar or pot: see on 
Ex8 3 . 36. Pit] RM ' cistern.' The water 
in wells and reservoirs, being frequently 
changed, is not polluted. That which 
toucheth] or, ' he that toucheth.' 37, 38. 
The seed in growing undergoes many changes, 
which are supposed to throw off the unclean- 
ness. But if the seed is wet it may be 
penetrated by the defiling fluid. 42. What- 
soever hath more feet] rather, ' hath many 
feet.' Insects like caterpillars and centipedes 
are intended. 

44. Sanctify] the root meaning of the 
Heb. words for ' sanctify,' ' hallow,' ' holy,' 
is that of separation: cp. v. 47. The holiness 
spoken of here is rather physical than moral; 
but in keeping themselves free from ceremo- 
nial defilement, the people learned to avoid 
what is morally impure, in accordance with 
the principle implied in the words, ' first that 
which is natural, afterward that which is 
spiritual.' 

The composite nature of this c. appears 
from the position of vv. 29, 30, 41-45, which 
belong to vv. 20-23. Yv. 46, 47 form the 
conclusion to the whole. 

CHAPTER 12 

Uncleanness connected with Childbirth 
The functions of reproduction are in early 
stages of religion regarded with superstitious 
dread. The enactments in this c. and the 
related regulations in c. 15 had an important 
place in teaching the lesson of purity in 
sexual relationships. 

3. Cp. Gnl7 1 0" 14 . The purifications pre- 
scribed in this c. are for the mother alone 
and not for the child, who does not seem to 
have been regarded as unclean, unless the rite 
of circumcision involved the idea of the puri- 
fication of the child. Uncircumcision and 
uncleanness are frequently identical: see on 
1 9 23 . 4. On the eighth day the mother is 
readmitted to society, but is still debarred from 
the services of the tabernacle till forty days 
after the birth. 5. In the case of the birth 
of a girl the two periods of uncleanness (see 
last note) are exactly doubled, the reason 
doubtless being the opinion of the ancients 
that the derangement of the system is greater. 
8. Cp. Lk2 24 , which shows that the Yirgin 
Mary offered the poor woman's sacrifice. 



CHAPTER 13 

Uncleanness connected with Leprosy 

It is tolerably certain that the leprosy of 
the OT. is not the leprosy of the Middle Ages, 
which is still to be found in the East. The 
latter is a terrible and loathsome disease, 
called elephantiasis, in consequence of which 
the skin thickens, the features are distorted, 
and the very limbs mortify and drop off from 
the body. The leprosy of the Bible is a skin 
disease, known as psoriasis, in which the skin 
and hair grow white, and which is accompanied 
with scab and flaky scales which peel off. It 
is doubtful whether it was infectious or not. 
Some varieties may have been so; but it is to 
be observed that when the disease entirely 
covered the body the person was pronounced 
clean and could mix in society. Leprosy is 
regarded in the Bible as a type of sin in its 
loathsomeness and disfiguring and corrupting 
effects, and its treatment was in many points 
symbolical. 

3. Plague] i.e. plagued spot. 4. Shut up 
him'] i.e. place him in quarantine: separate 
the affected person from the society of others 
and the service of the tabernacle. 

9-17. The case of the reappearance of 
leprosy after it has been cured. 1 1 . Shall 

not shut him up] there is no need for quaran- 
tine as the case is undoubtedly one of leprosy. 
13. When the eruption is complete, the disease 
is supposed to have reached its crisis, and to be 
discharging itself externally in dry scales. 

18-23. The case of leprosy developing from 
a healed boil. 

24-28. The case of leprosy arising from the 
inflammation following a burn. 

29-37. Leprosy in the hair of the head or 
beard. In this case the hair turns yellow in- 
stead of white (v. 30). 

38. Another form of leprosy in the shape 
of white spots. This is harmless, and the 
affected person is not unclean. 

40-44. Leprosy in the bald head. 

45. These are the signs of mourning for 
the dead (cp. 106 21 10 Ezk24i7 Mic3?), 
leprosy being regarded as a living death and 
the severest token of the divine displeasure : 
cp. Nul2i2. 

47-59. The leprosy of garments. What 
is described here is not the leprosy that attacks 
the human being, but a mildew or fungus 
causing discoloration and corrosion and bear- 
ing a superficial resemblance to leprosy : cp. 
the leprosy of houses, 1 4 33_53 . The regulations 
regarding this so-called ' leprosy ' were no 
doubt valuable for sanitary reasons ; but they 
would also serve to ' teach the Hebrew to 
hate even the appearance of evil.' Cp. what 
St. Jude says (v. 23) of the Christian l hating 
even the garment spotted by the flesh.' 



93 



13. 48 



LEVITICUS 



,. 



48. Warp, or woof] This translation is 
doubtful. The words probably mean as in 
KM, 'woven or knitted stuff,' referring to 
material not yet made into garments. 

CHAPTER 14 

The Purification of the Leper. The 

Leprosy of Houses 

When a leper has been cured of his plague, 
and has satisfied the priest that his cure is 
complete, he is required to go through a 
ceremonial purification before being readmitted 
to his place in society. The ritual of purifi- 
cation consists of three parts. (1) Two living 
birds are brought, with a rod of cedar wood, 
a piece of scarlet wool, and a bunch of hyssop, 
to the priest, who kills one of the birds over 
water. The living bird and the cedar rod, to 
which the hyssop is tied with the scarlet 
thread, are dipped in the blood, which is then 
sprinkled upon the man seven times. The 
living bird is then let loose. (2) The man 
then washes his clothes, shaves off all his 
hair, and bathes. After seven days he repeats 
this and is ready for the last act of his purify- 
ing. (3) On the eighth day he presents 
himself with his sacrifices at the door of the 
tent of meeting. A guilt offering, a sin 
offering, and a burnt offering are made, the 
right ear, thumb, and great toe of the man 
are touched, first with blood and then with oil, 
and he is once more ceremonially clean. 

4. Later usage required the birds to be 
sparrows. Cedar wood (probably not the 
cedar of Lebanon but a kind of juniper) may 
have been chosen on account of its antiseptic 
property, and hyssop (see on Ex 1 2 22 ) for its 
aromatic qualities. In later times, at least, 
their use was regarded as symbolical, in the 
one case of the pride which was supposed to 
be the cause of visitation by the disease, in 
the other of the humility which was an essen- 
tial condition of its removal. The scarlet 
wool may have betokened the healthy blood 
now coursing in the veins of the erewhile 
leper. The same materials were employed in 
the ritual for purification after contact with 
dead bodies : see Nul9 6 and cp. Ps51 7 . 

7. The release of the living bird signified 
the removal of the uncleanness, perhaps also 
the restored liberty of the leper. Cp. the 
release of the goat on the Day of Atonement, 
16 21 ' 22 . 10. A tenth deal (i.e. part) of an 
ephah, which was called an omer, was about 
four pints, the ephah being rather more than 
a bushel. A log is about a pint. 12. Wave 
them] see on Ex 20' 24 . The offering of these 
sacrifices shows that leprosy was regarded as 
a punishment of sin. 14. The anointing of 
these members signified their reoonsecration 
to the service of God, and the readmission 
of the leper to the privileges of the tabernacle. 



33-53- The leprosy of houses. This, 
like the leprosy of garments (see 13 47 ' 59 ), 
bears only an external resemblance to the 
leprosy of human beings. It is a fungus or 
discoloration making its appearance on the 
walls of houses : see on 13 47 " 59 . The legis- 
lation here is prospective : cp. the mention of 
' the camp 'in v. 3 with that of ' the city ' in 
v. 40. The section may be post-Mosaic. It 
stands by itself ; its natural position would be 
after 13 59 . 

CHAPTER 15 

Uncleanness connected with Sexual 
Discharges 

The subject of this c. is related to that of 
c. 12 : see intro. there. Here three natural 
(vv. 16, 17, 18, 19-24) and two abnormal 
(vv. 1-15, 25-30) conditions are dealt with. 
Though not in themselves sinful, they render 
the person ceremonially unclean, and the en- 
actments with respect to them would tend to 
purity of morals, being a reminder that all 
uncleanness is hateful to G-od, and that He is 
to be glorified in our bodies as well as in our 
spirits. 

8. This case is provided for, as spitting 
upon a person was, and still is, a common 
expression of contempt among Orientals. 

12. See on ll 33 . 13. Is cleansed] i.e. 

physically. Shall be clean] i.e. ceremonially. 

CHAPTER 16 

Ritual of the Day of Atonement 
(See also 2326-32 Nu29Mi Ex 30 10.) 
This solemn ceremonial took place once a 
year on the tenth day of the seventh month 
(Tishri = September). It was enacted by the 
high priest alone, but the whole nation in- 
dicated its interest and participation in it, 
by resting from all manner of work, by 
keeping a very strict fast, and by assembling 
for an ' holy convocation.' The ritual of the 
Day of Atonement marked the culminating 
point of the Levitical system, and was calcu- 
lated to impress the minds of the worshippers 
in a peculiar degree. Most of the other sacri- 
fices and purifications were occasional and per- 
sonal, but this was the yearly atonement for 
the nation as a whole, including the priest- 
hood itself, and the yearly purification of the 
sanctuary and its parts from the defilement of 
the sins of the people in whose midst it stood. 
It gathered up and included all the separate 
and individual sacrifices of the year, and re- 
stored to the nation the holiness it had lost. 
It was but natural that Christians should see, 
in its peculiarly striking and solemn ritual, a 
foreshadowing and illustration of the atone- 
ment wrought by Christ, through the one sacri- 
fice of Himself, and His entering into the Holy 
Place, there to appear in the presence of God 



94 



16.3 



LEVITICUS 



17. 



for His people. This is pointed out by the 
writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews : see 
Heb4 14 6 20 9 11 " 28 , which should be read in 
this connexion. 

A great deal has been made of the fact that 
there is no mention of the actual observance 
of the Day of Atonement till after the exile, 
from which it has been inferred that its insti- 
tution is of post-exilic date. But the argument 
is not convincing. The connexion with the 
death of Nadab and Abihu (see v. 1), and the 
mention of Azazel (see v. 8 and note), indi- 
cate that the ritual of this c. rests on a very 
ancient basis. And not only are the pre-exilic 
books silent on the Day of Atonement, but the 
post-exilic contain no reference to it either, 
which shows the precarious nature of the 
argument from silence. 

The Day of Atonement is still the great 
day of the Jewish sacred year, and is observed 
with much solemnity as a day of humiliation 
and repentance : see on Ex32 32 . 

3-5. The first act of the high priest is to 
choose the sacrificial victims, to bathe himself, 
and exchange his distinctive vestments for a 
garment of white linen, the garment of the 
ordinary priest. 

6-1 1. He then presents the sin offering 
for himself and for his house, and casts lots 
between the two goats of the sin offering for 
the people, one of which is to be slain and the 
other let loose. He then sacrifices his own 
sin offering. 

8. For the scapegoat] BY 'for Azazel.' This 
word does not occur elsewhere in OT. The 
parallel, for the LORD, suggests that it should 
be taken as a proper name, and left untrans- 
lated. The word scapegoat in AY is not a 
translation, but indicates merely the use to 
which this goat is to be put. Azazel is under- 
stood to be the name of one of those malignant 
demons with which the superstition of the 
Israelites peopled the wilderness and all waste 
places (see Isal3 21 34 14 , and cp. Mtl243 Mk 
1 13 ). The sending of the sin-laden goat to 
him (vv. 21, 22) signified the complete removal 
of the sins of the people and the handing them 



over, as it were, to the evil spirit to whom 
they belonged : cp. the ceremony connected 
with the cleansing of lepers (14 °» 7 ). This rite 
may have been intended, at all events it would 
serve, to counteract any disposition to honour 
and worship such evil spirits (cp. 17 7 ). 

12-14. The high priest next enters the 
Holy of Holies with incense and the blood of 
his sin offering, which he sprinkles once on 
the mercy seat and seven times in the space 
before it, thus making atonement for himself 
and his house. 

15-19. He then goes out into the court and 
sacrifices the goat on which the lot fell ' for 
Jehovah,' and brings its blood as before into 
the Holy of Holies to make atonement for the 
sanctuary and its parts, and cleanse them from 
the sins which mingle even with the best 
service that man can offer to God. 

20-22. He now takes the goat destined ' for 
Azazel,' and laying his hands on its head con- 
fesses over it the sins of the people, after 
which a man standing in readiness leads the 
goat away into the wilderness and releases it. 
In the time of the Second Temple the goat 
was destroyed by being precipitated from a 
rock 12 m. from Jerusalem. 

23-28. He finally bathes and resumes his dis- 
tinctive vestments and offers the two burnt 
offerings for himself and the people, in token 
of entire reconsecration to the service of God. 
At the same time he burns the fat of the two 
sin offerings, the flesh of which is taken out- 
side the camp and there consumed. In later 
times the high priest at this point read in the 
hearing of the people prescribed portions of 
the Law, viz. Lv23 2 6f. Nu29?-n concluding 
with a series of benedictions. 

29. Afflict your souls] i.e. observe a fast : 
seePs35 13 Isa58 3 > 5 . This is the only fast 
enjoined in the Mosaic Law. After the exile 
fasting was a common religious usage : see 
e.g. Ezr8 21 Neh9i Esth4 3 Zech8!9 Mt9 14 -17 
Lk2 3 M8i 2 Acl3 2 > 3 14 23 . In Ac279 the 
reference is to the Day of Atonement which 
was called ' The Fast ' par excellence. 

34. He] i.e. Aaron. 



PART 4 



(Chs. 17-26) The 
This section of Leviticus occupies a posi- 
tion by itself, being distinguished from the rest 
of the book both by style and contents. A 
few only of its main characteristics may be 
noticed here. (1) Among a large number of 
phrases almost, if not entirely, peculiar to this 
part of the Pentateuch is the constantly recur- 
ring expression ' I am Jehovah,' or ' I am Je- 
hovah your God,' or " I your God am holy.' 
This ' divine I,' as it has been called, occurs 
forty-seven times in these chapters, and only 



Law of Holiness 
six times elsewhere from Genesis to Joshua, 
but is found again seventy-eight times in 
Ezekiel. See Intro. § 2. (2) A second dis- 
tinguishing feature of this section is its more 
rhetorical style and the comparatively large 
number of hortatory passages, somewhat in the 
manner of Deuteronomy : see e.g. c. 26. (3) 
A third characteristic is the high spiritual tone 
of these chapters. Compared with the rest of 
the book we find here less ritual and more 
religion, morality, and humanity. The duty of 



95 



17.1 



LEVITICUS 



19.9 



holiness is repeatedly emphasised and grounded 
on the holiness of God Himself. The oft-recur- 
ring key note of the whole is ' Ye shall be holy, 
for I the Lord your God am holy.' It is for 
this reason that the title ' Law of Holiness ' 
has been applied to this part of Leviticus. 
Some other fragments bearing a similar char- 
acter outside these chapters have been assigned 
to the same collection, e.g. Ex31 13f - Lvll 
(especially vv. 43-45) Nul5 3 ?-4i. 

It has long been observed that there is a con- 
siderable resemblance both in leading ideas and 
phraseology between this 'Law of Holiness' 
and the book of Ezekiel. That Ezekiel knew 
and used this Law Book seems beyond dispute, 
but that he is also its author is not made out. 

CHAPTER 17 

Rule of Saceipice. Prohibition against 

eating Blood 

1-9. The first part of this Law prescribes 
that all oxen, sheep, and goats, slaughtered for 
food, must first be presented to Jehovah at the 
sanctuary. This seems to presuppose a time 
when the Israelites used but little flesh food, 
and were not widely scattered, which must 
have been either during the wanderings in the 
desert, or immediately after the return from 
exile, when there was only a small community 
in the vicinity of Jerusalem. This raises the 
question of the date of the composition of the 
Law of Holiness, and scholars are still divided 
upon it. The law is repealed in Dt 1 2 15 , where 
it is implied that different conditions of life 
prevail. 

7. The object of this enactment was to 
counteract the tendency to offer sacrifice to 
those demons of the wilderness which were 
worshipped in the form of he-goats, for so the 
RV renders the word here translated devils : 
see note on Azazel in 16 8 . Gone a whoring] 
see on Ex34 15 . 

10-16. Prohibition against eating blood or 
fallen carcases. The law against eating blood 
agrees with natural instincts and is here con- 
nected with a religious idea : see on 3 3 . 

15. The law against eating what dies of 
itself is a corollary of the former. The flesh 
of such an animal cannot be thoroughly drained 
of blood : cp. Ex 22 31 Dtl42i. 16. Bear his 
iniquity] bear the penalty of his transgression. 

CHAPTER 18 
Law of Forbidden Degrees of Marriage, 
and of Chastity 
3. Some of the unions here forbidden as 
incestuous were permitted among the nations 
of antiquity. The early Egyptians, e.g. per- 
mitted marriage with a full sister. Abraham 
married his half-sister (Gn20 12 ), a practice 
here forbidden (vv. 9, 11). 6. Uncover their 
nakedness] i.e. marry. 



8. Father's wife] This is not the same as 
' mother ' in the previous v. so that polygamy 
is here presupposed. It was common, perhaps 
universal, in the East at the time of Moses. 
The Mosaic Law did not seek all at once to 
abolish polygamy, which might have been the 
occasion of great hardship in the circumstances. 
But it certainly discouraged it, and by regulat- 
ing and restraining it prepared the way for its 
gradual extinction : cp. the remarks on slavery 
among the Hebrews at Ex 21. 

16. This law was not absolute, the so-called 
levirate marriage, or marriage with the widow ' 
of a deceased brother, being not only permis- 
sible but almost compulsory : see on Dt 25 5 . 

18. In her life time] This implies that after 
the death of the first wife a man might marry 
her sister. It is not a law against polygamy 
but only against a special form of it, viz. 
marrying two sisters. The restriction is pro- 
fessedly made in the interests of domestic 
peace and happiness. For to vex her RV 
reads, 'to be a rival to her 1 : cp. the case of 
Leah and Rachel, the wives of Jacob, who 
were sisters (Gn29, 30). 

21. Cp. 20 !- 5 . Molech] ('king') the fire- 
god of the Ammonites and Canaanites, and 
especially of the Phoenicians, to whom children 
were sacrificed in burnt-offering. Pass through 
the fire'] see 1K115-7 2K3 2 7 23™ 2Ch336 
Jer7 31 32 35 . The idea underlying child- 
sacrifice is probably that of propitiating the 
deity by offering the most valued possession : 
see 2K3 27 , and cp. the case of Abraham and 
Isaac (Gn22 12 ). The penalty of this most in- 
human form of worship was death by stoning : 
see 20 2 . It should be observed that the exact 
meaning of the expression ' pass through the 
fire ' is uncertain. The rite may have been a 
kind of ordeal by which it was sought to 
ascertain the mind of the deity by observing 
whether the child passed through the fire 
unscathed or not. 

CHAPTER 19 

Various Laws, mainly of a Moral and 
Humane Character 

This c. was very naturally regarded by 
Jewish authorities as an embodiment of the 
Decalogue. It will be observed that in general 
the precepts in vv. 3-8 correspond to those of 
the first table of the Decalogue (' Thou shalt 
love the Lord thy God '), and those in vv. 9-18 
to the second table (' Thou shalt love thy 
neighbour as thyself '). In this c. alone the 
characteristic phrase ' I am the Lord ' (i.e. 
Jehovah) occurs no fewer than sixteen times. 
It is the divine seal set to the enactments of 
the law. 

5-8. See 715-18. 

9. Kindly consideration of the poor is part 
of that holiness which God requires and which 



96 



19. 13 



LEVITICUS 



21. 12 



is the reflection of His own. He is the 
champion of the weak and oppressed : see on 
Ex22 21 , and vv. 33, 34. This injunction is 
not applicable to the time of the sojourn in 
the desert ; it presupposes a settled agricultural 
life in the land of Canaan : see on Dt24 20 . 

13. Cp. Dt24i-M 5 Mal3 5 Jas5 4 . 14. The 
sin is that of intention, and is seen by Him 
who ' trieth the hearts.' 15. Justice must be 
administered impartially, no favour being 
shown to a poor man because he is poor (cp. 
Ex23 3 ), or to a rich man because he is rich. 

16. Stand against the blood of thy neigh- 
bour] This may mean generally any conduct 
imperilling a neighbour's life. But its con- 
nexion here with the sin of slander suggests 
that what is specially meant is the procuring 
of a sentence of condemnation by means of 
false witness: cp. EX23 1 ' 7 . 17. Upon him] 
RY ' because of him,' on his account, i.e. by 
cherishing ill-will against him in secret. 

18. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thy- 
self] This is the w royal law ' ( Jas 2 8 ) and the 
principle underlying the second table of the 
Decalogue : see Mt22 35 " 40 . The word neigh- 
bour was interpreted in a narrow sense as 
equivalent to a fellow Israelite or at most to 
a stranger living in the midst of Israel. Our 
Lord removed all such limitations and applied 
the law universally : see LklO 29 " 37 . 

1 9. Such mixtures are forbidden, as not only 
in themselves contrary to the divinely ap- 
pointed order of nature, but as opening the 
door to the unnatural sins mentioned in 18 22 > 23 
Ro 1 26, 27 : S ee on Dt 22 5 . There may be an 
allusion here to the practice of magic, in which 
unnatural mixtures played an important part. 

20. In the case of a betrothed free woman, 
both persons were put to death as adulterers, 
betrothal being regarded as sacredly as mar- 
riage itself : see on Ex22 16 . 

23. Uncircumcised] i.e. unconsecrated, un- 
clean, and therefore not to be used for the 
first three years. In the fourth year the fruit is 
to be dedicated to God, after which the owner 
is free to enjoy the use of it. Besides im- 
pressing the duty of gratitude to God for the 
fruits of the earth this law is one of practical 
value. For the metaphorical use of the term 
'circumcise' see 26 « Ex6i 2 Dt306 Jer4 4 
gio 926 Ac7 51 Ro2 28 = 2 9 Phil3 3 . 

26. Use enchantment] charms or incanta- 
tions. Observe times] RY ' practise augury,' 
perhaps by watching the clouds or the flight 
of birds: see onDtl8™. 

27. The practices in this and the following 
verses were commonly employed among idola- 
trous nations. The rounding of the corners 
of the head and beard may refer to the 
Arabian custom of presenting the first locks 
as an offering to the deity : see Jer9 26 25 23 
49 32 . with the marginal readings in each case : 



cp. the practice of the Nazirite (Nu6 5 > 18 ). 
Oaths by the hair of the head were common 
(cp. Mt5 36 ), and a usual Mohammedan oath is 
still ' by the beard of the prophet.' 

28. Cutting the flesh and tattooing the skin 
are closely connected with cutting the hair as 
an idolatrous rite : cp. Jerl6 6 48 3 ? 1K18 28 
Zechl36. 

29. This, too, was a degrading accompani- 
ment of idol worship among the Canaanites, 
and even among the Greeks. Idolatry and 
immorality always went hand in hand: see on 
Ex 34^15, and cp. Isa57 5 "9 Hos4i 3 Rol 23 -29. 

31. That have familiar spirits] necromancers 
who profess to hold communication with the 
dead: cp. Ex22i« Dtl8U 1S28**. 

33, 34. See on v. 9. 

35. Meteyard] i.e. measuring rod. 36. The 
ephah (about a bushel) and the hin (about a 
gallon and a half) are used here as representa- 
tive measures: cp. Ezk45 10f . 

CHAPTER 20 

Penalties attached to the Sins specified 
above 
1-5. See 18 21 and note. 
6. See 19 si. 

9. See Ex 21 17. 
19-21. See 18 6 " 23 . 
27. See 19 31 . 

CHAPTER 21 

Laws relating to the Priesthood and 

Sacrifice 

The principle laid down in this and the 
following c. is the far reaching one, that 
whatever comes near or is presented to God 
must be perfect of its kind: see on Exl2 5 . 
Priests, therefore, must be free from physical 
defects or ceremonial impurity, and sacrifices 
must be without blemish. 

That this section is put together from 
different sources is shown by the interchange 
of the singular and plural and of the second 
and third persons (cp. e.g. 21 4 > 5 > 8 ), by the 
introduction of fresh headings (21 M 6 22 1 > 17 > 
26 ), and by the fact that in the body of the 
laws the ' seed of Aaron ' is spoken of, where- 
as in the headings and conclusions it is his ' sons.' 

1-3. As contact with the dead defiles, 
priests are forbidden to attend to the funeral 
rites of any save their nearest relatives. But 
this exception does not apply to the high 
priest (see v. 11): see on 10 4 . 

5. See on 19 2 <> 28 . 6. Bread of their God] 
see on 3 11 . 7. Profane] having lost her 
chastity. 

10. Uncover his head] RY 'let the hair of 
his head go loose.' The law is more strict 
with regard to the high priest. The higher 
the office the greater the responsibility. 

12. Go out of the sanctuary] i.e. intermit 



97 



21.16 



LEVITICUS 



24.5 



his sacred duties: cp. 10 6 » 7 . Crown] RM 
' consecration.' 

16-24. No priest with any physical defect 
may officiate at the altar, though he may 
partake of the sacrificial gifts (v. 22) which 
fall to the lot of the priests for their main- 

18. Flat] RM ' slit.' 22. See on 2 3. 

CHAPTER 22 

Laws relating to the Priesthood and 
Sacrifice (continued) 

1-6. The holy things may not be eaten by 
priests otherwise qualified, but ceremonially 
unclean, nor by any persons outside the 
priestly family. 

10. Stranger] i.e. one not a priest, nor a 
member of a priest's family, even though he 
be an Israelite: see Ex29 33 . A slave pur- 
chased outright is considered to be a member 
of the family (v. 11). 

14. Unwittingly] not knowing, perhaps, 
that it was a holy thing : see on 4 2 5 14 . With 
the holy thing] this must mean its equivalent. 

17-25. Sacrifices also must be without 
blemish. It was a frequent complaint that 
this law was not strictly observed, and that 
God was dishonoured with offerings that were 
mean and imperfect: cp. e.g. Mall 8 - 13 ' 14 , and 
see for an example of a better spirit 2S24 24 . 

19. At your own will] RY 'that ye may be 
accepted.' 

27. See on Ex 22 30 . 28. This prohibition 
probably rests on humanitarian grounds. The 
Mosaic Law enjoins kindness to animals. 

29. See on v. 19. 

CHAPTER 23 

The Sacred Seasons 

These are the Sabbath (v. 3), Passover and 
Unleavened Bread (w. 5-14), Feast of Weeks, 
or Pentecost (vv. 15-22), Feast of Trumpets 
(vv. 23-25), Day of Atonement (vv. 26-32), 
and Feast of Booths or Tabernacles (vv. 33-43). 

3. The sabbath] see on Ex20 8 - n . 

5-8. Passover and Feast of Unleavened 
Bread. Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles 
were the three great annual festivals which 
followed the seasons of the year and the opera- 
tions of agriculture. For the institution of the 
Passover see Exl2 1-14 , and for the sacrifices 
proper to the Feast of Unleavened Bread see 
Nu28 16 " 25 . These two parts of the double 
festival were quite distinct. The Passover 
was celebrated on the fourteenth day of Nisan 
beginning at sunset, and was followed by the 
Feast of Unleavened Bread, which lasted for 
seven days. Hence the name of the feast of 
unleavened bread is sometimes used to include 
both festivals, as in Lk 22 l . 

9-14. The beginning of the grain harvest 
was celebrated during the Feast of Unleavened 



Bread, when a sheaf of new corn was waved 
before the Lord, as an acknowledgment of 
His bounty, and a consecration of the harvest 
to Him. 

11. Wave the sheaf] see on Ex29 24 . 

13. Tenth deals . . hin] see on 14 10 1935. 

15-21. Feast of Weeks. Fifty days or seven 
weeks after the last festival, the Feast of 
Weeks, called in Gk. 'Pentecost' from the 
word for ' fifty,' began with the presentation 
of two loaves made of the new wheat and 
leavened in the ordinary way, signifying that 
harvest" was completed. Hence this feast, 
which lasted only a single day, is called also 
the Feast of Harvest in Ex 23^. For the 
sacrifices offered see vv. 18, 19 Nu28 26 ' 31 . 

22. See on 19 9. 

23-25. Feast of Trumpets. This was cele- 
brated on the first day of the seventh month 
(Tishri), which was New Year's Day according 
to the civil reckoning: see on Exl2 2 . For 
the special ritual of this Feast see Nu29 1-6 . 

26-32. Day of Atonement : see c. 16. 

33-43. Feast of Booths or Tabernacles. 
This feast, called also the Feast of Ingathering 
(Ex23 16 ), was observed from the 15th to the 
22nd Tishri (in October), and marked the end 
of the agricultural year, when the combined 
produce of the whole year, the vintage as well 
as the grain harvest, had been secured : cp. 
Dt 1 6 13 . It was celebrated with great rejoicing 
(v. 40) as the national ' harvest home,' the 
people camping out in booths constructed of 
branches upon the roofs of their houses and in 
the streets during the seven days, in commem- 
oration of the sojourn in the wilderness, v. 43 : 
see on Ex23 15 , and cp. Hosl29. 

CHAPTER 24 

Oil for the Lamps. The Shewbread. 
Laws on Blasphemy 

1-4. Oil for the Lamps in the Tabernacle. 

On the construction of the Lampstand see 
Ex25 31 " 40 , and with the present passage cp. 
Ex27 2 °> 21 and notes there. 

5-9. The Table of Shewbread is described 
in Ex25 23 ' 30 (see notes there). On this table, 
which stood in the Holy Place, twelve new 
unleavened loaves were laid each sabbath day, 
and after lying for seven days were removed 
and eaten by the priests, fresh loaves being 
again substituted. These loaves, the number 
of which corresponded to that of the tribes of 
Israel, are called the ' bread of the Presence,' 
as being laid before God, or ' bread of the 
pile ' as being arranged in two rows (v. 6), or 
' the continual bread,' as lying continually be- 
fore God (Nu 4 7 ). The shewbread wa.s a kind 
of meal offering (see intro. to c. 2), and the 
rite probably had its origin in the crude notion 
that the deity required food like his worship- 
pers (cp. on 3 n ). In the Levitical law, however, 



98 



24. 10 



LEVITICUS 



25. 32 



it attained a higher significance. It was an 
acknowledgment that man owes his ' daily- 
bread ' to God. It was a kind of perpetual 
grace over meat. 

10-23. Punishment of a Blasphemer. A 
half-Israelite blasphemes the name of Jehovah. 
As there is some uncertainty whether such a 
person is subject to the same penalty as full- 
born Israelites the matter is referred to God, 
and the decision is given that there is one law 
for the stranger, and for the home-born. 

10. See on Ex 12 38. XI . Blasphemed the 
name of the Lord] RY ' blasphemed the Name,' 
i.e. blasphemed Jehovah. The peculiar ex- 
pression is due to some copyist who shrank, 
out of a feeling of reverence, from inserting 
the name of Jehovah in this connexion : see 
on Ex3 13 . 14. Lay their hands] devoting 
him to death and solemnly dissociating them- 
selves from complicity in his guilt : cp. Dt 17 7 . 

16. As well the stranger] This is the im- 
portant legal point which the above incident 
is inserted to illustrate : cp. v. 22. 17-22. Cp. 
Ex 2 l 12f - and notes there. 

CHAPTER 25 

The Sabbatical Year. The Year 
of Jubilee 

The matters treated in this chapter are 
closely related to those in c. 23, and their 
separation is another indication that we are 
dealing with a book made up of different ele- 
ments. Observe again the change of number 
in vv. 14, 17 and the interruption caused by vv. 
18-22. Cp. what is said above in intro. to c. 21. 

1-7. The law of the Sabbatical Year : see 
also Ex23 10 > n DtlS 1 " 11 31 M*. This law rests 
on the principle that the land inhabited by the 
Israelites is not theirs in absolute possession. 
It really belongs to God ; ' the land is mine ; 
for ye are strangers and sojourners with me ' 
(v. 23). To keep the people in mind of this, 
it is enacted that every seventh year the land 
has to lie fallow. Only the spontaneous pro- 
duce of that year is to be enjoyed, and that 
not selfishly or for profit ; it is to be shared 
with the poor and strangers (Ex 23 n ). Every- 
thing is to be common. Slaves are to be set 
free if they desire their freedom (Ex 21 2 * 6 ), and 
debts are to be remitted to Israelites (Dt 15 1-3 ). 
It is promised that the harvest of the sixth 
year will be sufficiently abundant to provide 
for the wants of the people till they reap again 
(vv. 20-22). The Sabbatical Year began with 
the first day of Tishri : see on 23 23 . How 
far these enactments were actually carried out 
it is difficult to say. There is no mention of 
their observance during pre-exilic times, so 
that they may have been allowed to become a 
dead letter, a supposition confirmed by what is 
said in 2 Ch36 21 . They were renewed under 
Nehemiah(Nehl0 31 ). 



5. This v. is interesting as containing the only 
example of the word ' its ' in AY. Elsewhere 
the word ' his ' is used as the possessive of the 
neuter pronoun. In the AY of 1611 it is 
printed ' it ' ; ' that which groweth of it owne 
accorde.' 

Year of rest unto the land] As customs simi- 
lar to this are found in other countries, it is 
probable that it is a survival of a communistic 
age. At the same time, it was a benefit to the 
land. Thus we have another example here of 
the Lawgiver adopting a primitive custom and 
investing it with the sanctity of religion. Cp. 
what is said in intro. to chs. 11-15, and see 
also Intro, to Exodus. 

8-55. The Year of Jubilee. This rests on the 
same principle as the Sabbatical Year : see above. 
In the fiftieth year, i.e. after a period of 7 x 7 
years, the land is to lie fallow, and Hebrew 
slaves with their families are to be emanci- 
pated without price, as in the Sabbatical Year 
(vv. 39-55). A new and distinctive feature, 
however, makes its appearance. In the Year 
of Jubilee all property reverts naturally to the 
original owner, who through poverty may have 
been obliged to sell it at some time during the 
previous period (vv. 13-28). The freehold of 
agricultural land could never, therefore, be 
sold in perpetuity (v. 23), and in cases of sale 
the purchase price was regulated according to 
the number of years still to run till the Year 
of Jubilee (vv. 14-16). The only exception 
was house property in a walled city (vv. 29 f ). 
The case of the Levitical cities is specially 
dealt with (vv. 32-34). 

The Year of Jubilee was thus, as it were, 
the ' new birth ' of the whole nation, when 
property was redistributed, and the inequali- 
ties arising in the previous period were re- 
moved. It was a remarkable social law, putting 
a check upon ambition and covetousness, pre- 
venting the acquisition of huge estates, and 
adjusting the distribution of wealth in the 
various classes of the community. The inci- 
dents of Ruth (c. 4) and of Naboth (IK 21) 
show that the law against the alienation of land 
was in force in early times : cp. Jer32 6f . 
That it was not unnecessary in later times 
appears from such passages as Isa5 8 Mic2 2 . 

9. The Year of Jubilee began on the Day of 
Atonement, and was ushered in with the blow- 
ing of trumpets ; hence its name (Heb. jobel — 
a ram's horn trumpet). 23. For ever] R Y ' in 
perpetuity.' 25. A kinsman could redeem his 
relative's property at any time at a price cal- 
culated according to the years still to elapse 
before the Jubilee. 26. And himself .. ] RY 
' and he be waxen rich and find sufficient to 
redeem it.' 28. Restore it to him] RY ' get 
it back for himself.' 32. The Levites were 
granted forty-eight cities to dwell in, with 
suburbs for their cattle : see Nu35. 



99 



25. 35 



LEVITICUS 



27. 16 



35-38. See on Ex22 25 . 

39-46. See on EX21 1 * 6 . Only foreigners 
could be bought as slaves for ever. 

47-54. The converse case of a Hebrew sold 
to a foreigner. 

CHAPTEE 26 
Concluding Exhortations 

Similar exhortations are found at the con- 
clusion of other codes of laws, as in Ex23 20f -, 
and frequently in Deuteronomy, e.g. in c. 28. 
The leading ideas and phraseology are the 
same in all. There is the same insistence on 
the holy character of Jehovah, the same de- 
mand for holiness on the part of His people, 
the same promises on condition of obedience, 
and the same warnings against being led astray 
by the evil example of the idolatrous nations 
among whom they dwell. 

1 , 2. These two vv. have no connexion with 
what follows, except that they form the fun- 
damental principles of the Hebrew religion, and 
on them rests the entire body of the Levitical 
legislation : see on Ex24 4 34 13 . 

3-13. Promise of prosperity attached to 
obedience. 

4. In a country like Palestine rain in the 
proper season is an indispensable condition of 
prosperity and plenty. Hence it is frequently 
referred to in the OT. as a special mark of the 
divine favour : see on Dtll 10 , and cp. Ezk 
3426Isa55 10 > 11 Hos6 3 . There are two rainy 
seasons in Palestine. The former rain falls in 
October-November when the seed is sown, and 
the latter rain in March- April before harvest. 

5. There will be no scarce season. 

10. Because of the new] i.e. to make room 
for the embarrassing abundance. 12. Cp. 2 Cor 
g 16-18. God's presence among, and delight in, 
His people are the cause of all the material 
blessings spoken of. 

14-39. The penalty of disobedience. 

This is described in the form of a climax of 
which the steps are vv. 14-17, 18-20, 21-22, 
23-26, 27-39. 19. The rain will be withheld, 
and the ground in consequence become like 
brass for hardness ; see on Dt 28 23 , and for 
an instance, 1K17 1 . 26. The staff of your 
bread] RV ' your staff of bread ' : i.e. the bread 
which is your staff or support : cp. Ezk4 16 
5 16 1413. Owing to the scarcity one oven will 
be sufficient to bake the bread of ten families. 

29. This actually took place more than 
once : see on Dt28 53-57 . 

30. High places] places of worship, usually 
on an eminence. The name is sometimes 
applied to places used for the worship of 
Jehovah, but in later times the ' high places ' 
were condemned as idolatrous. Images] RV 
1 sun-images,' images of the sun-god wor- 
shipped by the Phoenicians and Babylonians : 
see 2K 2S« 2Chl4-> :W ><", and cp.Ezk«V\ 



31. Savour of your sweet odours] i.e. sacri- 
fices : see on Ex29 18 . 34. The land lying 
desolate will then enjoy the rest of the sab- 
baths and Sabbatical years refused to it by a 
disobedient people : see 25 1 " 7 , and cp. 2Ch. 
36 21 . 36, 37. A highly imaginative descrip- 
tion of the inherent weakness of all wrong- 
doing, and of the cowardice which is the result 
of an evil conscience : cp. Dt28 65 - 67 Prov28 1 . 

40-45. God desire th not the death of the 
sinner, and therefore every threat of punish- 
ment for disobedience is followed by a promise 
of mercy, on condition of repentance and 
amendment : cp. the way in which the pro- 
phecies of Amos and Micah conclude. 

41. Uncircumcised hearts] unclean, not con- 
secrated to God: see on 19 23 . 

46. The conclusion of the Law of Holiness 
(see intro. to chs. 17-26). The following 
chapter is of the nature of an appendix. 

CHAPTER 27 
Vows and Tithes and their Redemption 

1-29. Law of vows and their redemption. 

The making of vows is a very ancient and 
universal practice connected with prayer. 
In order to secure his desire the suppliant 
adds a vow to his prayer. Vows may be either 
positive or negative. A man may promise 
either to devote something to God, or to 
abstain from some comfort or necessary of life. 
Instances of the latter, vows of abstinence, 
are to be found in NU6 1 * 21 30 1 S14 2 ^ Ps 
132 2 -s, and of the former in Gn 28 20 " 22 Jg 1 1 30 > 31 
Nu 21 !- 3 . The present chapter deals with posi- 
tive vows. The votive offering may be a 
human being (vv. 2-8), an animal (vv. 9-13), a 
house (vv. 14, 15), or a piece of land (vv. 
16-25). 

2-8. Human beings vowed to Jehovah must 
not be offered to Him in sacrifice. They must 
be redeemed, a certain sum of money being 
paid into the sanctuary as an equivalent. 

2. Singular vow] a special vow devoting 
himself or any of his family to God. 3. Fifty 
shekels] about £6 10s : see on 5 15 . 

9-13. If a man dedicates an animal and 
wishes to redeem it, he must pay its estimated 
value and one-fifth more. 9. Whereof men 
bring an offering] i.e. one of the sacrificial 
animals, a bullock, sheep, or goat. 10. See 
Mai 1 14. 

11. As it is unlawful to sacrifice unclean 
animals they must be redeemed and the equi- 
valent value plus a fifth paid into the sanc- 
tuary. 14,15. The redemption of a dedicated 
house follows the same rule. 

16-25. The redemption of a dedicated 
piece of land is complicated by the law of 
Jubilee (c. 25). Its value is reckoned accord- 
ing to the amount of seed required to sow it 
(v. 16), and a reduction made in proportion 



100 



n. 16 



LEVITICUS— NUMBERS 



INTRO. 



to the number of years till the next Year of 
Jubilee (v. 18). The owner may redeem it at 
this price plus one fifth. If he does not, it 
goes to the sanctuary at the Year of Jubilee 
(vv. 20, 21). But if the dedicant of the land 
has himself bought it from a third person, 
then at the Jubilee it reverts to the latter, and 
the dedicant must recompense the sanctuary 
by paying its redemption value calculated as 
before (vv. 22-24). 

1 6. Homer] ten ephahs, or nearly eleven 
bushels. The value of barley is here stated 
to be about £6 10s. 23. In that day] The 
estimated value of a purchased piece of land 
must be paid in a lump sum. The estimated 
value of a hereditary possession, it would 
appear, was paid in yearly instalments. This 
practically meant that, till the Jubilee, the 
dedicant paid to the sanctuary a yearly rent 
of one shekel per homer of seed that he used. 

26-29. Exception to the Law of Redemp- 
tion of Yows. 

26. Firstlings, which already belong to God 
(Exl3 2 ), cannot be vowed again without 
mockery. 27. Firstlings of unclean animals 
must be redeemed in the usual manner. In 
Exl3 13 34 20 the law is that such must either 
be redeemed with a lamb or killed. The law 
seems to have varied at different times. 

28. Devoted things are those consecrated 



to God by an extreme form of vow, the ban 
or curse, requiring their destruction or in- 
alienable devotion to the sanctuary : see 
Nul8^ Dtl3" Josh6i7,2i is 153,9.20. This 
form of vow is specially laid upon the spoil 
of conquered nations. The NT. equivalent 
is the ' anathema ' or excommunication : see 
Ro9 3 lCor5 5 16 22 lTiml 2 o. 29. Devoted 
of men] see Ex22 20 , where the Hebrew is 
' shall be devoted.' There the ' devotion of 
men ' is the solemn judicial penalty of idola- 
try. This was probably the only ground of 
devoting human beings. The case of Jeph- 
thah's daughter is doubtful : see Jgll 30 ' 40 . 

30-33. The Law of Tithes and their 
Redemption. Tithes belong to God as the 
real owner of the land : see on 25 1 " 7 . They 
are a kind of rent paid by the people as His 
tenants. Being already God's, tithes cannot 
be made the subject of vows. Tithes of 
agricultural produce may be commuted for 
their money value plus one fifth (v. 31). 
The tithe of cattle cannot be redeemed 
(vv. 32, 33). 32. Passeth under the rod] of 
the owner as he counts his cattle. Every 
tenth beast as it comes, whether good or bad, 
is to be set apart as belonging to God : cp. v. 
10. The tithes were given to the Levites for 
their maintenance, and they in turn tithed 
their own tithes: see Nul8 20 " 32 . 



NUMBERS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Title and Contents. The English title 
of this book is a translation of that given to 
it in the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible. 
It is called Numbers because it tells of two 
numberings of the Israelites, one near the 
beginning and the other near the end of the 
sojourn in the wilderness (chs. 1 and 26). 
The title is not particularly applicable seeing 
that the account of these numberings occupies 
only a small part of the book. A better title 
is that given to it by the Jews, who call it 
1 In the Wilderness,' from the fifth word of 
the opening verse in the Hebrew Bible. 

Numbers contains a brief summary of the 
experiences of the Israelites in the wilderness 
and covers a period of nearly forty years, 
extending from the encampment at Sinai to 
the arrival at the border of Canaan. The 
contents fall readily into three main divisions. 

Part 1. The Camp at Sinai and Prepara- 
tions for Departure, chs. 1-10 10 . This section 



includes the first numbering of the people, the 
order of the camp and the march (1-4) ; laws 
regarding lepers, marital jealousy, and the 
vow of the Nazirite (5, 6) ; the offerings of 
the princes for the service of the tabernacle 
(7) ; regulations regarding the lighting of the 
golden lamps and the consecration of the 
Levites (8) ; the celebration of the Passover 
in the wilderness (9 1_14 ) ; the cloudy pillar 
and the use of the silver trumpets (9 15 -10 10 ). 
Part 2. The Journeying-s from Sinai to the 
Plains of Moab, chs. 10 11 -22 1 . These chap- 
ters cover the main period of the wanderings 
and give, not a full narrative of events, but a 
few outstanding incidents in these thirty-nine 
years, interspersed with various laws. Thus 
we have the departure from Sinai and the 
murmuring at Taberah and Kibroth-hattaavah 
where quails are sent (10 11 — 11 35 ) ; the jealousy 
of Miriam and Aaron against Moses (12) ; the 
sending of the spies from Kadesh, the 



101 



INTRO. 



NUMBERS 



INTRO. 



discouragement of the people and sentence of 
forty years' wandering in the wilderness (13, 
14) ; laws regarding offerings and sabbath 
observance (15) ; the rebellions of Korah, 
Dathan, Abiram, and On (16) ; the blossoming 
of Aaron's rod and the duties of priests and 
Levites (17, 18) ; the method of purification 
for those defiled by the dead (19) ; the death 
of Miriam, the murmuring at Meribah, and 
the giving of water from the rock (20 x - 13 ) ; 
opposition of the Edomites and death of 
Aaron (20 14-29 ) ; defeat by the Canaanites, 
plague of fiery serpents, and conquest of the 
Amorites (21) ; arrival at the plains of Moab 
(22i). 

Part 3. In the Plains of Moab, chs. 22 2-36. 
This section relates the experiences in the 
plains of Moab and in the country E. of the 
Jordan, and includes the story of Balaam 
(22-24) ; relapse of the people into idolatry 
(25) ; the second numbering (26) ; law of 
inheritance, and designation of Joshua as the 
successor of Moses (27) ; law of offerings, 
sacred seasons (28, 29), and vows (30) ; fight 
against Midian (31) ; the assignment of land 
on the E. side of Jordan to two and a half 
tribes (32) ; a list of stations on the march 
(33 1-49) j directions as to the treatment of 
the Canaanites and the division of the land 
(33 50 -34) ; appointment of Levitical cities 
and cities of refuge (35) ; additional laws 
regarding inheritance (36). 

2. Origin and Composition. The book of 
Numbers is manifestly a continuation of the 
story of the Pentateuch, and exhibits the 
same general literary characteristics as the rest 
of the books. As a combination of law and 
narrative, rather than a legislative code, it is 
more akin to Exodus than Leviticus, and 
sometimes follows it in ancient lists of OT. 
books. The circumstantiality of the narrative 
in many points, and the fact that many of the 
regulations in Numbers are only suitable to a 
life in the desert, while others are professedly 
prospective in their application (see e.g. 15 2 
34 2 ), are indications that the groundwork of 
the book is of primitive origin. The state- 
ment in 33 2 is important as showing that 
Moses himself made a record of the wander- 
ings, and that it was preserved to later times. 
It is interesting also to observe that Numbers 
incorporates several poetical pieces of great 
power and beauty which are of undoubted 
antiquity : see 2 114,15,17, 18,27-30 an d the utter- 
ances of Balaam in chs. 23, 24. 

In its present form, however, the whole 
book can hardly have been written by Moses. 
C. 12 3 is most naturally understood as the 
judgment of a later writer on the character of 



Moses, who is not likely to have written this 
v. himself. Several times the phrase ' beyond 
Jordan ' is used to denote the E. side, imply- 
ing that the writer was living in Canaan. 
But Moses never crossed the Jordan ; he died 
on the E. side : see on 2113 221 Dtl 1 . The 
capture of Havoth-jair (32 4i ) did not take 
place till long after the death of Moses, as 
appears from Jgl0 3 > 4 . The words 'while 
the children of Israel were in the wilderness ' 
(15 32 ) are written from the standpoint of a 
later time. These things do not, of course, 
imply that the whole book was a late com- 
position ; they can be explained as additions 
and interpolations in the original work. 

3. Religious Value. What has been said 
as to the permanent religious value of the 
narrative and legislation of Exodus and Levi- 
ticus applies to the corresponding portions of 
Numbers and need not be repeated here. It 
is enough to point out that the writer of the 
book is no mere chronicler of events. He is 
an interpreter of the history of his people. 
In every event he sees the finger of God, 
ruling and guiding His chosen people, pro- 
viding for their wants, bearing with their sins 
and infirmities, keeping His covenant with 
them, and preparing them by means of a long 
discipline for serving Him and being His 
witness to the world. Moses and Miriam, 
Caleb and Joshua, Phinehas and Balaam, are 
types of character from which we have still 
something to learn. The description of the 
camp and the congregation, the distribution 
of the duties and the provision for sacred 
ceremonial, are, like the description of the 
Heavenly Jerusalem in the book of Bevelation, 
valuable, as giving an ideal picture of organ- 
ised religious life. The Christian reader will 
recognise, in many of the experiences of God's 
people in the ' great and terrible wilderness,' 
types and illustrations of spiritual truths which 
are unchanging and eternal. The guidance 
by means of the pillar of cloud and fire 
(91 5 " 23 ), the supply of manna and of water 
(11, 20), the intercession of Aaron when he 
stood between the living and the dead till the 
plague was stayed (16 46-50 ), the sacrifice of the 
red heifer (19), the brazen serpent (21), the 
appointment of the cities of refuge (35), the 
exclusion from the land of promise of those 
whose faith failed them (14) and of Moses 
himself (20 1 2 27i 2 "i 4 ), the victory of God's 
people over the evil powers of the unseen 
world (22-24) — in the words of the Apostle, 
' all these things happened unto them for 
ensamples : and they are written for our 
admonition, upon whom the ends of the world 
are come ' (1 Cor 10 n ). 



102 



1. 



NUMBERS 



3.47 



PART 1 



The Camp at Sinai 

CHAPTER 1 

The First Numbering of the People 

At Sinai Moses receives the command to 
take the number of the males over twenty 
years of age in the eleven secular tribes, the 
tribe of Levi being enumerated separately 
(I47-49314-39). The result shows a total of 
603,550 (cp. Ex 12 37 38 26 Null 21). The result 
of the second numbering, made in the plains 
of Moab thirty-eight years afterwards (c. 26), 
is 601,730. The credibility of these figures 
has been disputed on two grounds. First, on 
this reckoning, the entire population, including 
men, women, and children, must have been at 
least three millions, and it is difficult to con- 
ceive how this large company could have been 
supported in the wilderness for forty years, 
not to mention the difficulty of marshalling 
and conducting them on their marches. The 
difficulty is a real one, but it is exaggerated 
by the traditional view, not supported by 
Scripture, that the Israelites were continually 
marching, and that they always moved as one 
company. To speak of them ' marching 
through the wilderness' is misleading: cp. 9 22 . 
They may have occupied a great part of the 
peninsula of Sinai, encamping in detachments 
and moving about in search of pasture, though 
not simultaneously. The marches mentioned 
in Numbers may have been those of the main 
body under Moses: see intro. to 10 11 -22 1 . As 
to the resources of the wilderness, these must 
not be judged by its present condition. The 
word 'wilderness' does not mean a barren 
tract, but an uninhabited country which may 
be very fertile. And traces exist to show that 
this 'wilderness' not only could but did 
support at one time an extensive population. 
Moreover, unless miracles are prejudged to be 
impossible, account must be taken of the 
miraculous provision made for the sustenance 
of the Israelites till the time that they entered 
Canaan. The second objection is that the 
number of first-born males is stated in 3 43 to 
have been 22,273, again exclusive of the tribe 
of Levi. But this is a very small number in 
proportion to the total number of males. In 
answer to this it may be said that what is 
meant is the first-born males under twenty 
years of age at the time of the census, or those 
that had been born since the departure from 
Egypt. On the whole, while there are un- 
doubtedly difficulties connected with these 
figures in Nu 1 and 26, our knowledge of the 
circumstances is too limited to enable us 
summarily to reject them as incredible : see 
on Ex 14 21. 



and Preparations for Departure (Chs. 1-10 10 ) 

16. The renowned] rather, 'the called' 



chosen representatives. 18. Polls] i.e. heads. 
47-54. The Levites are not included in the 
general census. The tribe of Levi is separated 
for the service of the tabernacle, and being 
exempt from military service is enumerated 
separate^: see c. 3. 50. Tabernacle of testi- 
mony] the tent containing the ark: see on Ex 
16 34 . 51. Stranger] here one who is not a 
Levite: cp. 3™ and Ex29 33 . 53. Wrath] cp. 
1646 lCh2724. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Disposition of the Tribes in the 
Camp and on the March 
The camp is in the form of a hollow square, 
each side of which is occupied by three tribes. 
On the E., the position of honour (cp.3 38 ), is 
Judah, with whom are associated Issachar 
and Zebulun; on the S. is Reuben, with 
Simeon and G-ad; on the W. is Ephraim, 
with Manasseh and Benjamin; on the N. is 
Dan, with Asher and Naphtali. In this ar- 
rangement regard seems to have been paid to 
family relationship. The priests and Levites 
form an inner square surrounding the taber- 
nacle, which occupies the centre of the camp. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Levites, their Duties and Number 
Although Aaron and his family belong to 
the tribe of Levi (Ex 2 *) the term ' Levites ' is 
usually employed, as here, to denote the non- 
Aaronite Levites. The family of Aaron is set 
apart for the priesthood (Ex 28 Lv8,9), and 
the Levites are designated as their assistants, 
occupying an intermediate position between 
the priests and the congregation. They have 
charge of the tabernacle and its furniture, 
taking it down, carrying it during the march, 
and setting it up again. Their services in the 
tabernacle are riot defined, but they would 
doubtless perform the humbler duties con- 
nected with the sacrifices, etc. In later times 
they were also doorkeepers and musicians in 
the Temple. See Neh 11, 12 1 Ch6 31 > 3 2,48 
15 16 . The reason why this particular tribe 
was chosen for these offices, in addition to the 
fact that Moses and Aaron themselves belonged 
to it, seems to have been their zeal for the 
honour of Jehovah at the time of the wor- 
ship of the Golden Calf (Ex 32 26-29). The 
subject of the Levites is continued in chs. 8 
and 16-18. 

4. On Nadab and Abihu see LvlO. 
10. Stranger] see on l 51 . 13. SeeExl3 2 » 
12 *. 43. See intro. to c. 1. 47. See on Ex 
30 1 3 . Cp. Nul8i6. 



103 



4. 2 



NUMBERS 



CHAPTEE 4 

The Duties of the Levites on the March 

2. Kohath seems to have been the second 
son of Levi (3 17 ), but his family is mentioned 
first, because Moses and Aaron belonged to it 
(3 19 ; cp. Ex6 18 ' 20 ), and because it had charge 
of the most sacred furniture, the ark, etc. 

3. From thirty years old] In 8 24 we read 
that the time of service was from the age of 
twenty-five. And in 2Ch31 1 7Ezr3 8 it is 
from the age of twenty: cp. 1 Ch23 3 > 24 - 2 7. 
The practice seems to have varied at different 
times. 

4-20. The Kohathites carry the ark and 
the sacred vessels of the tabernacle. 

5. The covering veil is the curtain which 
screened off the Holy of Holies: see Ex26 33 . 

7. The continual bread] i.e. the shewbread: 
see on Lv24 59 . 11. The golden altar] i.e. 
the altar of incense. In v. 13 the altar is the 
altar of burnt offering (see on EX30 1 " 10 ). 

15. Lest they die] cp. 2S66,?. 18. Cut 
not off] see that you do not expose them to 
any risk of death by touching the most holy 
things: cp. Rol4 15 . 20. They shall not go 
in] i.e. the Kohathites. 

21-28. The Gershonites take charge of the 
curtains of the tabernacle and the court. As 
these were of great weight two ox-wagons 
were employed in their transport: see 7 7 . 

29-33. The Merarites take charge of the 
framework of the tabernacle and employ four 
ox-wagons: see 7 8 . 

34-49. The numbers given here are those 
of the Levites on active service, between thirty 
and fifty years of age. The total number of 
the tribe was given in 3 39 . 

CHAPTER 5 

Various Ceremonial Laws 

1-4. On the seclusion of lepers and unclean 
persons, see Lv 13-15. 

5-10. On the law of restitution, see Lv 
5 14 -6 7 , to which the present passage is a 
supplement, providing that if the injured 
person dies and has no kindred to whom the 
price of restitution may be paid, it has to be 
given to the priest. Vv. 9, 10 prescribe that 
the heave offerings (see on Lv7 28 ' 34 ) are the 
perquisite of the particular priest who officiates 
at the sacrifice, and are not to be distributed 
among the priests generally. 

1 1 -3 1. On Marital Jealousy. 

A wife suspected of unfaithfulness is re- 
quired to undergo atrial by ordeal. A potion 
is prepared by the priest, which she must 
drink, after taking an oath of purgation (vv. 
19-24). If she is innocent the potion is harm- 
less, but if guilty it injures her, thereby 
bringing her guilt to light (vv. 27, 28). Trial 
by ordeal is of the nature of an appeal to God 



to reveal the innocence or guilt of a suspected 
person. During the middle ages it was fre- 
quently resorted to in Europe under sanction 
of the church and the law. The most common 
forms of ordeal were those by fire, by water, and 
by wager of battle. The difference between 
these and the ordeal prescribed here is that 
the latter is not in itself injurious, but depends 
for its efficacy on the direct interposition of 
God. 

13. No witness] The ordeal is prescribed 
for cases of doubt. To other cases the law of 
Lv20!0 applies. 15. Cp. Lv2*. 17. Holy 
water] This is the only place where this phrase 
is found, and it is not explained. Water from 
the laver is probably meant : see Ex30 17 - 21 . 
18. Uncover the . . head] rather, as in RV, 
' let the hair . . go loose,' a common sign of 
mourning: see Lv 10 6 13 45 . Bitter water] so 
called as being the instrument of the curse. 

CHAPTER 6 

The Law of the Nazirite. The 
Priestly Benediction 

1-21. The Law of the Nazirite. 

A Nazirite (from Heb. ?iazir, ' to separate') 
is a man or woman ' separated,' i.e. consecrated 
to Jehovah by means of a special vow of 
abstinence. The word has no connexion 
with l Nazarene,' which means an inhabitant 
of Nazareth. During the period of his vow 
the Nazirite comes under a threefold obliga- 
tion, (1) to abstain strictly from wine and all 
products of the vine, whether intoxicating or 
not (vv. 3, 4) ; (2) to let his hair grow (v. 5) ; 
and (3) to avoid all ceremonial defilement 
through contact with a dead body, even that 
of a near relative (v. 7). If he is accidentally 
defiled by the sudden death of any one beside 
him, he must perform rites of purification, and 
reconsecrate himself, counting as null what- 
ever part of the period of the original vow 
may have elapsed (vv. 9-12). At the expira- 
tion of his vow he presents certain sacrifices 
(vv. 13-17), shaves his head and offers his hair 
upon the altar, and returns to ordinary life 
(vv. 18-21). The Nazirite's vow may either 
be for a limited period, which is the case 
supposed in this passage, or for life. The 
antiquity of the rite is shown by what is 
related of Samson (Jgl3 5 ), and of Samuel 
(IS l 11 ), who are usually regarded as lifelong 
Nazirites. It is also referred to in Am2 12 . 
The Nazirite was not a hermit, but a very 
active devotee of Jehovah. He was very 
jealous for the Lord God of Israel, and while 
the vow of consecration and abstinence may 
sometimes have been undertaken for private 
and personal reasons, as e.g. to obtain the 
fulfilment of a desire, it was in many cases 
the expression of a religious and patriotic 
zeal, which sought to protect the primitive ' 



104 



__J 



6.5 



NUMBERS 



9. 28 



simplicity of Israel from the corrupting and 
enervating influences of heathen civilisations 
and religions. In this respect the Nazirites 
had much in common with the prophets, with 
whom they are classed in Am2 n > 12 , as being 
' raised up ' by Jehovah Himself. In NT. 
references to the Nazirite vow are supposed 
to be found in Lk 1 15 (John the Baptist), in 
Acl8 ls (St. Paul), and 212*. 

5. See on Lvl9 27 . 

7. The consecration of his] EV his separ- 
ation unto.' 9. Die . . by him] i.e. beside him. 
Head of his consecration] his unshorn locks 
were the visible sign of his vow of consecration. 

14, 15. The burnt offering betokened his 
entire dedication to God ; the sin offering was 
presented for the sins he may have committed 
unwittingly during the period of his conse- 
cration ; and the peace offering was an ex- 
pression of his thankfulness for having been 
able to complete his vow. On the meaning 
of these sacrifices, see Lv 1, 3, 4. 18. This 
denotes the completion of his vow : cp. Ac 18 18 . 

21. Beside that that his hand shall get] 
RV ' beside that which he is able to get,' 
i.e. in addition to any other offerings which 
it may be in his power to make. 

22-26. The Priestly Benediction. It is 
part of the duty of the priests to bless the 
people in the name of Jehovah: seeDtlO 8 
21 5 . and see on Lv9 22 > 23 . The priestly bene- 
diction consists of three double clauses of 
increasing length and intensity, in each of 
which the sacred name is used. Cp. the three- 
fold Christian benediction in 2 Cor 13 14 . Ps 
67 is evidently modelled on this benediction ; 
cp. alsoPs46 29 11 31 ^ 8OW 9 . 25. Make 
his face shine] show favour. 26. Lift up 
his countenance] take gracious notice of him. 

27. Put my name upon] This may mean 
simply to pronounce Jehovah's name over the 
people in blessing and thus mark them as His 
by covenant relation, as the Christian minister 
does when he baptises ' into the name of 
Christ.' But in OT. the ' name of Jehovah ' 
is His revealed character; see on Ex3 13 . So 
that to ' put Jehovah's name ' upon a person 
is to declare to him the presence and nature 
of Jehovah. The priest does this when he 
blesses the people. He gives them the assur- 
ance of Jehovah's presence and favour. 

CHAPTER 7 

The Offerings of the Princes at the 
Dedication of the Altar 
The twelve princes, each representing his 
tribe, presented gold and silver vessels for use 
in sacrifices, sacrificial animals, and wagons 
and oxen for the transport of the tabernacle : 
see 4 29 " 49 . The dedication of these offerings 
occupied twelve days, and was a service of 
thanksgiving. 



13. Charger] a large dish, as in Mtl4 8 . 
89. To speak with him] i.e. with Jehovah. 

CHAPTER 8 
The Lighting of the Golden Lamps. 

The Consecration of the Levites 

1-4. See on Ex 25 31-40 27 2 o> 21 . 

5-26. This is the fulfilment of the injunc- 
tion in 3 5 ' 13 . 7. Water of purifying] RV 
' of expiation.' This ceremonial cleansing 
symbolised the inward purity required in those 
who bore the vessels of the Lord. 

11. Offer the Levites . .for an offering of 
the children of Israel] RV ' offer (lit. ' wave ') the 
Levites . . for a wave offering, on the behalf 
of the children of Israel.' The Levites were 
solemnly set apart by the representatives of 
the people laying their hands upon them, and 
they were also ' waved ' before the Lord as 
being that portion of the nation specially de- 
voted to the service of God. How the 
' waving ' was done is not certain, whether 
the Levites were led backwards and forwards 
by Aaron in the direction of the Holy of 
Holies, or whether Aaron merely waved his 
hands over them: see on Ex29 24 . 16. The 
Levites are accepted as the substitutes in the 
service of the tabernacle for the firstborn 
among the children of Israel, who are now 
redeemed by a money payment of five shekels : 
see Exl3 13 and cp. 18 15 > 16 . 19. Plague] see 
on 1 53 . When . . come nigh] RM l through 
coming nigh.' 24. Twenty and five years] see 
on 4 3 . 

CHAPTER 9 

Rules about the Passover. The Cloud 

as Guide 

1-5. The Passover of the second year. 
This Passover took place before the events 
narrated in c. 1: cp. 9 1 with l 1 . The repe- 
tition of the injunction to keep the Passover 
was necessary, because the law in Exodus did 
not contemplate the possibility of a Passover 
in the wilderness : see Exl2 25 . 

6-14. The Supplementary Passover. Cer- 
tain persons who were unable to celebrate the 
Passover at the proper time, because of a 
ceremonial defilement (v. 6), are enjoined to 
observe a supplementary Passover on the 
fourteenth day of the second month (vv. 9 f -). 
This was called ' The Little Passover.' 

13. Cutoff] seeonLv7 21 . 14. Stranger] 
one who is not a Hebrew by birth but has been 
admitted into the nation by circumcision, a 
proselyte; see Exl2 19 » 48 . 

15-23. The cloudy pillar as a signal on the 
march. This passage is parallel to Ex40 34-38 : 
see onExl3 21 . 

22. It is clear from this v. that the people 
were not continually marching during their 
sojourn in the wilderness : see intro. to c. 1. 



105 



10. 1 



NUMBERS 



11.31 



CHAPTER lO-i-io 
The Use of the Silver Trumpets 
This section, like the last, is connected with 



of the silver trumpets being to give the signal 
for the departure. 2. Of a whole piece] RV 
' of beaten work.' 9. If ye go to war] see e.g. 
31 6 2Chl3i 2 >i 4 . 10. See Lv 23 24 2Ch5i 2 



the breaking up of the camp, one of the uses Ezr3i°. 



PART 2 



JOURNEYINGS FROM SlNAI 

After a stay at Sinai of nearly a year (cp. 
NulOn with Exl9i) the signal is given for 
the breaking up of the camp. This second 
division of the book of Numbers relates the 
wanderings in the wilderness, and covers a 
period extending from the second to the for- 
tieth year of the exodus : see Nu 33 38 Dt 1 3 . 
But as the events recorded in 10 n -14 45 took 
place during the first few months after leaving 
Sinai, and the death of Aaron in 20 22 was in 
the fortieth year, very little space is given to 
the events of the intervening thirty-eight 
years of desert life, more especially as chs. 15, 
18, 19 are taken up with laws. There are 
indeed but two events recorded in that long 
period, viz. the rebellion of Korah and his 
company, with which is connected the blossom- 
ing of Aaron's rod (16, 17), and the death of 
Miriam and murmuring of the people at Kadesh 
(20 1" 13 ). It appears, therefore, that while the 
period of sojourn in the wilderness was of 
supreme importance, by way of preparing the 
people socially and religiously for the occupa- 
tion of the land of promise, it was uneventful. 
In all probability the Israelites led a fairly 
settled life, some of them scattered at a con- 
siderable distance from the headquarters of the 
camp, and moving about not always as one 
body but in separate detachments : see on 9 15-23 . 
During the greater part of this period Kadesh 
seems to have been their headquarters. See 
on 13 26 201, and cp. Dtl 46 . It was only near 
the end of this period that a concerted and 
continuous march was made from Kadesh to 
the plains of Moab (c. 21). 

CHAPTER 10H- 3 6 
The Departure from Sinai 

12. Paran] see on Exl5 22 . They do not 
actually reach Paran till 12 16 . 

29. In Ex 2 1 8 Moses's father-in-law is called 
Reuel and in 3 1 4 l8 Jethro. Here Hobab is 
called the son of Reuel (or Raguel), and there- 
fore apparently the brother-in-law of Moses. 
But in Jg4 n (RM) and perhaps here, too, he 
is called the father-in-law of Moses. There is 
therefore much uncertainty as to these names 
and relationships, which is increased by the 
fact that the word rendered father-in-law is of 
wide application. It lias been supposed that 
the name Reuel in Ex2 18 has been inserted by 
mistake, and that Hobab, otherwise called 
Jethro, was the son of Reuel and the father- 



to Moab (Chs. 10H-22i) 

in-law of Moses. He was a Midianite and well 
acquainted with the country through which the 
Israelites were to pass. The service he ren- 
dered to them was not forgotten in after times, 
so that it may be inferred that he yielded to 
the pressing invitation of Moses : see Jg 1 1Q 
IS 156. 

35. When the ark set forward] i.e. when- 
ever it set forward. Every stage of the 
journey was begun and ended with this prayer 
of invocation. Ps 68 recalls this march of the 
people through the wilderness with God at 
their head to ensure victory. 

CHAPTER 11 

Murmuring at Taberah and at Kibroth- 
Hattaavah 

1. In the uttermost parts of the camp] What 
is meant is that the fire began, where probably 
the murmuring began, at the extremity of the 
camp, perhaps among the ' mixed multitude ' 
(cp. v. 4). 3. Taberah] ' burning.' 4. The 
mixt multitude] see Ex 1 2 38 , where, however, a 
different word is used. Fell a lusting] longed 
for the delicacies of Egypt (v. 5). Wept 
again] This may refer to the story in Ex 16. 
15. My wretchedness] i.e. the failure of my 
attempts to lead this people : cp. the de- 
spairing complaint of Elijah in 1 K19 4 and of 
Jeremiah in Jer 15 1°. 16. Later Jewish writers 
saw in this command of Cod the origin of their 
Sanhedrim, or Council of Seventy, who regu- 
lated the affairs of the nation in later times : 
cp. Mkl5i. 18. Sanctify] see Ex 19i°>i 5 . 

25. They prophesied] This does not mean 
that they were able to predict the future, 
but that they broke out into the praise of 
God, and declared His will and goodness, 
while in a state of spiritual exaltation and 
ecstasy : see on Ex 71. 26. Were written] 
enrolled among the seventy. The fact that 
Eldad and Medad also received the spirit shows 
that the spirit of God is not limited to certain 
places or individuals, and that He is no re- 
specter of persons : cp. AclO 34 ' 35 - 44 - 48 . 

28. Cp. Mk9 38 > 3 9. 29. A good example of 
the magnanimity and unselfishness of Moses : 
see on 27 i5 . 

31. Two cubits high upon the face of the 
earth] The simplest interpretation of these 
words is that the quails were flying at this 
height (about 3 ft.) above the ground, which 
allowed the people to capture them easily. 



106 



n. 



NUMBERS 



13. 21 



Quails usually fly low, and with the wind 
(see on Exl6 13 ). 32. A homer is about ten 
bushels. The quails were spread out to dry 
tor preservation. 33. The plague was pro- 
bably due to surfeit : cp. Ps. 78* 3 - 31 106 13 " 15 . 

34. Kibroth-hattaavah] ' the graves of lust- 
ing ' : this and Hazeroth were between Sinai 
and Kadesh. 

CHAPTER 12 
The Jealousy of Miriam and Aaron 

In this scene Miriam is the chief actor : the 
punishment falls on her alone. Aaron seems 
to have been led away by her (cp. Ex32 22-25 ). 
The controversy arose in connexion with 
Moses' marriage with an Ethiopian, but the 
sequel, to which no reference is made to this 
matter, shows that the real reason of the 
strife is the jealousy of Miriam and Aaron 
over the superior position of their younger 
brother (vv. 2, 6-9). 

1. The Ethiopian woman] Heb. ' the Cushite 
woman.' This can hardly be Zipporah, who 
was a Midianite (Ex 2 16 > 21 ). Moses, it appears, 
had married again. Marriage with the Canaan- 
ites was forbidden (Ex 34 16 ), but not with the 
Egyptians (see Dt23 7 > 8 ). 2. Miriam is called a 
prophetess in Exl5 20 : see note there and cp. 
Ex4 u * 17 . 3. Moses made no retort to the 
criticism, thus exhibiting true greatness. 

6-8. The superior favour shown here to 
Moses consists (1) in? the direct manner in 
which God reveals His will to him, and (2) 
in his position of general authority. 12. Le- 
prosy was a living death, and contact with a 
leper involved the same defilement as with a 
dead body ; see Lvl3 45 . 14. The prayer is 
heard, but Miriam is obliged to submit to the 
customary seclusion and purification, in order 
that the people may know of her sin and 
punishment, and take warning. 

CHAPTER 13 
The Sending of the Spies and their 

Report 
8. Oshea] RV ' Hoshea,' meaning ' help ' 
or l salvation.' Joshua, or Jehoshua (v. 16), 
means ' Jehovah is my help ' : see on Exl7 9 . 
17. Southward] RV 'by (RM 'into') the 
South ' : lit. ' into the Negeb ' : see on Gn 1 2 9 . 
The spies, however, really went northward on 
this occasion, first through the Negeb, and 
then through the mountainous district lying 
N. of it, here called ' the mountain,' after- 
wards the ' hill -country of Judah,' to the W. 
of the Dead Sea. 20. Time of the firstripe 
grapes] i.e. about the end of July. 21. The 
wilderness of Zin lay N. or NE. of the wilder- 
ness of Paran, and may have formed part of 
it. Its chief town was Kadesh-Barnea (v. 26). 
Rehob and Hamath were in the extreme N. 
of the country : see Jgl8 28 Nu34 8 . 



The spies traversed the entire land from 
S. to N. The length of Canaan is about 180 m., 
and its average breadth between the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and the River Jordan about 40 m. 
The country may be regarded as consisting of 
three strips running N. and S. There is (1) 
the Maritime Plain extending inwards from 
the coast to a distance of from 4 to 15 m., very 
fertile, and including the famous Plain of 
Sharon and the Lowlands of the Philistines. 

(2) Behind this rises the ' Hill Country,' form- 
ing, as it were, the backbone of the Holy Land, 
and falling precipitously on the E. down to 

(3) the valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, 
which divides the land of Canaan from the 
Highlands of Gilead and Moab E. of the 
Jordan. See art. k Palestine.' In the earliest 
monumental records which we have, this land is 
called the ' land of the Canaanites ' or the ' land 
of the Amorites,' from which it may be in- 
ferred that these were the tribes originally 
inhabiting it. At a very early period the 
Hittites, a powerful kingdom to the N. of 
Canaan, established themselves in the country 
and have left monuments of their influence. 
At the time of the Israelitish Conquest the land 
was inhabited by a mixture of tribes. Of 
these, the principal were the Canaanites (i.e. 
probably ' Lowlanders '), dwelling in the Mari- 
time Plain and the valley of the Jordan, the 
Hittites and the Jebusites in the S., in what 
was afterwards called Judaga, the Hivites to 
the N. of these in what came to be known as 
Samaria, and still further N. the Perizzites. 
The Amorites (i.e. probably the ' Highlanders ') 
were found in the N. and also in the S. to the 
E. of the Jordan. The Philistines had also 
obtained a settlement in the southern part of 
the Maritime Plain : see Dt2 23 . Till recently 
it was thought that, prior to the Conquest by 
the Israelites, Canaan was an unknown and 
uncivilised country. We know now that long 
before that time, as early as 3500 B.C., Baby- 
lonian kings ruled over Canaan, and that the 
Babylonian language and civilisation were 
spread over the country. After the Baby- 
lonian influence came the Egyptian. At Tel- 
el Amarna in Egypt there has been discovered 
a great number of tablets dating about 1400 B.C., 
i.e. not long before the Conquest of Canaan 
by the Israelites. These tablets prove to be 
mostly letters to the king of Egypt from tri- 
butary princes in Canaan written in the Baby- 
lonian language. From them we learn that 
about the time of the exodus Canaan was 
subject to Egypt, and that instead of being a 
country of semibarbarians, it possessed a highly 
developed civilisation, in the ruling power at 
least. ' At that period Canaan had already 
behind it a long civilised past. The country 
was filled with schools and libraries, with richly 
furnished palaces, and workshops of artisans. 



107 



13. 23 



NUMBERS 



15. 39 



The cities on the coast had their fleets, partly 
of merchantmen, partly of warships, and an 
active trade was carried on with all parts of 
the known world.' But at the time of the 
exodus Egypt was beginning to lose its hold 
of the country. The native tribes were rest- 
less and rebellious, and Canaan was ready to 
be ' the prey of the first resolute invader who 
had strength and courage at his back.' These 
facts, recently discovered, throw a flood of 
light upon the Israelitish Conquest of the 
country. They explain how it was possible 
for the Israelites to enter and take possession 
of it. And they are valuable also as proving 
that long before the Captivity, as early as the 
exodus, the Israelites were in close contact, 
not only with Egyptian, but with Babylonian 
civilisation and religion. 

23. The brook (mg valley) of Eshcol] lay 
a little to the N. of Hebron, in a district 
still renowned for its fertility, and espe- 
cially for its vineyards. The cluster of 
grapes was carried by two men, not so 
much on account of its weight as its size, in 
order that it might not be crushed. 26. To 
Kadesh] see on v. 21. This was the most 
important station of the journey. The 
people remained here for the greater part 
of thirty-eight years between the sending of 
the spies and the entrance into Canaan: see 
on 20 l . According to Dt 1 19 > 22 the spies were 
sent out from Kadesh. 32. Eateth up the 
inhabitants] This refers to the warlike cha- 
racter of the inhabitants, who devour each 
other in strife. 33. The giants] Heb. the 
Nephilim. The word is found only here and 
in G-n6 4 . The report of the spies is of course 
exaggerated, but the original inhabitants seem 
to have been of unusual stature and strength: 
cp. Dt2H IS 17 4 -7, and on 2133-35. 

CHAPTER 14 

Discouragement of the People and 
Sentence of Forty Years' Wandering 

9. Bread for us] cp. 13 32 22 4 24 8. 12. Cp. 
Ex32 10f -, where a similar promise is made and 
where Moses shows the same self-effacing 
spirit. 13. Cp. Josh 7 9 2Sl 2 o p s 79!0. 17. 
Let the power of my LORD be great] i.e. in 
the eyes of the heathen, when they see Israel 
possessing the land. 18. See on Ex34 6 > 7 . 
22. These ten times] a round number indi- 
cating full measure: cp. Gn31 7 . 

33. Shall wander] RV ' shall be wanderers.' 
Better, 'shall In; shepherds,' Lead an unsettled 
life instead of occupying the land. The forty 
years are reckoned from the time of the de- 
parture from Egypt. SeeDt2 n . Bear your 
whoredoms] Buffer the penalty of your faith- 
lessness. 34. My breach of promise] HY 
1 my alienation' from you; RM k the revoking 
of my promise.' 40. The mountain] the 



Hill-country by way of which the spies had 
gone. The people presume to disobey the 
command of v. 25. 45. Unto Hormah] This 
was about 25 m. NE. of Kadesh. They must 
therefore have marched considerably to the 
N. of Kadesh: see on 21 3 . 

CHAPTER 15 

Laws regarding various Offerings 

1-16. Meal and Drink Offerings. The 
offerings here referred to are those presented 
along with other sacrifices (see on the Meal 
Offering, Lv2), and an enactment is made 
regulating the proportion of meal, oil, and 
wine to be used along with a lamb (vv. 4, 5), 
a ram (vv. 6, 7), and a bullock (vv. 8-10) 
respectively. These laws seem to have been 
given at Kadesh during the long sojourn 
there. 

4. Tenth deal] i.e. the tenth part of an 
ephah, which is about a bushel. A hin is about 
a gallon and a half: see Exl6 16 29 40 . 14. 
Stranger] see on 9 14 . 

17-21. The Offering of the First Fruits. 

20. Your dough] Probably a coarse kind of 
meal: cp. Ezk44 30 . 

22-31. Additional Laws regarding Sin Offer- 
ings (1) for the congregation (vv. 22-26) and 
(2) for the individual (vv. 27-31). 30. Pre- 
sumptuously] lit. ' with a high hand, ' wil- 
fully : see on Lv4 2 . Reproacheth the LORD] 
bringeth a reproach upon the Lord: i.e. causeth 
His name to be dishonoured. 

32-36. The Punishment of the Sabbath 
Breaker. 

This incident is designed to illustrate vv. 
30, 31. It tells how the man who reproached 
the Lord, by breaking the sabbath command- 
ment, was utterly cut off, i.e. put to death, as 
the Lord commanded Moses. 

38. Fringes in the borders of their 
garments] RM ' twisted threads.' The 
original form of these is uncertain. Judging 
from later times, they would be, not ornamental 
festoons running along the edge of the gar- 
ment, but tassels attached to each of its four 
corners by a thread of blue. A religious im- 
portance was attached to the wearing of these 
tassels. They were a visible reminder to the 
Jews of their obligation to keep the com- 
mandments of Jehovah (v. 39). In all proba- 
bility what we have here is the hallowing of 
an ancient custom, as these tassels seem to 
have been worn by the early Persians, among 
others. The Jews attached an ever-increasing 
importance to these symbolical ornaments of 
dress: cp. Mt 14 ™ 9 20 23 5 . The modern sur- 
vival is the Jewish tallith, or prayer-cloth, con- 
sisting of a strip of cloth with fringes on its 
border, which is thrown over the shoulders 
during the service in the synagogue. 39. All 
the commandments] The Rabbis enumerated 



108 



16.1 



NUMBERS 



17. 



613 commandments in the Law. It so happens 
that the numerical value of the letters in the 
Hebrew word for fringe (zizitli) is exactly 
600. To make this number up to 613 the 
tassel was made of eight threads with five 
knots. In this way each tassel represented 
the 613 commandments, and the wearing of it 
was said to be of equal merit with the keeping 
of the whole law. This is a good example of 
Rabbinical interpretation and of external 
scrupulosity. Go a whoring - ] see on Ex34 15 . 

CHAPTER 16 

The Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, 
Abiram, and On 

This incident is similar to that recorded in 
c. 12, and while it illustrates the difficulties 
Moses encountered in his leadership, owing to 
the jealousy of those under him, it served to 
confirm him (v. 28) and Aaron (c. 17) in the 
position assigned to them. It is now generally 
agreed that this c. is composed of two nar- 
ratives interwoven with each other. The 
one describes a rebellion led by Dathan, Abi- 
ram, and On against the civil authority of 
Moses (vv. 1, 2, 12-15, 25-34); while the other 
describes a different sort of rebellion, headed 
by Korah and 250 princes of the congregation, 
against the ecclesiastical leadership of Moses 
and Aaron. This separation of the c. into 
two distinct narratives reduces it to order 
and serves to explain, not only the literary 
inequalities, but also the differences of fact ; 
such as e.g. in the one case the refusal to 
obey the summons of Moses, and in the other 
the compliance with it (cp. v. 12 with 18, 19) ; 
the difference in locality, in the one case the 
sanctuary, and in the other the tents of Dathan 
and Abiram (v. 18 and 25, 26) ; and the 
different fate of the two companies, in the 
one case death by earthquake, and in the 
other by fire from the Lord (vv. 31-34 and 
35). 

4. The action may denote the dismay of 
Moses, but more probably his praying for 
guidance: cp. vv. 22, 45, 20 6 . 5. To Korah] 
not to Dathan and Abiram, whose rebellion is 
distinct from this : see above. 11. Against 
the LORD] not merely against Aaron, of whose 
privileges Koran and his company are envious. 

13. Dathan and Abiram are envious of the 
position of Moses. They complain that, in- 
stead of bringing them into a land flowing 
with milk and honey, as he had led them to 
believe he would do, he was taking them away 
from it into a wilderness (vv. 13, 14). Except 
thou make thyself] RY ' But thou must needs 
make thyself also.' 14. Put out the eyes of 
these men] blind them to the real state of 
matters. The English equivalent would be 
to ' throw dust in the eyes.' 19. All the 
congregation] This shows the serious nature 



of Korah's rebellion. The people were in 
sympathy with it. The claim put forward 
by Korah was plausible, and flattered the 
multitude : see v. 3. 22. The God of the 
spirits of all flesh must know the thoughts and 
intents of the heart and be able to judge the 
real instigator of the evil. The one man is 
Korah: cp. for the thought G-n 18 23 . 28. Hath 
sent me] i.e. Moses. Dathan's rebellion is 
directed against Moses as that of Korah against 
Aaron. On the sending of Moses see Ex 3. 
Not . . of mine own mind] The mark of the 
true messenger or prophet of God is that he 
does not speak of his own initiative : cp. Nu 24 13 
IK 22 is, 14 Jer 15-10 MtlO 1 ^. The false 
prophet, on the other hand, runs where he is 
net sent and speaks ' out of his own heart ' : 
see Ezkl3 2 Jerl4i4 23 25 " 32 . 30. Quick] i.e. 
alive. The pit] Heb. Sheol, usually rendered 
k the grave.' 32. Their houses] their house- 
holds, as in l 2 Gn7!. The sons of Korah, 
however, did not perish : see 26 n . 

36-39. The censers used by Korah and his 
company are collected and made into a cover- 
ing for the altar, as a memorial of their sin 
and punishment, and a warning to others 
against prof aning holy things : cp. Jude v. 11. 
37. Eleazar is commanded to do this, not 
Aaron, who, as high priest, must not defile 
himself with contact with the dead: see 
Lv2in. 38. The altar] the altar of burnt 
offering, which was overlaid with brass : see 
on Ex 3 1-10. 

41-50. The people now turn upon Moses 
and charge him with being the occasion of 
this calamity. Their unreasonable murmuring 
is punished with a plague, which is only stayed 
by means of the intervention of the high 
priest. 46. Incense was usually offered, 
not alone, but as an accompaniment of a 
sacrifice. On this occasion the plague had 
begun, and incense was the readiest sacrifice 
that could be offered. It is symbolical of 
prayer and intercession : see on Ex 30 1_1 °. 
Observe that the unauthorised offering of in- 
cense by the rebels was provocative of the 
divine indignation, while in the hands of Aaron, 
the appointed high priest, it was accepted as 
an atonement, and procured the grace of for- 
giveness. 48. A striking picture, illustrating 
the efficacy of believing prayer (cp. Jas5 15 > 16 ) 
and the way in which Christ by the offering 
of Himself has stayed the plague of sin and 
death : cp. Eph5 2 . 

CHAPTER 17 
Aaron's Authority Confirmed 
Korah and his followers having questioned 
the authority of Aaron and the claim of his 
family to the priesthood, the matter is put 
beyond the possibility of further doubt by 
the Blossoming of Aaron's rod. 



109 



17.2 



NUMBERS 



19. 17 



2. A rod] The common symbol of au- 
thority : cp. Ps 1 10 2 . 4. The testimony] i.e. the 
ark in which the ' testimony ' is kept : see on 
Exl6 34 . 8-1 1. On the morrow Aaron's rod 
is found to have put forth almond buds and 
fruit, while the others show no sign of life. 
In this way the exclusive right of the tribe 
of Levi and family of Aaron to exercise the 
priestly functions is decided. Aaron's rod is 
ordered to be laid up before the ark as a 
token to succeeding generations. 8. Yielded 
almonds] Observe that the three stages of 
vegetable life are simultaneously visible, 
blossoms, buds, and fruit. As the almond 
tree blossons in January when other trees are 
bare and before its own leaves appear, it is 
used to symbolise the way in which God fulfils 
His promises when men least expect it : see 
j er in,i2 } and cp. Isalli 53 2 Mt 4 13-16. 

10. Before the testimony] According to 
Heb9 4 the rod was kept in the ark. This, 
however, is nowhere asserted in OT. and may 
be a later tradition: cp. 1K8 9 . 12, 13. The 
people are awe-struck and impressed with the 
danger of approaching the sanctuary in any 
unauthorised manner. 

CHAPTER 18 

The Duties and Maintenance of 

Priests and Levites 

1. The priests are responsible for the ini- 
quity of the sanctuary and the priesthood, 
i.e. for their profanation at any time by un- 
authorised persons and by the sins of the 
priests themselves. On the Day of Atonement 
the high priest offers sacrifices to make atone- 
ment for himself and the sanctuary : see on 
Lvl6. 2. Levi] 'joined': see Gn29 34 . 

8-19. The provision for the maintenance of 
the priests. The priests receive part of the 
meal offerings (Lv 2 3 ), the sin and guilt of- 
ferings, except when these are presented by 
the priests on their own behalf (Lv4 26 ), the 
heave portion of the peace offerings (Lv3), 
the first fruits of oil, wine, and wheat 
(vv. 12, 13), devoted things (v. 14 ; see on 
Lv 27 '-' , -'-'*), firstlings of clean animals, the re- 
demption price of the firstborn of men and 
unclean beasts (vv. 15-18), and the tithe of 
the tithe paid to the Levites (vv. 25-28). 
9. Most holy] see on Lv2 3 . 16. See 3 47 
Lv27«. Shekel] see on Ex 38 24. i 9 . Cove- 
nant of salt] i.e. an indissoluble covenant : 
see on Ex 30 35. 

20-24. The priests and Levites have no in- 
heritance in the land of promise. By way 
of compensation the tithes are given to the 
Levites, who in turn give a tithe to the priests 
(v. 26). 20. Those who are separated to the 
service of God are taught to depend on Him. 
He sends no one into warfare at his own 
charges : see 1 Cor9 7 " 14 . 



25-32. The Levites are to tithe their own 
tithe and present it to the priests as a heave 
offering, as the ordinary Israelites do with the 
produce of their fields. The remainder they 
are allowed to enjoy in the same manner as 
others: cp. Lv27 30f . 31. In every place] 
not restricted, as in the case of the priests, 
to the holy place : see on Lv2 3 . 

CHAPTER 19 

The Sacrifice of the Red Heifer 

In order to provide a special means of 
purification for those who are defiled by con- 
tact with a dead body, a preparation called 
the ' water of separation ' is. made from the 
ashes of a red heifer and other ingredients. 
The origin of this rite may have been con- 
nected with the large number of deaths re- 
corded in 16 49 . Josephus, however, connects 
it with the death of Miriam (20 J ). 

1-10. A red heifer is slaughtered outside 
the camp and its blood sprinkled in the direc- 
tion of the sanctuary seven times (vv. 1-4). 
The entire carcase is burnt in the same place 
along with cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet 
wool, and the ashes are collected and preserved 
for use in purifying (vv. 5, 6, 9). Those who 
take part in the ceremony contract defilement 
(vv. 7,8,10). 2. Sacrificial animals are usually 
males. The use of a female in this case may 
be intended to symbolise the imparting of new 
life to those who have been defiled by con- 
tact with death. The same thought may 
underlie the regulation as to colour, red be- 
ing the colour of blood which is the token 
of life : cp. Lvl7 n . The words without spot 
probably mean ' without blemish.' 4. Directly 
before] RV ' Toward the front of ' ; i.e. in the 
direction of the sanctuary. 6. See on Lvl4 4 . 

9. Water of separation] RV 'water of 
impurity,' i.e. water for the removal of 
(ceremonial) impurity : see on 8 7 . 

11-16. The persons for whom this 'water 
of impurity ' is provided are those who have 
touched a dead body or anything connected 
with it. 

11. Owing to the mystery connected with 
death a dead body is regarded, not only 
among the Jews but among other nations of 
antiquity, as eminently dangerous and com- 
municating defilement in the highest degree. 
Moreover, such ceremonial defilement is easily 
associated with the idea of sin, as death is the 
wages of sin. 12. With it] i.e. with the 
' water of impurity.' 

17-22. The method of purification. The 
ashes of the heifer are mixed with water from 
a running stream or spring, and sprinkled 
upon the unclean person or thing. This is 
done on the third day after the defilement 
has been contracted. On the seventh day 
the unclean person washes his clothes, bathes, 



110 



20. 1 



NUMBERS 



21. 1 



and resumes his place in society at even. The (21 1 ). On the E. are the Edomites who are 



penalty of neglect is excommunication. The 
various parts of the expiatory rite lend them- 
selves easily to symbolical interpretation. The 
connexion of sin and death, the need of cleans- 
ing, and the ever-ready means of purification, 
are all exemplified. The writer of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews draws a parallel between the 
heifer, whose ashes were sanctified to the puri- 
fying of the flesh from the defilement arising 
from contact with dead bodies, and Christ 
who, also without spot, offered Himself with- 
out the camp to God to purge the conscience 
of believers from dead works, i.e. from works 
which cause death. See Heb 9 13 . 14 13 n > 12 . 

CHAPTEK 20 

Death of Miriam. Murmuring at 
Meribah. Death of Aaron 

i. Miriam dies while the people are at 
Kadesh (see on 13 21 > 26 ). The first month is 
the first month of the fortieth year. As 
the people came to Kadesh in the second year 
(see 13 26 ), they must have remained in the 
vicinity of Kadesh during the interval," or 
what is recorded here is a second arrival at 
the same place : cp. Dt2 14 . 

2-13. Murmuring at Meribah. 3. When 
our brethren died] This probably refers to the 
deaths following the rebellions of Korah and 
of Dathan and Abiram (c. 16). It implies 
that these occurrences were recent. 6. Fell 
upon their faces] see on 16 4 . 8. The rod] 
Seeing he took the rod from before the LORD 
(v. 9) it has been thought that Aaron's rod is 
meant : cp. 17 10 . But it was more probably 
Moses' staff which was associated with former 
dangers and deliverances : see Ex4 17 7 17 
14 16 175,9. 

12. Ye believed me not] The root of Moses' 
sin was unbelief. He doubted the power 
of God, or His willingness to bear longer 
with these rebels (v. 10), and instead of 
speaking to the rock, as he was commanded 
to do, he struck it twice : cp. Psl06 33 . The 
punishment was severe, but want of faith on 
the part of the leaders could not be over- 
looked or unpunished, because the people had 
seen it, and might be led away by the evil 
example : see on 12 14 . To sanctify me] God 
is always holy and His essential holiness can- 
not be increased. But the obedience and 
praise of His people cause His holiness and 
grace to be more widely known and acknow- 
ledged. Similarly God is said to be ' magnified,' 
as in Lk 1 46 : cp. the petition ' Hallowed be Thy 
name.' 13. Meribah] ' strife.' In 27 14 Dt 32 51 
it is called Meribah of Kadesh to distinguish it 
from the Meribah of Exl7 7 (see note there). 

14-21. The people prepare for the last 
stage of the journey to Canaan. The direct 
route to the N. is blocked by the Canaanites 



the kindred of the Israelites, being descended 
from Esau the brother of Jacob. Moses 
accordingly sends messengers to the king of 
Edom asking a passage through his country to 
theE. side of Canaan, but the request is refused. 

14. Thy brother] see above, and cp. Dt23 7 
Gn25 3 ° 368,9. The unnatural hostility of 
the Edomites on another occasion is the sub- 
ject of the book of Obadiah (see vv. 10-12) ; 
cp. also Ami 11 . 16. Sent an angel] see 
Ex 3 2 14 19 . 17. The king's high way] Edom 
lay on the direct route connecting Egypt with 
Babylonia. The king's way here, however, 
is not a proper name, but signifies the most 
direct route. They promised not to trespass 
or injure the country in passing through it. 

22-29. Death of Aaron. Turning south- 
ward so as to go round the country of the 
Edomites by way of the N. end of the Gulf 
of Akaba (see 21 4 ), the Israelites reach Mt. 
Hor. Here Aaron dies and is buried. Mt. 
Hor is identified by most travellers with a 
precipitous mountain nearly 5,000 ft. high, 
forming the principal elevation in the range 
of Mt. Seir. The wonderful rock city of 
Petra (or Sela), the capital of Edom, lay at 
its eastern base. A small mosque on the 
summit now marks the traditional site of 
Aaron's burial-place. 24. Gathered unto his 
people] This may suggest the continuance of 
life after death along with those who have 
gone before : see Gnl5 15 . Ye rebelled] The 
same word is applied to Moses and Aaron as 
Moses had applied to the people at Meribah 
(v. 10). The leaders, as well as the people 
with whom they were impatient, were ' rebels.' 

26. This signifies the succession of Eleazar 
to the priesthood. The ceremony of putting 
on the sacred robes was an important part of 
the consecration of the high priest. See 
Lv8 7 - 9 Ex29 29 , and cp. the action of Elijah, 
1K19 19 2K2 1 3-i5. 28. Moses also died on 
the top of a mountain : see Dt34*. Aaron 
died on the first day of the fifth month in the 
fortieth year of the exodus at the age of 143 : 
see 33 38 . 39 . 

29. The death of Aaron removed the second 
greatest figure from among the Israelites, and 
their first high priest. The writer of the 
Epistle to the Hebrews contrasts the human 
priesthood, which is imperfect by reason of its 
being constantly interrupted by death, with 
the 'unchanging priesthood' of Him 'who 
ever liveth to make intercession' for His 
people : see Heb7 23 " 28 . 

CHAPTER 21 
The Brazen Serpent. Conquest 
of Bashan 
1-3. The southern Canaanites repulse the 
Israelites, but are eventually destroyed. 



Ill 



21. 1 



NUMBERS 



21. 28 



i. King Arad] RV 'king of Arad.' The 
name of this place still survives in Tell Arad, 
some ruins about 16 m. S. of Hebron and 
about 50 m. N. of Kadesh. The way of the 
spies] RV ' the way of Atharim.' The word 
is evidently the name of a place. It has not 
been identified. 2. Destroy] lit. ' devote.' See 
on Lv27 26 " 29 . 3. -This took place much later : 
see Josh 12 14 Jgl 16 > 17 . Had they been vic- 
torious on this occasion the Israelites would 
naturally have marched directly northwards 
into Canaan ; but, being repulsed, they re- 
treated southwards, having registered this 
vow which was ultimately fulfilled. Hormah 
means a ' devoted thing.' It is from the same 
root as the verb in v. 2. 

4-9. The Brazen Serpent. Retreating 
southwards the people are discouraged and 
give way again to murmuring. Venomous 
serpents are sent among them. Moses is 
commanded to make a brazen serpent, and 
all who look to it in faith are healed. 4. To 
compass] to go round : see on 20 22 - 29 . The 
Red Sea] i.e. the arm now called the Gulf of 
Akaba. Because of the way] They were now 
marching away from Canaan instead of to- 
wards it. 5. This light bread] or, ' this vile 
food.' The manna is meant : cp. II 6 . 

6. Fiery serpents] i.e. serpents whose sting 
caused violent inflammation. Venomous sand- 
snakes are still found in this locality. 

8. Upon a pole] RV 'upon a standard.' 
This brazen serpent was long preserved by 
the Israelites, and ultimately became an 
object of superstitious veneration, in conse- 
quence of which Hezekiah ordered it to be 
destroyed (2K18 4 ). 

9. When he beheld the serpent of brass, he 
lived] rather, ' when he looked to it,' i.e. not 
casually but of purpose and with faith. The 
lifeless image of the serpent that had caused 
the pain and death of so many was a symbol 
of the victory over these things that God 
gives to those who trust in Him. The Jewish 
commentators recognise here an illustration of 
the power of faith. ' The serpent neither 
killed nor preserved alive, but if the Israelites 
lifted up their eyes and turned their hearts to 
their Father in heaven they were healed ; if 
not, they perished.' Similarly in the book of 
Wisdom (16 6 > 7 ), the brazen serpent is called 
' a token of salvation to put them in remem- 
brance of the commandment of Thy law, for 
he that turned toward it was not saved because 
of that which was beheld, but because of Thee, 
the Saviour of all.' The brazen serpent raised 
upon the pole, for the healing of those who 
were ready to die, is a striking emblem of the 
Saviour 'lifted up' on the Cross, for the 
salvation of all who are wounded by ' that old 
serpent the devil,' and who look in faith to 
Him : see Jn 3 14 . 



10-15. Journey to the Arnon. 

12. Zared] The Zered flowed into the 
Dead Sea at its southern extremity. 13. The 
other side of Arnon] This means the S. side 
of the river Arnon, as the story is narrated 
from the standpoint of one living in Canaan : 
see Intro, and 22 *. The Arnon flows into 
the Dead Sea about the middle of its E. side. 
It is the boundary between the Moabites on 
the S. and the Amorites on the N. The 
Israelites did not go through Moab, as the 
passage was denied to them, but went round 
it on the E. side, crossing the upper courses 
of the Arnon : see v. 11, and cp. Jgll 17 > 18 . 

14. As the Moabites afterwards crossed the 
Arnon and took possession of part of the land 
of the Amorites, this ancient fragment of 
poetry from the ' book of the Wars of the 
Lord' indicates the original boundary of 
Moab. The ' book of the Wars of the Lord,' 
which is mentioned only here in the OT., was 
probably a collection of war songs, illustrating 
what Jehovah did for His people by the hand 
of Moses. The other poetical fragments in 
this c. (vv. 17, 18, 27-30) are, in all proba- 
bility, from the same collection. What he did 
in the Red Sea] RV ' Vaheb in Suphah.' The 
words are names of localities now unknown. 
Some verb is to be supplied before them, such 
as ' they subdued.' 

16-20. Passage through the land of the 
Amorites from the Arnon to Pisgah at the N. 
end of the Red Sea. During this march the 
people seem to have suffered from want of 
water. The ' Song of the Well ' celebrates 
the finding of water at Beer. ' Beer ' means 
' well.' 20. Jeshimon] rather, ' the Jeshimon,' 
the plain lying to the NE. of the Dead Sea. 

21-30. Conquest of the Amorites and Song 
of Triumph. 

21. Cp. the similar request and refusal in 
2014-21. 

24. Was strong] This seems to give the 
reason why the Israelites did not follow up 
their conquest of the Amorites by entering 
the land of Ammon. LXX, however, reads, 
' the border . . was Jaazer,' a town mentioned 
in v. 32. 

27. In proverbs] This Hebrew word is some- 
times rendered ' parable.' It is applied to a 
by-word or taunt song : see 1 K 9 7 Jer 24 9 
Isal4* Job27i and Nu 23U8 243,15,20,21,23. 
The opening words of the song are an ironical 
challenge to the former inhabitants to return 
to Heshbon, which has been captured and 
destroyed. ' Come if you can,' they say, ' and 
dispossess us and repair the city of your king.' 
The next two vv. refer to the fact stated in 
v. 26. The haughty conqueror of Moab is 
now himself subdued. This song is quoted 
in Jer48 45 > 4 <\ 28. Read with RV 'fire went 
out . . it consumed.' The fire is the fire of 



112 






21. 29 



NUMBERS 



22.8 



war. 29. Chemosh] the sun-god of the 
Moabites to whom human sacrifices were 
sometimes offered : see 2K3 27 , and see on 
Gn22 Jgll 30f . The name occurs frequently 
on the Moabite Stone, a valuable relic dating 
from the 9th century B.C. and discovered at 
Dibon (see next note), on which Mesha, king 
of Moab (see 2K3 4 ), celebrates his victories 
over the Israelites, and attributes them to the 
favour of his god Chemosh. Solomon himself 
built a high place for Chemosh : see IK ll 7 . 
The words here should read l he (i.e. Chemosh) 
gave his sons as fugitives,' i.e. he abandoned 
them so that they fled. 30. We] the Israelites. 
Dibon is near the Arnon (v. 13). The locality 
of Nophah is unknown. Medeba is a few miles 
S. of Heshbon. The concluding words of the 
song are obscure, and may be rendered, ' and 
we laid waste so that fire raged unto Medeba.' 



33-35. Conquest of Bashan. Bashan was 
the northernmost part of the country E. of the 
Jordan, stretching from the river Jabbok in 
the S. to Mt. Hermon in the extreme N. 
This extensive district was celebrated for the 
richness of its vegetation, being ranked in this 
respect with Lebanon, Carmel, and Sharon : 
see Isa 33 9 Jer 1 19 Nan 1 4 . Its giant oaks and 
vast herds of wild cattle are frequently referred 
to by the sacred writers : see Dt32 14 Isa2 13 
Ezk 27 6 39 is Zech 1 1 2. In early times it was 
inhabited by a race of giants, from whom Og 
was descended (Gnl4 5 Dt3 n ; see on 13 33 ). 
The ruins of the Giant Cities of Bashan 
remain to testify to the strength of its former 
inhabitants. See additional notes on Dt3. 
After its final conquest it was occupied by 
the half tribe of Manasseh : see Nu32 33 
Dt3is. 



PABT 3 

In the Plains of Moab (Chs. 22-36) 



CHAPTEB 22 
Balaam 

The Israelites now enter upon the last 
stage of their journey to Canaan. They are 
within sight of the land of promise, being 
encamped at the northern end of the Dead 
Sea, near the mouth of the Jordan. Up to 
this point they have surmounted every obstacle 
and conquered the tribes on the east side of 
the river. But now, at the end of the journey, 
a graver danger faces them. Balak, king of 
Moab, finding that he cannot prevail against 
them with carnal weapons, has recourse to 
magical arts, hoping in this way to destroy 
them. He sends to the Euphrates for the 
famous magician Balaam to come and ' curse 
Israel.' As the sequel shows it is all in vain. 
Not even the powers of darkness can stop the 
victorious march of Jehovah's people. The 
whole incident is designed to show that Israel 
by the grace of G-od is proof, not only against 
the sword of the enemy, but also against the 
evil powers of the unseen world. There is 
no enchantment against Israel. God is for 
them, and nothing can be against them. They 
are able to wrestle, not only against flesh and 
blood, but against spiritual wickedness in high 
places. 

1. The district in which the Israelites are 
encamped is called the plains of Moab, as it 
formed part of the territory of the Moabites 
before their conquest by the Amorites (21 26 ). 
On this side Jordan] The Hebrew is ' beyond 
Jordan.' So RV : see on 21 13 . 

4. Elders of Midian] The home of the 

Midianites is usually supposed to have been 

within the Sinaitic peninsula towards the S. 

or SE. : see Ex2 15 3 1 . Here they are found 

8 1 



to the E. of the Jordan, associated with the 
Moabites in their attempt to bar the progress 
of the Israelites : cp. Gn36 35 Nu25 6 . Their 
conquest is described in Nu31. 

5. RV ' sent . . to Pethor, which is by the 
River, to the land of the children,' etc. The 
' River ' is the Euphrates. The ancient Chal- 
deans and Babylonians, like the modern Arabs, 
had a firm belief in the existence and influ- 
ence of demons. They also believed that 
certain persons had the power of controlling 
these demons by means of magic spells and 
incantations, and these magicians or sooth- 
sayers were frequently employed to discover 
secrets, to foretell the future, to bless an 
undertaking, or bring ruin upon an enemy. 
Balaam's fame as a man of this sort had 
travelled far beyond the limits of his own 
land, as is shown by the embassy of the king 
of Moab: see on Ex7 n . 7. Rewards of 
divination] the presents made to Balaam to 
secure his offices. In 2 Pet 2 15 Balaam is said 
to have loved ' the wages of unrighteousness.' 

8-21. Balaam, being warned by God in a 
dream, refuses to go ; whereupon Balak sends 
a more pressing invitation with promise of a 
larger reward. Balaam hesitates, but at length 
yields, having received permission to go, but 
to speak only as God directs him. 8. Balaam 
has been blamed for hesitating here. This, 
however, is unjust. On the occasion of the 
first message from Balak he was honestly in 
doubt whether he ought to go or not, and it 
is to his credit that he would do nothing till he 
had learned what the mind of God was. It 
was otherwise, however, on the second occa- 
sion (v. 19), when he dallied with the tempting 
offer, in the hope that God would change His 
purpose, and allow him to go and do as Balak 



13 



22. 12 



NUMBERS 



23.10 



wished. If the words the LORD, i.e. Jehovah, 
in this v. were really used by Balaam, and are 
not due to the historian, then it would appear 
that Balaam knew the God of Israel and 
worshipped Him. This is by no means im- 
possible. Balaam lived in the land from which 
Abraham went out (see Gnll 28 - 31 24*-i0), and 
he was no doubt aware of the history of Abra- 
ham's descendants, more especially if he was 
connected with the Midianites (see 31 8 ). It 
need occasion no surprise that God made use 
of this semi-heathen soothsayer to declare His 
will. It is but an illustration of the truth 
that the Spirit of God is not bound : cp. 
Am9 7 . Throughout the whole incident 
Balaam appears as the somewhat unwilling 
medium whereby God chooses to confirm His 
unchangeable purpose towards Israel. He 
stands midway between the true prophet of 
Jehovah and the heathen magician or sooth- 
sayer. 

12. They are blessed] see Gn 22 W, is Nu 6 2 ?. 
1 8. This is said in good faith. But Balaam 
is moved by the tempting offer of Balak ; and, 
while He does not mean to disobey God, he is 
not without hopes of inducing God to change 
His mind. He does not yet know that Jeho- 
vah's ' kindness shall not depart nor His 
covenant of peace be removed.' 20. Balaam 
is allowed to go, but only on condition that 
he will speak the word that God gives him. 

22-41. On the way Balaam receives a warn- 
ing not to go beyond the word of the Lord. 
22. God's anger was kindled because he 
went] This seems to contradict what is said 
in v. 20, that God gave him permission to 
go. But that permission was conditional. 
He might go, but he must speak only what is 
given him to say. Balaam gladly seizes the 
opportunity of going, for he is hankering after 
the reward. For the present he ignores the 
condition. In his heart he hopes to evade it 
and satisfy Balak. But God, who is the dis- 
cerner of the thoughts and intents of the 
heart, sees the double-mindedness of Balaam, 
and gives him to know that there must be no 
trifling. Unless he really means to be obedient 
he must stay at home. On the ' angel of the 
Lord ' see on Ex 3 2 . 

31. Opened the eyes of Balaam] Up to this 
point Balaam has been like a blind man. He 
has been determined to have his own way. But 
now he sees it is useless trying to deceive God 
or fight against Him. Like Saul he finds it is 
' hard to kick against the pricks ' : cp. Ac 9 4 " 6 . 
The refusal of his erstwhile docile ass to carry 
him further is the God-employed means of 
bringing the obstinate prophet to his senses. 
How this was done it is vain to speculate. 
Some explain away the incident of the vision 
and the ass speaking e.g. as a dream which 
Balaam had before starting, or a vivid impres- 

1 



sion made upon him by the liveliness of his 
own thoughts ; but evidently the writer of the 
narrative believed in the reality of both. In 
this he simply occupies the standpoint of his 
age. 

34. Balaam is now convinced that it is use- 
less hoping to satisfy Balak, and wishes simply 
to have nothing more to do with the matter. 
But this is not the will of God. Balaam must 
go as His messenger and bless His people. 

40. Offered oxen] most probably in sacrifice. 
It was usual to offer sacrifice at the beginning 
of any momentous undertaking, or on the 
arrival of an important visitor: see Gn31 54 
1K1921 1S165. 

41. Baal] 'owner' or 'lord'; the name of 
a deity, usually identical with the sun, and 
worshipped by a number of early Semitic 
tribes, including the Phoenicians. The place 
of worship was commonly the top of a hill. 
There was a sanctuary of Baal in this neigh- 
bourhood on Mt. Peor : see 25 3 . The utmost 
part] Balak showed Abraham the whole extent 
of the Israelites, probably to justify his alarm 
at their presence, and exhibit the instant neces- 
sity of cursing this formidable army. 

CHAPTER 23 

Balaam (continued) 
1-10. First Utterance of Balaam. 
1. On the meaning of these sacrifices see 
on 22 40 . Balak may have intended these sacri- 
fices for Baal, but Balaam at all events thinks 
of the God who spoke to him at Pethor and 
whose angel met him on the way (see v. 4). 
3. I will go] to inspect the omens, to see what 
indications are visible of God's will: cp. 24 l 
Lvl9 31 . To an high place] RV 'to a bare 
height': see on 22 41 . 7. Balaam is constrained 
to bless Israel as God has manifestly done. This 
is plain from three signs, (1) the separation of 
the people (v. 9), (2) their number (v. 10), and 
(3) their righteousness (v. 10). Aram] the 
ancient name of Mesopotamia. 

9. The people shall dwell alone, etc.] rather, 
' Behold a people that dwelleth alone and is 
not reckoned among the nations ! ' Balaam 
singles out what was, and is still, a distinguish- 
ing characteristic of the Hebrew people, viz. 
their separateness from other nations. They 
were chosen of God in Abraham their ancestor, 
and throughout the long course of their his- 
tory have been distinguished from other 
nations, both by their religion and manner of 
life. To this day, though they have no 
country, they are still a separate nation : see 
Ex 1 9 5 > c 33 16 L v 20 24 > 26, and frequently in the 
prophets, e.g. Isa43 21 Am3 2 . 

10. The righteous] The people of Israel are 
culled k the righteous' because God, who is 
Himself righteous, has called them to be the 
same. The Heb. word for ' righteous ' is 

14 



23. 13 



NUMBERS 



24. 17 



Jashar, and Jeshurun is a poetical name given 
to Israel in Dt32* 5 33 5 > 26 Isa44 2 . It is pos- 
sible that the title given to a collection of 
national poetry, the book of Jashar (see Josh 
10 13 2S1 1S : see on 21 14 ) contains the same 
idea. Balaam's words mean that Israel's fate 
will be enviable, and the opposite of what 
Balak desires it to be. His own fate was 
miserable : see 31 s . The death of the right- 
eous is only attained by those who are willing 
to lead the life of the righteous. 12. Cp. 
1K22 13 > 14 . 

13-26. Balaam's Second Utterance. 

13. Seeing that Balaam had been impressed 
with the multitude of Israel (v. 10), Balak 
now restricts the prophet's view of the host, 
in the hope that he may be prevailed upon to 
curse it : see on 22 41 . 14. Zophim] 'watchers' 
or ' lookers-out.' It is from the same Heb. 
root as Mizpah (see Gn31 49 ). Pisgahis pro- 
bably the general name for the mountain range 
lying to the KE. of the Dead Sea, of which 
Nebo (Dt34i), Peor (v. 28), and Zophim are 
peaks. In Dt32 49 this mountain range is 
called Abarim. Zophim may be so called 
simply as being a point of outlook, but it is 
possible to see in the name a reference to the 
practice of watching the omens from elevated 
situations. 

18. Balaam declares that G-od's purpose to 
bless Israel cannot be altered (vv. 19, 20). 
With them He is well pleased (v. 21). It is 
He who is bringing them out of Egypt, and 
with Him as Leader and Defender they are 
certain to be victorious (vv. 22-24). 19. Balak 
is wrong in thinking to induce God by means 
of enchantments to alter His purpose : cp. 1 S 
1 5 29 Isa 54 10 Ro 1 1 29 Tit 1 2 Heb 6 13 - 18 Jas 1 v. 

21. The shout of a king] is not the shout 
raised by a king, but the shout raised at the 
presence of a king. Israel rejoices in having 
God as their king : see Exl5 18 Dt33 5 Isa 
33 22 . 22. God brought] rather, ' It is God, and 
no other, that is bringing them out of Egypt.' 
They are here under the divine direction : cp. 
Ex20 2 29 46 Lvl9 36 . Unicorn] RY ' the wild 
ox,' or buffalo: cp. Dt33^. 23. The ren- 
dering of AV gives the sense ' it is useless to 
employ the powers of enchantment against 
this people ; they are proof against all such 
weapons.' But the right rendering is rather, 
' there is no enchantment in Jacob,' i.e. this 
people has no need to employ magical arts in 
its defence, as you, Balak, are doing now, for 
they have God for their protector. Accord- 
ing to this time] better, ' at this time,' ' now.' 

24. A great lion] Heb. ' a lioness.' 

25. What Balak means is, ' If you will not 
curse them, I forbid you to bless them.' 

28. Peor] is a peak of the mountain range 
of Moab. See on v. 14. On Jeshimon see on 
2120. 



CHAPTER 24 
Balaam (continued) 

1-9. Balaam's Third Utterance. 

1 . To seek for enchantments] lit. ' to meet 
omens': see on 23 3 . Toward the wilderness] 
i.e. towards the plain where the Israelites 
were encamped: see21 20 22 1 . 2. The spirit 
of God came upon him] cp. 1S19 20 . The 
following utterances are introduced in a more 
solemn manner (see vv. 3, 4, 15, 16), and are 
prophetic of the future. 

3. Hath said] The English here is too 
commonplace to represent the original, which 
is in a very lofty and impassioned strain. 
' Oracle of Balaam, son of Beor ; oracle of 
the man whose eyes are opened ; oracle of 
him who hears the words of God, who sees 
the vision of the Almighty, falling upon his 
face with his eyes open.' The first word 
rendered ' opened ' is of uncertain meaning. 
It may mean 'closed,' in which case it implies 
that Balaam's eyes are closed to earthly sights 
but open to the heavenly. Or it may refer to 
his previous condition. Hitherto scales have 
been upon his eyes, but now he sees the vision 
of the Almighty. 4. Falling into a trance] 
rather, ' falling upon his face.' There is no 
word in the original corresponding to the 
words ' into a trance.' He falls to the ground, 
overpowered by the Spirit of God that comes 
upon him: cp. 1S19 24 Ezkl 28 Dan8 17 > 18 Ac 
94 R ev 117. 

6. The images in this and the next v. are those 
of fruitfulness and vigour. The lign (i.e. the 
wood-) aloe is a large spreading tree much prized 
for its aromatic qualities (Prov 7 1>l Song 4 14 ), 
and the cedar is the king of trees (1K4 33 Ps 
10416): cp. Psl 3 Ezk31 3 -5. 7. He shall pour 
the water] better, ' water shall flow from his 
(i.e. Israel's) buckets, and his seed (i.e. his 
posterity) shall be in abundance of water.' 
Israel will always flourish. The literal and 
the metaphorical are here combined : cp. 
Gn 49 22 > 2 s Dt 33 1 3 , and see on Lv 26 4 . Agag] 
the dynastic name of the Amalekite kings: cp. 
1S15 32 . The kingdom of Israel will surpass 
that of Amalek. 8. See on 23 2 . The subject 
of the second half of the v. is Israel, who is 
compared to a ravening lion, the king of beasts. 

9. Blessed is he, etc.] cp. Gnl2 3 27 29 . 

10-14. Balak in anger dismisses Balaam, 
who before departing predicts the destruction 
of Moab and other nations by Israel. 

15-24. Balaam's Fourth Utterance: a pre- 
diction of the dominion of Israel and the 
downfall of Moab, Edom, Amalek, and Asshur. 

17. I shall see him, etc.] This should be ren- 
dered ' I see him ' (i.e. the Israel of the future, 
and specially the Star who is to rise among 
them) ' . . I behold him . . A Star is risen out of 
Jacob . . ' To the eye of Balaam, in his 



115 



24. 18 



NUMBERS 



25.6 



spiritual ecstasy, the future stands out as the 
present. A Star] A common symbol of a 
brilliant ruler: cp. Isal4i2 92Mt2429 Eev22ie 
and the expression ' hosts of heaven.' For 
the sceptre as the symbol of authority see Gn 
49 10 Psll0 2 . This prediction refers in the 
first place to David, who ' smote Moab and 
Edom' (2S8 2 > 14 , cp. Ps60 8f -), but applies also 
to ' David's greater Son.' From early times 
the Jewish commentators have interpreted 
the prophecy as Messianic. The name Bar- 
cochba (i.e. ' Son of a star ') was assumed by 
one who claimed to be the Messiah, not long 
after the time of our Lord, taking the title no 
doubt from this prophecy of Balaam. Chris- 
tians will see in the words of Balaam a 
prophecy of Jesus, the true Messiah, the King 
of kings and Lord of lords. He Himself, 
and not the star which was seen at His birth 
(Mt2 2 ), is the fulfilment of the prediction. 
Children of Sheth] RY 'the children of 
tumult,' as in the parallel passage Jer48 45 , 
where another word from the same root is 
used. 1 8. Seir] the name given to the land 
of the Edomites : see Gn36 8 > 9 Dt2*. His 
enemies] the enemies of Israel, or rather of 
the Ruler here spoken of. The fulfilment of 
this prophecy is recorded in 2 S 8 14 . Cp. also 
Isa63!- 4 , and see on 20 8 > 9 . 

20. First of the nations] probably in rank ; 
but see on Exl7 8 . The next clause reads 
' but his end (shall come) to destruction ' : cp. 
Exl7 14 ' 16 , and for the fulfilment of the pre- 
diction see IS 14 48 157,8 3017 2S8 12 lCh4 4 3. 

21. The Kenites] Unlike the tribes pre- 
viously mentioned the Kenites were always 
friendly to the Israelites, and consequently 
the words of Balaam foretelling their de- 
struction are more of sympathy than of threat- 
ening. Hobab, the father-in-law of Moses, 
was a Kenite, and his descendants settled 
alongside the tribe of Judah in the S. of 
Canaan (JgliMU): see also 1 S 15 6 3026,29 
1 Ch 2 r>5 . Of their subsequent history nothing 
is known. See on v. 22. Thy nest] The 
Heb. word for nest is ken, so that there is 
here a play upon the name of this tribe. 

22. The rendering is doubtful. We may 
translate, ' Nevertheless the Kenite shall be 
wasted. How long ? Asshur (i.e. Assyria) 
shall carry thee away captive.' Or, ' But the 
Kenite shall not be wasted until Asshur shall 
carry thee (i.e. Israel) away captive.' 

24. Chittim] the dwellers in Cyprus or in 
the islands of the Mediterranean generally. 
They are said to have emigrated from Phoe- 
nicia. In GnlO 4 the Chittim are said to be 
descended from Javan, ihe ancestor of the 
Ionian (i.e. the Greek) races. In Dan 11 30 the 
' ships of Kittim ' are those of the Romans, 
so that Chittim may be a general designation 
of the Western races, and Balaam's words a 



prediction of the overthrow of the Eastern 
monarchies (Asshur = the Assyrians or Per- 
sians, and Eber = the Hebrews or Syrians) by 
the empires of the West. He also] most 
probably the conquering nation, the Chittim. 
It may, however, refer to Asshur or Eber. 

These last prophecies of Balaam, on Amalek, 
the Kenites, the Chittim, Asshur, and Eber, 
have all the appearance of being an appendix, 
and are supposed by many to be a later addi- 
tion to the original prophecies regarding Israel. 

CHAPTER 25 
Idolatry and Immorality of the Israel- 
ites at Shittim. The Zeal of Phinehas 

1-5. The Israelites, who have just been 
exhibited as proof against enchantments, are 
not able to resist the temptations to idolatry, 
and its connected sin of immorality, arising 
from their proximity to the tribes of Moab 
and Midian. In 31 16 their apostasy is attri- 
buted to the counsel of Balaam (see also 
Rev2 14 ), who is afterwards put to death for 
it (Nu 3 1 8 Josh 1 3 22). But it is difficult with- 
out violence to reconcile this conduct on the 
part of Balaam with his former attitude 
towards Israel, and his utterances regarding 
them. Moreover, the last verse of the pre- 
ceding chapter is evidently intended to mark 
his return to the Euphrates and his disappear- 
ance from the subsequent history of Israel. 
It seems almost beyond doubt that there was 
from early times a double tradition regarding 
this famous soothsayer. According to one, 
Balaam is a Mesopotamian soothsayer who 
becomes the instrument of God in blessing 
His people and foretelling their future great- 
ness ; according to the other, he is a Midian- 
itish counsellor who sets himself to seduce the 
people of Jehovah and suffers the extreme 
penalty of his error. 1. Shittim] (' the 
acacias ') is the name of the encampment in 
the plains of Moab : see 33 49 and cp. Josh 2 K 

3. Baal-peor] There appears to have been a 
sanctuary of Baal on the top of Mt. Peor : 
see on 22 41 23 14 . 4. The heads] the ring- 
leaders. Hang them up] Some shameful form 
of execution, followed by impalement : see 
on Dt2122. 

6-18. The zeal of Phinehas in slaying with 
his own hand an Israelite and his Midianitish 
concubine is rewarded with the promise of the 
permanence of the priesthood in his family : 
cp. Ex 32 26-29 an d notes there. 

This incident while related to the foregoing 
is distinct from it. Literary evidence shows 
that vv. G-18 are from a different source from 
vv. 1-5. Observe that in the one case the 
punishment is slaughter (v. 5), and in the 
other plague (v. 9), and that the source of 
temptation in the one case is Moab and in the 
other Midian: see on vv. 16-18. 6. Were 



116 



25. 11 



NUMBERS 



27. 12 



weeping] on account of the plague (v. 8). 8. 
There is no previous mention of a plague 
having broken out, and the word can hardly 
apply to the slaughter in v. 5. We are here 
dealing with a separate incident. II. Zealous 
for my sake] lit. ' jealous with my jealousy.' 
God, as the Redeemer of Israel, has a special 
claim upon their reverence and affection. 
When they turn to other gods His love is 
wounded, and He is jealous with a holy 
jealousy : see on Ex20 5 . 

13. An everlasting priesthood] Phinehas 
succeeded to the high priesthood after his 
father's death (Jg20 2S ), and the succession 
remained in his family till the time of Eli, 
when it passed for some reason to the house 
of Ithamar. Solomon, however, restored the 
high priesthood to the descendants of Phinehas 
(1 K 2 35 ). This action of Phinehas in defend- 
ing the purity of the religion of Israel at a 
critical moment was rewarded, not only with 
this blessing from the Lord, but with the 
grateful admiration of succeeding generations. 
In Psl06 we read that his zeal was 'counted 
unto him for righteousness unto all generations 
for evermore,' words which St. Paul applies to 
Abraham himself (Ro4 22 Gal3«). In Ecclus 
4523-26 he is called the 'third in glory' after 
Moses and Aaron, and his example is quoted 
in 1 Mac 2 26 . So blessed is the memory of the 
just. 

16-18. Commandment is given to vex the 
Midianites (i.e. count them as dangerous 
adversaries) and to smite them. For its fulfil- 
ment see c. 31. Injunctions like this, which 
were ordered to be carried out with extreme 
severity, were given in the interests of Israel 
and the purity of religion and morals. In no 
other way could that ' separateness ' be main- 
tained which Balaam recognised as one of the 
distinctions of the Israelites (see on 23 9 ). For 
the Christian parallel see 2 Cor 6 14 " 18 and 
cp. 5 29 > 30 . 

The omission of any reference to the 
Moabites in this passage bears out what is 
said above as to the different sources of 
vv. 1-5 and 6-18. 

CHAPTER 26 

The Second Numbering of the People 
The first took place thirty-eight years before 
(see c. 1) at Mt. Sinai. The people are 
shortly to enter Canaan, and this second 
enumeration is made in view of the prospective 
division of the land among the twelve tribes : 
see vv. 52-56. The total result shows a 
decrease of 1,820. While Manasseh has 
increased by no less than 20,500, Simeon has 
decreased by the extraordinary amount of 
37,100. The latter tribe may have suffered 
most severely in the recent plague, seeing that 
Zimri was a Simeonite (25 14 ). 



55. The casting of lots is of the nature of an 
appeal to God, and was resorted to in order to 
detect a culprit (Josh 7 14 1S14 42 Jonl?), to 
select an office-bearer (1S10 20 lCh24 4 > 5 
Ac 1 2(5 ), or to make a division of property as 
here (cp. Mt27 35 ). See also Lvl6 8 and the 
note on Urim and Thummim, Ex 28 30 . In the 
case before us, lots were cast to determine the 
locality of each tribe's inheritance, but its size 
was regulated by the number of the names, 
the relative fertility of each locality being 
also no doubt taken into consideration. The 
twelve lots, which would be tablets of wood 
or stone, each inscribed with the name of a 
tribe, were probably put in an urn ; and, as 
the name of each portion of land was called 
out, the high priest or representative of a tribe 
(see 34 16 " 29 ) drew a lot, and the tribe whose 
name was drawn inherited that territory. The 
precise boundaries would be adjusted after- 
wards, according to the population shown by 
the census. 64, 65. See 14 22 " 32 . 

CHAPTER 27 

The Law of the Inheritance of Daugh- 
ters. Joshua appointed as the Suc- 
cessor of Moses 
i-ii. According to 26 53 (cp. v. 2) the land 
was to be apportioned to the males. Zelo- 
phehad, of the tribe of Manasseh, had died 
leaving no sons (26 33 ); and his daughters, 
fearing that they would have no inheritance, 
request that they and their sons should suc- 
ceed to the inheritance of their father, and 
thus perpetuate his name. Their claim is 
pronounced to be just, and it is enacted that 
daughters should inherit where there are no 
sons, and, failing daughters, the nearest rela- 
tives of the father. It was afterwards further 
enacted (c. 36) that daughters succeeding to 
an inheritance must marry within their own 
tribe, in order that the property should re- 
main in that tribe and not be alienated to 
another. 3. Died in his own sin] These 
words have led Jewish commentators to 
identify Zelophehad with the man who was 
stoned for sabbath breaking (15 32 " 36 ). But 
their meaning rather is that Zelophehad had 
not forfeited his inheritance by any specially 
heinous act of transgression, but had died the 
common death of all men (cp. 16 29 ). 

12-23. Moses receives intimation of his ap- 
proaching death, and Joshua is appointed leader 
in his place. 12. This command is repeated 
in Dt32 48f -. and its fulfilment related in Dt 
34. In the interval before his death, Moses 
delivered the concluding laws contained in the 
book of Numbers and the addresses in the 
book of Deuteronomy. The conquest of the 
Midianites seems also to have taken place in 
this interval, if at least the order of the nar- 
rative corresponds to the actual order of 



117 



27. 13 



NUMBERS 



81. 



events (see c. 31). Mount Abarim] see on 
23 24 . 13. Gathered unto thy people] see on 
20 24 . 14. To sanctify me] see on 20 12 . 15. 
Moses stifles his personal feelings of disap- 
pointment and grief, and thinks only of the 
flock he is leaving behind. This noble self- 
effacement was conspicuous on other occasions : 
see Ex 32 32 Null 29 14 1M 3 . If the work 
goes on, he is content that God should bury 
the workman: cp. Ro9i' 3 Phil 1 is. 17. To 
lead out (to pasture) and to bring in (to the 
fold) is the work of the shepherd : cp. Jn 10 3 > 4 . 
18. The spirit] i.e. the necessary qualifi- 
cation : see on Ex28 3 31 4 . Joshua had no 
doubt learned much from his close association 
with Moses as his attendant: see Ex24 i3 32 1 7 
33 n Nu 1 1 28 . He had also some experience 
as leader of the army of Israel (Exl7 9f -). 
Moreover, he had given evidence of his faith 
and courage at Kadesh, being the only one 
save Caleb who was prepared to go forward 
in reliance on the divine promises and help 
(Nul4 6f -). Lay thine hand upon him] in 
token of consecration: cp. Ac6 6 13 3 lTim4 14 
2 Tim 1 6 . Observe that the three marks of a 
regularly consecrated minister of God are 
present here, viz. the call of God, the neces- 
sary gifts, and a public and solemn ordination 
to office. 19. Give him a charge] see Dt 
31^,8,23. 2I . Urim] see on Ex 28 3 °. 

CHAPTER 28 
Laws regarding Sacrifices and Festivals 
I, 2. The general laws regarding the sacri- 
fices proper to the feast days had already been 
given at Sinai (Lv 23). Their repetition with 
certain details here probably indicates that 
these laws had been neglected. Some of them, 
indeed, were only intended to be observed 
after the settlement in Canaan, which was 
now in the near future. Moreover, the genera- 
tion to whom they were spoken at Sinai had 
passed away. Hence their repetition here to 
the younger generation. 2. My bread] or 
' my food ' : see on Lv 3 n . 

3-8. The daily morning and evening burnt 
offering with its proper meal and drink offer- 
ing : see on Ex29 38f . 

9, 10. The Sabbath Offering is double that 
of ordinary days. 

11-25. Tne Festival of the New Moon is 
frequently mentioned alongside that of the 
sabbath: see Am 8 5 2K4 23 Isali 3 56 2 > 3 Hos 
2 11 . It was a festival of great antiquity, 
dating from the time when the moon was an 
object of adoration. The Hebrews were for- 
bidden to worship the moon (Dtl7 3 ), but the 
Festival of the New Moon was retained and 
transformed into a festival in honour of the 
Creator. Additional sacrifices were offered, and 
the silver trumpets were sounded during the 
performance of the sacrificial rites (NulO 10 ). 



The day was observed as a day of rest, and 
was celebrated with great joyfulness. A 
special importance attached to the new moon 
of the seventh month: see 29 1- 6 . 

16-25. On the Passover Offering see Ex 12 
andcp. Lv23 4 -8. 

26-31. The Day of the First Fruits is also 
known as the Feast of Weeks or Pentecost : 
seeonLv23 9 - 22 . 

CHAPTER 29 

Religious Ordinances of the Seventh 

Month 

The seventh month (Tishri = September- 
October) was the first month of the civil year 
(see on Lv23 23 ' 25 ), and this c. describes the 
three sacred festivals which fell during that 
month. 

1-6. The Feast of Trumpets on New Year's 
Day : see Lv 23 23 ' 2 5. 

7-1 1. The Day of Atonement, the tenth day 
of the month : see Lvl6. 

12-38. The Feast of Tabernacles, beginning 
on the fifteenth day of the month and lasting 
eight days. The sacrifices proper to this feast 
are unusually numerous, a feature expressive 
of its joyous nature, as the Feast of Harvest 
Thanksgiving : see Lv 23 33 " 43 . 

CHAPTER 30 

The Law of Vows 

This c. deals with the subject of Vows, 
which is also treated in Lv27, where see notes. 
A vow made by a man is binding (v. 2). But 
a woman is not considered to have an inde- 
pendent right to make a vow. So long as she 
is unmarried she is under the jurisdiction of 
her father, and on her marriage she comes 
under that of her husband. The assent, there- 
fore, of her father or husband must be given 
or implied in order that her vow may be 
binding. 2. Vow a vow . . or swear an oath 
to bind his soul] The former is a positive vow 
or vow of performance ; the latter is a nega- 
tive vow or vow of abstinence : see on Lv27. 

3-5. Case of an unmarried woman. 

6-8. Case of a woman who has entered into 
a vow while unmarried, but who marries before 
her vow is fulfilled. The husband has the 
power either to confirm his wife's vow, or 
disallow it when he hears of it. The words 
in v. 6 should read ' if she be married to a 
husband while her vows are upon her.' 

9. Case of a widow, or divorced woman. 
Her vow is binding. 

10-15. Case of a married woman. Her vow 
to be binding must be ratified by her husband. 

CHAPTER 31 

War against Midian 
This c. contains an account of the fulfilment 
of the decree of extermination passed upon 



118 



31. 6 



NUMBERS 



33. 



the Midianites as being the occasion of Israel's 
apostasy in the plains of Moab : see on 25 16-18 . 

6. The holy instruments and the trumpets] 
On the use of the silver trumpets in time of 
■war see on 10 9 . It is not clear whether the 
ark was taken into battle on this occasion. It 
is possible to translate ' the holy instruments, 
even the trumpets.' On other occasions, 
however, the ark accompanied the army as a 
token of G-od's presence and blessing. See 
1 S 4 4-7 and cp. Nu 1 4 ±±. In Dt 20 2-4 the priests 
are commanded to encourage the host on the 
edge of battle. The choice of Phinehas on 
this occasion may be due to his previous zeal 
for Jehovah against the Midianites : see 25 7 > 12 . 

8. Kings of Midian] from Joshl3 21 we 
learn that these were princes or chiefs, and 
that they were tributary to Sihon, king of the 
Amorites. Balaam by remaining among the 
Midianites shared their fate. But see on 25 1_5 . 

13-18. The male children are put to death 
in order that the race of idolaters may be ex- 
tirpated. The older women are also slain as 
having been the prime cause of the apostasy, 
and likely to lead the people astray at a future 
time. The women-children, or young females, 
are spared, and are taken as slaves or wives, 
being probably adopted into the Hebrew nation 
as proselytes : cp. Dt21 10 - 14 . For the reason 
of such wholesale slaughter see 33 55 Dt20 17 > 18 
Josh23i3 a ndon25 1 6-i8. 

19-24. On this purification by means of the 
'water of separation' see 19 n " 16 . 

25-47. The spoil is divided equally between 
the warriors and those who remained in the 
camp. Part of each portion is dedicated to 
the sanctuary. The warriors dedicate the five- 
hundredth part of their spoil which is given 
to the priests (v. 29). The non-combatants 
dedicate the fiftieth part of their share, which, 
being a larger proportion, is given to the 
Levites who were more numerous than the 
priests (v. 30). 29. Heave offering] see on 
Lv7 28 - 34 Nu8 n . 32. The rest of the prey] 
RV ' over and above the booty ' : see v. 50. 

48-54. The officers make a voluntary offering 
as a thanksgiving for victory. 50. Tablets] 
RY 'armlets or necklaces': cp. Ex35 22 . 
Make an atonement] cp. Ex30 n - 16 . 

CHAPTER 32 

Allotment of Territory to the Tribes 
of Gad and Reuben and the Half- 
tribe of Manasseh 
1-5. The tribes of Reuben and G-ad request 
that the land of G-ilead lying on the E. side of 
the Jordan be assigned to them, on the ground 
that it is very fertile and therefore particularly 
well adapted to their large flocks and herds. 
These two tribes were associated as neighbours 
in the camp and on the march (2 10 - 16 ), hence 
their desire to be settled near each other. 



1. Gilead lay to the S. and W. of Bashan, 
and shared the characteristic fertility of that 
region : see on 21 33 ' 35 . 

6-15. Moses understands their request as 
indicating a disinclination on the part of these 
two tribes to enter the promised land. He 
reminds them that their fathers suffered the 
penalty of a similar faintheartedness at Kadesh 
(c. 14) and, fearing that the example of Reuben 
and Gad may discourage the rest of the people, 
he refuses their request. 

16-33. The two tribes assure Moses that 
they will not separate themselves at present 
from the rest of the people, but will go over 
Jordan with them, and assist in the conquest 
of Canaan. After that they will return and 
settle on the E. side. Moses is satisfied with 
this assurance, and enjoins Eleazar and Joshua 
to see that the two tribes fulfil their promise 
before receiving the inheritance they desire. 
28. Moses lays this injunction on Joshua his 
successor, as he himself will not live to pass 
over Jordan : see 27 12 * 23 . 

33. The half tribe of Manasseh is not said 
to have made any request similar to that of 
the Reubenites and Gadites ; but, seeing that 
they had been specially engaged in the con- 
quest of Gilead (v. 30), a place was assigned 
to them also in that district : cp. Dt 3 13_15 . 

34-42. These vv. are inserted here by way 
of anticipation. The building, or rather the 
repairing of these cities, for some of them at 
least are mentioned as already existing (2 1 30 
33 3 ), took place after the conquest of Canaan : 
cp. v. 41 with Jg 10 3 > 4 . In Josh 22 1-9 we read 
that, after fulfilling their promise, the two and 
a half tribes were dismissed to their inherit- 
ance by Joshua with his blessing. Owing to 
their position on the eastern frontier of the 
holy land they were the first to be carried 
into captivity by the king of Assyria (1 Ch5 26 ), 
so that it was not an unmitigated advantage to 
them to obtain this fertile district. 

CHAPTER 33 
The Journeyings of the Israelites from 
Egypt to the Plains of Moab 
The greater part of this c. is occupied 
with a list, drawn up by Moses himself (v. 2), 
of the Encampments of the Israelites in their 
journey from Egypt to Canaan. In all, forty 
stages are enumerated. Many of the names are 
otherwise unknown, and in places the stages do 
not coincide with those mentioned in the books 
of Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These 
differences are, no doubt, due in part to the fact 
that places change their names in the course of 
time. At this distance it is exceedingly difficult 
to identify the route of march, more especially 
as many of the names were not names of cities 
or conspicuous landmarks, and therefore very 
liable to be forgotten. 



119 



33. 3 



NUMBERS 



35.6 



3-15. Egypt to Sinai. This part of the 
journey is narrated in Ex 12 37 -19 2 where all 
the names occur except Dophkah and Alush 
(vv. 12, 13). 

16-18. Sinai to Rithmah. Rithmah is not 
mentioned elsewhere ; but, seeing that it is the 
station after Hazeroth, it is supposed to be 
the same as Kadesh (cp. 12 16 13 26 ). Rothem 
in Hebrew means ' juniper ' or broom, and 
there is a Wady Abu Retamat, abounding in 
broom, near the site of Kadesh, so that the 
identification may be regarded as in all pro- 
bability correct. This is the first arrival at 
Kadesh, in the second year of the exodus ; the 
second arrival at the same place in the fortieth 
year is noted in v. 36 : see on 13 26 20 1 . 

1 9-36. Encampments during the thirty-eight 
years, and return to Kadesh. The names in 
vv. 19-29 are not mentioned elsewhere and 
have not been identified. With vv. 30-33 cp. 
DtlO 6 ' 7 . Ezion-geber (v. 36) is on the sea 
at the northern extremity of the Gulf of 
Akaba(cp. 1K9 2 6 22 *S). 

37-49. From Kadesh to the Plains of Moab. 
The narrative of this journey is contained in 
Nu20, 21. With the names in vv. 11-49 cp. 
Nu 21 10-20. 

45. Iim is the same as Ije-abarim (v. 44), 
the second part of this word, which means ' The 
Heaps, or Ruins, of Abarim,' being dropped. 

50-56. Command to expel all the inhabit- 
ants of Canaan and to destroy their idols and 
places of worship, so that no inducements to 
idolatry may remain : see on Ex23 32 , and cp. 
25 16-18 Dt7. 52. Pictures] RV 'figured 
stones.' On the high places see on 22 41 
Lv2630. 55. Cp. Josh23 1 3 Jg23. 

CHAPTER 34 

The Boundaries of the Land of Promise 

On the land and the tribes inhabiting it see 
on 1321. 

3-5. The southern border : this started 
from the S. extremity of the Dead Sea, here 
called the Salt Sea (v. 3), and proceeded in a 
SW. direction to the ascent of Akrabbim, i.e. 
' of scorpions ' (v. 4), a row of cliffs about 
8 m. distant ; thence it passed by way of 
Kadesh-Barnea to the River of Egypt, where 
it reached the Mediterranean Sea (v. 5). The 
' River of Egypt ' is not the Nile but a brook, 
now identified with the Wady el-Arish, flowing 
into the sea about 20 m. S. of Gaza. It is 
frequently mentioned as the SW. border of 
Canaan: see 1K8<« 2K24< 2Ch7« Isa2712. 
This southern boundary was also the boundary 
of Judah and Simeon : see Josh.15 1 " 4 19°. 

6. The western border was formed by the 
Mediterranean Sea, the Great Sea. 

7-9. The northern border : the places men- 
tioned on this line are unknown. Mt. Hermon 
is too far E. to be identified with mount Hor, 

1 



which is probably some spur of the Lebanon 
range. 

10-12. The eastern border was formed by 
the Sea of Chinnereth (afterwards called the 
Lake of Gennesaret, Sea of Galilee, or Lake 
of Tiberias), the River Jordan, and the Dead 
Sea. 

13-15. See c. 32. 

16-29. A list of the persons entrusted with 
the division of the land W. of the Jordan, 
one being chosen from each of the tribes 
interested, in addition to Eleazar and Joshua. 
The names are all new with the exception of 
that of Caleb (v. 19). 

CHAPTER 35. 

The Levitical Cities. The Cities of 
Refuge 

1-8. The Levitical Cities. 

The tribe of Levi received no part of the land 
of Canaan as their inheritance (18 20 " 24 26 62 ). 
By way of compensation they received the 
tithes for their support (18 21 ). It is here fur- 
ther provided that 48 cities with their suburbs 
be allotted to them out of the inheritance of 
the other tribes, for the maintenance of them- 
selves and their herds. The carrying out of 
this injunction is recorded in Josh 21, where 
it is also noted that the priests (the sons of 
Aaron) received 13 of these cities (v. 4). The 
people, as well as the priests and Levites, 
benefited by this arrangement, for the latter 
being dispersed throughout the land were able 
to instruct the people in the law and worship 
of God. On the duty of the priests and 
Levites to teach the people see LvlO 11 Dt 
178,9 33 10 2 Chi 9 8-10. It would appear that 
the law of the Levitical cities was never 
strictly carried into practice. 

4, 5. There is a difficulty in understanding 
these measurements. Perhaps the simplest ex- 
planation is to say that the area of the city 
itself is disregarded. T}ie city being conceived 
as a mathematical point, 1,000 cubits measured 
on either side give a square 2,000 cubits in the 
side. The Greek version has 2,000 cubits in 
v. 4. If this is right there is no difficulty at 
all. The city would be surrounded on all 
sides by a strip of land 2,000 cubits in width. 

6, 9-15. The Cities of Refuge. (See also 
Dtl9 1-3 Josh 20.) In primitive times, before 
the machinery of justice wfis organised, the 
duty of avenging a murder devolved upon the 
nearest relative of the murdered person. 
Duty required him to pursue the murderer and 
slay him with his own hand. This law was 
not repealed by Moses, but certain restrictions 
were placed upon it in the interestsof humanity 
and justice. Of the Levitical cities, six were 
marked out as Cities of Refuge to which a 
man who had killed another accidentally 
(vv. 11, 22-25) might flee and be safe from the 
20 



35. 12 



NUMBERS— DEUTERONOMY 



INTRO. 



' avenger of blood.' This provision did not 
apply to wilful murderers, who were not to 
escape the death penalty (vv. 16-21). The 
names of the cities are given in Josh 20 7 > 8 . 
Three were on the W. side of Jordan and 
three on the E. The reason why Levitical 
cities were selected for this purpose was, not 
merely that these were regarded as possessing 
a sacred character, but that they were inhabited 
by men who knew the law, and who could decide 
in doubtful cases between wilful murder and 
accidental homicide (v. 24 Dt 1 9 12,17). Dt 1 9 3 
provides that the principal roads leading to 
these cities of refuge be kept open, so that the 
innocent fugitive might have every facility in 
reaching the place of sanctuary (see note there). 
For the Christian application of this law of 
asylum see on v. 25. 12. Stand before the 
congregation] As a wilful murderer might flee 
to one of these cities in the hope of escaping 
with his life, a trial must be held to ascertain 
whether the murder was wilful or accidental. 

1 6 -2 1. If the trial shows that the murder 
was committed wilfully, the murderer is to be 
handed over for execution at the hands of the 
avenger of blood. 

22-29. If the trial shows that the murder 
was accidental (seeDtl9 4 > 5 ) the murderer's 
life is spared. But he must stay within the 
bounds of the city till the death of the high 
priest, when he is at liberty to go. If he 
stray outside the bounds before that time he 
does so at the peril of his own life. 25. Unto 



the death of the high priest] The amnesty 
declared to the man-slayer on the death of the 
high priest, which marks the close of one 
period and the beginning of a new, is an 
appropriate symbol of that redemption from 
the sins of the past wrought by Christ, and 
that new life of liberty into which they enter 
who believe in Him : cp. Heb6 18 ' 20 . 

30-32. Murder is such a serious crime that it 
cannot be atoned for by the payment of a money 
fine ; nor can the man who has unintention- 
ally killed another purchase his release from 
the city of refuge before the death of the high 
priest. St. Peter reminds Christians that they 
were not redeemed with silver or gold but with 
the precious blood of Christ (1 Pet 1 18 . i»). 

CHAPTEK 36 

The Law Regarding Heiresses 

According to 27 1-11 it was decided that, if 
a man left no sons, his daughters might inherit 
his property. But if the daughters married 
into another tribe, the property would go with 
them, and so be alienated from the tribe to 
which they formerly belonged. If it were 
sold after their marriage, it would revert at 
the year of Jubilee, not to the original tribe, 
but to that into which it had been transferred 
by marriage. To obviate this diminution of 
the lands originally assigned to each tribe, 
it is here enacted that no heiress shall marry 
outside the tribe of her father. 



DEUTERONOMY 



INTRODUCTION 



i . Title and Contents. The title of this book 
is the English form of a Greek word meaning 
1 repetition of the law.' It is found in c. 17 18 , 
where it was used by the Greek translators of 
the OT. (LXX) to represent three Hebrew 
words more exactly rendered in the English 
Version ' a copy of this law ' (see note). The 
Jews call the book by the first two words in the 
original rendered ' These are the words.' The 
LXX title, though based on a mistranslation, is 
not altogether inappropriate, seeing that much 
of the legislation given in Deuteronomy is found 
elsewhere, and the historical portion is largely 
a resume of what is narrated in the previous 
books. The scene of the book is in the Plains 
of Moab, and the time is the interval between 
the close of the Wanderings in the Wilderness 
and the Crossing of the Jordan. It opens with 



the first day of the eleventh month of the for- 
tieth year of the exodus (l 3 ); and, as the 
Israelites crossed the Jordan on the tenth day 
of the first month of the following year, after 
thirty days' mourning for Moses in the Plains 
of Moab (see 34 8 Josh 419), it follows that the 
period covered by Deuteronomy is not more 
than forty days. 

The greater part of the book is taken up 
with a series of discourses spoken to the people 
by Moses before his death. In these discourses 
Moses reviews the events and experiences of 
the past forty years, and founds on them re- 
peated exhortations to gratitude, obedience, 
and loyalty to Jehovah. The divisions of the 
book are as follows. Part 1. First Discourse, 
chs. 1-4 43 , comprising a brief survey of the 
history of Israel from Mt. Sinai to the Jordan 



121 



INTRO. 



DEUTERONOMY 



INTRO. 



(chs. 1-3), and concluding with an earnest ap- was practised in the time of Moses, and recent 



peal to the people to keep the commandments 
of Jehovah and remain faithful to His cove- 
nant (4 1-40 ). Three vv. of a historical nature 
(4 41 " 43 ) are then introduced. Part 2. Second 
Discourse, chs. 4 44 -28 , which is mainly legis- 
lative. It begins with a repetition of the Deca- 
logue and an exhortation to cleave to Jehovah 
and abstain from idolatry (4 44 -ll), after which 
follows a series of laws regulating the religious 
and social life of the people (chs. 12-26). This 
section forms the nucleus of the book. C. 28 
belongs to this section, and contains a sublime 
declaration of the consequences that will fol- 
low the people's obedience to, or transgression 
of, the law. C. 27, which prescribes the cere- 
mony of the ratification of the law in Canaan, 
seems to interrupt the discourse. Part 3. Third 
Discourse, chs. 29, 30, in which the covenant 
is renewed and enforced with promises and 
threatenings. Part 4. Chs. 31-34. These 
chapters are of the nature of appendices, and 
comprise Moses' Charge to Joshua, and Deli- 
very of the Law to the Levitical Priests (31 1_13 ); 
The Song of Moses, with accompanying histori- 
cal notices (31 14 -32) ; The Blessing of Moses, 
which, like the Song, is in poetical form (33) ; 
and, lastly, an account of the Death of Moses 
(34). 

2. Origin and Composition. The book of 
Deuteronomy was certainly in existence in the 
year 621 B.C. The 'Book of the Law,' dis- 
covered in the Temple at Jerusalem in that 
year by Hilkiah the priest, is generally agreed 
to have included, if it was not identical with, 
our Deuteronomy. See 2K22 8 " 20 and notes 
there. There is no reason to believe that this 
was not a genuine discovery of a lost work, 
and its identification with at least the main 
part of Deuteronomy (chs. 5-26, 28) is in- 
ferred from the fact that the reformations 
instituted by Josiah are such as the law of 
Deuteronomy would require, e.g. the prohibi- 
tion of the worship of heavenly bodies (cp. 2 K 
234,5,11 w jth Dtl7 3 ), and of other supersti- 
tious and idolatrous practices (cp. 2K23 6 > 13 > 14 
with Dtl2 2 > 3 ) ; and the centralisation of wor- 
ship at Jerusalem (cp. 2K23 8 > 21 - 23 with Dt 
124-28 165-7. Cp. also 2K237 with Dt23 1 ?> 1 8, 
2K23 24 with Dtl8 1( Ui, 2 K 23 8. 9 with Dt 
18 6 " 8 , and the language in which Josiah's re- 
formation is spoken of in 2K23 2 > 3 with the 
general style of Deuteronomy, e.g. 29 1 ' 9 * 25 
30 10 31 24 ). Assuming the practical identity 
of the book found by Hilkiah with our Deu- 
teronomy, the question remains how old the 
book was at the time of its discovery. Like 
the rest of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy pro- 
fesses to set forth the words and laws of Moses, 
and is ascribed by tradition to him. This tra- 
dition is not lightly to be set aside. It cannot 
any longer be denied that the art of writing 



discoveries have shown that writing was em- 
ployed in Palestine even before his day. That 
Moses himself left written works is not only 
in itself likely, but is expressly asserted in 
several places : see e.g. Exl7 14 24 ^ 34 2 ? Nu 
33 2 , and especially Dt319> 2 6, where he is 
said to have written the Law, and delivered 
it to the custody of the priests. That in view 
of his approaching death the great Leader and 
Lawgiver of Israel should have addressed to 
the people such exhortations and warnings as 
are found in this book is also what might be 
expected. On the other hand, many biblical 
scholars are persuaded, from a careful study of 
the book, that it could not have been written 
by Moses, at least in its present form. It 
is marked by a distinctive literary style, ap- 
parent even to a reader of the English Version, 
who cannot fail to be struck with the fre- 
quent recurrence of characteristic phrases and 
with the general richness of its rhetorical pas- 
sages, unlike what is found elsewhere in the 
Pentateuch. Deuteronomy also contains indi- 
cations that the writer, or compiler, lived 
subsequently to the time of Moses and the 
conquest of Canaan. See e.g. the account of 
the death of Moses in c. 34, and cp. notes on 
212 314 334 3410-12. The use of the phrase 
' beyond Jordan ' suggests that the writer lived 
in Western Palestine, which Moses never did 
(see note on 1 a ). The ' law of the Kingdom ' 
in c. 1714-20^ jt is said, could not have been 
composed before Solomon and other kings gave 
examples of the hurtful luxury here described, 
and other parts of the legislation of Deuter- 
onomy, notably that relating to the centralisa- 
tion of worship at Jerusalem (see 12 4 " 28 ), are 
at variance with what is prescribed elsewhere 
(cp. Ex20 24 ), and do not seem to have been 
recognised in the earlier history of the nation. 
See also notes on 14 22 15 19 > 20 . In this con- 
nexion, however, we must reckon with the 
possibility of laws being promulgated but re- 
maining a dead letter for a long period. It 
has to be kept in view, moreover, that the 
book itself professes to be a ' repetition of 
the law.' In view of the conflict of critical 
opinion it seems best to regard it as a reformu- 
lation of the laws of Moses, designed to meet 
the changing needs and circumstances of a time 
subsequent to its original publication. 

3. Religious Value. Whatever difference 
of opinion may exist as to the date of Deuter- 
onomy, there can be none as to its surpassing 
religious value. It is one of the most beauti- 
ful books of the Bible, furnishing some of the 
finest examples of Hebrew sacred eloquence, 
and breathing in every chapter an intensely 
devout and religious spirit. Its aim is pro- 
fessedly practical and hortatory, viz. to enforce 
upon Israel the unique claim of Jehovah to 



122 



INTRO. 



DEUTERONOMY 



% 10 



their gratitude, obedience, love and loyalty. In 
this respect the teaching of Deuteronomy re- 
sembles that of the ' prophets,' in its insist- 
ence, viz. by means of exhortation and warning, 
upon Israel's duty of maintaining the covenant 
relationship between the people and Jehovah. 
The people are ' holy to Jehovah,' who has 
chosen them to be a special people to Himself 
(7 6 ), and they ought to cling to. Him alone. 
Over and over again they are reminded of the 
great things He has done for them, of His free 
grace in their election and redemption, and of 
their unbroken experience of His providential 
care and kindness towards them. His grace is 
always adduced as the prime reason and motive 
why they should cleave to Him with whole- 
hearted devotion and keep His commandments 
and beware of the seducing influences of their 
own prosperity and their neighbours' idolatry. 
The argument is always the same, the evangel- 
ical argument, ' We love Him because He first 
loved us ' ; 'I beseech you by the mercies of 
God.' See e.g. 4?-M2-40 620-25 77-11 29 2-tf 
etc. The same motive of gratitude for unde- 



served mercies underlies the repeated exhort- 
ations to humanity and kindly consideration 
of the poor, the afflicted, strangers, and even 
the lower animals. See e.g. 14 22-29 15 7-11 
1610-17 2317,18,22 26 1- 11 . The love of God to 
Israel, calling forth a responsive love to God 
and to humanity, that is the theme of this most 
profoundly religious and ethical book ; and 
nowhere else is the blessedness of an obedience 
which is rooted in love and gratitude set forth 
more eloquently or persuasively. 

The book of Deuteronomy seems to have 
been an especial favourite of our Lord. He 
resisted the threefold assault of the Tempter 
in the wilderness with quotations from this 
book (see Mt 4 and Dt8 3 6 13 10 20 and notes) ; 
and He answered the question as to the 
' first and greatest commandment ' in the Law 
by referring to Dt 6 4 > 5 . The Jews selected 
Dt 6 4 ' 9 for daily recitation as their creed, 
finding in these words the highest expression 
of the unity and spirituality of God, and of 
the whole duty of man to his Maker, Preserver 
and Redeemer. 



PART 1 

First Discourse (Chs. 1-4 43 ) 



The long sojourn in the wilderness is now 
drawing to a close. The Israelites are en- 
camped in the Plains of Moab within sight of 
the Promised Land. Moses, feeling that his 
death is approaching, delivers his final charges 
to the people. In the first, he reviews briefly 
the history of Israel from Mt. Sinai to the 
Jordan, dwelling on the goodness of God, and 
making it the basis of an earnest appeal to the 
people to remember all that He has done for 
them, and to keep His commandments. 

CHAPTER 1 

Introduction. Review op the Journey 
from Sinai to Kadesh 

1-5. Introduction. 

1 . On this side Jordan] RY ' beyond Jordan,' 
i.e. on the E. side. The writer speaks from 
the standpoint of Canaan, as also in v. 5, 3 8 
441,46,49 . S ee Intro, to Numbers, § 2. The 
plain is the Arabah, the valley running N. and 
S. of the Dead Sea. The Red sea] Heb. Suph, 
the name of some place on the Gulf of Akaba. 

6-46. Review of the journey from Sinai to 
Kadesh on the border of Canaan. 

6. Horeb] the name given in Dt to Mt. 
Sinai. The name Sinai occurs in this book 
only in the Blessing of Moses (33 2 ). 7. The 
plain] see on v. 1. The hills] RV 'hill country,' 
the elevated ridge in the centre of Palestine. 
The vale] the maritime plain. The south] 
the Negeb. See on Nu 13 17 > 21 . 9. This seems 
to refer to what is recorded in Ex 18 13 - 26 . 

22. SeeNul3. It would appear that the 



sending of the spies was suggested by the 
people, and that Moses referred the matter to 
God for confirmation : cp. NU13 1 . 37. For 
your sakes] Had the unbelief of Moses gone 
unpunished, the people would have been hard- 
ened in their own transgression. For their 
sakes, therefore, it was impossible to overlook 
it : see on Nu 20 12 . 46. Many days] see on 
NU1326 20 1 . 

CHAPTER 2 

Review of the Journey (continued) 
1. The Red sea] i.e. the Gulf of Akaba. On 
Mt. Seir see Nu20 22 " 29 . 4. Through the coast] 
RY ' through the border,' as in v. 18. The 
Edomites, however, refused to give them a 
passage through their country : see Nu20 14-21 . 
The Israelites accordingly went southward 
towards Elath and Ezion-geber at the N. end 
of the Gulf of Akaba (see v. 8 and on Nu 20 22 ), 
and so round Edom to the country of the 
Moabites. 9. The Moabites and the Ammon- 
ites (v. 19) were related to the Israelites, being 
descended from Lot, the nephew of Abraham 
(Gnl9 37 > 38 ). The Edomites were descended 
from Esau, the brother of Jacob. Ar] the 
capital of Moab, lying on the river Arnon, 
which formed the northern border of the 
country (Nu 21 is, 28). 

10-12. These vv. form an antiquarian paren- 
thesis, like vv. 20-23. 10. The Emims(RV 
' Emim,' i.e. the ' terrible ones') and the Horims 
(RV ' Horites,' i.e. the ' cave-dwellers') are 
mentioned in Gnl4 5 > 6 . The tribes E. of the 



123 



% 12 



DEUTERONOMY 



4 41 



Jordan seem to have been of great stature : 
see on Nu21 33 * 35 . 12. As Israel did] These 
words must have been written after the 
occupation of Canaan. 

13. On the Zered see Nu21i2. 

20. The Zamzummims (R V ' Zamzummim ') 
are probably the same as the Zuzim in G-n 14 5 . 

23. The Avims (RV ' Avvim ') dwelt in the 
SW. of Canaan, in the neighbourhood of G-aza, 
here called Azzah. Hazerim] RV ' in villages.' 
Caphtorims] the Philistines who came from 
Caphtor, usually identified with Cyprus or 
Crete: see GnlO 14 Am9? Jer47 4 . 

CHAPTER 3 

Review of the Journey (concluded) 

1-11. The conquest of Og, king of Bashan. 
See Nu21 33 ' 35 . 5. The ruins of these cities 
remain to this day: see on Nu21 33 . 

9. Sirion] means ' glittering like a polished 
shield,' and corresponds, therefore, to the name 
Mt. Blanc. The Hermon range is mostly 
covered with a cap of snow. In 4 48 Hermon 
is also called ' Sion,' which means the same as 
Sirion, if indeed it is not a clerical error for 
that word. 10. Salchah] still existing under 
the name of Salkhad, a large town on the 
E. border of Bashan, lying on the great road 
from Galilee to the Persian Gulf. 

11. The bedstead of iron of the giant 
king was in all probability his sarcophagus 
of black basalt which the Arabs still call ' iron.' 
Several such sarcophagi have been discovered 
E. of the Jordan. Conder believed that he 
discovered Og's ' bedstead ' in the form of a 
huge stone throne at Rabbath. The word 
rendered ' bedstead ' properly means a couch 
or divan: see e.g. Am3 12 6 4 . 

14. This took place later (see Jgl0 3 > 4 , and 
cp. Intro, to Numbers, § 2), and its insertion here 
indicates the work of a later hand, like the 
expression unto this day: cp. v. 12. See on 
Nu32 41 . 17. Chinnereth] the Lake of Gen- 
nesaret, or Sea of Galilee. The plain is again 
the Arabah: see on l 1 . Ashdod-pisgah] RY 
' the slopes of Pisgah ': cp. 4 49 . 

18-20. See on Nu32. 

23-28. See on Nu 27 12-23. 

CHAPTER 41- 43 
Exhortations to Obedience 
This c. contains the practical part of the 
discourse. Having briefly rehearsed the ex- 
periences of the Israelites in the wilderness up 
to the present point, Moses closes with an 
eloquent appeal not to forget what they had 
seen and learned, but to keep the command- 
ments of the Lord. The argument is quite 
evangelical. Jehovah of His own free grace 
has chosen and redeemed this people, they 
ought, therefore, to love and serve Him alone : 
cp. Joshua's exhortation in Josh 24. 



3. Because of Baal-peor] see Nu 25 1_9 . 

10. See Ex 19, 20, 24 3 -». At Mt. Sinai the 
people entered into a national covenant with 
Jehovah their Redeemer, promising to keep 
the Law delivered unto them there. 

15. The foundation of true religion and 
morals is a right conception of the nature of 
God. In the first and second commandments 
of the Decalogue Israel had been taught the 
truths of the unity and spirituality of God. 
They are specially exhorted here to keep 
themselves from idolatry. 16-18. This pro- 
hibition probably refers to the animal worship 
of the Egyptians with which their fathers had 
been familiar in their bondage. 19. There 
may be allusion here to the worship of the 
Persians and Chaldeans. The Israelites fell 
into this form of idolatry : see e.g. 2 K 17 16 21 3 . 

24. Cp. 9 3 Heb 12 29. On the nature of the 
divine jealousy see on Ex20 5 . 

25. Remained long in the land] lit. ' slum- 
bered in the land.' The word expresses not 
only long continuance but a loss of vigour, a 
gradual weakening of first impressions due to 
unbroken peace and prosperity. Those who 
have no changes are apt to forget God (Ps 55 19 ). 
Prosperity sometimes acts like a narcotic and 
sends the soul to sleep: cp. 6 10 " 13 8 10 "20 32 15 ; 
see also 2 Ch 121 26^3225. 28> Bodily sub- 
jection to their heathen conquerors would lead 
to spiritual bondage. They would be ' given 
over to a reprobate mind ' : see Ro 1 24-28. 

29-31. These vv. indicate the nature of true 
repentance. It is not merely sorrow for past 
sins and their consequences, but a seeking God 
with all the heart, and obedience to His voice. 
Such repentance procures the divine mercy, 
for God does not forget His part of the cove- 
nant, however His people forget theirs. ' The 
gifts and calling of God are without repent- 
ance,' i.e. they are irrevocable: see Roll 29 
HebGi?. 

32-38. These vv. state the ground of Jeho- 
vah's choice of Israel. It is purely an election 
of grace and love. Hence Israel ought to 
cleave to Him. No other nation has been so 
highly favoured by Jehovah. 38. The Israel- 
ites did not take possession of the land of their 
enemies by their own might. Jehovah went 
before them into battle : cp. 8 17 > 18 . 

41-43. The appendix to the First Discourse. 

On the Cities of Refuge see Nu35 9 ' 34 and 
notes there, and cp. alsoc. 19 Josh 20 1-9 . The 
cities appointed here are those E. of the Jordan. 
In c. 19 those in Canaan are referred to. On 
the phrase on this side Jordan see on l 1 . Bezer 
was the southernmost of the three. It is 
mentioned on the Moabite Stone as having 
being rebuilt by Mesha: see on Nu21 2 9. Its 
site has not been identified. It is probably 
the same as the Bozrah mentioned in Jer 48 24 . 
Ramoth in Gilead played an important part in 



124 



4. 45 



DEUTERONOMY 



6.9 



the wars between the kings of Damascus and 
Israel. It was the scene of the death of Ahab 
(IK 22) and the anointing of Jehu (2K9). 



Golan gave its name to the district E. of the 
Sea of Galilee, still known as the Jaulan. 
The precise locality of the city is unknown. 



PART 2 

Second Discourse (Chs. 4 44 -28) 



This is the longest of the three discourses, 
and fills over twenty-five chs. The opening 
vv. (4 44 - 49 ) are in the form of an introduction : 
chs. 5-1 1 are mainly hortatory : the following 
chs. (12-28), which form the nucleus of the 
book of Deuteronomy, are taken up with a 
special code of laws. 

CHAPTER 4 (continued) 
45. After they came forth] RV ' when they 
came forth.' It was really in the fortieth year 
of the exodus. 46. See on I 1 . 48. On 
Mount Sion, see on 3 9 . 49. Springs of 
Pisgah] RY ' slopes of Pisgah ' : see on 3 17 . 

CHAPTER 5 

The Repetition of the Decalogue 

This c. repeats the Law of the Ten Com- 
mandments given on Mt. Sinai with the 
circumstances of its delivery : see Ex 20, and 
the notes there. 

3. Their fathers who had heard the Law 
given at Sinai were actually dead. But as 
the covenant had been made not with indi- 
viduals, but with the nation of Israel, Moses 
could say that it was made not with our fathers, 
but with us. The expression is really equiva- 
lent to ' not only with our fathers but also with 
ourselves.' 6. This is the ground on which 
obedience to the Law is due. God's free grace 
is the first fact in the covenant. On the Ten 
Commandments see on Ex20 1 - ir . 14, 15. In 
Exodus the obligation to keep the sabbath is 
made to rest on the fact of the divine creation 
of the world ; here it rests on the divine 
redemption of Israel. In the former case the 
reason annexed to the commandment is uni- 
versal, in the latter national. In both cases 
the commandment is the same, and it is possi- 
ble that the original form of the Decalogue gave 
only the commandment without any reason 
attached to it : see Ex 23 12 and on Ex 20 10 > n . 

23-33. Cp. Ex20i8- 21 . 

24. And he liveth] This is a special token 
of the divine favour, because usually man 
cannot bear the immediate revelation of the 
divine majesty : cp. Ex33 2 ° 19 21 20 19 Jg6 23 
13 22 Isa6 2 . 5 ,andonEx249-n. 29. The proper 
attitude of man towards God is not only one 
of reverence but of obedience. 31. Man 
needs, and God Himself provides, a Mediator. 

CHAPTER 6 

Practical Exhortations 
To the repetition of the Decalogue Moses 



adds in the following chs. a practical exhorta- 
tion to obedience founded on the special 
relation of Jehovah to Israel as their Redeemer 
(6-11). C. 6 particularly insists upon the 
remembrance of God's statutes and the train- 
ing of the children in them. 

4, 5. Our Lord calls these words ' the first 
and great commandment.' They express the 
highest truth and duty revealed to the Hebrew 
nation : the truth of God's unity and unique- 
ness ; the duty of loving and serving Him 
with every faculty of the being. Consequently 
they became the Jewish Confession of Faith ; 
and under the name of the ' Shema ' (the first 
word of v. 4 in the Hebrew) are still recited, 
along with Dtll 13 " 21 and Nul5 37 - 41 , as the 
first act of worship in the Jewish synagogue, 
and twice a day by every adult male Jew. 

5. Love goes deeper than fear. It is the 
fulfilling of all law, and includes obedience. 
Both in the OT. and in the New it is the 
effect of God's greatest love in redemption. 
' We love Him because He first loved us.' 

8, 9. Cp. 1118-20. From early times the 
Jews understood this injunction literally ; and 
in the time of our Lord a great importance 
was attached to three ' memorials,' or visible 
reminders of this obligation to keep the Law 
of Jehovah. One was the ' zizith ' or ' fringe ' 
which was worn on the corners of the outer 
garment : see on Nul5 37 - 41 . The others were 
the ' tephillin ' and the ' mezuza,' the use of 
which was founded on this passage of Deuter- 
onomy. The ' tephillin ' were two small 
boxes, about a cubic in. in size, containing 
each a piece of parchment, on which were 
written in a special form of handwriting the 
four passages, EX13 1 - 10 . 11 " 16 Dt6 4 " 9 ll 13 " 21 . 
One was fastened inside the left forearm and 
the other on the forehead, to be a sign upon 
the hand and a frontlet between the eyes. 
They were worn at prayer on week days, and 
sometimes enlarged, as by the Pharisees of 
our Lord's time, to suggest particular devotion 
to the Law (Mt23 5 ). The Hebrew name 
' tephillin ' means ' prayers ' ; but they were 
also called in Gk. ' phylacteries ' or ' pro- 
tectors,' from their supposed power to ward 
off evil spirits. The ' mezuza ' was a small 
oblong box containing the passage Dt6 4 " 9 and 
was affixed to the right-hand door-post of the 
house and of each inhabited room, in accord- 
ance with the injunction in Dt6 9 . It had a 
beautiful significance as a reminder of the 
presence of God in the house, and the obliga- 



125 



6.10 



DEUTERONOMY 



10.6 



tion of all the inmates to keep His holy law, 
but has also been degraded into a mere charm 
to keep off evil spirits during the night. 

10-13. Cp. 8 10 " 14 and see on 4 25 . 13. Swear 
by his name] Jehovah, the G-od of truth, is 
to be recognised as the unseen witness of all 
agreements between a man and his neighbour, 
and the avenger of all falsehood : cp. the 
Third Commandment. 

16. They tempted God at Massah by insist- 
ing that He should prove His presence among 
them in the way that they prescribed : see 
Exl7 7 . But man must beware of dictating 
to God, in unbelief and presumption. Our 
Lord refused to demand from God a special 
token of His presence and care, and quoted 
this warning against the tempter: see Mt4 7 . 
It is to be observed that our Lord not only 
took all His answers from the Scriptures, but 
from the same portion of Deuteronomy, viz. 
chs. 5-10 : see8 3 6 13 10 20 . 

20-25. Cp. v. 7. The keeping of the Law 
is required by the fact of redemption, and is 
rewarded with the divine blessing. 25. Our 
righteousness] Obedience increases merit. For 
a particular instance see on 24 13 . 

CHAPTER 7 

•Practical Exhortations (continued) 

In this c. the people are warned against 

temptations to idolatry and enjoined to avoid 

contact with their idolatrous neighbours : see 

on Ex 23 32, 33 Nu 25 16 " 18 . 

1. On the tribes inhabiting Canaan see on 
Nul3 21 . 5. Images] RY 'pillars,' or obe- 
lisks. Groves] RY ' Asherim ' : see on 
Ex34 13 . 6. Special people] RY 'peculiar 
people ' : see on Exl9 5 . 

13. On the promise of material prosperity 
as the reward of obedience, see on Ex20 12 . 

19. Temptations] ' provings ' or trials, the 
afflictions that test and reveal character : see 
8 2 , and cp. Jas 1 2 » 12 . 20. The hornet] see on 
Ex23 28 . 25. Nor take it unto thee] Achan 
did so and brought trouble upon himself and 
Israel : see Josh 7. 26. Abomination] i.e. an 
idol, as in 16 22 . A cursed thing] RY 'a de- 
voted thing,' a thing laid under the ban of 
extermination. The verb from the same root 
is rendered utterly destroy in v. 2 : see on 
Lv27 2 «. 

CHAPTER 8 

Practical Exhortations (continued) 
The people arc reminded of God's goodness 
to them at the time of the exodus and during 
their sojourn in the wilderness. They are 
exhorted to humility and obedience, and 
warned against worshipping strange gods. 

2, 3. The events of the wanderings were 
intended to teach Israel humility and depend- 
ence on God alone : see on 7 19 . 3. Which 



thou knewest not] see Exl6 15 . But by every 
word, etc. ] If necessary God can sustain human 
life apart from the usual means. The Saviour 
had this trust in God and refused to create 
bread for himself : see Mt4 4 . 4. God who 
gives the life provides also the raiment and 
the bodily health : see Mt6 25 ' 34 . Jewish 
commentators understood this description 
literally, but it is evidently poetical and 
rhetorical. 

6-20. A warning against pride and self- 
sufficiency : see on 4 25 . 

7-9. The gifts of God in the rich and 
beautiful land of Canaan are a motive to 
thankfulness and obedience, but may become 
a temptation to forgetfulness and pride : see 
on 4 25 . 9. Iron is found in various parts of 
Palestine, especially in the N. Basalt (see on 
3 11 ) is found E. of the Jordan. Copper, here 
called brass, is found in the Lebanon range 
and to the E. of the Dead Sea. "We do not 
read of the Jews working mines in Canaan, 
but the writer of the book of Job was ac- 
quainted with mining operations, and gives a 
graphic description of the process in c. 28, 
which should be read in RY. 16. At thy 
latter end] i.e. by bringing them into the land 
of promise if they stood the test. 18. Cp. 
lCh29i 2 -!4. 

CHAPTER 9 

Practical Exhortations (continued) 

The rebellions and provocations of the 
wilderness are recalled, to show the people 
that it is not of their own merit that they 
are to inherit the promises, nor by their own 
strength that they are to dispossess the in- 
habitants of Canaan, but by the grace and 
power of God. 

8. Also in Horeb] Even at Horeb, in view 
of those awe-inspiring tokens of the divine 
majesty, and at the very time when the Law 
was being promulgated, the people corrupted 
themselves : see Ex 32 and notes. 9. I neither 
did eat bread nor drink water] In Ex34 28 
this fact is recorded in connexion with the 
second writing of the Law. 17. And brake 
them] The action symbolised the breaking of 
the covenant through the sin of the people. 

18. I fell down] i.e. in intercession : see 
on Nul6 4 . The words as at the first refer 
probably to the intercession on the mount 
spoken of in Ex32U : cp. 3231. 

22-24, gi ym g other instances of the people's 
rebellion, seem to be a parenthesis. Y. 25 takes 
up the thread of v. 21. 

CHAPTER 10 

Practical Exhortations (continued) 
1-5. The renewal of the broken covenant : 
see Ex 34. 

6-9. These vv. are evidently a parenthesis. 



126 



10. 8 



DEUTERONOMY 



11. 



The death of Aaron took place thirty-eight sluices, with the foot. The land of Canaan 



years after the departure from Sinai, but 
previous to the delivery of this discourse : see 
on Nu20 22 " 29 . The notice of Aaron's death 
seems to be inserted here to show that the 
sin of Aaron and the people did not bring the 
priesthood to a close. The covenant was re- 
newed, and Aaron was spared for nearly forty 
years to minister as the high priest ; and on 
his death the priesthood was continued in his 
family. In Nu33 30-33 the same places are 
mentioned as being visited in a different 
order. In all probability the children of 
Israel visited these places twice. 8. At that 
time] Not at the time of Aaron's death, but 
during the sojourn at Sinai : see Ex32 2(3 . 
The Levites here include the family of Aaron 
who were specially set apart to the priesthood : 
see on Nu3. 

1 1 . In spite of the perversity and rebellion 
of the people they are permitted by God's 
grace to continue their journey and possess 
the land of promise. This verse marks the 
freeness and fulness of the divine forgiveness. 
God's covenant of peace is not removed. 

12. Notwithstanding all that the people 
have done God does not demand of them any- 
thing more than their plain duty, in view of 
their past experience of His goodness : cp. 
Mic6 8 . 13. The path of duty is also that of 
safety and welfare. 14, 15. Although God is 
Lord of heaven and earth, He has singled out 
this small nation (7 7 > 8 ) for His special favour. 

16. SeeonLvl9 23 . 17, 18. Great as God 
is, He cares for the lowly : see Ps 138 6 . ' Be ye 
therefore merciful even as your Father is 
merciful.' 20. This was our Lord's third 
answer to the tempter : see Mt 4 10 and on 6 16 . 

22. This is another ground of gratitude and 
obedience. 

CHAPTER 11 

Practical Exhortations (concluded) 

Some injunctions to obedience, with the 
blessing it entails, and the curse that follows 
disobedience. 

1. Therefore] There should be no break 
here : see onlO 22 . 2. Seen the chastisement] 
i.e. experienced for yourselves the discipline 
or instruction of the Lord. The word refers 
not only to the punishment of the Egyptians 
but also to the experiences of the Israelites. 
6. There is no mention here of Korah : see 
onNul6. 

10, 11. The fields in Egypt require to be 
watered artificially. The water is raised from 
the lakes or from the Nile by means of pumps 
worked by the foot. But the expression 
wateredst it with thy foot may refer to the 
practice of diverting the water into numberless 
little channels by breaking down the separat- 
ing ridges, or by opening and shutting the 



requires no such human devices to render it 
fruitful. It drinketh water of the rain of 
heaven. It enjoys the direct blessing of God. 
A common Palestinian salutation during rain 
is, ' May God protect you while He is blessing 
the fields.' 14. First rain] see onLv26 4 . 

18-21. See on 6 8 > 9 . 

21. Heaven upon the earth] RV ' the 
heavens above the earth.' 

24. Cp. JoshlM. The wilderness is the 
wilderness of Judah in the S. ; Lebanon is 
the northern boundary ; the Euphrates is in 
the E. ; and the uttermost sea (lit. l the hinder 
sea ') is the Mediterranean in the W. In 
describing the cardinal points the Hebrew 
stood with his face to the E. or sunrising. 
Hence in the Hebrew language ' in front ' means 
the E., ' behind ' means the W., as in this verse, 
while ' the right ' is the S. : see on Ex23 31 . 

26-32. The Blessing and the Curse. See c. 
27 and notes there. 

28. Other gods, which ye have not known] 
i.e. who have not revealed themselves in deeds 
of deliverance and kindness, as Jehovah has 
done, and who have no claim upon your re- 
verence and obedience. The argument is 
always the same, though repeated in various 
forms. Israel's past experience of God's free 
grace in their election and redemption is the 
ground of their love and fear of Jehovah. 

29. Put the blessing-, etc.] This refers either 
to the erection of the stones inscribed with 
the blessings and the curses, or to the placing 
of the two companies mentioned in 27 12 » 13 , one 
to bless and the other to curse. Ebal and 
Gerizim are the most conspicuous of the hills 
of Samaria, being fully 3,000 ft. high. Ebal 
is on the N., Gerizim on the S.; and they are 
separated by a very deep ravine running E. and 
W. The summits command a view of the whole 
land. It was here that Abraham received the 
promise which was fulfilled 400 years later on 
the same spot : see Josh 8 30 " 35 . The Samari- 
tans afterwards erected a temple on Mt. 
Gerizim, which became the rival of the temple 
at Jerusalem : see Jn4 20 > 21 . The Passover is 
still celebrated yearly on its summit. 30. The 
champaign] i.e. the plain, RY ' Arabah ' : see 
on 11. 

Plains of Moreh] R V ' oaks of Moreh ' : see 
Gnl2 6 . The Samaritans claim that Moreh 
and Moriah (Gn22 2 ) are the same, and that 
the sacrifice of Isaac therefore took place on 
Mt. Gerizim. They also assert that Mt. Geri- 
zim was the meeting-place of Abraham and 
Melchizedek (Gnl4). The Gilgal mentioned 
here is not the Gilgal lying between the Jordan 
and Jericho (see Josh 4 19 ), but another place 
of the same name near Shechem, in the centre 
of the country. The name means ' circle of 
(sacred) stones,' a ' cromlech.' 



127 



12. 1 



DEUTERONOMY 



15. 



CHAPTER 12 

The Abolition of Idolatrous Places. 
The Centralisation of Worship. 
Abstinence from Blood 

The larger section of the Second Discourse 
begins here and extends to the end of c. 26. 
It consists of a code of laws, and constitutes 
the nucleus of the whole book : see on 4 44-49 . 
So far as any orderly arrangement can be dis- 
covered, chs. 12-16 are taken up with the 
more strictly religious duties ; chs. 17-20 with 
civil ordinances ; and chs. 21-26 with social and 
domestic regulations. 

1-3. An injunction to destroy all traces of 
Canaanitish idolatry : see on 7 1_5 . 

4-28. No sacrifice to be made to Jehovah 
unless at the one place which He Himself 
prescribes. This law of the centralisation of 
worship is one of the main arguments employed 
by critics in support of the theory of the late 
origin of the book of Deuteronomy. The 
practice of sacrificing at local shrines, it is 
said, was universal till the time of Josiah, and 
could hardly have been so if there had been 
an earlier prohibition : see Intro. § 2. 

4. Ye shall not do so] i.e. worship Jehovah 
in the places where the Canaanites worshipped 
their gods. 7. Ye shall eat] The reference is 
to the sacrificial meal at which part of the 
offerings were eaten by the worshippers : see 
on Lv 3. 15. This is a slight modification of 
the law prescribed inLvl7 3 > 4 , where see note. 

16. On the prohibition to eat blood see Lv 
33 17 10-I6. 21. Every abomination] see on 
Lvl8 21 . 

CHAPTER 13 

Warnings against Temptations to 
Idolatry 

The people are warned against three pos- 
sible sources of temptation to idolatry, viz. 
the false prophet (vv. 1-5), an erring member 
of the family (vv. 6-11), and an apostate city 
(vv. 12-18). In each case the tempter or 
tempters must he put to death without mercy. 

2. A sign or a wonder is not enough to 
establish the credentials of a prophet. If he 
seeks to turn the people from the worship 
of Jehovah, he confesses himself thereby a 
tempter to evil, and must be put to death : 
cp. Mt2424 2Th29 Bevl3 18 . 14 . 6. Even 
should the tempter to apostasy be the nearest 
and dearest, no mercy must be shown to him 
(v. 8) : cp. the zeal of the Levites (Ex 32 25-29) 
and of Phinehas (Nu25 7 > 8 ) and our Lord's 
words, MtlO 37 Lkl4 26 . The same principle 
is enunciated in Mt5 29 > 30 . 

12-18. An instance of this may be read in 
Jgl9, 20. 13. Men of Belial] RV ' base 
fellows ' or ' sons of worthlessness.' Belial is 
notapropername:cp.l5 9m «Jg20 13 RMlS25 25 



1K21 13 . 16. The street is the open square 
or market-place of the city. The word ren- 
dered every whit is the same as that used to 
denote the ; whole burnt offering,' so that the 
clause may be translated ' as a whole burnt 
offering to Jehovah thy G-od.' 

17. Cursed thing] RV l devoted thing ' : see 
on 726 Lv 27 26-29. 

CHAPTER 14 

dlsfigurings for mourning forbidden. 

Clean and Unclean Meats specified 

1. Practices connected with idolatry : see 
on Lvl9 27 > 28 . 

2. The foundation of the entire moral and 
ceremonial law is contained in this and the 
preceding verse. Israel is the people whom 
Jehovah has chosen and called His children. 
As such they must be holy : see intro. to 
Lv 17-26. 

3-20. On the law of clean and unclean 
beasts, see Lvll and notes. 5. The pygarg 
is probably a kind of antelope. The exact 
meaning of the Hebrew word is doubtful, as 
it only occurs in this passage. As the chamois 
is unknown in Palestine, a species of wild 
mountain sheep is probably meant. 

21. That dieth of itself] For the meaning 
of this prohibition see on Lvl7 10 ' 16 . On the 
prohibition to seethe a kid in its mother's 
milk see on Ex23 19 . 

22. The produce of the soil is to be tithed 
and the tithe eaten at the central sanctuary, 
except when this is inconvenient on account 
of distance (v. 24), in which case the tithe is 
to be turned into money, and spent on a sacri- 
ficial feast to which the Levites are to be 
invited (vv. 25-27). Every third year the 
whole tithe is to be devoted to charity. 
According to the law in Nul8 21 the tithe is 
given to the Levites exclusively. It has been 
supposed that the tithe in Deuteronomy is 
a second tithe, different from that in Numbers, 
and made after the first, or Levite's tithe, has 
been deducted from the produce. But, as no 
mention is made of more tithes than one, the 
different destination of the tithes may be con- 
sidered as indicating different stages of legis- 
lation. In later times, however, a distinction 
was made between the first and second tithes, 
the first being devoted to the Levites, and the 
second consumed by the offerer. 

CHAPTER 15 

The Sabbatical Year 
This c. deals with the year of release, or 
the Sabbatical Year, and should be compared 
with Lv25. In addition to the rest for the 
land and the manumission of Hebrew slaves 
in the seventh year, it prescribes a release of 
debts (vv. 1-5) ; only, however, so far as 
Hebrew creditors are concerned, and proper 



128 



15. 4 



DEUTERONOMY 



17. 16 



loans, not money due on account of purchase 
(vv. 3, 8, 9). 

4. Save when there shall be] RV ' Howbeit 
there shall be.' The law is intended to pre- 
vent poverty. 10. ' The Lord loveth a cheer- 
ful giver.' 11. The ideal state of matters is 
contemplated in v. 4 : here we have the actual 
fact. There will always be poor people, but 
poverty will be exceptional, if this injunction 
is conscientiously carried out : see vv. 4, 5. 

12-18. See also Ex 21 2-6 Lv 25 &-&. The 
subject of slavery is connected with that of 
poverty, as it is implied here that the poor 
person has been sold as a slave for debt. Every 
seventh year the slave has to be released. He 
is not to be sent away empty, as the probable 
result would be a return to slavery. He is to 
be liberally furnished, so as to be in a position 
to earn a livelihood and make a fresh start in 
life. This is a very wise as well as humane 
prescription. 

16. If a slave elect to remain in the master's 
service instead of accepting release, a formal 
compact must be made to that effect. In 
Ex21 6 the ceremony is performed in public 
before the magistrates ; here it seems to be 
private. The boring of the ear and the fasten- 
ing it to the doorpost with the awl signified 
that the person was permanently attached to 
the house and was bound to obey the words 
of his master : cp. on Ex21 6 . 

19, 20. In Nul8 15 ' 18 the firstlings of clean 
beasts are the perquisite of the priests. Here 
they are to be eaten by the owner and his 
household annually at the central sanctuary. 
Much ingenuity has been expended in the 
attempt to reconcile these two regulations. 
The simplest explanation is that they belong 
to different stages of legislation. 

21. Whatever is offered to G-od must be 
.the best of its kind: cp. 17 1 , and see on 
L.V22 1 "- 25 . 

CHAPTER 16 

Injunctions regarding Feasts, Judges, 

Groves, and Images 

1-8. On the Passover see Ex 12 Lv23 4 " 8 
Xu 28 16 " 25 , and the notes on these passages. It 
will be observed that the general law of 12 5 
(see on 12 4 " 28 ) is here applied to each of the 
three great annual festivals : see vv. 2, 11, 15. 

3. Bread of affliction] So called from the 
circumstances in which the festival was in- 
stituted and which the unleavened bread and 
bitter herbs were meant to symbolise : see 
Exl2 8 . 8. Solemn assembly] see Lv23 36 . 

9-12. On the Feast of Weeks see on Lv 
2315-21 Nu28 26 - 31 . 10. With a tribute of a 
freewill offering of thine hand] better, ' after 
the measure of a freewill offering of thine 
hand,' i.e. according to thine ability as God 
has prospered thee, as in v. 17. 11. The 



joyous nature of this festival is emphasised 
here. The people are to present thank-offer- 
iugs and remember the poor : cp. v. 16. 13. 
On the Feast of Tabernacles see on Lv 23 33 " 43 
Nu29 12 " 38 . 16. Shall not appear .. empty] To 
1 appear before God ' is to visit the sanctuary 
for worship : e.g. Ps42 2 » 4 . On this injunction 
to bring an offering see on Ex23 15 , and cp. Ps 
96 8 . 

18. This is the beginning of the sub- 
division that deals mainly with civil matters. 
See heading of c. 12. 19. See on Ex 23 8 . 

2 1 . Grove of any trees] R Y ' Asherah of any 
kind of tree': see on Ex 34 13 . 22. Image] 
RV ' pillar ' : see on Ex 24* 34 1 3 . 

CHAPTER 17 
The Punishment op Idolatry. Contro- 
versies TO BE SETTLED BY PRIESTS 

and Judges. Election and Duties 
of a King 

1. Cp. Lv22!?- 2 5. 2. Wickedness] idolatry, 
as in 4 25 . 5. Unto thy gates] see on GrnlQ 1 . 

7. The hands of the witnesses] This regu- 
lation, by throwing the responsibility of the 
execution upon the witnesses, would act as 
a safeguard against false evidence : see on 
Lv24i4. 

8-13. Difficult cases are to be referred to 
a supreme court of judicature, consisting of 
the priests and the chief magistrate, whose 
decision is final. This court is to sit at the 
central sanctuary : see 2Chl9 8-11 . 10. Inform 
thee] rather, ' direct thee.' The common 
Heb. word for ' law ' is derived from this 
verb and means really ' direction.' 

14-20. The Law of the Kingdom. It is to 
be observed that the people are not commanded 
to appoint a king, as in the case of the judges 
(16 18 ). But the desire for a king is anticipated 
and is not disapproved. The kingdom is theo- 
cratic, i.e. the king is the vice-gerent or repre- 
sentative of God and is chosen by Him. The 
law of the kingdom is the law of God (vv. 
18-20). The Church and the State are identi- 
cal. 14. Like as all the nations] cp. the ac- 
tual words of the people in 1 S 8 20 . 15. Not . . a 
stranger] i.e. a foreigner, a non-Israelite : be- 
cause Israel is the peculiar people of Jehovah. 
The Jews were always intolerant of foreign 
authority : cp. Mt22 17 . Messiah when He 
came was to rid them of the foreign yoke : see 
Ac 16. 

16. Not multiply horses] The horse is here 
forbidden, not as an article of luxury but as an 
instrument of warfare, in which the kings of 
Israel are not to trust: cp. Ps 20 r 33 16 > ^ 147 10 . 
Canaan was not suitable for cavalry, and the 
conquest of the country was effected by infan- 
try, whose superiority was due to the hilly 
nature of the country. Solomon imported 
horses from Egypt (1K10 26 - 28 ), and similar 



129 



17.17 



DEUTERONOMY 



19. 



reliance upon Egypt was a frequent snare to 
the Israelites against which the prophets raised 
a warning voice : see Isa SI 1 Ezk 1 7 15 . Horses 
were also dedicated to the sun-god by the 
idolatrous kings of Israel : see 2K23 11 , and 
on Ex 9 3 . 17. Solomon transgressed this com- 
mandment with precisely the result here fore- 
told: 1K11 1 - 4 , and cp. Nehl3 26 . 

18. A copy of this law] i.e. not merely the 
law of the kingdom contained in vv. 14-20, 
but the entire Deuteronomic law which is in 
the custody of the priests: see on 31 9 > 24-26 . 
At the coronation of Josiah the ' testimony ' 
was put into his hands (2 Ch23 n ) ; and to this 
day, when a Christian monarch is crowned, the 
Bible is delivered to him with the words : ' We 
present you with this book, the most valuable 
thing that the world affords. Here is wisdom ; 
this is the royal law : these are the lively (i.e. 
living) oracles of God,' signifying that the law 
of God is to be the rule of his kingdom. In 
LXX the words a copy of this law are repre- 
sented by the single word ' deuteronomion,' 
from which the title of the whole book is 
derived : see Intro. § 1. 

20. And his children] an indication that a 
hereditary dynasty is not inconsistent with 
divine choice. 

CHAPTEE 18 

The Pkiestly Dues. Character and Work 

of the True Prophet 

1-8. The Priestly dues : see on Nu 18. 

4. This is the only place where the priests 
are said to receive the first of the fleece : cp. 
N11 1812. 

9-14. Condemnation of superstitious and 
magical practices. 

10. Pass through the fire] The context here 
seems to imply that this was a method of divin- 
ing or obtaining an oracle from a god: cp. on 
Lvl8 21 . Useth divination] a general term, 
but applied specially to the casting of lots : 
see e.g. Ezk 21 21 . Observer of times] RV ' One 
that practises augury ' : the meaning of the word 
is uncertain. An enchanter] one who observes 
omens, watches for signs in the sky or in the 
flight of birds. Witch] RV 'sorcerer,' one who 
practises magic by means of drugs and spells : 
cp. on Ex22 18 . 11. Charmer] one who ties 
knots, weaves magic spells and curses. Con- 
suiter with familiar spirits, or a wizard] lit. ' one 
who consults a ghost or familiar spirit,' proba- 
bly a ventriloquist who professes to hold 
communication with subterranean spirits. 
Necromancer] one who inquires of the dead : 
cp. Lvl9 31 20 2 7. 

15. This is closely connected with what 
precedes. Israel has no need to employ such 
arts of divination as other nations use. Jeho- 
vah Himself will communicate His will to them 
through the prophets whom He raises up and 



w 
3r 

1 



15 

instructs. See Isa8 19 . The singular number 
here, a Prophet, does not refer to a particular 
individual, but to a succession of prophets. 
Israel will never want a prophet to communi- 
cate to them God's will. This prophecy found 
its ultimate fulfilment in Christ, the perfect 
revealer of God's grace and truth and the new 
law-giver, and is applied to Him by St. Peter 
and St. Stephen: see Ac3 2 2 737. 

18. This v. contains the definition of 
prophet. He is one who speaks the word oi 
God and interprets to men the divine will : see 
on Null 25 , and cp. the words of our Lord in 
Jnl4 10 . 20. That prophet shall die] For an 
instance see Jer28 15 " 17 . 

21, 22. At no time is it easy to distinguish 
the true from the false prophet. Different 
prophets in Israel not unfrequently contra- 
dicted each other. One test of the true pro- 
phet, but not the only one, is proposed here, 
viz. the fulfilment of prediction. Manifestly 
this test could only be applied to predictions 
of the immediate future. But the prophet 
sometimes prophesied of things that were afar 
off (Ezk 1 2 22-27) s0 that his words could not be 
verified by those to whom they were addressed. 
The ultimate criterion of the true prophet is 
the moral character of his utterance. Con- 
science is the true judge. Our Lord re- 
proached His generation because they insisted 
on seeing signs and wonders before they would 
believe. 

CHAPTER 19 

The Cities of Refuge. Punishment of 
Deceit and False Witness 
1-13. On the Cities of Refuge see Nu35 9 - 34 
and notes there. 2. In the midst of thy land] 
Those on the E. side of the Jordan have already 
been assigned : see on 4 41 " 43 . 3. Prepare thee 
a way] It was the duty of the Sanhedrim, 
or chief council of the Jews, to maintain the 
roads to these cities in good repair, and to 
have finger-posts where necessary with the 
words ' Refuge, Refuge ' inscribed upon them, 
so as to afford every facility to the fugitive. 

8. Enlarg-e thy coast] i.e. thy border, to the 
limits mentioned in 1 7 11 24 . The condition of 
such enlargement is stated in the next v. 

9. Three cities more] i.e. besides the three 
mentioned in vv. 2, 7, and those in 4 41 * 43 . 
The additional three would be in the newly 
added territory beyond the usual limits of the 
kingdom. There is no evidence to show that 
they were actually appointed. 

14. Cp. 27 17 Job 24 2 Prov 22 28 23 10 Hos 5 10. 
The landmark was usually a stone, or heap of 
stones, which in the absence of hedges or walls 
defined the boundary of a man's field. Its 
removal was equivalent to theft. 

15-21. The law of false witness. Cases of 
suspected false witness are to be investigated 



130 






19. 21 



DEUTERONOMY 



21. 18 



and punished by the supreme court : see on 
17 8 " 13 . 21. See on Ex21 2 3 a nd cp. Lv2420. 

CHAPTER 20 
Laws of Warfare 

I. Horses and chariots] The army of ihe 
Israelites was chiefly composed of infantry : 
see on 17 16 . 2. The priest] It is implied that 
the priests accompany the hosts of Israel into 
battle : see on NulO 9 . Hence the Heb. 
phrase ' to consecrate a war, or warriors,' 
usually rendered to 'prepare' : see Joel 3 9mg " 
Isal3 3 . 

5-9. From Nul 3 it would appear that all 
able-bodied men from twenty years of age 
were liable to military service. But the evils 
of compulsory service were obviated by the 
rule laid down in this passage exempting cer- 
tain classes. There was (1) the man who had 
built a new house or planted a vineyard, and 
had as yet got no return for his outlay. The 
law exempting him for a time was an en- 
couragement to those who by personal outlay 
increased the material resources of the country. 

(2) A man who was betrothed or newly 
married was exempted for a year (cp. 24 5 ). 

(3) The fearful and fainthearted were dis- 
charged. Fear is infectious, and the presence 
of such persons in the host would be a source 
of weakness and danger. For an instance of 
the observance of this rule see Jg7 3 . It is 
implied that a sense of honour will protect 
this law from being abused. 

10. War is to be regarded as the last resort, 
and only to be employed when negotiations 
for peace have been tried and failed. In the 
event of victory, only the fighting men are to 
be put to death ; women and children are to 
be spared, except in the case of neighbouring 
idolatrous tribes. 16. Cp. 7 1-5 . 

19, 20. Fruit-trees are not to be used for 
bulwarks and battering rams. The words at 
the end of v. 19 should probably be read as in 
RV, ' for is the tree of the field man, that it 
should be besieged of thee ? ' i.e. the tree does 
I'no harm and is not to be treated as an enemy. 
I Wanton destruction is not permissible even 
in war. 

All these rules were designed to mitigate as 
far as possible the evils of war. There is to 
I be no destruction of human life and property 
1 beyond what is actually necessary. The con- 
duct of war is to be guided with reason and 
mercy. 

CHAPTER 21 

Expiation of Undetected Homicide. 
Marriage of Captive Women. Pun- 
ishment of a Rebellious Son 
The last sub-section of the Second Discourse 
begins here, containing a variety of social and 
: domestic regulations. 



1-9. The Expiation of Undetected Homi- 
cide. The cases of accidental and open, wilful 
murder have been already provided for in 
c. 19. This passage treats the case of un- 
detected homicide. Murder pollutes the land 
and must be expiated. When the murderer 
cannot be discovered the responsibility of 
making atonement rests with the city nearest 
to the scene of the crime. For the ancient 
Babylonian practice in such circumstances see 
art. ' Laws of Hammurabi.' 4. For rough 
valley read ' valley with running water,' and 
for strike off the heifer's neck read ' break the 
heifer's neck.' Eared means ' ploughed ' as in 
Ex 34 21 . The proper satisfaction for the crime 
of murder would be the death of the murderer : 
see 1 9 13 ; but as he cannot be discovered, the 
heifer takes his place. The unworked heifer 
and the untilled land probably suggested com- 
plete severance from human life, and symbolised 
the unnaturalness of the crime of murder. 

6. The washing of the hands is a protesta- 
tion of innocence. Cp. the action of Pilate 
inMt27 24 . 7. The elders, in the name of all 
the citizens, take an oath of purgation. The 
publicity and solemnity of the ceremony must 
have had a powerful effect upon the public 
conscience, and in some cases no doubt assisted 
in the discovery of the murderer. 

10-14. On the Marriage of Captive Women. 
This rule does not apply to Canaanitish women, 
whom the Israelites were forbidden in any 
circumstances to marry : see 7 3 19 16 " 18 . 

12. These are rites indicative of purifica- 
tion : see Lvl4 8 Nu6 9 . The captive comes 
from a heathen people, and this ceremony 
symbolises the renouncing of her former life 
and her adoption into Israel. 13. The woman 
is to be honourably treated. Even if divorced 
she must not be sold as a slave but allowed to 
go back to her people. 

15. Succession to hereditary property is a 
fruitful cause of discord in a family, as is 
also the favouritism of parents : cp. the case 
of Isaac and Rebekah (G-n 25 28 ). A polygamous 
society is specially liable to disturbance from 
these causes. Beloved and hated are relative 
terms, meaning simply that one is preferred 
to the other. For a similar use of the terms 
see Mai I 2 , 3. 

17. A double portion] The usual right of 
the firstborn. An estate was divided into a 
number of parts exceeding the number of 
children by one, and the extra share fell to 
the firstborn. 18. Children have rights, as 
the last passage shows, but they have also 
duties. The punishment of an incorrigible 
son is very severe. The State is regarded as 
having an interest in the proper upbringing of 
children and as exercising its authority when 
that of the parents is powerless : see on 
Ex 20 12 211-5,17. 



131 



21. 



DEUTERONOMY 



23. 24 



22, 23. And thou hang him] The hanging 
followed the execution. See on Nu25 4 and 
cp. Josh 10 26 2S4 12 . The tree was a stake 
on which the dead body of the criminal was 
impaled, in token of infamy. The dead body 
must be taken down before nightfall because 
it is ' the curse of God.' The words rendered, 
he that is hanged is accursed of God, are some- 
what ambiguous. They mean either he ; is 
accursed in the sight of God, i.e. cursed by 
God,' or ' is an insult or reproach to God.' 
Jewish commentators take them in the latter 
sense. The dead body pollutes the land and 
is an insult to God : it must therefore be 
taken down. St. Paul quotes the words in 
Gal 3 13 in the former sense, viz. that the fact 
of hanging is an evidence of the divine curse 
resting upon the person. The Jews of the 
apostle's time, like those of later times, argued 
from the ' offence of the cross.' Seeing that 
Jesus was hanged on a tree, He could not be 
the Son of God : He was manifestly the object 
of divine displeasure. St. Paul boldly admitted 
the fact, but reasoned differently from it. The 
curse, he said, was vicarious. Christ ' was 
made a curse for us,' thereby redeeming us 
from the curse of the Law. 



CHAPTER 22 
Laws regarding Lost Property, Dis- 
tinction of Sex in Apparel, and 
Chastity 

1-4. Law of Lost Property : see Ex23 4 
and note. 

5. 'God is not the author of confusion, 
and the natural distinctions He Himself has 
appointed ought to be respected. Whatever 
contravenes the law of nature contravenes the 
law of God : cp. the principle laid down by 
St. Paul in 1 Cor ll 3 " 16 . Immodesty leads to 
immorality. There may be an allusion here 
to the unchaste practices connected with 
certain idolatrous rites in which the sexes 
exchanged dress. 

6, 7. To take the old bird as well as the 
young would be wanton cruelty. Kindness 
to animals is part of the law of God : see on 
Ex23 4 >V~'i Lv22 28 . It is to be observed that 
th. same reward is attached to this command- 
ment as to some of what may be considered 
the ' weightier matters of the law ' : see e.g. 
516,88. Rabbi Akiba, referring to this promise 
of long life, supposes the case of a man who 
climbs a bower and takes the young from a 
nest. sparing the dam in accordance with the 

o mandmenl given here. But on his way 

down he falls and breaks his aeck. To the 
question, ' Where is the going well and pro- 
longing of days in this ease?' the Rabbi 
answers, • In the world where all goes well, 
;m( | uj fchal World where all is abiding.' He 
holds thai the truth of the resurrection of the 



dead is implied in all the promises of reward 
attached to the keeping of the Law : cp. on 
Ex20 12 . 

8. The roofs of Eastern houses were flat, 
and used not only for drying grain (Josh 2 6 ), 
but as an open-air parlour when coolness or 
privacy was sought: see e.g. 1S9 25 > 26 2S11 2 
Dan4 29m «- AclO 9 . The injunction here is a 
corollary of the sixth commandment, and con- 
tains a principle capable of wide application. 

9-1 1. Cp. v. 5 and see on Lvl9 19 . 

12. See on Nul5 37 " 41 . The law is applied 
spiritually by St. Paul in 2 Cor 6 14 . 

13-30. On the Law of Chastity see on 
Lvl8,19. 

23. Betrothal consisted in the settlement 
and payment of a dowry by the bridegroom 
to the father or brothers of the bride, and in 
presenting the bride with certain gifts : see 
on Ex22 16 . It was regarded as sacredly as 
marriage itself. After betrothal, the bride 
was under the same restrictions as a wife, and 
if unfaithful was punished as an adulteress. 

24. Here the betrothed damsel is called a 
wife : cp. Mtl 2 <>. 28. See on Ex 2216. The 
even-handed justice of the Mosaic Law is 
worthy of note. It deals with equal strictness 
with both the sinning persons. 

CHAPTER 23 
Laws regarding admittance to the Con- 
gregation, Cleanliness in the Camp. 
Unchastity, Usury, and Yows 
1. Shall not enter into the congregation of 
the LORD] i.e. not merely as priests (see 
L v 21 16-24) but as ordinary members of the 
nation of Israel, all of whom are ' holy unto 
the Lord.' The reference in this v. is probably 
to the self -mutilation practised by the devotees 
of certain heathen gods, and alluded to by St. 
Paul in Gal5 12 : cp. 14*. 2. A bastard is 
understood by the Jewish commentators to 
mean here, not one born out of wedlock 
(Jephthah was such, Jgll 1 ), but the child 
of adultery or incest. Even to his tenth 
generation] i.e. not at all. Similarly in v. 3 : 
seeNehlS 1 . 1 1. Evening cometh on] Anew 
day begins with the evening. 

12-14. Sanitation and morality are both of 
the utmost importance for an army in camp 
Cleanliness is next unto godliness : cp. 2 Cor 
<; n;_7 1. 15. A foreign slave is probably 
meant ; see v. 16. 18. From its connexion 
here the word dog seems to denote a person 
who practised immoral conduct as an idolatrous 
rite : B66 on I,vl9 29 , and cp. Rev22!5. 

19. Thy brother] i.e. a fellow Israelite. lv 
v. 20 stranger means foreigner. The Jews 
have always been noted as money lenders: 
see on Ex 22 25 . 

23. On vows see Nu 30, and cp. Eccl 5 4 > r ' 



24, 25. Jewish commentators limit the 



132 



24. 1 



DEUTERONOMY 



25. 4 



application of this rule to harvest labourers, 
thus making it analogous to that prohibiting the 
muzzling of the ox ' when he treadeth out the 
corn' (Dt25 4 ). But there seems no reason 
for limiting the natural interpretation of the 
precept, which like the law of the gleaner 
(24 19-22) i s prompted by a spirit of generosity 
towards wayfarers and poor persons. The 
restrictions at the end of vv. 24, 25 would 
protect the law from abuse. The - Pharisees 
did not accuse our Lord's disciples of the sin 
of theft but of working on the sabbath day, 
rubbing the ears of corn being equivalent in 
their opinion to harvesting : see Mt 1 2 lf . 

CHAPTER 24 
Laws regarding Divorce, Pledges, Man- 
stealing, Leprosy, Justice, and Gleaning 

1-4. The Law of Divorce. The right of 
the husband to divorce his wife is here acknow- 
ledged but is guarded against abuse. There 
must be some good reason for the separa- 
tion ; it must be done in a legal and formal 
manner : and it is final. If the woman is 
divorced a second time, or becomes a widow 
after re-marriage, she is not free to marry her 
first husband. 

1. Some uncleanness] RY 'some unseemly 
thing.' The Heb. is literally 'nakedness of 
a thing,' an expression also used in 23 14 . 
The vagueness of the language gave rise to 
endless disputes among Jewish teachers. In 
the time of our Lord, opinion was divided 
between the school of Shammai who held that 
it meant unchastity, and the school of Hillel 
who understood the expression in a much wider 
sense as referring to almost any cause of dis- 
pleasure on the part of the husband, such as 
an ill-cooked meal or the sight of a more 
beautiful woman. The Pharisees asked the 
judgment of our Lord upon the matter and He 
decreed in favour of the stricter interpreta- 
tion. He acknowledged no ground for divorce 
except that of adultery, and even this is a 
doubtful exception (neither Mark nor Luke 
gives the qualifying words ' except for fornica- 
tion ' ; see MklO 11 ). He characterised the 
Mosaic law of divorce as a concession to the 
' hardness ' of men's hearts, and went back to 
the original ordinance of God in creating one 
man and one woman as evidence of the divine 
idea of the inviolability of the marriage bond : 
see MklO 2 - 12 Mtl93-9 5 31 > 32 Lkl6 18 . The 
bill of divorcement contained the sentence, 
' And thou art permitted (to be married) to 
another man.' 4. The infinitude of the divine 
mercy is beautifully illustrated in Jer 3 *, where 
God takes back those who have broken His 
covenant and have repented. His ways are 
higher than our ways (see also Hos 1-3). 5. See 
on 20 5 - 9 . 

6. On the nature of the Eastern hand-mill 



see on Ex 11 5 22 2 6> 2 7. The mill is an indis- 
pensable domestic utensil ; and, as neither of 
the stones is of any use without the other, to 
take one away would inflict a cruel hardship. 
It would be to ' take a man's life,' i.e. his 
means of livelihood. 7. See Ex21i 6 . 8, 9. See 
Lvl3, 14 Nul2. Miriam, though she was the 
sister of Moses, had to comply strictly with the 
laws regulating the separation and purification 
of lepers. 

10. Not go into his house] The debtor must 
be allowed to select himself the article that he 
will give as a pledge for a loan. Whatever it 
be, the creditor must accept it, and not force 
his way into the house to see what is there 
and perhaps carry off something that the poor 
man cannot spare. If the man is so poor that 
he has nothing save his blanket to give in 
pledge, it must not be kept overnight (vv. 12, 
13; see on Ex 22 26 ). 13. Righteousness] In 
the Rabbinical language the word for ' alms ' 
is ' righteousness.' To give alms is the right- 
eous act par excellence : see Mt 6 l and mg. 

15. Another humane principle of far reach- 
ing application. 16. For an instance of the 
observance of this rule see 2K14 6 , and cp. 
Ezkl8 2 - 4 . 19 > 20 . 

20. When thou beatest thine olive tree] In 
gathering olives the fruit is brought to the 
ground either by shaking the boughs or beat- 
ing them with a long palm branch. At the 
present time the trees are beaten on a certain 
day announced by a crier, after which the poor 
are allowed to glean what is left. A simjJ.ar 
permission holds good in the case of vineyards 
and cornfields : see on Lvl9 9 . Gleaning is a 
beautiful and kindly custom still surviving to 
some extent in Palestine, but fast disappearing 
before the introduction of modern methods of 
harvesting, which are not unnaturally regarded 
with disfavour by the poorer classes. 

CHAPTER 25 
Ordinances regarding the Infliction of 
Stripes, the Raising of Seed to a 
Brother, Modesty, and Fair Dealing 
3. And not exceed] In order to keep within 
the limit it was usual to inflict thirty-nine 
stripes : see 2 Cor 1 1 24 . The milder beating 
was with a rod. A severer form of this punish- 
ment was scourging, inflicted with a whip of 
thongs into which pieces of iron were inserted. 
In the time of our Lord beating was inflicted 
in the synagogue upon ecclesiastical offenders : 
see on MtlO 17 Ac26 n . While the culprit 
was being beaten the words in Dt28 58 > 59 
Ps 78 38 were read. 4. In threshing, the sheaves 
were spread out upon a hard beaten piece of 
ground (the threshing floor), and over them a 
pair of oxen dragged a wooden sledge or 
harrow about 5 ft. square, upon which the driver 
stood to add weight to it. In lCor9 9 - 14 



133 



25. 5 



DEUTERONOMY 



27. 11 



1 Tim 5 17 > 18 St. Paul applies this precept to 
the duty of supporting those who preach the 
gospel : see on Ex 23 4 > 5 . 

5-10. Marriage of a brother's widow. 
Among the Jews it was regarded as a great 
calamity that the family line should become 
extinct. If a man died childless, his name 
perished and his property passed to the families 
of his brothers. To obviate this was the pur- 
pose of this law of the levirate marriage 
(Lat. levir = a, husband's brother). The duty 
of marrying a brother's widow was not en- 
forced, but the refusal to do so was regarded 
as disgraceful. Failing a brother the duty 
devolved upon the nearest male relative. See 
on Lvl8 16 , and see Ruth 2 20 39-13 4. 9. The 
loosing of the shoe and handing it over signified 
an act of transfer or renunciation. In this 
case it was a mark of discredit : cp. Ruth 2 7 > 8 . 
A Bedouin formula of divorce is ' She was my 
slipper and I have cast her off.' 

13-16. Ancient weights were pieces of stone 
or metal which the merchant kept in a bag. 
An unscrupulous merchant might have two 
sets of weights in his bag, a heavier for buying 
and a lighter for selling : see Mic 6 n Prov 
16 11, andcp. Lvl9 35 > 36 . 

17-19. See Exl7 8 " 16 , and for the fulfilment 
of the injunction 1S1448 15, 27M. 

CHAPTER 26 

The Presentation of Firstfruits and of 
Tithes 

T-ii. Presentation of the Firstfruits, as a 
Thank-offering for the mercy of God in de- 
livering the nation from Egypt and in giving 
them a good land and fruitful seasons. 

5. jfy. Syrian] Jacob is meant. His mother 
came from Aram-naharaim (Gn24 10 ), and he 
himself spent fourteen years in that country 
(Gn28 1 " 5 29-31). The term implies a sug- 
gestion of disparagement. For his going 
down to Egypt see Gn 46. II. Having de- 
dicated their firstfruits the people were free 
to enjoy what remained. 

12-15. On the tithe of the first and second 
year see on 14 22 > 27 , and on the tithe of 
the third year see on 14 28 > 29 . The latter 
was the poor's tithe, and was stored up 
and distributed among the needy. 13. Brought 
away the hallowed things] RV ' put away,' 
wholly parted with them. The 'hallowed 
things' arc the tithes which were consecrated 
to Jehovah and could not be lawfully retained 

by the owner. 

14. As the presence of a dead body was 
ceremonially defiling in the highest degree, 
the offerer here declares that neither he nor 
his tithe was defiled in this way. The words 
given thereof for the dead are understood by 
Jewish commentators to mean that the offerer 
had not used any part of the tithe to provide 



a coffin or grave-clothes for a dead person. 
More probably, however, they refer to the 
practice, common in Egypt e.g., of making a 
funeral feast. Thomson, in w The Land and 
the Book,' says it is customary after a funeral 
to send presents of corn and food to the 
friends in the name of the dead: cp. Jerl6 7 
(cp. KV) Hos9 4 . The Egyptians also placed 
food on the tombs of the dead, but it is 
doubtful whether this custom obtained among 
the Jews, although we read in the apocryphal 
book of Tobit (4 17 ) : ' Pour out thy bread on 
the tomb (or, burial) of the just.' In any case 
the declaration in this passage means that the 
tithe has not been in any way ceremonially 
defiled. 

16. These statutes] i.e. those contained in 
chs. 12-26, to which vv. 16-19 here form the 
hortatory conclusion. 

CHAPTEK 27 
Ceremonies to be observed on reaching 
Canaan 
This chapter has probably been misplaced, 
as it seems to break the connexion between 
c. 26 and c. 28. It ordains four ceremonies 
to be observed after the people have entered 
Canaan : the Law to be written on stones on 
Mt. Ebal : an altar to be erected there : the 
covenant ratified on Ebal and Gerizim : and 
twelve curses pronounced by the Levites. 

1. Elders] Elsewhere the elders are ad- 
dressed along with the people. Here they are 
associated with Moses in exhorting the people 
to obedience. 

2, 3. The plaster was intended to make a 
smooth surface, on which the inscription may 
have been painted in accordance with the 
Egyptian custom. Or the writing may have 
been impressed on the clay when it was soft 
and the clay afterwards dried or baked in the 
sun, like the tablets and cylinders of Baby- 
lonia. On the fulfilment of the injunction 
given here see Josh 8 30 " 35 and on 1129,30. 

5. Cp. Ex 20 24 > 25 and notes there. 

9, 10. The Levites are addressed here be- 
cause it was their duty to pronounce the bless- 
ings and the curses, to which the people 
responded with ' Amen.' 

11-13. On Ebal and Gerizim see 112»,» 
It need not be supposed thai six tribes spoke 
the blessings from the top of Gerizim and the 
other six the curses from the top of Ebal. 
According to the Jewish writers the priests 
and Levites stood in the valley between the 
two heights and spoke both the blessings and 
the curses from there (see v. 14), and all the 
people answered with a loud Amen. The 
valley between the hills is not more than 60 
rods wide at the eastern end, and all travellers 
in Palestine remark upon the wonderful dis- 
tance at which sounds are audible, on account 



134 



27.12 



DEUTERONOMY 



29.6 



of the unusual clearness of the air. Our Lord 
frequently spoke to large multitudes in the 
open air. 

12. To bless] The words of the blessings 
are not given but may be inferred from the 
nature of the curses: cp. 1126-32, 

15. Cursed be the man] There is no verb in 
the Hebrew, and it might be more correct to 
say ' cursed is the man.' The words are a 
declaration of fact rather than an imprecation. 
The seeming harshness of many expressions in 
the Psalms e.g. may be explained in this way. 
The speaker does not always utter his own 
wish, but declares the inevitable result in 
God's righteous government of a certain line 
of conduct. In a secrete/ace] cp. 13 7 . It is 
seldom that sin is bold enough to show its 
head, at least in its beginning. But ' the eyes 
of the Lord are in every place beholding the 
evil and the good.' 

18. To take advantage of a neighbour's 
ignorance or credulity is sin: cp. Lvl9 14 . 

26. Cp. Gal3 26 . As no mere man is able 
perfectly to keep the whole law, St. Paul 
argues that part at least of the purpose of the 
Mosaic Law was to teach men to despair of 
obtaining righteousness ' by the works of the 
law,' and to drive them, as it were, to seek a 
righteousness imputed by Cod on condition of 
faith: see Ro3i 9 "3i 49-25 Gal 3 19-24. 

CHAPTER 28 
The Blessing and the Cukse 

This c. properly follows 26 19 , and concludes 
the second discourse. It enforces the in- 
junctions given, by exhibiting the blessings 
associated with the keeping of them, and the 
curses entailed upon disobedience. 

1-14. The Blessings for Obedience. 

5. Store] lit. ' kneading-trough ' as in Ex 
12 34 . The basket is that used for holding 
bread: see Gn40" Lv8 2 Mtl420. 

7. Seven ways] (at once), a proverbial 
saying expressing a disorderly rout. 

12. See on Lv26 4 and on c. II 10 . 

15-48. The Curse for Disobedience. 

22. The sword] rather, ' drought.' 

23, 24. A graphic description of long-con- 
tinued drought. In Palestine the E. wind is 
hot and dry ; and, blowing from the desert, is 
often full of fine sand-dust which gives the 



sky the appearance of burnished metal. When 
this wind (called the ' sirocco ') is strong, it pro- 
duces the terrible sand storm so destructive to 
life, when ' the rain of the land is powder and 
dust': seeonLv26 19 . 26. Fray] frighten, or 
scare: cp. 1S17 44 2 S 21 10. 27. The botch of 
Egypt] the boil with which the Egyptians 
were plagued: see Ex9 9 . Emerods] haemor- 
rhoids, as in 1 S 5 6 . What is meant is probably 
the Oriental bubonic plague. 28. They will be 
afflicted with mental as well as bodily diseases. 

30-34. These troubles are the consequences 
of defeat in war and oppression by foreign 
nations. For a historical instance see Jg6 3 " 6 . 

34. For the sight of thine eyes] i.e. on 
account of what you see. 36. Serve other 
gods] see on 428. 37. Cp. 1K9 7 ' 9 . 

38. Cp. Hag 1 6-u. 40. Shall cast its fruit] 
i.e. unripe. 42. See on ExlO 4-6 . 

49. The Chaldeans or Assyrians are meant: 
see Jer5 15 Habits. 

53 - 57- This crowning horror of a long- 
continued siege actually took place during the 
siege of Samaria by the Syrians (2 K 6 26-29) 5 j n 
the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar 
(Lam4 10 ), and later in the final overthrow of 
Jerusalem by Titus, as recorded by Josephus 
in his ' Wars of the Jews.' 58. The name of 
God is His revealed character : see on Nu 6 27 . 
The name here, Jehovah thy God, expresses 
what God is in Himself, and what He is to 
Israel. He is the eternal and self-existent 
God who has made Israel His people. 

64, 65. These words were fulfilled at the 
exile, and even more literally at the destruction 
of Jerusalem during the Roman supremacy. 
Since that time the Jews have been repeatedly 
persecuted and driven from one country to 
another ; but, wonderfully enough, they have 
always preserved their identity. They still 
present the strange spectacle of a nation with- 
out a country: see on Nu 23 9 . 65. The failing 
of the eyes indicates the gradual extinction of 
hope: cp. v. 32. 68. After the capture of 
Jerusalem the Roman general Titus sent a 
great many captives to the Egyptian mines. 

No man shall buy you] This does not mean 
' shall redeem you,' but ' purchase you as 
slaves.' They would be exposed for sale as 
slaves, and no man would consider them worth 
the buying. 



PART 3 

Third Discourse (Chs. 29, 30) 



CHAPTER 29 
Exhortations and Warnings 

In this chapter the covenant is renewed and 
enforced with a reminder of God's goodness 
and the consequences of disobedience. 

3. Temptations] i.e. provings or trials : see 



on 7 19 . 4. The people have not laid these 
things to heart. For the form of expression 
see on the ' hardening of Pharaoh's heart ' 
(Ex 4 21). 6. Not eaten bread] but manna. They 
have been entirely dependent on God, and His 
care in providing for them should teach them 
humility and obedience. The goodness of 



135 



29. 11 



DEUTERONOMY 



32.7 



God should lead to repentance, n. Your 
little ones] Children share the privileges and 
responsibilities of the covenant into which they 
enter by circumcision. 15. With him that is 
not here] i.e. with succeeding generations : 
see on 5 3 . 18. A root that beareth gall and 
wormwood] The reference is to any one who 
secretly entices his neighbours to idolatry : 
see 13 6 > 13 , and for an instance Josh 7 13 > 25 . The 
words are used in Hebl2 15 . 

19. Imagination] RV ' stubbornness.' To 
add drunkenness to thirst] i.e. the commission 
of the sin to the desire to commit it. RY, 
however, renders the words ' to destroy the 
moist with the dry,' which seems to be a pro- 
verbial expression, like ' root and branch,' in- 
dicating the destruction of the whole nation. 
The sinner perishes not alone in his iniquity, 
but involves others along with him. The LXX 
seems to understand the phrase in this sense, 
for it has ' lest the sinner destroy the innocent 
along with him.' Achan again furnishes an 
illustration. See Josh 22 20 . 23. Contrast the 
description of the good land that Jehovah in- 
tends His people to enjoy, Dt8 7 > 9 . 24. Cp. 
Jer5 1 9 228.9. 



29. The meaning of this v. seems to be, ' we 
know not the entire nature and extent of the 
divine judgments ; it is enough for us and for 
our children to have heard the commandments 
of God and to do them.' 

CHAPTER 30 
Promises and Appeals 

A promise of restoration, even after abandon- 
ment and rejection, is held out, on condition of 
repentance ; and an appeal is made to the 
people to choose the way of obedience and 
life rather than that of disobedience and death. 

6. Circumcision is the sign of the covenant. 
To circumcise the heart is to consecrate it to 
God: cp. on Lvl9 23 . 

11. Hidden] RV 'hard,' lit. 'wonderful.' 
God's law is not unintelligible or impracticable. 
It is a revealed thing (see 29 29 ). All that is 
essential in revelation is plain ; it is within the 
compass of human understanding and will. St. 
Paul applies these words to the law of right- 
eousness by faith : see RolO 6 . 15-20. An 
earnest appeal to the people to choose the way 
of obedience and life. 20. He is thy life] To 
love God is life : cp. Prov 8 35 > 36 . 



PART 4 



The Last Words of 

CHAPTER 31 

Farewell Exhortations of Moses to the 
People and Joshua. He Delivers 
the Law to the Priests. The 
Assembling of the Congregation 

1. These words] i.e. the following words. 
2. Go out and come in] i.e. perform the office 
of a leader : see on Nu27 17 . 3. Jehovah is 
the real Leader of the hosts of Israel : Joshua 
is the human instrument : cp. Nu23 22 . 

9. This law] i.e. the Deuteronomic law, 
especially that contained in chs. 12-26 : see 
intro. to c. 12. 10. The Feast of Tabernacles 
was at the beginning of the year of release : 
sec on L\ J:; ,;l:! , and cp. Lv25 9 . On the 
reading of the law at this season see e.g. 
X. 1,*.' 14. Cp. Nn27 12 ' 28 and notes. 16. Go 
a whoring] see on Ex 34 ,r '. 19. A witness for 
me] When the threatened punishment had 

fallen, the BOng would remain to testify tli.it 
God, who foresaw their apostasy, had warned 

them against it : Bee v. 21. The song would 

also he a means of bringing them to repent- 
ance. 26. In the side of] i.e. beside. The 
tables with the Ten Commandments were kept 

in the ark : 866 on K\ I i'» :il . 

CHAPTEB 32 

THE Sum; OF Mo 1 
The theme of this noble Bong i^ the good* 
Q688 of Jehovah in choosing Israel and bringing 



Moses (Chs. 31-34) 

them into a rich land. When they provoke 
Him with their forgetfulness and unfaithful- 
ness, He disciplines them. But He does not 
utterly reject them ; when they repent He 
takes part with them against their enemies 
and delivers them. It will be observed that 
the exodus begins and concludes with a Song 
of Moses : see EX15 1 " 18 . Ps90 is also attri- 
buted to him. 

1-6. Heaven and earth are called to witness 
the perfect righteousness and faithfulness 
of Jehovah which Israel has requited with 
ingratitude. 

2. As the dew] in its gentleness and 
beneficent results: cp. Isaf)5 10 > n Psl33 3 
Job 29 22 > 23 . 3. Name of the LORD] i.e. His 
character : see on 28 58 . 4. The Rock] This 
frequent name of Jehovah expresses His abso- 
lute and unwavering faithfulness : see e.g. 
Psl8 2 . Observe the number of words in this 
v. all emphasising this attribute of the divine 
character, and serving to throw into stronger 
relief the fickleness of Israel. 5. The first 
part of this v. is obscure, and various emenda- 
tions have been suggested. RV has ' they 
have dealt corruptly with him (i.e. with 
Jehovah), they are not his children, it is 
their blemish ; they arc a perverse and crooked 
generation,' which seems to express the general 
meaning of the original. 

7-14. Think of the goodness of Jehovah 
in choosing Israel, rescuing them in the 



136 



32. 8 



DEUTERONOMY 



33. 2 



wilderness, and bringing them into a rich land. 
8. Jehovah is not the God of Israel only, but of 
all the nations of the earth. He has, however, 
a special favour towards Israel ; and, when He 
divided the world among the nations, He left 
room for the people whom He had chosen. 

9. The converse is also true. Jehovah is 
the portion of His people : see e.g. Nul8 20 
Psl6 5 - 6 73^6 1425 JerlO 1 ^ 10. He found 
him] like a lost child or wandering sheep. 
Led him about] RV ' compassed him about.' 

11. The image is that of the old eagle en- 
couraging her timorous young to fly. So 
Jehovah disciplined Israel in the wilderness, 
preparing the people for their life in Canaan : 
see on Exl9 4 . 12. There ivas no strange 
god with him] i.e. with Jehovah. He did 
everything for Israel. No other god, there- 
fore, has any claim upon their gratitude and 
obedience. 14. Rams . . of Bashan] see on 
Nu 2 1 3335 . Fat of kidneys of wheat] the finest 
and most nourishing of wheat, the kidneys 
being enclosed in the best fat of the animal : 
cp. Nu 18 12 , where the Heb. is ' all the fat of . .' 

15-18. All this grace Israel has requited 
with forgetfulness and unfaithfulness. 

15. Jeshurun] (cp. 33 5 - 2 6 Isa44 2 ) is a 
poetical name for Israel, meaning probably 
'the righteous one': see on Nu23 10 . Pros- 
perity made Israel self-willed and forgetful : 
see on 4 25 , and cp. 8 10 - 18 . 16. Jealousy] see 
on Ex20 5 . 17. Unto devils, not to God] RV 
' unto demons which were no God ' : cp. v. 21. 
The ' demons ' may mean the divinities wor- 
shipped in Assyria in the form of colossal 
bulls: cp. Psl06 3 7. 

19-33. In consequence of this perversity 
Jehovah is provoked and corrects them in His 
anger. 20. No faith] i.e. no faithfulness or 
fidelity. They have broken their covenant 
with Jehovah. 21. Vanities] i.e. false gods : 
see e.g. Isa41 29 44™ Jer8i9 1015 lCor8*. 
Not a people] i.e. most probably an undis- 
ciplined horde of barbarians, whom God will 
permit to gain the mastery over Israel. In 
Ro 10 19 this passage is applied to the Gentiles, 
whose acceptance of the gospel will have the 
effect of provoking the jealousy of the chosen 
people and moving them ultimately to follow 
their example. 22. Lowest hell] RV ' pit ' : 
Heb. Sheol. God's righteous indignation 
reaches to the deepest and remotest part of 
the universe : cp. Am9 2 . 27. Behave them- 
selves strangely] RY ' misdeem,' draw a false 
conclusion from Jehovah's treatment of 
Israel by taking credit to themselves for its 
humiliation: see Nul4 15 - 17 and note there, 
and cp. 9 2S . 28. They] Israel. 29. Their 
latter end] the consequences of their conduct. 

30. Shut them up] delivered them into the 
hand of their enemies. 31. Their rock] the 
gods of the heathen. 



32. Their vine] The analogy with their rock 
in v. 31 suggests that the reference is to the 
enemy, but more probably it is to Israel 
itself, whose apostasy is thus severely con- 
demned. Israel is frequently compared to a 
vine of God's planting, which instead of bear- 
ing fruit is either fruitless (HoslO 1 ) or bears 
wild grapes (Isa 5 2 - 7 ). Sodom and Gomorrah 
are types of wickedness, and the vines ascribed 
to them may be no specific plants, but figurative 
growths or outcomes. 33. Dragons] i.e. 
serpents. 

34-43. When Israel is reduced to extremi- 
ties Jehovah will be merciful to them and 
avenge them. 34. This] referring to the 
vengeance of God (v. 35), which for the present 
is laid up in store against the day when it will 
be manifested. 35. RV ' vengeance is mine 
and recompence, at the time when their foot 
shall slide.' 36. Shut up, or left] i.e. left at 
large, a proverbial expression meaning every- 
body: seelK14i0 21 2 i 2K98 14 2 «. 37. Cp. 
JglO 14 Jer2 2 8. 39. No god with me] This 
is almost equivalent to ' no god beside me.' 
Jehovah alone is able to work and save : cp. 
Isa43 10 - 13 . 40. Lift up my hand] The usual 
attitude of taking an oath : see Gnl4 22 
Nul4 3 °™g. Revl0 5 > 6 . I live for ever] 
rather, ' As I live for ever.' 4 1 . Mine enemies] 
the heathen. 42. From the beginning . . 
enemy] RV ' from the head of the leaders of 
the enemy.' 43. Read, with RM, 'Praise 
His people, ye nations, for . . He will make 
expiation for His land, His people (or, for the 
land of His people),' i.e. He will make atone- 
ment for the blood shed in the land by the 
slaughter of those who shed it. Then those 
who witness this righteous judgment will 
recognise that Israel is the people of Jehovah 
and will bless, or congratulate, them. 

44. Hoshea] see on Exl7 9 . 

48-52. See Nu27 12 " 14 and notes there. On 
the death of Aaron see Nu20 22 - 29 . 

CHAPTER 33 
The Blessing of Moses 

This chapter contains the last words or 
'swan-song' of Moses. Immediately before 
his death he takes farewell of the people, and 
blesses each of the tribes in turn, as Jacob had 
done on his deathbed: see Gn49. The two 
blessings should be compared ; see also on v. 4. 

2-5. Introduction, describing the majestic 
appearance of Jehovah to His chosen people. 

2. Cp. Jg5 4 Hab3 3 . Seir] Edom (see on 
Nu20 22 " 29 ). Mount Paran] the S. boundary 
of Canaan. The appearance of Jehovah is 
described as a sunrise. The glory of His 
Presence appeared on Mt. Sinai, His beams 
smote the top of Mt. Seir, and glowed upon 
Mt. Paran. Read, ' He came forth from the 
midst of (not, with) the myriad shining saints 



137 



33. 3 



DEUTERONOMY 



33. 19 



that encircle His throne : at His right hand 
was a burning fire for them.' The last clause 
is difficult and very probably corrupt. 3. All 
his saints] i.e. Israel's saints. They sat down 
at thy feet] as disciples listening to the words 
of their teacher. 4. This v. may be inter- 
polated. Moses could hardly have written it 
himself. The superscription in v. 1 seems 
also to indicate that a later writer has written 
down the Blessing of Moses. 5. He was 
king] Jehovah, not Moses: cp. on Nu23 21 . 
On Jeshurun see 32 15 . 

6. Keuben is the eldest of the sons of 
Jacob. There is a difficulty in the second 
half of this v., in which AY has inserted a 
negative not in the original. It may be better 
to read with RY ' yet let his men be few.' In 
the earlier blessing of Jacob it is said that 
Reuben will not endure, or have preeminence, 
on account of his misdeed (Gn35 22 ). Owing 
to their position on the E. of the Jordan 
the Reubenites had a somewhat precarious 
hold of their territory. The Ammonites 
were troublesome (JglO, 11); on the Moab- 
ite Stone (see on Nu21 29 ) most of the 
Reubenite cities are said to be occupied by the 
Moabites ; and Tiglath-Pileser carried them 
captive to Assyria (1 Ch 5 6, 22, 26 2 Kl 5 ™. This ' 
constant danger of extinction may be alluded 
to here. But the text may be corrupt, and 
some words may have dropped out. Some 
MSS of LXX insert Simeon as the subject of 
the second clause. It will be observed that 
he is not otherwise mentioned at all, though 
the omission may be explained by the fact 
that the tribe of Simeon was absorbed in that 
of Judah(Joshl9 9 ). 

7. Let his hands . . for him] RY ' with his 
hands he contended for himself ' (or, ' for it,' 
i.e. the people). Judah was the champion of 
the tribes: see e.g. Jgl 1 20 1S . 

8. On the Urim and Thummim see Ex 28 30 . 
Jehovah is addressed in this v., and Levi is 
meant by thy holy one. Three privileges of 
the priestly tribe are referred to in this bless- 
ing, viz. the use of the Urim and Thummim, 
the teaching of the Law. and the presentation 
of incense and sacrifice (v. 10 : see on Nu 18, 

I •). Whom thou didst prove, etc.] At 
Maasah and Meribah the people certainly 
proved and strove with Jehovah. But unless 
there is a change of person here, and again in 
v. in. it would appear thai the person addressed 
is still Jehovah, who is represented as having 
proved and contended with Levi there, in the 
persona of Moses and Aaron SceNu20 12 
and Dt8 a . 9- This v. refers to the separation 
of the tribe of Levi to their sacred duties. 
They have no lol or inheritance among their 
brethren. There may be a particular refer 
( nee to the exceptional zeal of Levi mentioned 
in Ex.'>-' : cp. for the thought MtlO 3 ? 



Lk9 59 ' 62 . 11. Them that rise against him] 
such as Korah: see Nul6. 

12. The beloved of the LORD] is Benjamin, 
and the subject of the second and third clauses 
is Jehovah, as in AY. The v. refers to the 
fact that Zion, the dwelling-place of Jehovah, 
was in the land of Benjamin. Jerusalem was 
on the border line between Benjamin and 
Judah, so that Jewish writers speak of the 
Temple being in Benjamin while its courts 
were in Judah. Hence, Jehovah is here said 
to dwell between Benjamin's shoulders, i.e. 
mountain slopes. 

13. The fertility of the land of Joseph is 
also emphasised in the earlier blessing of 
Jacob: see Gn49 22 " 26 . The precious things 
of heaven is the rain, and the deep that couch- 
eth beneath is the springs of water. The 
words for the dew should perhaps be read 
' from above.' 14. Things put forth by the 
moon] RV ' things of the growth of the 
moons,' i.e. probably of the months, things 
put forth month by month, according to their 
season. 16. Good will of him that dwelt in 
the bush] Jehovah revealed Himself in the 
bush as the Deliverer of Israel : see Ex3 2 > 6 - 8 . 
The latter part of the v. is identical with that 
of Gn49 2 6. 17. Read, ' His firstling bullock, 
majesty is his, and his horns are the horns of 
the wild ox.' Ephraim is meant, and is com- 
pared to a wild ox : see on Nu 23 22 . 

18. Thy going out] The reference is to the 
commercial intercourse between Zebulun and 
foreign nations. The phrase is almost equiva- 
lent to ' exports.' Zebulun seems to have had 
an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea ; cp. the 
next v. and also Gn49 13 Isa9 1 . Nazareth was 
in the land of Zebulun. In thy tents] Issachar 
was an inland tribe. It possessed the Plain 
of Jezreel, or Esdraelon, a district of extra- 
ordinary fertility and the granary of Palestine. 
Issachar is accordingly represented as rejoicing 
in its tents, i.e. pursuing a peaceful agricultural 
life (Gn 49 14. 15). 

19. The people] RV 'peoples,' their heathen 
neighbours who trade with them, particularly 
the Phoenicians. These they are here said to 
call unto the mountain where they offer 
sacrifices of righteousness, i.e. sacrifices that 
are offered rightly. It would appear that in 
the land of Zebulun and Issachar there were 
certain mountain sanctuaries where sacrificial 
feasts were held to which these tribes were 
wont to invite their neighbours, and that 
these gatherings were a source of commercial 
advantage to them. The abundance of the 
seas refers to the maritime commerce men- 
tioned above, and the treasures hid in the sand 
have been supposed to refer to the manufacture 
of glass for which the sands at the mouth of 
the river Belus, which flows into the Bay of 
Acre, were famous. The Roman historian 



138 



33. 20 



DEUTERONOMY 



34. 6 



Pliny says indeed that it was here that glass 
was first invented or discovered by some 
sailors who lit a fire upon the sand and 
accidentally produced glass. 

20. He that enlargeth Gad] i.e. Jehovah 
who has given him the wide territory E. of 
the Jordan : see Nu32. The Gadites are com- 
pared to a lion, as in lChl2 8 . With the 
crown] RY 'yea the crown.' 21. The first 
part] Gad chose the part E. of the Jordan 
which was first conquered and also the first to 
be allotted : see Nu32. The next clause 
should read, ' for there was a ruler's (or com- 
mander's) portion reserved.' Gad obtained a 
portion suitable for such a warlike tribe. It 
was a v commander's share,' or what might be 
called a ' lion's share ' : see v. 20. He came 
with the heads of the people, etc.] The Gadites, 
true to their promise, crossed the Jordan with 
the other tribes and assisted them in the con- 
quest of the land : see on Nu32 16 " 23 . 

22. RY ' Dan is a lion's whelp that leapeth 
forth from Bashan.' This depicts the stealth 
and violence of the Danites in war or in 
marauding expeditions : see e.g. their capture 
of Laish, Jgl8. The forest and ravines of 
Bashan were the haunts of wild beasts : see on 
Bashan, Nu 21 33-35. 

23. Naphtali touched the Sea of Galilee on 
the E. and included some of the richest land 
and most beautiful scenery in Palestine. The 
Plain of Gennesaret was specially luxuriant. 
Josephus calls it the ' ambition of nature.' 
The west should be the ' sea,' i.e. the Sea of 
Gennesaret or Galilee, not the Mediterranean 
in the W. 

24. The first clause should probably read, 
'Blessed above sons be Asher.' Northern 
Galilee has always been distinguished for the 
cultivation of the olive. Jewish writers say, 
' In Asher oil flows like a river ' : cp. Gn 49 20 . 
In ancient times this district was one of the 
main sources of the supply of olive oil (cp. 
2 Ch 2 10 ), and even now great quantities are 
exported to Constantinople and elsewhere. 
The expression dip his foot in oil refers to 
the ancient custom of treading the olives to 
obtain the oil. Cp. Mic6 15 . Stone presses, 
however, were also used for this purpose. 
Remains of them are still to be seen in the 
neighbourhood of Tyre. 25. Thy shoes] 
rather, ' thy bars ' or bolts, referring to the 
impregnable fortresses guarding the mountain 
passes of Galilee. Asher, lying in the N., 
was the gate of Canaan. Thy strength] A 
word of very doubtful signification, not found 
elsewhere. It means, perhaps, 'rest' or 
' security,' and the clause will then imply that 
Asher's security will never be disturbed. 

26. On Jeshurun, see v. 5. In thy help] 
rather, ' for thy help.' The clouds are said 
to be the chariot of God : see Ps 68 33, 34 1043 



Nah 1 3. 27. Refuge] RV ' dwelling-place ' : 
cp. Ps 90 l . Jehovah protects Israel both above 
and beneath. 

28. RV 'Israel dwelleth in safety, the 
fountain of Jacob alone, in a land of corn and 
wine ; yea, his heavens drop down dew.' Israel 
separated from all other nations (see on 
Nu23 9 ) dwells securely in a rich land. For 
the expression fountain of Jacob, see Ps68 26 
Isa48 1 . 29. Thine enemies shall be found 
liars unto thee] RY ' shall submit themselves 
unto thee.' The idea is that of conquered 
nations cringing before their victors and 
protesting (perhaps feigning) submission. 

CHAPTER 34 

The Death of Moses 
In obedience to the divine command (32 48-52) 
Moses ascends to the top of Mt. Nebo, whence 
he views the Land of Promise. Thereafter 
he dies and God buries him. No man knows 
of his sepulchre. 

1-4. Dan is used to indicate the extreme 
N., as in the phrase ' from Dan to Beersheba,' 
though it was not till the time of the Judges 
that the Danites settled in that district : see 
j g 18 28, 29. The utmost sea (lit. 'hinder, i.e. 
western, sea ' : see on 1 1 24 ) is the Mediter- 
ranean. The south is the ISTegeb : see on 
Nu 13 17. Zoar lay at the SE. end of the Dead 
Sea. There is no need to suppose that there 
was anything miraculous in this vision of the 
whole land. From the mountains of Moab 
travellers tell us that they can see the entire 
valley of the Jordan with Mt. Hermon at the 
extreme N", Lebanon and Carmel are visible, 
and the Mediterranean, 50 m. distant, can 
be seen like a silver streak in the glittering 
sunshine. Such extensive views are favoured 
by the exceptional clearness of the atmosphere 
in Palestine : see on 27 n - 13 . 

5. It is implied here that Moses was alone. 
But Josephus says that he was accompanied 
to the top of the hill by ' the senate, and 
Eleazar, and Joshua.' After viewing the land 
Moses dismissed the senate, and 'as he was 
about to embrace Eleazar and Joshua was still 
discoursing with them a cloud stood over him 
on a sudden and he disappeared in a certain 
valley.' With this compare the departure of 
Elijah, 2K2 11 . Jewish writers take literally 
the words at the end of this v., according to 
the word of the LORD, and say that God 
' kissed him and he slept.' 

6. He buried him] i.e. God buried him. 
This probably means no more than what is 
expressed in the second half of the v. that his 
sepulchre was never known. God alone knew 
where His servant was buried. Fuller quaintly 
says that God not only buried Moses, but 
buried his sepulchre also lest it should become 
a shrine of idol-worship to future generations. 



139 



34.7 



DEUTERONOMY 



34. 12 



Later Jewish legend says that Michael, who 
was supposed to be the angel who conducted 
pious souls to Paradise, came into conflict with 
Satan as to the disposal of the body of Moses. 
Whether Satan was regarded as trying to pre- 
vent the body of Moses being honoured, or as 
seeking to seduce the people into paying too 
much honour to it, is uncertain. The legend 
is referred to in the Epistle of Jude, v. 9, and 
the quotation there is made from a Jewish 
history called l The Assumption of Moses.' 
A great many legends about Moses are cir- 
culated among the Mohammedans. The words 
unto this day indicate that the writer of this 
account of the death of Moses lived long after 
its occurrence. 

7. An hundred and twenty years old] see 
onEx22i. 

8. The usual period of mourning seems to 
have been thirty days: see Nu20 29 Gn50 3 , 
and cp. 21 13 . Of these the first seven were 
more stringently observed : see Gn50 10 . In 



addition to the natural manifestations of 
grief, mourning in the East was, and still is, 
accompanied with a great deal of ceremony : 
see e.g. Jer9 17 - 18 16 6 " 8 Ezk24 1( U7 Mt9 23 . 
The mourning for Moses was doubtless very 
genuine. Like many another great person, 
he was better appreciated after his death than 
during his lifetime. In his life he was much 
tried by the murmuring, disobedience, and 
jealousy of those for whom he lived, but these 
same people made great lamentation for him 
when he was dead. 

9. ' God buries the workman but carries on 
the work.' See on Nu 27 18 -23. 

10-12. RV ' There hath not arisen a prophet 
since in Israel like unto Moses ' : cp. Nul2 6 " 8 . 
The words point to a time considerably later 
than the death of Moses (cp. v. 6, ' unto this 
day '), when his real greatness could be appre- 
ciated and his superiority to all the great 
prophets and leaders who succeeded him could 
be rightly estimated. 



140 



JOSHUA 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Book. In this book we have the 
record of the Conquest of Canaan by the 
people of Israel and of their settlement in 
the land. The value of the book consists 
chiefly in (1) its description of a critical period 
in the history of the Hebrews. The war not 
only gave them a dwelling-place among 
the peoples of the earth, but carried a step 
further the consolidation of the tribes into a 
nation. The elements of unity were already 
theirs, the chief of them being their common 
acknowledgment of Jehovah as their God. 
Their brotherhood in blood was consecrated and 
maintained by their brotherhood in religion. 
The discipline of the wanderings in the wil- 
derness, the perils encountered in the success- 
ful attempts to obtain a lodgment in the land, 
and the hardships of the war endured by the 
Israelites side by side, served to strengthen 
the bond of union and to develop the sense of 
nationality. As is always the case with strong 
men, their noble qualities were brought out in 
the presence of difficulties. (2) The book is 
also valuable for its revelation of the Hand of 
God in the movements of men. He did not 
give them the land He had promised them 
without causing them to fight for it. But the 
gift is recognised in this book as none the less 
His. He sanctions their advance. He directs 
their movements. He makes them victorious. 
He allows them to be defeated. He makes them 
conquerors in the end. The book enables us 
to see a little into the way in which God works 
out His purposes in human affairs. 

2. The life and character of Joshua. Son 
of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, he bore 
originally the name of Hoshea (Nul3 8 > 16 
Dt32 44 ), which was changed by Moses to the 
more significant form Jehoshua (' Jehovah (is) 
salvation '). His intimate relation to Moses — 
like that of Elisha to Elijah — afforded an 
unique education for the future leader of 
Israel, who had been divinely designated 
(Dt 1 37 > 38 ) as successor to the great Law- 
giver, and was solemnly consecrated by him 
to that office by the laying-on of hands (Nu 
2718-23, C p. Dt 3 114-23). The echo of Moses' 
charge, ' Be strong and of a good courage ' 
(Dt31 23 ), is still ringing in his ears as he takes 
up his work in the plains of Jordan; the 
' grace ' of that ' laying-on of hands,' showing 
itself (Dt34 9 ) in a spirit of wisdom and a 
bearing that won the unquestioning obedience 



of the wayward host (Josh 1 16-18 Nu 27 20 ), is 
upon him from first to last. His authority is 
strengthened (Josh 3 7 4 U ) by the miracle of 
Jordan, his courage renewed by the vision of 
the Heavenly Captain (5 is-i 5 ). Even his tem- 
porary dismay at the rout before Ai is token 
of his absolute reliance on divine aid, and of 
his knowledge of the fortunes and tendencies 
of war (see on 7 6 ). The swiftness with which 
he deals his successive blows upon southern 
(c. 10) and northern (c. 11) confederacy be- 
speaks an alert and intrepid general; the 
impartiality with which he conducts the as- 
signment of the tribal territories exhibits him 
as an ideal judge and ruler; and finally the 
tender severity of his admonition to Achan 
(7 i9f -) gives us a glimpse of the true priestly 
heart beating beneath the warrior's mail. In 
his unswerving faith and obedience to the 
call, in the incorruptible righteousness of his 
administration, in the gentle severity of his 
rebuke, as well as in his life's work, Jesus 
(Heb4 8 ) the son of Nun is a veritable type 
of Jesus the Son of God. 

3. The Conquest of Canaan. The book 
of Joshua opens with the crossing of the Jor- 
dan by the forces of Israel and the establish- 
ment of a great headquarters' camp at Gilgal. 
By invading Western Palestine by the ford 
near Jericho instead of advancing round the 
S. of the Dead Sea, Joshua was able to 
drive a wedge between the Canaanites on the 
N. and those in the S. of the country, and 
thus to prevent a union of all the tribes 
against him. The first attack was made upon 
Jericho. This was the key to Western Pales- 
tine, for it was on the way to all the posses of 
importance into the interior. Jericho taken, 
Ai, another town on the principal road to the 
W., soon followed. The Gibeonites by a 
trick secured an alliance with the conqueror, 
who marched to attack the kings of the S. 
and defeated them in a pitched battle at Beth- 
horon, afterwards overrunning their country 
and destroying their towns. Thereafter the 
victorious leader turned his attention to the 
kings of the N. and defeated them in a 
great battle near the waters of Merom. 
After that, according to the chronicler, ' the 
land rested from war.' 

The conquest thus outlined was, however, 
far from complete. The enemy may have 
been routed but was not destroyed. The 



141 



INTRO. 



JOSHUA 



1. 1 



towns may have been overthrown, but many 
of them were probably soon re-fortified. And 
the complete subjugation of the enemy was 
accomplished slowly and with difficulty, not 
by a general campaign, but by individual 
tribes fighting for themselves and gradually 
extending their borders. We have illustra- 
tions of this in such accounts as that of 
Caleb driving out the sons of Anak from 
Hebron (15 u ), and that of the children of 
Joseph contending with difficulty against 
the Perizzites and the Rephaim (17 14 - 18 ). 
The country was difficult for warfare, being 
mountainous, and favoured the defenders. 
The Israelites having no chariots could not 
meet their enemies in the plains (17 16 ), and 
the valleys thus remained long in possession 
of the Canaanites. And in many cases the 
advance was slow and the success uncertain: 
see e.g. 17 12 > 13 , and cp. Jgl. 

The inhabitants of Canaan at the time of 
the invasion, generally described as Canaanites, 
were divided into a number of petty kingdoms, 
and had no bond of union save hatred of the 
invaders. Amongst their divisions were the 
Amorites, Jebusites, Hivites, and suchlike ; 
also there seem to have been here and there 
in the land surviving elements of an aboriginal 
people represented by the Rephaim and the 
sons of Anak. Their moral and religious 
condition is indicated by such passages as Dt 
9 5 and Lv 18. It was so vicious and depraved 
as to render dangerous, if not indeed impossi- 
ble, any association with them on the part of 
the Israelites. Uncompromising opposition to 
them was the only practical attitude for a people 
led by Jehovah, and holding His law. Hence 
arose the moral necessity for that order for 
their extermination, which has sometimes been 
a stumbling-block to the religious mind. The 
attempt to carry out that order had an effect 
for good upon the Israelites, in so far as it 
engaged them in a work of moral and spiritual 
■ t ion : the failure to carry it out com- 
pletely left open to them a source of weakness 
and danger, from which sprang many of their 
subsequent corruptions and defections from 
the pure worship of Jehovah. 

The Canaanites were an agricultural people, 



somewhat more advanced than the Israelites 
in the arts of civilisation. The conquest of 
them, accordingly, meant for Israel a certain 
material progress, and an entry into conditions 
which constituted in many ways an ideal nurs- 
ery of religion. They passed from a nomadic 
and pastoral state to the more complex stage 
of a settled, agricultural condition, with pos- 
sibilities of village and city life. The division 
of the conquered territory and the settlement 
of the Israelite tribes upon it occupy chs. 13- 
21 of the book of Joshua, which have conse- 
quently been called the ' Domesday Book of 
the Old Testament.' 

4. Authorship. The title of the book is no 
indication of authorship, but like Judges and 
Samuel has reference to the principal figure in 
the history. The hero of the book is un- 
doubtedly Joshua, with whose deeds it is 
largely occupied. Joshua is said to have 
written a record of the covenant with God, 
which the people made shortly before his 
death (24 26), m ' the Book of the Law of God ' ; 
and some of the chroniclers of a later date 
may have borrowed from his own words some 
of the passages which have come down to us. 
This, however, is mere speculation. What is 
agreed by scholars is that the book is a com- 
pilation, similar to the Pentateuch, of which it 
is the continuation. Indeed, ' The five books 
of Moses' so-called and the book of Joshua 
form a whole usually termed the Hexateuch. 
In its present form the book belongs to the 
same date as the Pentateuch, and the same 
older sources — the Primitive, the Priestly, 
and the Deuteronomic — are its basis. These 
sources contain traditions which were doubtless 
handed down either orally or in writing from 
the days in which the great deeds recorded 
were done, and in one case, at any rate, they 
give a quotation from the book of Jasher, a 
collection of songs of very early date (10 12 > 13 ); 
and we need have little hesitation in accepting 
the outline of the history given in the book 
as substantially historical. 

Analysis. The book falls naturally into 
three parts : chs. 1-12, The Conquest; chs. 
13-21, The Division of the Land ; chs. 22-24, 
Closing Scenes. 



CHAPTER 1 

Joshua by Divine Commission Succeeds 
Moses 

Chs. \ l -5 12 record the preparations for the 
Bolj War. 

1. Now (better, 'and') after the death of 
Moses. . it came to pass] These words clearly 
mark 1 1 1* - book which follows as a sequel to 



PART 1 

The Conquest (Chs. 1-12) 
Deuteronomy. 



The book of Judges begins 
with a precisely similar phrase. 

The LORD spake unto Joshua] This formula 
'the LOBD spake' which so constantly recurs 
in the first books of the Bible, corresponds to 
t he more direct formula of the prophets, ' Thus 
saiih the LORD.' It is a characteristic feature 
of ilif <>T.. distinguishing the literature of 
the Hebrews from that of other nations of 



142 



1. 4 



JOSHUA 



3. 15 



antiquity, and marking their claim to express 
in a very special way the will of Almighty God. 
It is, in fact, one of the most obvious indica- 
tions of that which we call ' inspiration.' We 
may not of course be able, in a given instance, 
to define the exact mode in which the divine 
will was communicated. Was it by the Urim 
and Thummim, or in a dream? Or was it 
rather an inner conviction borne in upon the 
soul, voiceless but clear and definite, such as is 
no uncommon experience with those who are 
in the habit of communing with God ? But the 
importance of the phrase lies less in any hint 
of the manner of the revelation than in its tes- 
timony to the fact of it. However it came, 
the thought was recognised as an utterance 
of God. Minister] Joshua had been Moses' 
attendant and right-hand man — his 'chief of 
staff.' 

4. Boundaries S. and SE., ' the wilderness ' ; 
N., Lebanon ; NE., the Euphrates ; W., the 
Mediterranean or ' Great Sea.' These, the 
providential (Gnl5 18 Ex23 31 ), and in some 
sense natural, boundaries of the territory of 
Israel, were only attained for a brief period 
during the reigns of David and Solomon. All 
the land of the Hittites] see on GnlO 15 . 

8. This book of the law] This obviously 
refers to the 'law' described in Dt31 9 as 
written by Moses and delivered to the Levites 
and elders. That it embraces a considerable 
nucleus of the Pentateuchal legislation (in- 
cluding, of course, the bulk of Ex 20-23) few 
critics would deny. 

11. Prepare you victuals] Joshua has the 
general's eye for the commissariat. 

I2 f . See Nu32 20 " 32 for Moses' injunction to 
the two and a half tribes, and their promise 
to obey. 

14, 15. On this side Jordan] In both places 
RV rightly translates ' beyond Jordan,' i.e. 
on the E. side of Jordan. A little point, 
but important as showing that the writer (or 
editor) of this passage was one who resided 
W. of Jordan. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Two Spies at Jericho 
Joshua himself had been one of twelve 
sent by Moses on a similar errand, some 
thirty-eight years before (Nul3). The in- 
cident, natural in itself, acquires a special 
interest as bringing before us for the first 
time Rahab, the great-great-grandmother of 
David, and so human ancestress of our Saviour 
(Mt 1 3-6, C p. Ruth 4 18-22). it affords incident- 
ally a signal instance among Gentiles of belief 
in the power of the true God (2 n f -), which is 
rewarded (6 25 ), like the similar attitude of 
Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth 1 1 6 ), with incorpor- 
ation into Israel and into the direct line of 
Israel's Hope. 



1. Shittim] i.e. ' Acacias.' The district re- 
ferred to is the part of the Jordan basin 
opposite Jericho, where acacias still are 
found. An harlot's] ' We know nothing of 
her after-conduct, but we may well believe 
that the faith which an apostle could praise 
(Hebll 31 Jas2 25 ) was accompanied by a true 
conversion ' (HDB. art. ' Rahab '). See on v. 
10 and 6 25 . 

6. She had brought them, etc.] Then, as 
now, the flat roofs of Eastern houses were 
used for such purposes as drying flax stalks. 
The flax would be ripe (cp. Ex9 31 > 32 ) shortly 
before wheat harvest. 

7. The fords] Clearly, therefore, there 
were fords in the neighbourhood of Jericho. 
The account of the miraculous crossing in 
chs. 3, 4 cannot be based on ignorance of that 
fact. At the present time fords are said to 
be comparatively rare in the southern reaches 
of Jordan. 

9. Your terror is fallen upon us] Cp. 
Exl5 M " 16 . Compare b 1 for a similar panic 
produced by the crossing of Jordan. 

io f . Rahab had followed the career of 
Israel with fascinated interest. She is repre- 
sented as knowing and using the covenant 
name of ' Jehovah ' and as recognising His 
universal sovereignty. Her whole attitude 
is in striking contrast to that of her fellow- 
countrymen. 

16. The mountain] the limestone ridges 
full of caves, NW. of Jericho. 

24. Do faint] RY here (and in 2 9 and 
Exl5i 5 ) ' do melt away.' 

CHAPTER 3 

The Passage op Jordan 
This is the initial miracle of Joshua's leader- 
ship. Its moral effect upon the Israelite host 
is suggested in 3 7 and 4 1 4 ; that wrought upon 
the Canaanites in 5 1 (which properly belongs 
to this section of the book). 3. The ark of the 
covenant of the LORD your God] see Ex 25 10 ' 22 
and 37 1- 9 . It was the authoritative symbol 
of the Divine Presence (cp. Ex23 20f -), and 
as such led the van in the desert marches 
(NulO 33-36 ). The priests the Levites] cp. 
Dtl8i. Not that all the Levites were origin- 
ally priests, as some have interpreted that 
passage : see e.g. Nu3 5 -i° for the relation of 
the Levites in general to the ' sons of Aaron.' 
4. Two thousand cubits] 3,000 ft. ; the 
ancient Hebrew cubit = 18 in. 

15. Jordan overfloweth all his banks] The 
rank jungle, which fills the bed (150 ft. deep) 
that Jordan has hollowed out at the bottom 
of the rift, down which it flows, marks the 
extent of the April floods. The space is 
from 200 yards to 1 m. broad, and is what 
Jeremiah calls (12 5 49 1 9 50 44 ) the 'Pride' or 
' Swelling ' of Jordan. In Ecclus 24 26 we find 



143 



3. 16 



JOSHUA 



5. 10 



a proverbial phrase, ' full as . . Jordan in the 
time of harvest ' (RV). 

1 6. We should probably render ' a great way 
off, at the city Adam, which is beside Zaretan.' 
The incident of the stoppage of Jordan's 
waters is not without parallel in history, if we 
may trust the Arabic historian Nowairi (see 
Sayce, ' Early Hist of Hebr.,' p. 249). Accord- 
ing to his account the water was dammed up 
by a landslip from midnight on Dec. 8, 1267, 
' till the 4th hour of the day.' The narrative 
is very artless, and whether it be true or 
simply an echo of the book of Joshua, enables 
us to conceive how the miracle of the crossing 
may have happened ; for miracle it still re- 
mains, even if wrought out at the will of the 
author of nature by natural means : being a 
clear exhibition of personal providential pur- 
pose in connexion with the great plan of 
Israel's mission to the world. The position of 
Adam has been identified with Tel Damieh 
(a place mentioned, curiously, in Nowairi's 
narrative), near the mouth of the Jabbok. 
Zaretan may probably be the 'Zarthan' of 
1K746. 

CHAPTER 4 

The Double Memorial of the Passage 

of Jordan 

The main subject of the c. is the memorial 
cairn set up at Gilgal, which is described in 
two sections, 4 1 * 8 and 4 20-24 , separated by the 
record in a single v. (4 9 ) of another cairn set 
up in the midst of Jordan, and by a long 
parenthesis (4 10 " 19 ) describing in an expanded 
form the crossing already narrated in 3 14 ' 17 . 
The repetitions are most satisfactorily explained 
on the hypothesis that the narrator has in- 
corporated extracts from more ancient sources 
in his narrative. 

5. Pass over before the ark] Apparently the 
twelve, who with the rest of the host have 
already crossed to the W. bank, are bidden to 
return to where the priests are still standing 
with the Ark in the midst of Jordan, to set up 
a cairn of twelve stones (4 9 ) on the spot in the 
river bed and to take up a stone each in 
addition and return with it to the bank again. 

12. As Moses spake] seeNu32 20f . 

19. The tenth day of the first month] i.e. 
Abib or Nisan (March-April). They would 
reach their camp at Gilgal just in time to 
select the Paschal Lamb (Exl2 3 ) to be slain 
on the fourteenth day : see 5 10 . 

24. That ye might fear] RV ' that they may 
fear.' 

CHAPTER 5 
Renewal of Circumcision and Celebra- 
tion OF tin: Passover 
The two incidents recorded in 5 2-12 — Cir- 
cumcision and the Passover — represent the 



final stage in the preparation of the people for 
the Holy War. The Circumcision was a 
necessary preliminary (Ex 1 2 44 > 48 ) to the Pass- 
over Feast, besides marking for the new 
generation a reversal of the sentence of 
1 excommunication ' virtually pronounced in 
Nul4 33 > 34 ; and the Passover — the first re- 
corded celebration since the first anniversary 
of its institution (Nu 9 5 ) — was signalised also 
by the cessation of the extraordinary ' sacra- 
ment ' of Manna. Thus the period of the 
Wanderings is definitely brought to a close. 

1. Amorites] represent, roughly speaking, 
the inhabitants of the highland districts. 
Canaanites] = ' lowlanders,' in the special- 
ised sense, the dwellers on the maritime plain. 
Until we were passed over] RM ' until they 
were passed over.' It was always thus read 
by the Jews. 

2-9. Renewal of the Rite of Circumcision. 
This was necessary, because all those who had 
come out of Egypt already circumcised (except, 
of course, Joshua and Caleb) had died in the 
wilderness ; while the new generation of males 
had not been circumcised by the way (5 7 ). 
This omission of the rite was of course not 
necessitated by the journeyings, which were 
certainly not continuous. It was more prob- 
ably a deliberate disciplinary regulation, as a 
sign of the broken covenant : see prefatory 
remarks. 

2. Sharp knives] RY ' knives of flint.' LXX 
curiously relates (in an addition to 24 30 ) that 
these knives were buried with Joshua in his 
tomb. Flint knives were used for religious 
purposes by the Egyptians. 

9. The reproach of Egypt] This may mean 
that the Egyptians, laying great stress on cir- 
cumcision themselves, regarded the fact of 
uncircumcision as a reproach. Gilgal] mg. 
' Rolling.' This etymology, like that of l Babel ' 
in Gnll 9 , is now generally recognised as un- 
scientific. It is rather a play on words than a 
derivation. Yet though the word ' Gilgal ' 
probably signified originally a sacred ' circle ' 
of stones — analogous to the druidic circle 
found in Britain — it certainly meant, to the 
Hebrews, the rolling away of reproach. 

10. Kept the passover on the fourteenth day] 
of Nisan, as ordained in Ex 12°. They had 
probably selected the lambs four days before, 
immediately on their arrival at the camp (see 
on 4 19 ) ; and had rested quietly for three full 
days after the circumcision. This is the third 
recorded Passover ; the second (Nu 9 5 ) being 
the first anniversary of the institution. There 
are only three subsequent observances of the 
Passover recorded in the OT., viz. Josiah's (2K 
2321-23), Hezekiah's (2Ch30), and that of the 
returned exiles (EzrG 19f ), and all of these are 
after the discovery of the Book of the Law by 
Hilkiah in 621 B.C. But a notice in 2Ch8 13 






144 



5. 11 



JOSHUA 



7. 



ascribes to Solomon similar observances, and 
critics admit (cp. HDB. art. ' Passover ') that 
unrecorded observances may have gone on all 
along. 

1 1 . On the morrow] The feast of Mazzoth, 
or Unleavened Bread, was a distinct festival 
(cp. Lv23 5 >°) of seven days' duration, follow- 
ing on the one-day feast of the Passover. The 
two came naturally, in the course of centuries, 
to be regarded as a single festival, to which 
either title could be applied (cp. e.g. Lk22 !). 

12. The manna ceased] see prefatory note. 
13-15. Vision of the Heavenly Captain. 

13. A man] clearly, as elsewhere in Holy 
Scripture (cp. e.g. Gnl8 2 32 2 4 Dan9 21 Zechl 8 
Ac 1 10 ), an angelic being, to be identified with 
the promised guide of Ex23 2 °- 23 (cp. Ex33 2 ). 
Of this angel the Lord says (Ex23 21 ): 'My 
name is in him ' ; and in Isa 63 9 he is called 
1 the angel of his presence ' (see on Ex3 2 ). 

CHAPTER 6 

The Capture of Jericho 
This chapter describes the first and perhaps 
most decisive action in the war. The impres- 
sion it produced (6 27 ) no doubt did much to 
decide the fortunes of subsequent campaigns. 
The strange method adopted, by divine injunc- 
tion, for the reduction of the city, with its 
jubilee trumpets and its elaborate symbolic use 
of the number seven, was clearly intended to 
leave no doubt that the enterprise from first 
to last was in higher hands than Joshua's. 
Various attempts have been made to explain 
the fall of Jericho by natural causes. For 
instance, it has been suggested that the de- 
monstration of the army in force round the 
city was intended to distract the attention of 
the enemy from the sapping and mining opera- 
tions which were being pushed forward, and 
which culminated in its fall on the seventh 
day. Again, an earthquake has been suggested ; 
but if such took place, it was providentially 
timed, and was capable of prediction by Joshua. 
The narrator regards the event as entirely mi- 
raculous, a direct intervention of Jehovah on 
behalf of His people. Such also was the tra- 
dition in Israel, and it is accepted by the writer 
of the Epistle to the Hebrews (11 30 ) : ' by faith 
the walls of Jericho fell down.' 

3. Ye shall compass] The injunction was cal- 
culated to produce derision among the enemy, 
and so would be a discipline of humiliation 
for the Israelites. It would also put the Ca- 
naanites off their guard and hand them over 
an easy prey at the critical moment. 

4. Rams' horns] rather, ' trumpets of jubilee ' 
or ' loud trumpets.' It is the same word yobel 
used in Lv25 9 . Seven is a sacred number 
among the Semites, and in the Bible signifies 
1 perfection.' The symbolism is very emphatic 
here. 



9. Rereward] RV ' rearward ' = rearguard. 
Going on, and blowing - ] blowing continually. 

17. Accursed] Heb. Kherern^ 1 devoted,' i.e. 
irredeemably devoted (Lv 27 28 » 29 ) to the Lord. 
LXX has ' anathema,' the word which St. Paul 
uses in Ro9 3 and elsewhere. It appears to 
denote a form of consecration, but that in- 
variably with a view to destruction. In 
Lv27 21 > 28 ' 29 devoted things are excluded from 
redemption. In v. 21 the word is translated 
in AV ' utterly destroyed.' 

20. The wall fell down flat] see note at 
beginning of chapter. This was not the first 
of Israel's sieges. They had already taken 
the cities of the A^morites, including Heshbon, 
which was strongly fortified (Nu21). 

23. And left them] lit. ' and caused them to 
rest.' 

25. She dwelleth in Israel even unto this 
day] Unless Rahab's descendants are meant, 
this must be the touch of a contemporary 
chronicler (cp. 5 1 and 6 26 ). On Rahab and 
her incorporation into Israel, see note at begin- 
ning of c. 2. Apparently she had long been 
prepared (see on 2 10 ) to adopt Israel's religion, 
and thus the greatest obstacle was removed. 
Yet her case, like that of Christ's other foreign 
ancestress Ruth, remains exceptional, and pre- 
figures, as it were, the world-wide extent of 
the Messiah's kinship with man. 

26. This ' inspired curse ' of Joshua was 
fulfilled, after the lapse of some six centuries, 
in the reign of Ahab (1K16 34 ). Hiel the 
Bethelite incurred it, being the first, appar- 
ently, to attempt a complete rebuilding and 
fortification of the accursed city, although 
informal settlements seem to have been there 
from the first. It is mentioned, e.g. in 
Josh 18 21 , as one of ten 'cities' of Benja- 
min, and again in the time of David (2S10 5 ). 
Here we have another note of comparatively 
early date. If the writer of this passage had 
known of the fulfilment, he would surely have 
recorded it. 

CHAPTER 7 
Repulse at Ai, due to Achan's Sin 
The capture of Jericho is followed by an 
attempt upon Ai, a place of strategic im- 
portance, as commanding a main entrance into 
the interior of Canaan westward ; the upper 
entrance into the valley of Aijalon being com- 
manded by Ai and Bethel. This c. has an 
interest of its own, as exhibiting Joshua in a 
new light, as the spiritual guide, drawing out, 
with the mingled sweetness and severity of a 
father (v. 19), the sinner's detailed confession 
(see on v. 20). The incident of Achan's sin 
and its effects upon the fortunes of Israel is 
an illustration (a) of the penalty of solidarity 
— the inevitable spread of the results of sin 
and pollution from a single member to the 



10 



145 



7.6 



JOSHUA 



9. 



whole body ; (b) of the conditional nature of 
God's promises of success. In contrast to the 
many previous assurances, it is announced that 
the presence of God is to be withdrawn abso- 
lutely (v. 12) unless the 'accursed thing' be 
removed. Further, at the very beginning of 
the Holy War, Israel is taught — and we through 
Israel — that exceptional temptations do not 
excuse a lowering of the standard of conduct 
on the part of God's soldiers. 

6 f . Joshua's extreme despondency is really 
a mark of his soldiery capacity. He was 
general enough to know the immense moral 
effect of even a slight success or reverse at 
the beginning of a war. Moreover, no one 
who had Joshua's sense of divine mission and 
vocation, as represented e.g. by the message of 
1 2 * 9 and the vision of 5 13f -, could fail to inter- 
pret the reverse as implying some mysterious 
cause of divine displeasure. And though 
Joshua is chidden for the faithlessness of his 
despondency (7 10 ), his uneasiness is at the 
same moment (7 11 ) justified and explained. 

20. There is a special interest about this 
confession of Achan's, because its wording is 
practically identical with that of the tradi- 
tional form of confession which seems to have 
been used by those who brought sin and 
trespass offerings. A particular confession is 
enjoined in such passages as Lv5 5 Nu5 6 > 7 . 
The form was as follows : ' I have sinned, I 
have done perversely, I have rebelled, and 
thus ' (here follows detailed confession) ' have 
I done, but I return in penitence before Thee, 
and let this victim be my expiation.' 

21. This verse throws an interesting light 
on the wealth of Jericho, and the extent of 
her commerce. 

25. And all Israel stoned him with stones, 
and burned them with fire] This inclusion of 
Achan's household in the punishment is one 
of the moral problems of the book. Eders- 
heim ('Bib. Hist.' art. 'Joshua,' p. 69 note) 
interprets the use of the singular number in 
7 25a as showing that Achan was the only person 
stoned ; the plural number following (7 25b ) 
referring to his cattle and property only. 
Others emphasise the fact (not brought out 
in the narrative) that his family must have 
been privy to the crime ; or dwell on the 
' entail ' of divine visitation pronounced in 
the second commandment (Ex20 5 ). The last 
view agrees best with the passage as it stands, 
which suggests in a very striking way the 
sufferings people bring upon their children 
by their sins. 

CHAPTER 8 
The Conquest op Ai. The Covenant 
Confirmed upon Mt. Ebal 
1-29. The Taking of Ai. Edersheim ex- 
plains that Joshua detailed a corps of 30,000 



men, of whom 5,000 were placed W. of Ai in 
a wood. The 25,000 pitched N. of Ai, and 
subsequently moved forward into the valley 
below the city. Then came the feigned attack 
and retreat eastward, the signal from Joshua, 
and the assault by the ambush from the rear. 
It should be noted, however, that there are 
two accounts of the ambush, one in vv. 3, 9, 
in which 30,000 are said to have been concealed, 
and the other in w. 10-12, in which only 
5,000 are said to have been in hiding. These 
discrepancies in figures are very common. 

15. By the way of the wilderness] i.e. toward 
the Jordan valley. 17. Or Bethel] omit, as 
LXX. 

30-35. The Covenant confirmed upon Mt. 
Ebal, near Shechem. At the first opportunity 
the law of Jehovah is proclaimed as the law 
of the land. 

31. As Moses .. commanded] see Dtll 29 , 
and, more fully, Dt27. An altar of white 
stones] see Ex20 25 . Burnt offerings] repre- 
senting entire oblation of the offerer to God : 
wholly consumed on the altar. Peace offerings] 
representing communion with God. God was 
the Host, and the offerer and his friends 
feasted with Him at His table. 32. The stones] 
i.e. the stones when plastered: see 1 Dt27 2 - 4 . 
A copy of the law] Obviously not the whole 
Pentateuch, or even the legislative matter con- 
tained in it ; but the Law of the Blessings 
and Cursings: see Dt27. 

CHAPTERS 9-12 

In chs. 9-11 inclusive we have the account 
of two great campaigns, in which Joshua suc- 
cessively defeats a confederacy of the petty 
kings of southern Palestine under the king of 
Jerusalem, and a combination of the northern 
chiefs under Jabin, king of Hazor. C. 12 
concludes the narrative of the conquest, with 
a summary of the successes of Moses on the E. 
and of Joshua on the W. of Jordan. Critics 
have been much exercised by the apparent 
contrast of this narrative of the invasion with 
that in Jgl. There we have — in the case of 
Judah and Simeon at least — independent tribal 
action. Here there is no word of anything 
but a general action of Israel, under Joshua's 
leadership, resulting (ll 23 ) in a conquest of 
the ' whole land.' The solution of the diffi- 
culty may perhaps be (a) that these chapters 
give us the account of two grand campaigns 
complete and successful in themselves, but 
involving a prolonged guerilla warfare and a 
number of local enterprises, such as those 
mentioned in Judges. Or it may be (b) that 
there is in these rounded accounts of the 
northern and southern conquests something of 
historical foreshortening ; for we must re- 
member that in ll 18 it is described as a l long ' 
war (see on 1 1 10-23^, Or possibly a combination 



146 



1 



9.1 



JOSHUA 



10. 12 



of these two explanations may give the true 
solution. 

CHAPTER 9 

The League with the G-ibeonites 
C. 9 forms an introduction to the narrative 
of the Southern campaign (c. 10). The Gib- 
eonite cities were important enough both 
politically and geographically (see on 9 17 and 
10 2 ) for their defection to frighten the sur- 
rounding kinglets into concerted action against 
Israel. 

I, 2. The petty kings combine against Israel. 
3. Gibeon] 2 m. N. of Jerusalem. For its 
importance see on 10 2 > 10 . 14. Took of their 
victuals] thus accepting their specious story, 
and incidentally committing themselves, accord- 
ing to Eastern rule of hospitality, to at least 
a temporary friendship. Asked not counsel 
by Urim and Thummim] as e.g. we find them 
asking in Jgl 1 . 17. Now their cities were] 
All these four cities have been identified in 
the territory afterwards occupied by Benjamin 
and the N. border of Judah. 20. Lest wrath 
come upon us] Centuries later we are told 
(2 S21) that the Israelites of David's time felt 
this ' wrath ' when Saul had broken his an- 
cestral compact with Gibeon. 21. Hewers of 
wood, etc.] This is the description of the 
normal function of resident aliens in Dt29 n . 
From vv. 23, 27 we find that their tasks were 
mainly, though not entirely, concerned with 
the sacrificial worship of the House of God. 

CHAPTER 10 

The Conquest of Southern Canaan 
This c. narrates the successful campaign 
against the five confederate chiefs of the S., 
I who are roused by the fall of Jericho and Ai 
land the alliance with Gibeon, and combine 
'under the leadership of Adonizedek of Jeru- 
salem to retaliate upon the Gibeonites. Bring- 
jing succour, as in duty bound, to his new allies, 
; Joshua encounters the confederate forces in 
jBeth-horon. By divine aid he inflicts on them 
a signal defeat, captures and slays all five 
kings, and follows up his success by a prompt 
reduction of six Amorite strongholds in swift 
succession. A concluding paragraph (10 4(M3 ) 
'■; describes the work of conquest so far, as 
J summary and complete. 

1. Adonizedek] The name recalls that of 
his famous predecessor Melchizedek, the con- 
temporary of Abraham : see on Gnl4 18 . 
jf 2. Because Gibeon was a great city] com- 
manding the chief pass to the western plains 
1 and but a few miles from Jerusalem : see on 
! v. 10. 3, 4. Of the confederate cities three 
f were subsequently reduced by Joshua : see on 
|vv. 29-38. 

5. Amorites] a general name for the moun- 
tain tribes. 



6-14. Battle of Gibeon (or Beth-horon) : 
Joshua, summoned by the Gibeonites to their 
aid, defeates the Amorites. 10. The pass of 
Beth-horon leading to the valley of Aijalon 
is of great strategic importance, being the 
main outlet from Gibeon and Jerusalem to- 
wards the coast. ' Throughout history,' says 
G. A. Smith, ' we see hosts swarming up this 
avenue or swept down it in flight.' Azekah . . 
Makkedah] between Philistia and the hill- 
country of Judah. 11. Great stones from 
heaven] a hailstorm, in which the hand of 
God is discerned. 

12-14. Then spake Joshua] This celebrated 
passage (as will be seen in RY) consists of (1) 
a prose introduction, v. 12 a ; (2) a poetical 
fragment quoted from the book of Jasher, 
vv. 12 b , 13 a ; and (3) a prose comment on that 
quotation, 13 b 14. 

The four lines from the book of Jasher 
run, literally, as follows : — 

Sun, be thou dumb upon Gibeon ; 

And thou, moon, in valley of Aijalon ! 
And the sun became dumb, and the moon 
stood, 

Till the people were avenged on their foes. 

Taken by themselves these four lines might 
refer to an eclipse, or to a prolongation of the 
darkness of the hailstorm (see v. 11). The 
sun is spoken of as ' dumb ' when not shining, 
as in Dante's ' Inferno,' 1. 60, the sunless shade 
is ' dove il sol tace ' (where the sun is speech- 
less). At first sight the comment in vv. 13 b 14 
seems decisive against this interpretation. 
But Edersheim regards these vv. as themselves 
(substantially) quoted from the book of 
Jasher ; in which case they would be poetical 
and figurative, and other writers boldly take 
them as a later gloss, written at a time when 
the figurative language of the poem was mis- 
understood. In favour of this view is the 
fact that there are no certain references to 
this event as miraculous in the other books of 
the OT. ; and it is not till c. 180 B.C. (Ecclus 
46 4 ) that we find the first clear mention of 
the miracle as making ' the sun go back ' ; an 
interpretation which was followed by the 
author of the 'Psalms of Solomon' (18 14 ) 
c. 50 B.C., and by Josephus, and has been the 
' traditional ' one till lately. This interpreta- 
tion of the incident, which makes it involve a 
literal ' staying of the sun,' i.e. in modern 
language, an arresting of the earth's rotatory 
motion, has not unnaturally tried the faith of 
many who, while accepting the doctrine of 
God's omnipotence, feel that such a kind of 
interpretation contradicts what God Himself 
has taught them about the orderly working of 
His universe. Whether we regard the divine 
answer to Joshua's prayer as given in the 
form of a prolongation of the daylight, in 



147 



10. 13 



JOSHUA 



12. 



spite of the hailstorm (see Edersheim), or 
(perhaps better) as prolongation of the storm 
darkness, we must not forget that the record 
is poetry and not prose, and the inspired 
language of the passage ancient and oriental, 
not modern, western, and scientific. 

13. The Book of Jasher] Yashar= i Upright ' 
or 'Pious.' The book was presumably a 
collection of national heroic songs. Else- 
where it is quoted by name only in 2 S 1 18 
(David's elegy over Saul and Jonathan). 
Possibly we may ascribe to the same source 
other poems, like the Song of Deborah ( Jg 5), 
which has itself a later prose commentary 
attached to it (Jg 4). 

24. Put their feet upon the necks] The 
monuments of Assyria and Egypt afford 
graphic parallels. 26. Slew them and hanged 
them] The hanging was an additional insult 
wreaked on the corpse : cp. Dt21 22 > 23 . 

29. Libnah] in the lowlands of Judah : also 
Lachish (v. 31), Gezer (v. 33) and Eglon (v. 34). 

36. Hebron] {El Khalil, 'the friend' of God) 
Abraham's city in the mountain of Judah, 
and one of the six Levitical cities of refuge 
(20 r )- 38. Debir] also called Kirjath-Sepher, 
and falling, like Hebron, to Caleb. It lay in 
the hill-country of Judah, or in the Negeb 
(15 15 " 19 ), perhaps on the border. 

40-43. On these divisions of the country see 
on c. 15. A summary like this must not be 
pressed too literally, but read in the light of 
other narratives like Jgl. The meaning is 
that Joshua's work was thorough, as far as it 
went ; that it was carried out in a spirit of 
absolute loyalty to the divine commands 
(cp. Dt20 16 » 17 ) ; and that all its success (v. 42) 
was due to the divine leadership and assist- 
ance. 40. The campaign in southern Pales- 
tine included the hills of Judah, the south, i.e. 
the Negeb, the vale (RV ' the lowland '), i.e. the 
Shephelah, and the springs (RV ' the slopes ') 
between the hill-country and the Shephelah. 

41. Goshen] in the mountain of Judah 
(15 51 ). 

CHAPTER 11 

The Campaign in the North 
Here there is no trace, as in the former 
case, of miraculous interposition. Joshua's 
generalship, courage, swiftness and loyalty are 
the prominent factors in the achievement. 
Yet it is made clear here (vv. 6-8) as ever, 
that those qualities attained their object 
because they were under the direct guidance 
of the (iod of Csrael. 

1. Jabin] king <>f Ha/or. Hazor] may be 
Tell el-Hurrawiyeh, 2£ m. S. of Kedesh- 
Naphtali. Shimron](=Snimron-meron 12-") is 
8emunieh,W. of Nazareth. Achshaph] el Y.isif, 
the port of Accho. Hazor is again a powerful 
Canaanite centre in the time of Deborah (Jg 4) 



and its king bears the same name, or title, 
Jabin ( = wise) and may have been of the same 
dynasty. 2, 3. RY ' that were on the north, 
in the hill-country, and in the Arabah south of 
Chinneroth, and in the lowland, and in the 
heights of Dor on the west, to the Canaanite 
on the east . .' The ' Arabah S. of Chinne- 
roth ' means the plain S. of the lake of 
Gennesaret (Lk5 x ). Dor] near Mt. Carmel. 

3. The Canaanite on the east and on the 
west] The name ' Canaanite ' is more probably 
geographical than racial. It means ' lowland- 
ers.' In the Amarna tablets (14th cent. B.C.) the 
Land of Canaan means the Phoenician coast ; 
in later Egyptian monuments it includes all 
W. Syria. 5. Waters of Merom] Probably 
Lake Huleh, a marshy lake near the sources of 
the Jordan. 6. Thou shalt hough, etc.] To 
' hough ' or ' hock ' = to hamstring a horse. 
This was done, no doubt, during the battle, to 
stop the charge. The chariots were destroyed 
afterwards. 

16-23. General retrospect of Joshua's cam- 
paigns. This paragraph covers the preceding 
chs. as well as c. 1 1 1 " 15 . The war, which has 
been presented to us in graphic sketches fol- 
lowing one another in swift succession, is said 
to have been a 'long' one (v. 18). and the 
natural inference from 14 7 " 10 (where see note) 
is that it lasted seven years. 

16. The mountain country and Negeb (dry 
southern uplands) and Shephelah (low hills 
skirting the mountains) first mentioned are 
those of Judah (see on 10 40 ), from which the 
inference has been drawn that the writer was 
a native of that tribe, because he does not 
qualify the terms. Then follows the Arabah 
(deep valley of Jordan), and finally the mount- 
ain of Israel and its Shephelah, i.e. the N. 
Israelite part of this central range and the low 
hills (valley) between it and Carmel. The 
stretch of country described reaches from 
Halak in Edomite territory S. of the Dead 
Sea to Baal Gad at the foot of Hermon, N. of 
Lake Huleh. 

22. The Anakims] This hill-tribe had by 
their stature made an alarming impression on 
the original spies (Nu 13 28 " 33 ; cp. Josh 14 12 ). It 
was from Gath that Goliath came (1S17 4 ) 
and other giants (2 S 21 is- 22 ). 

CHAPTER 12 
A Review of the Victories of Moses 
and Joshua 
This c. concludes the whole section of the 
book which deals with the conquest of Canaan. 
The following chs. narrate the partition of ; 
the conquered and some unconquered Lancl 
The original account of these conquests is to 
be found in Nu 21 21 ' 35 , and of the assignment to . 
the 2£ tribes in Nu3 2 . A fuller description of 
the territory is given in c. 1 3 1 ~ 33 , where see notes. ' 



148 



12. 1 



JOSHUA 



13. % c 2 



1-6. Moses' conquests E. of Jordan. King- 
doms of Sihon and Og. 3. Sea of Chinneroth] 
the OT. name for the Sea of Galilee. Salt 
sea] the Dead Sea. 

7-24. Joshua's conquests W. of Jordan — 
thirty-one kings. 7. The N. and S. limits are 
given as in ll 17 , only in reverse order. On 
this side Jordan on the west] RV 'beyond 
Jordan westward.' 9. One] i.e. one king. 

21. Taanach . . Megiddo] see on Jg5 19 . 

23. The nations] RV k Goiim.' 24. Tirzah] 
(probably = Teiasir) NE. of Shechem. It was 
afterwards the capital of the Northern King- 
dom, from the time of Jeroboam (1 K 14 17 ) till 
the 6th year of Omri, who moved the centre 
of government to Samaria (1K16 23 ). 

CHAPTERS 13-21 
The Settlement 

The summaries of c. 12 mark the end of one 
section of the book, and the opening words of 
c. 13 as clearly introduce the beginning of 
another. 

This central portion, embracing chs. 13-21, 
has been called ' The Domesday Book of the 
Old Testament,' and is invaluable as aground- 
work for modern scientific explorers. ' The 
Book of Joshua ' (writes Col. Conder) ' is the 
great geographical book of the Old Testament, 
and the study of its geography is important, as 
showing that it was written in Palestine by an 
author who was familiar with the whole land. 
. . A proportion of about three-quarters of 
the towns mentioned in this book are more or 
less certainly known, having either never been 
lost, or having recently been recovered by ex- 
ploration, through the survival of the ancient 
name to our own time, or by other indications 
— as, for instance, in the case of Lachish, where 
other indications are confirmed by the discovery 
of a tablet referring to Zimrida (who is known 
to have been the ruler of Lachish about 1480 
B.C.) which has been dug up in the ruins of 
the city.' 

It may be noted that in chs. 13-22 the 
Priestly narrative is predominant ; just as the 
Primitive is in chs. 1-12, although some of the 
most interesting incidents, e.g. Caleb's inherit- 
ance (14 6 ' 15 15 14-19 ), are from the earlier source. 

The section may be thus analysed : — (a) 
131-33 Territories of the Eastern Tribes, (b) 
14 1 — 19 51 Territories of the Western Tribes. 

CHAPTER 13 

Territories or the Eastern Tribes 
1-7. These vv. describe the land which, 
though still unconquered, is to be assigned 
to the 9^ tribes. It includes the W. and N. 
borders of Palestine. Wellhausen (' History 
of Israel ') remarks, ' The conquest was at first 
but an incomplete one. The plain which 
fringed the coast was hardly touched : so also 



the valley of Jezreel with its girdle of fortified 
cities stretching from Accho to Beth-shean. 
All that was subdued in the strict sense of 
the word was the mountainous land, par- 
ticularly the southern hill-country of Mt. 
Ephraim ; yet even here the Canaanites re- 
tained possession of not a few cities, such as 
Jebus, Shechem, Thebez.' 

2. Geshuri] Distinct from the Geshurites 
of v. 13 and 12 5 . We should perhaps read 
' the people of Gezer,' S. of Ephraim. 

3. Sihor] the Wady el Arish, or Brook of 
Egypt. 4. Aphek] in Asher. 5. Giblites] 
Gebal was at the foot of Lebanon, on the 
coast. 

7, 8. The LXX has a much more intelligible 
reading — ' And now divide this land for an 
inheritance to the nine tribes and the half 
tribe of Manasseh, from Jordan to the great 
sea and toward the sunsetting shalt thou give 
it : the great sea shall be the border (v. 8). 
To the tribes and the half tribe of Manasseh, 
Reuben and Gad, gave Moses on the other 
side of Jordan, toward the sun-rising. . .' 

8-33.* The territory of the two tribes and a 
half, including territory previously taken from 
Moab by Sihon (Nu2126) : cp . Nu 32 1-8, 33-42. 
Reuben had from the Arnon on the S. to 
Heshbon ( = Hesban), a little north of the 
Dead Sea. Gad had the eastern side of the 
Jordan valley, from the N". boundary of Reuben 
to the Sea of Galilee (Sea of Chinnereth) and 
the western slopes of Mt. Gilead ; Manasseh 
had the eastern half of Mt. Gilead, all the 
great plateau of Bashan, running up to the 
range of Hermon. 

14. He gave none inheritance] assigned no 
district as a tribal territory, gave them only 
scattered cities within the lots of the other 
tribes. The sacrifices of the LORD] (in v. 33, 
simply 'the Lord') cp. Nul8 20 " 32 . Their 
professional absorption in spiritual things 
made it, however, all the more necessary 
that their material wants should be provided 
for (see 1 Cor 9 13 > 14 for an enunciation of this 
principle and its application to the Christian 
ministry). Accordingly we find their promised 
cities duly assigned to the Levites in c. 21 
(cp. Nu35). 

15-23. Territory of Reuben : see on vv. 
8-33. 16,17. Plain] RM ' table-land.' The 
plateau of Madebah includes the sites of 
Hesban, the ancient capital, Dibon (= Dhiban, 
where the famous 9th cent. B.C. monument of 
Mesha, known as the 'Moabite Stone,' was 
discovered in 1868) and other towns of 
Reuben. Dibon (Nu32 34 33 45 ) was actually 
occupied by Gad. 

22. The reference to the slaying of Balaam 
comes in strangely here : but it occurs also in 
Nu31 8 in a parallel context. Evidently there 
is here trace of a very ancient document. 



149 



13. 24 



JOSHUA 



15. 5 



24-28. Territory of Gad : see on w. 8-33. 

26. Ramath-mispeh] possibly the later 
Ramoth Gilead (Rainmn), N. of the Jabbok. 
Debir] not the Debir of 10 38 or 15 7 . The 
Hebrew is Ledebir, which may be the Lo-debar 
of 2S9 4 . 27. Sea of Chinnereth] i.e. the Sea 
of Galilee. 

29-31. Territory of the half- tribe of 
Manasseh. 33. See on v. 14. 

CHAPTERS 14-19 
Territories of the Western Tribes 
Chs. 14-19 inclusive describe the allotment 
of territories to the Western Tribes. There 
are two assignments. The first, embracing 
Judah and Joseph, is described as taking place 
at Gilgal (14 6 ) under the auspices of Eleazar 
and Joshua and the ' heads of the fathers ' (14 *). 
Judah (15), Ephraim (16), and Manasseh (17) 
each occupy a single c. The second assign- 
ment, to the seven remaining tribes, takes 
place apparently at a later date (18 3 ), after 
an elaborate survey (18 6 > 8 > 9 ) of the territory 
available. Its scene is Shiloh, and Joshua 
alone is named as presiding. It is noticeable 
(see further note on the assignment of the 
territory) that the details of the seven 
territories are much more meagre than those 
of the others, except in the case of Benjamin. 
C. 14 itself is introductory, partly (14 i- 5 ) to 
the whole of the 5 chs. following ; partly 
(14 6 " 15 ) to the first assignment (chs. 15-17), 
recording Caleb's request for Hebron and its 
favourable reception. This latter section 
(14 6 ' 15 ) is of special interest in that it affords 
incidentally one of the few definite chrono- 
logical data available for this period (see 
on 14!0). 

CHAPTER 14 
The Portion of Caleb 

1-5. Introductory Section. 

1. Eleazar the priest] The mention of the 
priest in association with the leader, to whom 
he is here given precedence, is one of the 
characteristics of the Priestly narrative. 

4. The children of Joseph were two tribes, 
etc.] This reckoning, with the subtraction of 
Levi, makes a total of twelve still. Practically, 
however, Simeon became absorbed in Judah, 
and each half-tribe of Manasseh came to count 
as a complete tribe. 

6-15. The inheritance of Caleb : socio 13 - 19 . 

6. Thou knowest the thing, etc.] The pro- 
mise to Caleb occurs in Nul4'- 4 . and is re- 
ferred to again in Dtl 88 . On Caleb see on 
15 U . 10. These forty and five years] The 
notes of time given lure and in 14" are 
interesting. Caleb was M) years old at 
Kadesh : 45 years have intervened since then. 
and he is now 85. Allowing 38 years for the 
penal wandt rings, we gel 7 years as the period 



covered by the war of conquest up to this 
date. 

12-15. Hebron assigned to Caleb : on 
Hebron see on 10 36 , and on Caleb's possession 
of it, 15 13f - and note. On the Anakim see on 
ll 22 . 12. RV ' it may be that the Lord will 
be with me and I shall drive them out': cp. 
5 14 and Jg 1 20 . It is a brave man's word 
(cp. 14 n ). Caleb welcomes the task the more 
for its peril, and the hard work confronting 
him adds value to the inheritance. 15. The 
name of Hebron, etc.] LXX 'Now the name of 
Hebron was formerly the city of Argob : 
this was the metropolis of the Anakim ' : and 
similarly in 15 13 21 n for 'father of Anak' 
LXX reads ' metropolis of Anak.' This may 
be the true sense. 

CHAPTERS 15-19 
The Assignment of the Territory 
It has been noticed that there are many 
incidental features in this narrative which 
point to a contemporary document. Thus in 
the lot of Judah we have a full description, 
both of the frontier-lines (15 1 " 12 ), and also of. 
the chief cities contained within them (15 21 " 62 ) : 
and the same is true of Benjamin (18 11 ' 28 ). 
But these are the tribes which seem to have 
conquered their territory soonest and most 
completely. Ephraim and Manasseh, on the 
contrary, have only their boundaries mentioned 
without any list of cities (16). As a matter 
of fact, the children of Joseph seem to have 
had more difficulties with the Canaanites 
(17 12,16 } C p. Jgl 2 ") than had Judah and Ben- 
jamin. Again, Simeon (19 1_9 ) and Dan (19 40_iS ) 
have no boundaries mentioned, only cities, 
because they originally settled in the territory 
of Judah and Benjamin. Finally, the accounts 
of the territory of the remaining tribes, Zebu- 
lun, Issachar, Asher, Xaphtali (19 10 - 39 ). are 
defective, as is natural if at the date when 
the document was originally drawn up. these 
territories were not yet completely conquered : 
cp. Jg 1 3 °- 33 . But if the document be strictly 
contemporary, it must be regarded as closing 
with 19 4 *. 

CHAPTER 15 
The Lot of Judah 

1-12. The boundaries of Judah's lot. There 
is a valuable descriptive note on this section and 
on 15 20 " 68 in Black's Commentary on 'Joshua' 
in the Smaller Cambridge Bible. 

2-4. The S. Frontier. This coincides, of 
course, with the S. Frontier of the whole land 
as given in Nu34 3 - r \ 4. The river of Egypt] 
RV ' brook of Egypt,' not the Nile, but the 
WMy el Arish : cp. 15 47 . 

5. The E. Frontier, viz. the Dead Sea. 

5-1 1. The N. Frontier. Cp. the account 
in I8 15 -' 20 of the S. Frontier of Benjamin. 



150 



15.7 



JOSHUA 



17.7 



This is by far the most complicated of the 
four frontiers, but its line can be fairly well 
traced. It leaves the Jordan some 4 m. N. 
of the Dead Sea, and runs W., then SW. past 
Jerusalem, W. again near Bethlehem, and NW. 
as it descends to the maritime plain. 7. Debir] 
This cannot be the same as the Debir of ll 21 
1515,49, Perhaps the reading here should be 
' toward the wilderness.' The going up to 
(KY 'the ascent of) Adummim} This was 
the steep pass on the road from Jericho to 
Jerusalem. En-rogel] a spring near Jerusalem 
which supplies the Pool of Siloam. 8. Valley 
of the giants] RY ' vale of Rephaim,' SW. of 
Jerusalem. 9. Kirjath-jearim] 7 m. NW. of 
Jerusalem. 10. Mount Seir] in Judah, dis- 
tinct from the Mt. Seir in Edom. Beth-shemesh 
. . Timnah] in Dan. n, Jabneel] on the coast, 
known later as Jamnia(cp. 1 Mac 4 15 2 Mac 12 8 ), 
in later days a famous seat of Jewish learning. 

12. The W. Frontier, viz. the Mediter- 
ranean. Practically, however, the Philistines 
held the coast for many centuries. 

13-19. The inheritance of Caleb. This 
passage is repeated in Jgl 10 " 15 , where, how- 
ever, the expulsion of the Anakim from 
Hebron, attributed (1121-23) to Joshua and 
Israel, and here (cp. 14 12 ) to Caleb, is ascribed 
more vaguely to Judah. For further instances 
of parallels or quasi-parallels, with the book 
of Judges see on 1563 19*7 2428. 13. Caleb] 
= ' dog.' He seems to have been of Edomite 
origin (14 6 ). He was by no means a solitary 
instance of an alien adopted into the tribe of 
Judah. In the ancestry of David himself we 
find the Canaanitess Rahab and the Moabitess 
Ruth. Father of Anak] LXX has ' metropolis 
of Anak' : see on 14 15 . 15. Debir] see on 
10 38 . 17. Othniel] (= 'Lion of God'). For 
his subsequent career see Jg3 9 - n . 

20-62. The cities of Judah. 

20-32. Cities in the Negeb, or 'south 
country' : see on Gnl2 9 . 

33-47. Cities in the Shephelah, or ' low- 
land ' (not as AV ' valley ') : the fertile undu- 
lating tract between the central ridge and the 
maritime plain. 

48-60. Cities in the ' Mountain,' i.e. the 
rocky backbone of Judah, the limestone 
watershed between the Mediterranean and the 
Dead Sea. Mt. Ephraim is its continuation 
northwards. 

59. LXX inserts here a list of 11 cities 
(including Tekoa and ' Ephrata which is Beth- 
lehem ') which seems to have dropped out of 
the Massoretic text. 

61,62. Cities in the 'Wilderness,' i.e. the 
steep and barren slopes between the Mountain 
and the Dead Sea eastward. 

63. The Jebusites dwell with the children of 
Judah at Jerusalem unto this day] The parallel 
passage in Jg 1 21 has ' Benjamin ' for ' Judah,' 



which may be an earlier form. At first sight 
this v. seems to belong to a time anterior, or 
at latest to the time when David (2S5 6f ) 
captured from the Jebusites the citadel of 
Zion. But that capture did not mean expul- 
sion, as is clear from the later incident of 
Araunah (2 S 2416 ; cp. 1 Ch21 15. Cp. also the 
mention of Jebusites as late as Zech9 7 ) ; and 
in a sense it may be true that Judahite and 
Jebusite only began to live together in Jeru- 
salem when David made it his capital, though 
Jg 1 21 may represent an earlier state of things. 

CHAPTER 16 
The Lot of Joseph 

Chs. 16, 17 describe the territories of Eph- 
raim and the W. half of Manasseh. Vv. 1-4 
of c. 16 give the general frontiers of the com- 
bined tribes, the rest of the c. (16 540 ) the 
frontiers of Ephraim as distinct from W. 
Manasseh. The territory allotted to the two 
tribes comprised the central and most fertile 
part of Palestine. The S. border ran from 
Jericho through Bethel to Beth-horon and the 
sea ; and the N. border from Mt. Carmel. 
along the S. border of the Plain of Esdraelon 
to the Jordan. 

1. RY ' the lot . . went out from the Jordan 
at Jericho, at the waters of Jericho on the east, 
even the wilderness, going up from Jericho 
througlAhe hill-country to Bethel.' 2. From 
Beth-el to Luz] see on Gn28i9. 

6. The border between Ephraim and 
Manasseh passed from Jericho westward to 
Michmethah near Shechem (17 7 ), and thence 
to the river Kanah which falls into the Medi- 
terranean N. of Joppa. 9. RY 'together with 
the cities which were separated for the children 
of Ephraim in the midst of the inheritance of 
the children of Manasseh.' 10. Serve under 
tribute] The Canaanite had to take up the 
forced service of a labourer: cp. 17 13 and Jg 

128,33,35, 

CHAPTER 17 

The Lot of Joseph (continued) 

Inheritance of Western Manasseh. The 
Complaint of the children of Joseph, and 
Joshua's Reply. 

1-6. The inheritance of Manasseh especially 
(vv. 2 f .) of the Western half -tribe. 1. The 
father of Gilead] The expression is rather 
geographical than strictly genealogical, accord- 
ing to Oriental usage. Cp. the table of the 
generations of the sons of Noah in Gn 10. 

3f. The daughters of Zelophehad] Their 
case comes up for judgment before Moses in 
Nu27i-7 and again in NU36 1 -! 2 . Their con- 
tention was recognised as just (Nu36 4 ). 

7-13. The frontiers of Western Manasseh. 
See on c. 16. 8, 9. Belonged to the children 
of Ephraim] cp. 168- 9 . 



151 



17. 11 



JOSHUA 



19.40 



11-13. The Canaanites still held a chain of 
fortified cities in the N. from Beth-shean on 
the E. to Accho on the coast. 13. Put the 
Canaanites to tribute] RY ' to task-work ' : cp. 
16 10 . The remark indicates that the conquest 
proved exceedingly difficult in some parts of 
the country, and that the Canaanites long held 
their own. 

14-18. This passage, which is from the 
Primitive source, supports the testimony of 
Judges (see on 18 13 ) that much of the final 
settlement was left to individual tribal effort. 
It also throws light on the character of the 
children of Joseph. The spirit of self -aggran- 
disement and self-importance here displayed 
made Ephraim the great rival of Judah 
throughout history. It shows itself still more 
vehemently in the period of the Judges, both 
in their 'chiding' of their kinsman Gideon the 
Manassite (Jg8), and their quarrel with Jeph- 
thah (Jgl2). Joseph and Judah are alike 
prominent in the patriarchal blessing (Gn 
49 8 > 22 ), and are alike in their growth during 
the period of wanderings. Joseph increased 
from 72,000 to 85,200, and Judah from 74,600 
to 76,500; while the total for all Israel was 
lower at the second census by nearly 2,000 
(cp. Nu 1 and Nu 26). After Othniel's time 
until the rise of David, Judah sinks into un- 
importance; while Ephraim, as the tribe of 
Joshua, and the home of the national sanctuary 
(Gilgal, Shechem and Shiloh), takes a foremost 
place. And it was no doubt the jealous mem- 
ories of past glories in which Joseph had been 
supplanted by David's tribe, that made Eph- 
raim take so prominent a part in the revolt of 
the northern tribes under Jeroboam. 

15. If thou be a great people] Joshua shows 
tact and firmness in dealing with his own 
tribesmen as with all the rest. There is a 
mixture of encouragement with salutary rebuke 
in his reply, and also practical common-sense. 
'Persevere and have confidence in yourselves: 
ultimately you will prevail over the Canaanites, 
better equipped though they are for warfare 
in the plains. Meanwhile you can at least 
make yourselves clearings in the forest high- 
lands formerly occupied by the pre-Canaanite 
Rephaim.' Mount Ephraim] covers all the 
later Samaria (cp. .J 11 ."> 1 • ,; ) including Raniali 
and Beth-el (Jg4«) and Shechem (Josh20*). 
The name Beems t<> have spread from the hill- 
conntry immediately N. of Benjamin. 18. The 
outgoings of Mt. Ephraim are valleys, broad, 
fertile, ami of easy gradients. 

CHAPTER 18 
The Second Allotment. Introduction. 
The Terbj porv of Benjamin 
i-io. These v\ . Bnpplj an introduction to 

the second allotment in general, and agree with 
the passages which, in common with Jgl. view 



the conquest as gradual and partial. The seven 
tribes still hang back through ' slackness ' (v. 3), 
while Judah and Joseph are already in posses- 
sion. 

5. Judah shall abide, etc.] In the final allot- 
ment the S. border of Benjamin coincided with 
the N. border of Judah as far as Kirjath- 
jearim ; the lowlands and plains W. of that 
were given to Dan (19 40 ). 

11-20. The lot of Benjamin. It had, as 
boundaries, Ephraim to the K and Judah to 
the S. : the Jordan was the E. border, and 
Beth-horon to Kirjath-jearim the W. Jeru- 
salem (Jebus) was within its borders. 

13. Luz, which is Beth-el] see on Gn28 19 . 

14. And compassed the corner of the sea] 
RY ' and turned about on the west quarter.' 

15. Nephtoah] a fountain near Jerusalem. 
The S. boundary is the same as the N. boundary 
of Judah (15 5 - 9 ), but traced here from W. to E. 

16. Jebusi] RY 'the Jebusite,' meaning 
Jerusalem. The Benjamin border passed S. of 
Jerusalem. It is often forgotten that this city, 
though bordering upon Judah, was really in 
the territory of Benjamin. 19. Beth-hoglah] 
N. end of the Dead Sea. 

21-28. The cities of Benjamin. The most 
famous of them are Jericho, Ramah (1 S 1 19 ), 
Mizpeh (1S7 5 ), Jerusalem, and Gibeath or 
Gibeah. 

CHAPTER 19 
The Second Allotment (continued). The 
Territories of Simeon, Zebulun, Is- 

SACHAR, ASHER, NaPHTALI, DAN. ThK 

Inheritance of Joshua 

1-9. The lot of Simeon. Observe that no 
borders are named, and the lot includes towns 
previously taken by Judah (15 31 ' 32 ): see v. 9. 
This tribe was settled in the Negeb, or 'south 
country,' that slopes away from the Hebron 
range towards the desert, bounded on the W. 
by the Mediterranean and on the E. by the Dead 
Sea and the Yalley of Edom. 

10-16. The lot of Zebulun : in the low hills 
W. of Nazareth and E. of Accho. 

17-23. The lot of Issachar : comprising the 
plain of Esdraelon. 22. Tabor] Here Zebu- 
lun, Issachar, and Naphtali had a common 
border. 

24-31. The lot of Asher : the coast and low 
hills, from Carmel to Tyro. 

32-39. The lot of Naphtali : the high moun- 
tains of upper Galilee, and plateau E. of Mt. 
Tabor to the W. shores of the Sea of Gal ike 
and the Jordan Yalley N. of it. 

40-48. The lot of Dan: (a) the original in- 
heritance (19 -HMO) . (b) the later acquisition 
in the N. (19 4 ^ 8 ). The territory in the 
S. lies W. of Benjamin along the two paral- 
lel valleys that lead through the Shephelah to 
the sea, viz. Aijalon and Sorek. The song of 



152 



19. 47 



JOSHUA 



22. 10 



Deborah (Jg 5 17 ) seems to imply that the Dan- 
ites had then reached the coast, but the mari- 
time plain was probably never fully occupied 
by them, and what they had held of it was 
soon abandoned in favour of a new colony 

(19^,48). 

In LXX our v. 48 follows 46, where it is 
more naturally in place, and both it and v. 47 
(which follows it in LXX) contain additional 
matter about the Danites' struggle with the 
Amorites, which fits in well with Jg 1 34 , where 
we are told that 'the Amorites forced the 
children of Dan into the hill-country ; for they 
Avould not suffer them to come down into the 
valley.' This obviously gives the reason for 
the expedition northward. 

47. The taking of Leshem (called in Judges 
' Laish ') is related in Jgl87> 27 ' 29 . 

49-51. Concluding section : Joshua's own 
inheritance. Joshua and his comrade Caleb 
(15 13 ), the sole representatives of the genera- 
tion of the exodus, receive each a special 
'inheritance' of his own choice. 50. Accord- 
ing to the word of the LORD] cp. Nu 14 24,30 
with Josh 149,io. Timnath-serah] cp. 2430; 
called Timnath-heres in Jg2 9 , probably Kefr- 
Haris, 9 m. S. of Shechem. 

CHAPTER 20 
The Appointment op Cities of Refuge 

The allotment of the tribal inheritance is 
followed by the appointment of six cities of 
refuge previously provided and in part assigned 
by Moses, according to the terms of the Sinai- 
tic law concerning manslaughter : cp.Ex21 13 
Nu 35 6f . These are enumerated in the follow- 
ing order : — W. of Jordan : Kedesh (N.), She- 
chem (central), Hebron (S.) ; E. of Jordan : 
Bezer (S.), Ramoth-G-ilead (central), Golan 
(N.). Geographical considerations must have 
had the first place ; the six cities are so placed 
as to give nearly equal facilities of access 
from all parts of Palestine. But it is inter- 
esting to observe that the three western cities 
were ancient traditional sanctuaries. This is 
inferred from the name of Kedesh (= Holy) 
and known of the other two. The same may 
be true of the eastern cities also. 

This chapter has a special interest as intro- 
ducing us to a phase of Hebrew Law typical 
of many of the Mosaic ordinances. Moses was 
inspired not so much to produce a system 
entirely novel as to take up the Semitic cus- 
toms already in existence, and regulate and 
purify them. So here, the primitive law of 
blood-revenge, which laid on the kin of the 
slain the duty of taking vengeance on the 
slayer, and which often failed to distinguish 
between intentional and unintentional homi- 
cide, is regulated by the formulation of a 
clear distinction corresponding to our ' wilful 
murder ' and ' manslaughter,' and by the pro- 



vision of definite asylums for the unintentional 
manslayer. 

1-9. The Cities of Refuge. 

2. Whereof I spake . . by the hand of 
Moses] cp. Ex21i3Nu356f-Dt44if. 

3 Unwittingly] manslaughter, as we should 
say, as distinct from murder. See the elaborate 
rules and distinctions drawn out in Nu 35 16 " 23 . 
Note that this is not the ordinary, almost uni- 
versal, principle of ' Sanctuary,' by which any 
criminal whatsoever could claim the protection 
of some holy place, as e.g. Joab tried to do 
(1K2 28 ), when he fled to the tabernacle and 
caught hold of the horns of the altar. It will 
be observed that Solomon did not respect the 
Sanctuary in that case. 

9. Until he stood before the congregation] 
The purpose is to provide every homicide a 
fair trial : see Nu35 12 > 24 " 25 . If he is found 
guilty of murder, the City of Refuge is no 
sanctuary to him ; if only of manslaughter 
(cp. 20 6 ), it is a safe asylum to him till the death 
of the high priest, after which he is free to 
return home. 

CHAPTER 21 

The Assignment of Foety-eight Cities 
to the levites 

2. The injunction to Moses was given in the 
plains of Moab, and is recorded in Nu35 2 " 5 . 

3-8. Number and localities of the cities 
distributed to each of the families of Levi. 

9-42. Detailed specification of the cities : — 
Cities of the Aaronites (Priests) in Judah 
and Benjamin (9-19) ; of the Kohathites in 
Ephraim, Dan, and W. Manasseh (20-26) ; of 
the Gershonites in E. Manasseh, Issachar, 
Asher, and Naphtali (27-33) ; of the Merar- 
ites in Zebulun, Reuben and Gad (34-42). 

43-45. Conclusion of the l Domesday Book ' ; 
fulfilment of God's promises of possession and 
rest. This section is somewhat difficult to 
reconcile with the situation revealed at the 
beginning of the book of Judges ; but it 
must be remembered that this passage is from 
the later Priestly source, while the previous 
section is from an earlier document. 

CHAPTERS 22-24 
These chapters form a section by them- 
selves, and give some closing scenes of Joshua's 
life, as well as his two farewell discourses to 
the people. 

CHAPTER 22 
Dismissal of the Two and a half Tribes. 
The Altar set up at Ed, and the 
Controversy it raised 
1-9. The dismissal of the tribes. 
10-34. The controversy at Ed. Here, as in 
Nu25 7-9 , we see Phinehas playing a prominent 
part, and the contrast between the scenes is 



153 



22. 12 



JOSHUA 



24. 19 



instructive. Swift, stern, and relentless when 
occasion demanded, he appears in Numbers as 
the hero who, by prompt execution of judg- 
ment, stayed the plague at Shittim (cp. Ps 
106 30 ) ; here, on the other hand, though not 
unmindful of that crisis (22 17 ), he shows tact 
and gentleness, and under circumstances of the 
utmost delicacy and tension, helps to avert a 
disastrous civil war. 

12. At Shiloh] the natural place to assemble 
for so solemn an undertaking. The idea of 
the tribes is that their brethren are falling 
into the sin of apostasy (cp. 22 16 Lvl7 8 > 9 
Dt 12 5 ' 7 ), and that therefore it is incumbent on 
them to enforce the provisions of Dtl3 12 - 18 . 
These provisions, however, included a careful 
and searching investigation (Dtl3 14 ) before 
the declaration of exterminating war upon the 
offenders. 17. The iniquity of Peor] the occa- 
sion of Phinehas' former intervention : see 
Nu25. 22. The LORD God of gods] the 
original most impressively combines Hebrew 
names of God : El Elohim Jehovah. 

CHAPTER 23 
The Fiest Farewell Address of Joshua 

This discourse was probably delivered at 
Shiloh or Timnath-Serah. Unlike the Second 
Discourse, which is mainly a historical retro- 
spect, it dwells chiefly upon the political future 
of Israel, laying special emphasis on their 
separateness, and the danger of social and 
religious intercourse with the remnant of the 
Canaanites. C. 23 is from the same source as 
c. 1 andDt27. 

4. These nations that remain] Like c. 13 2 " 7 , 
to the substance of which it probably refers, 
this passage serves to modify the unqualified 
character of such summaries of conquest as 
1 40-43 1 1 23 9 1 43-45. j . One man of you shall 
chase a thousand] RM ' hath chased,' cp. 
Dt3230. 15. All evil things] RV 'all the 
evil things,' with definite reference to Dt 28 15_68 . 
Cp. also Lv 26 1 4 -39. 

CHAPTER 24 

Joshua's Second and Final Farewell 
This discourse (24 i' 16 ), with Israel's response 
(2 1 16-24), and consequent renewal of the Cove- 
nant ( 2 I " ). occupies the bulk of the chapter. 
The book is then brought to a conclusion in 
three short paragraphs, recording (a) the death 
and burial of Joshua (24 -''- :n )< (b) 'the burial of 
Joseph's bones (_1 : '•--'). and (c) the death of 
Bleazar (24 

1-15. This hist address of Joshua, which is 
admitted by critics to be of greal antiquity, 

recalls, both ID spirit and in substance. Samuel's 

discourse in LS12. Bui whereas the hitter 
begins with the work of Moses and Aaron, 
Joshua starts further back and traces the hand 
of Providence from the call of Abraham out 



of idolatrous Mesopotamia, thus enforcing a 
strict renunciation of any lingering idolatry 
among his contemporaries (cp. 24 14 » 23 ). 
Through patriarchal times he draws his hearers 
on to the sojourn in Egypt (24 4 ) ; then he 
refers to the miraculous exodus (24 5 "' r ) ; next 
he recounts the wanderings in the wilderness, 
and the victories E. of Jordan (24 7 " 9 ) ; and 
concludes with the passage of Jordan, and 
the subsequent conquests (24 llf -). Finally 
Joshua offers them the great choice — loyalty 
or disloyalty to the Lord who has done so 
much for them (24 14 > 15 ). His own choice is 
made. 

1. To Shechem] the scene of the blessings 
and cursings of c. 8 30-35 . It is here hallowed 
afresh by a solemn renewal of the Covenant 
(2425). 3. The other side of the flood] RV 
' from beyond the River,' i.e. Euphrates. 

6, 7. And ye came unto the sea, etc.] The 
full and graphic description of this great 
miracle is remarkable in so concise a speech. 
Does it not evidence an eyewitness ? Joshua 
was old enough to lead the host against Amalek 
that year (Exl7 9 ), and therefore old enough 
to be impressed by it. He may well have 
been — as Caleb was — 38 years old at the time 
(see on 14 10 ). 11. And ye went over Jordan] 
Here we pass into the history narrated in the 
book of Joshua. 12. The hornet] Either the 
Israelite invasion was actually preceded by a 
plague of hornets, insects whose sting is 
exceedingly painful and may soon be fatal ; 
or the hornet is used as a type of the dread 
which the rumour of their victories spread in 
advance of them. 

14, 15. These very definite references to 
idolatry imply that previous warnings had 
failed of their effect. Indeed, we learn from 
the later historical books that it was not until 
the Captivity that Israel completely forsook 
the worship of false gods. There were appar- 
ently temptations to three distinct forms of 
idolatry : (a) the ancestral worship of their 
Mesopotamian forefathers, represented by the 
1 teraphim ' which Rachel stole from Laban 
(Gn31 19.30, C p. Gn35 2 > 4 ) ; (b) the animal-wor- 
ship to which the Israelites had been accustomed 
in Egypt (v. 14), of which the ' golden calf ' or 
Apis-bull of Ex 32 is a type ; (c) the local 
Baalim of the Canaanite tribes, which proved, 
as t be book of Judges shows, a constant snare 
to Israel in succeeding generations. 

16-24. The People's Response. 

18. Drave out . . all the people] A general 
statement, in line with 1(M0,43 1 1 23 21 4 3-« but 
to be taken together with statements of a 
qualifying character like 13 2 " 7 and 23 4 . 

19. Ye cannot serve the LORD : for he is 
an holy God] an extreme statement meant to 
startle them into a sense of the awful re- 
sponsibility of intercourse with One who has 



154 



24.25 



JOSHUA— JUDGES 



INTRO. 



revealed Himself to be All-Holy : cp. Lvl9 2 . 
The whole elaborate scheme of the Levitical 
sacrifices and ceremonies seems to have this as 
its primary object, and to bring home to care- 
less minds the inaccessibility of the Deity 
except to clean hearts and lives. 

25-28. Renewal of the Covenant. 

26. A great stone] A pillar such as Jacob 
had set up (G-n28 ls ) as a memorial of his 
vision at Bethel, and again (Gn31 44 ) as a 
witness of his covenant with Laban. Moses 
had set up twelve such pillars (Ex24 4 ) as a 
memorial of the original Covenant at Sinai ; 
and now a similar monument is erected by 
Joshua to mark the renewal of that Covenant. 
On the other hand, an idolatrous ' pillar ' or 
' obelisk ' (Dt 16 22 RV) was expressly forbidden. 
An oak] RV ' the oak,' i.e. of Gn 12*5 RV, etc. 



29-33. Death and burial of Joshua. Burial 
of Joseph's bones. Death of Eleazar. Re- 
peated in substance Jg2 6 " 9 . 

31. All the days . . the elders] The generation 
old enough to realise and remember the events 
recorded in this book. These words must not 
be pressed too rigidly. They assure us that 
Joshua's inspiring influence was felt up to, and 
even after, his death. But the next generation 
(Jg2 10 ) fell away. A grandson of Moses and 
contemporary of Phinehas (cp. Jg 20 28 ) took a 
leading part in Danite idolatry (Jgl8 30 RV). 
32. Ground which Jacob bought] see Gn33 19 . 

33. Eleazar the son of Aaron died] The 
traditional Jewish theory being that Joshua 
wrote the book that bears his name, it was 
supposed that vv. 29-31 were added by Eleazar, 
and this v. by ' Phinehas and the Elders.' 



JUDGES 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Times. In the order of the Bible, 
the book of Judges follows that of Joshua. 
But there is a great difference between 
the two. Joshua tells us of a carefully 
planned attack by the whole people of Israel 
upon the seven nations who inhabited Canaan, 
and its complete success ; and the bulk of the 
second half of the book is occupied by the 
distribution of the territory among the twelve 
tribes. At the beginning of Judges we find 
the Israelites either setting out on the conquest 
of parts of Canaan, or dwelling in an only 
half -conquered country, side by side with the 
Canaanites ; they are subject to a long series 
of attacks from enemies inside and outside the 
country ; united action between the different 
tribes is at best rare and never complete ; and 
the book closes with two episodes which have 
nothing to do with foreign foes, but in which 
the wildness and even savagery of the period 
(including general lawlessness, massacre, 
treachery, mutilation and human sacrifice), 
clear enough in each of the earlier narratives 
of the book, is placed in peculiarly strong relief. 

The picture, however, is an entirely natural 
one. The Israelites had been living the life 
of desert nomads ; and when they invaded the 
rich sown lands of Canaan, to which other 
tribes from the desert had already found their 
way, they preserved something of the character 
of Bedouin raiders. Under a recognised leader 
like Joshua, they could combine and gain 
victories as striking as they were transitory ; 



when Joshua was dead, they were as ready to 
split into independent tribal groups, and to 
refuse to ' come up to the help of Jehovah.' 
Thereupon they either became slaves where 
they had been conquerors, or fell beneath the 
hands of fresh invaders in their turn. 

But their nomad character was quickly lost. 
From shepherds they soon turned into farmers 
like the Canaanites. In language and even in 
religious observances there was little to separ- 
ate the old inhabitants from the new-comers. 
But there was one difference. The Canaanites 
worshipped local deities or Baals ; Israel had 
one God, Jehovah (AV 'the Lord,' really a 
proper name). He had led them out of Egypt. 
A common and undisputed allegiance to Him 
bound together the twelve tribes and severed 
them from every one else. To forget Him 
was to fall into the loose and dangerous ways 
of the Canaanites ; to turn to Him was to 
unite in politics, in social order and in religion. 
(See sections 6 and 7.) 

2. The Book. The contents of the book 
fall into three divisions: 1-3 4 , 3 5 -16 31 , and 
17-21. The first is introductory, striking 
the keynote of the book — ease, forgetfulness, 
disobedience, enslavement, repentance, deliver- 
ance, and ease once more. The second de- 
scribes in more or less detail the various occur- 
rences of these mutations under the Judges. 
The third, an appendix, contains an account 
of the early migrations of the Danites, and the 
feud between Benjamin and the rest of the 



155 



INTRO. 



JUDGES 



INTRO. 



nation. These divisions are not the work of a 
single hand. Like the other historical books of 
the OT., Judges is a compilation. The unknown 
author of the book as it now stands evidently 
had before him much material which is now 
lost (cp. JoshlO 13 2S1 17 ), and he preserved 
this or made selections from it as he thought 
best. Thus, c. 5 is certainly a triumph-song 
going back to the time of Deborah herself. 
The tone of the first division is almost entirely 
moralising or religious. Similar passages are 
inserted in the second division, pointing the 
moral of each disaster ; but in the body of the 
narratives this moralising element is absent, 
while to the story of Abimelech there is no 
moral at all. This tendency is often spoken 
of as ' deuteronomic,' because it finds its fullest 
expression in the book of Deuteronomy, under 
whose special influence, it is supposed, Judges, 
like other historical books, was put into its 
present shape. In the third division the writer 
has taken over two ancient stories, without 
adding his own reflections to them save in 
isolated notes. To a modern reader this may 
seem an uncritical attempt to make history 
instructive. But there can be no doubt that 
history, rightly understood, is calculated to 
instruct ; and in the case of the Hebrews, to 
forget the commands of the national God, and 
to drift into social and domestic relations with 
the Canaanites, was simply to invite disaster. 
Thus the real meaning of the older Hebrew 
narratives (themselves by no means devoid of 
religious feeling) is explained for the reader 
by means of the religious insight of the later 
compiler. 

3. The Name. The word ' judge ' implies 
to us something very different from what it 
implied to a Hebrew. The Hebrews, unlike 
the ancient Babylonians with their elaborate 
codes, knew nothing of the complex machinery 
of the law-court ; disputes were settled by the 
head of the family, the elders of the tribe or 
of the village or town, or by the priests ; later 
on, in the more serious cases, by some person 
of national influence, and even by the king. 
The procedure was informal, and regulated at 
most by custom and a general sense of what 
was right. The sentence could only be en- 
forced when public opinion was behind it. 
But a man who was qualified by age or ex- 
perience, or both, or by special nearness to 
Jehovah, to settle disputes, could also do 
something more ; men would naturally look 
to him for counsel, guidance, deliverance. To 
judge was thus to lead and to govern. In this 
Bense, after <>ur period, Samuel w:is said to 
judge Israel (IS7° : see also 1S8 2 ). It is in 
this sense that Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and 
the other heroes of this book are judges. In 
each case their rise is the result of divine 
selection. Deborah is a prophetess, and she 



summons Barak to her side ; Gideon is called 
by the angel of Jehovah ; the spirit of Jehovah 
comes mightily upon Samson (Jg4 6 6 11 13 25 ). 
The result of this is some signal achievement 
against the common foe ; after which, the 
people, having learnt to trust the wisdom of 
their ' judge ' in war, willingly follow it in 
peace (Jg8 22 12 7 ). All the judges mentioned 
in this book appear to have been military 
leaders ; later, however, we find the peaceful 
Eli holding this office for the nation ; and 
Samuel, who used to go ' on circuit ' to a certain 
number of towns (1 S7 16 ), though he was con- 
stantly asked for advice in a war, is never said 
to have acted as general. Of the extent of 
the judges' authority we know nothing ; after 
their victories have been gained, the historian 
tells us no more about them. But Saul and 
even David in his earlier years seem to have 
been little more than very powerful ' judges ' ; 
the son of Gideon himself gains the title of 
king with no great difficulty ( Jg 9 6 ). The main 
business of a Hebrew king, from David on- 
wards, as of an Indian rajah or a Mohammedan 
caliph, was to lead his people in war, settle their 
quarrels, and protect the poor. No one could 
do this satisfactorily unless he were a strong 
personality ; in the rough period of our book, 
the only way of impressing the community 
was by warlike prowess. But no greater ser- 
vice than settling disputes without fear or 
favour could be rendered ; and the noblest 
function of the Messiah Himself was to judge 
the poor and needy, to break in pieces the 
oppressor, and bring forth judgment to the 
Gentiles (Ps72M 2 Isall* 42 M). 

4. The Dates. Where there is no fixed era, 
chronology is necessarily obscure. The his- 
torian of Hebrew antiquity could of course 
give us no dates; he could at most tell us the 
duration of the lives of men or of periods of 
time. Dealing with times long past, of which 
exact chronological records were not easily 
obtainable, it is not surprising if the various 
writers are not always exact themselves, and 
if their notices of time do not always agree. 
The period of Judges, we know, extends from 
the death of Joshua, a certain number of 
years after the forty years which followed 
the exodus, to about the birth of Samuel, i.e. 
perhaps two generations before the accession 
of David to the throne of Judah. The exo- 
dus is now generally placed about 1250 B.C. 
David came to the throne about 1000 B.C. 
But in 1 K 6 1 the interval between the exodus 
and the founding of the Temple in the 4th 
year of Solomon, i.e. 44 years after David's 
accession, is said to be 480 years. From the 
numbers given in Judges, the interval would 
appear to have been still greater. Othniel, 
Ehud, Barak, Gideon and Samson are account- 
able for 220 years (40, 80, 40, 40, 20) ; the 



156 



INTRO. 



JUDGES 



INTRO. 



' minor judges ' (Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, 
Elon and Abdon, so called because their story 
is not given in detail), Jephthah, Abimelech, 
and the periods of oppression amount to 
190. (See Chronological Table.) If we add 
to these 40 years each for Moses (Dt 2 7 , etc.), 
Eli (IS 4 18) and David (1K2"), with more 
years still for Joshua, Samuel and Saul, we 
shall get a period nearer to 580 than 480. 
It has accordingly been pointed out that the 
round numbers (40, 80, 20) are probably not 
intended to be taken as exact, but as = a genera- 
tion, two generations, and half a generation 
respectively, although the other figures appear 
to be based on precise records. It has further 
been suggested that the years of oppression 
are not to be counted in with the rest, and 
also that some of the judges (though the book 
itself gives no hint of this, probable as it 
would seem) were synchronous with others. 
Many ingenious manipulations of the figures 
have been made to reach a result agreeing 
with the 480 years of 1 K 6 ; but this number 
may very possibly be an exaggeration, and in 
any case it is not easy to see how such a period 
as that of the Judges could ever have lasted 
much longer than 200 years. The two certain 
facts seem to be that, even through those 
wild years, in the case of some of the judges, 
more or less exact records were preserved, 
and that the periods of peace were very 
much longer than those of foreign oppression 
and war. 

5. The Oppressors. Our book makes it 
clear that while the Israelites failed to conquer 
the whole country, they kept a firm hold on 
one part, the central mountain range W. of 
the Jordan. The desert wanderers, on enter- 
ing Palestine, were forced to become moun- 
taineers. In the plain of Esdraelon, which 
cut like a wedge into this range, as well as up 
and down the country elsewhere, were the 
Canaanites, with their walled towns and for- 
midable chariots. To the W., in the low 
lands between the mountains and the sea, were 
the Philistines. E. of the Jordan valley 
(which was too tropical to be largely in- 
habited), on rolling uplands of corn and 
forest and heath, were the lands assigned to 
Reuben, Gad (Gilead) and Manasseh, but 
really much more in the power of Ammon 
and Moab. Further to the E., on the 
borders of the desert, were wandering but 
powerful tribes of Midianites, Amalekites, 
and others. Far across the desert to the 
E. were the great powers of Assyria and 
Babylon ; to the N. were Syria and the 
empire of the Hittites, while beyond the 
southern desert was Egypt. During this 
period, however, all these powers were, 
for various reasons, engaged within their 
own borders ; and Palestine, which had in 



previous centuries been the battle-field of 
their armies, and was to be so again, was 
left unmolested. The oppressors of Israel, 
therefore, were people little if at all stronger 
than herself. Entrenched within her moun- 
tains, she ought to have feared nothing from 
Moab, Ammon and Midian. The Canaanites, 
though they had the doubtful advantage of 
wealth, and by their strongholds in the plain 
of Esdraelon could for a time prevent Israelite 
unity, never regained footing in the hill- 
country; nor had they any political cohesion 
among themselves. 

All these peoples (except the Midianites) 
were closely allied in race with Israel ; the 
Philistines, who had a better political organis- 
ation than any of their neighbours, and who did 
not practise circumcision, are often thought 
to have -come from Crete, and therefore not 
to be Semites at all. Their hostility was by 
far the most serious; Israel never succeeded 
in really menacing any one of their five 
cities; Samson himself never led an Israelite 
force into their territory; and it was the im- 
possibility of making head against them, even 
under the guidance of Samuel, that led the 
Hebrews to change the leadership of the 
judge for the more settled rule of a king 
(IS 8). Apart from the Philistines, Israel 
had more to fear from peace than war. An 
enemy, once repelled, never throughout this 
period attacked her again ; and, placed as she 
was between foes inside and outside her 
territory, she could yet lift up her eyes 
unto the hills, and know that her help 
came from thence. 

6. The Historical Value of the Book. What 
then is to be made of these fragmentary 
records of invasion, foray, muster and venge- 
ance ? Far more than appears on the surface. 
When Israel followed Joshua across the 
Jordan, she was a collection of tribes ; when 
Samuel handed over his authority to Saul, she 
was a nation. During those wild years were 
being forged the bonds of a nationality which 
has survived unprecedented shocks till the 
present day. Not even at the time of Saul 
was the nation complete ; Judah is curiously 
isolated from his brethren, and in the song of 
Deborah is never mentioned (l 2 : cp. Dt33 7 ). 
Ephraim is regarded as the leading tribe, 
though his role was by no means the most 
glorious (8 !> 2 ). But these repeated shocks of 
invasion did what nothing else could have done. 
Consciousness of a common foe gave Israel the 
consciousness of a common aim, destiny, and 
religion. This book shows more clearly than 
any other that the history of Israel was an 
evolution, a progress. National unity, indeed, 
might seem no further advanced under Samson 
than under Barak. But this is an error. The 
Judges made a wider appeal than to their own 



157 



INTRO. 



JUDGES 



INTRO. 



tribes alone ; the Hebrews were learning that 
they were brothers ; and this sense of brother- 
hood, however strangely manifesting itself, is 
shown clearly throughout the book. 

But can we credit all the marvellous exploits, 
it will be asked, of individual judges ? When 
these are examined in detail, they offer com- 
paratively little difficulty. True, there may be 
exaggeration, as so often in Hebrew writers, 
in the numbers ; and is it not natural that 
other details should be magnified when told 
round the camp-fire or at the village gate ? 
Our ideas of accuracy, it must be remembered, 
were unknown in the 10th cent. B.C. In the 
case of Samson, this tendency to glorify the 
exploits of a beloved champion was more 
marked, and reminds us of the stories told of 
William Tell. On the other hand, there is 
not an episode that is not full of most graphic 
and striking touches ; c. 5 is one of the finest 
lyrics inside or outside the Bible ; the last 
four chapters contain most valuable material 
for the religious and social history of the 
Hebrews ; nor is there a book in the Bible 
which shows us more clearly the strength and 
the weakness of the Hebrew nature, its rugged 
independence and its readiness to assimilate, the 
meanness and cowardice that it was prone to 
show, and the courage, the resolution, and the 
tragedy of its chosen heroes. 

7. The Religious Value of the Book. What 
have these early stories to do with our religious 
life ? Is not their morality far below that of 
the present day ? Are not the historical con- 
ditions completely different from our own ? 
Do we not know far more of God than their 
boldest spirits could ever teach us ? These 
three questions suggest the following answers : 
(a) In the primitive character of the morality 
of the book lies much of its value. The 
Israelites were not completely different from 
their neighbours. They could be rash, cruel, 
vengeful (like the men of the Scottish clans), 
and even licentious ; a prophetess could exult 
in an act which to us spells sheer treachery 
(see on 5 24 ) ; and for their cruelties they could, 
like their neighbours, assume divine sanction 
(e.g. c. 20). Yet in spite of this, they knew 
that Jehovah was their God ; and, unlike the 
other gods, He had a definite character; certain 
kinds of conduct He hated, others He loved. 
And this knowledge gradually taught them the 
love of truth, justice;, humanity, purity, and 
the deep piety that breathes in Pss23 and 84. 
In our hook one can watch this love just begin- 
ning to grow. If the nation that produced 
.Jg20 could also produce, first Jg5, and, later 
on. I s:i .*».'», whiti can !'<■ deemed impossible tor 
the Spirit of God V 

(h) The conditions of life in ancient Israel 
were very different from OUT own; hut the 
principles were the same. Racial animosity and 



greed are as strong to-day as then. National 
peril always rose from the desire to ' get on ' or 
to follow the line of least resistance. National 
strength lay in self -forgetting enthusiasm for a 
common cause and devotion to the commands 
of God. It lies nowhere else to-day. Further, 
history shows that wherever there is a faith 
like Gideon's, whether in a Judas Maccabasus, a 
Wilberforce, or a Mazzini, the results are just 
as surprising, and just as beneficent. 

(c) The God we worship is not merely ' the 
God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob.' He is 
' the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.' 
But the lesson that God can only be worshipped 
aright when the whole nation recognises its 
unity and the duty of mutual care and protec- 
tion, is not learnt yet. The fatal distinction 
between God's interest in the religious life and 
in the social well-being of His people, we 
must learn to reject. Religion, patriotism and 
national health are unmeaning apart from each 
other ; and all alike are impossible unless the 
cause of disaster is traced to disobedience and 
sin. The victories of the Hero-judges, as the 
Epistle to the Hebrews asserts, are victories 
of faith ; this faith is also ours ; and of 
this faith the ' author and perf ecter ' is Jesus 
(Hebll32 122). 

List of Oppressions and Judges 






Yrs. of 


Yrs. of 


Opp 


ressions 


Judges 


Oppression under Chushan- 






rishathaim 


8 


— 


Peace under Othniel 


— 


40 


Oppression under Eglon 






(Moab) .... 


18 


— 


Peace after Ehud's deliverance 


— 


80 


Oppression under Jabin 






(Canaan) 


20 


— 


Peace after Barak's victory . 


— 


40 


Oppression under Midianites 






and allies 


7 


— 


Peace after Gideon's victory . 


— 


40 


Abimelech's ' reign ' 


— 


3 


Tola . . . . . 


— 


23 


Jair ..... 


— 


22 


Oppression under Ammonites 


18 


— 


Peace under Jephthah . 


— 


6 


Ibzan ..... 


— 


7 


Elon 


— 


10 


Abdon ..... 


— 


8 


Oppression under the Philis- 






tines .... 


40 


— 


Activity of Samson 


— 


20 


Totals 


11:5 


299 



Total length of Oppressions 
and Deliverances reckoned 
consecutively . 



412 



158 



JUDGES 



1.19 



PAET 1 

Introductory (Chs. 1-3 4 ) 



Division 1, Chs. 1-2 5. 
This section of the book contains a brief 
recapitulation of the early conquest of Pales- 
tine, told from a somewhat different point of 
view from that of Josh 7-21, and supplying 
much that is there not mentioned. From 
these vv. it is clear that Palestine was not 
conquered in one great invasion ; and the 
whole of the book shows Israel to be only in 
very precarious possession of the land. The 
narrative in Joshua emphasises the influence 
over the whole collection of tribes wielded by 
the Ephi-aimite hero, Joshua himself ; Jg 1-2 5 
narrates the movements of separate tribes, 
leaving some of them (Issachar, Levi and 
Benjamin) unmentioned. It would seem that 
after the main body of Israelites had crossed 
the Jordan, captured Jericho, and made Gilgal 
their headquarters, the larger number of them, 
under Joshua, faced northwards, while Judah 
and Simeon remained in the south, and, for 
some time, were almost detached from the 
main body. The actual narratives of this 
division of Part 1 deal with (1) the conquest 
of Adoni-bezek by Judah and Simeon (1 1_8 ) ; 

(2) conquests of Othniel in the south (l 9 " 15 ) ; 

(3) further conquests of Judah and Simeon 
(116-21). (4) capture of Bethel (122-26). (5) 
limits to the conquests of Manasseh, Ephraim, 
Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali and Dan (1 27-36) . 
(6) the moral, delivered by the angel at 
Bochim (21-5). 

CHAPTER 1 

The Conquests of Judah, Simeon, and 
other Tribes 
1-8. Conquests of Judah and Simeon. 
1. After the death of Joshua] This joins the 
beginning of Judges to the end of Joshua ; 
but in what follows the author refers to events 
\ which must have preceded the partition of 
! Joshl3f., and the campaigns of Josh 10, 11. 
Asked the LORD] ' Consulted the oracle of 
1 the Lord' : cp. 18 5 20 18 . See also Ex 28 so 
Nu27 21 . 2. The land] the S. part of Pales- 
i tine. 3. Simeon] The towns of Simeon 
I (JoshlQ 1 - 9 ) are also attributed to Judah 
! (Joshl5 26 ' 36 > 42 ). Later, Simeon ceases to 
exist as an independent tribe. My lot] Each 
1 tribe has had a part of Canaan allotted to it, 
/1 whose conquest it is to attempt. Judah is 
chosen to make the first inroad. 

4. Perizzites] see on G-nl3 7 . Canaanites] 
in its special sense of ' lowlanders ' : cp. 
1! Gnl3 7 34 30 . Bezek] lying on the road from 
Gilgal to South Palestine. 5. Adoni-bezek] 
(perhaps the same as Adoni-zedek of Josh 10 x ) 
is king of Jerusalem, which city also lies in 



the path of Judah and Simeon to Judah' s 
' lot.' 6. Cut off] to make them unfit for 
warfare. 7. Kings] chiefs or sheikhs of a 
city or even village. They] his own people. 

8. Jerusalem] The city was not held, but 
remained in the possession of the Jebusites 
till the time of David (2 S 5 6-9). Not till 
then would Judah really dominate Southern 
Palestine (cp. v. 21, and c. 19 12 ). 

9-15. Conquests of Othniel in the south. 

9. The mountain denotes the central ridge, 
stretching from 1ST. of Jerusalem to Hebron ; 
the south, the wild country S. of Hebron, 
called in Hebrew the Negeb, and the valley 
(RY ' lowland ') the maritime plain to the 
W. 10. Hebron] see on Gn 13 18 . Kirjath- 
arba] ' city of four' (quarters). In Joshl4 15 
15 13 > 14 , however, Arba is regarded as a per- 
sonal name ; he is ' the father of Anak,' or 
' a great man among the Anakims ' (a primi- 
tive gigantic race, of which Sheshai, etc., are 
names of divisions or clans). 11. Debir] in 
theNegeb. Kirjath-sepher] 'Book-city.' He] 
should be Caleb (see Joshl5 13 ), to whom 
(Joshl4 6-15 ) Moses had promised this terri- 
tory. 13. Othniel is also the hero of the 
deliverance from Chushan-rishathaim (3 9f -). 

15. Blessing] a present (cp. Gn33 n ) or 
solemn token of paternal affection. Thou 
hast given me] RY, better, ' thou hast set me 
in.' A south land] RY 'the land of the 
South ' ; for the most part a waterless region, 
where springs would be precious. Upper and 
nether springs are proper names. 

16-21. Further conquests of Judah and 
Simeon. 

16. The Kenite] Hobab (cp. 4 11 , elsewhere 
called Jethro : cp. also Ex 2 18 ). The Kenites 
are joined (in Gnl5 19 ) with the Kenizzites, 
Caleb's tribe (Kenaz, v. 13), a Bedouin people 
in firm league with Israel : see 4 17 and 
1 S15 6 . They do not, like Judah, attack the 
Canaanites. City of palm trees] Jericho, 
which, with Gilgal, was Israel's base of opera- 
tions. Arad] SE. of Hebron. Among the 
people] A more probable reading is ' with the 
Amalekite,' i.e. not actually in Judah. 17. 
Zephath] not known. Hormah] ' utter de- 
struction.' To ' destroy utterly ' is to put 
under a ban, or exterminate : cp. Josh6 17m s- 
('devoted,' i.e. to destruction). 18. These, with 
Gath and Ashdod, are the five Philistine cities. 
The LXX reads ' did not take,' which accords 
with subsequent references to the Philistines. 

19. Chariots of iron] Always an object of 
dread to the light-armed Israelites (cp. 4 3 ), 
but useless in the hill-country, where the 
Israelites were more firmly established. 



159 



1. 21 



JUDGES 



2. 18 



Could not] The Lord being with Judah, they 
should have been able to drive them out. 
Probably their faith failed at sight of the iron 
chariots. The Hebrew, indeed, does not say 
1 could not drive them out,' but ' there was no 
driving out.' 21. Cp. Joshl5 63 . 

22-26. Capture of Bethel. 

22. House of Joseph] i.e. Ephraim and 
Manasseh, the leading division of the nation. 
Later writers use Ephraim as a synonym for 
the ten northern tribes (e.g. Hosll 8 Isa28 3 ). 

23. Descry] RY ' spy out.' Beth-el] 9£ m. 
N. of Jerusalem. See Gn28i9 35 6 . 26. Hit- 
tites] see on GnlO 15 ' 19 . Luz] Evidently a 
different city from that mentioned in v. 23. 

27-36. Limits to the conquests of Man- 
asseh, etc. 

27. These towns are all in the plain of 
Esdraelon (see on c. 4), by their hold upon 
which the Canaanites drove a wedge between 
the Israelites of Northern and Central Pales- 
tine. Beth-shean is at the E. of the plain, 
Taanach and Megiddo (recently excavated and 
revealing a wealth of Canaanite remains) on 
the S., Ibleam on the SE., and Dor on the coast. 
Would dwell] i.e. succeeded in dwelling. 28. 
Tribute] RV l taskwork.' So Israel had been 
treated in Egypt. 29. Gezer] On the edge 
of the maritime plain ; later on, taken by 
Egypt and given to Solomon (1K9 15 ). Here 
also extensive remains have been found, 
demonstrating the pagan worship carried on 
by its inhabitants. 30. Kitron . . Nahalol] 
unknown. 31. Accho (Akka), Zidon (Saida), 
and Achzib (Ez-Zib, N. of Akka) are all on 
the coast : the other towns are unknown. 33. 
Beth-shemesh ( l house of the sun '), not the well- 
known Beth-shemesh in Judah : cp. Joshl9 38 . 
Beth-anath (house of the goddess Anath) is 
perhaps a town 6 m. N. of Kadesh-naphtali. 

34. Dan fails in securing a foothold : later, 
the Danites make an expedition northwards 
(c. 18) and Ephraim gains an entrance into the 
territory from which they are driven (v. 35). 
Amorites] seeonGnlO 16 . 35. Mount Heres] 
'the mountain of the sun.' Aijalon] 12 m. 
W.. of Jerusalem ; the scene of Joshua's great 
victory (Josh 10 12 ). Shaalbim] possibly 3 m. 
to the N. 36. Coast] RV 'border.' The 
ascent of (RV) Akrabbim (scorpions) is said in 
.!<»slil5 3 to be on the border of Judah and 
Edom. Amorites is probably a mis-reading 
for ' IM< unites.' The spot lies on a line be- 
tween Hebron and IVtra, the Edomite capital. 
As it stands, this v. has no connexion with its 
context. 36. The rock] should be, as RM, 
• Sola,' Le. Petra in Edom. 



1. An angel of the LORD] RV ' the angel.' 
Cp. 6 11 ' 22 13 3 > 21 , where it is plain (from 6^,16 
13 22 ) that the angel is thought of as God Him- 
self (see on 6 14 ). The word translated ' angel,' 
however, means simply ' messenger ' : cp. 6 8 . 



CHAPTER •> 
Prologue to the Story OE the Judges 
1-5. The moral of the preceding notices, 
delivered by an angel at Bochim. 



Gilgal] the site of the first Hebrew camp after 
the crossing of the Jordan (Josh 4 19 ). Bochim] 
' weepers ' (v. 4), but LXX here reads ' Bethel ' 
(l 23 ), which was later the abode of the ark 
(20 27 )« Allon Bacuth, ' weeping tree,' was near 
Bethel (Gn 25 8 ). Covenant] see Gn 1 5 is 1 7 w 
Dt4i3 818 29i 3116, etc. 

Division 2, Chs. 2 6-3 4. 
A return to the later scenes of Joshua's life, 
to connect it with the stories of the Judges. 
C. 26-10 is very similar to Josh24 2 8- 3 i. The 
history of Israel in this period is here inter- 
preted as a succession of punishments for dis- 
obedience, and deliverance after repentance, a 
point of view which is not emphasised in the 
individual stories, but not inconsistent with 
them. Israel's only chance of existence in 
Canaan lay in its adherence to the one bond 
of union, the worship of Jehovah. The intro- 
duction divides into three parts : 2 6-10, his- 
torical prologue ; 2H* 23 , interpretation of the 
history ; 3 1 * 6 , Israel's actual relations with the 
Canaanites. 

6-10. Historical Prologue. 
6. Cp. Josh 24 28 . Evidently the beginning 
and not the end of conquest is here referred 
to. In the OT. Canaan is never regarded as 
a land of rest. 9. Timnath-heres] ' territory 
of the sun ' : probably near Shechem. In Josh 
24 30 the letters of 'heres' are transposed, to 
avoid the suggestion of idolatrous association 
(cp. also Jg8i 3 and RV there). Gaash] un- 
known. 

11-23. The religious interpretation of the 
history of the Judges. 

11. Baalim] RV ' the Baalim,' i.e. the local 
gods worshipped by the Canaanites. Baalim 
is the plural of Baal, which means ' lord ' (cp. 
8 33 ). Each place might thus have its patron 
god. Jehovah was never thought of by the 
Hebrews as a local deity in this sense. 

13. Ashtaroth] RV ' the Ashtaroth,' properly 
the feminine counterpart of ' the Baalim.' In 
Babylon, the goddess Ashtoreth appears as 
Ishtar (with attributes corresponding in part 
to Aphrodite or Venus). How easily the wor- 
ship of the native deities, the Baals, the Ash- |! 
toreths, in their sacred groves, would lead to 
licentiousness is obvious (see on Gn 38 15 ). 

17. A whoring] Adultery and fornication are 
common figures for unfaithfulness to Israel's 
1 lord,' Jehovah, cp. Hos 1-3 Ezk 1 6, 20, Mt 12 39 . 
The succeeding stories make it clear that it 
was by uniting the Hebrews in a religious war 
that the Judges caused the local cults to be 
put aside. 18. It repented the LORD] cp. 1 S 
15ii Ps90 i3 Zech8" ■ on the other hand, IS 
1G0 



% 20 



JUDGES 



3. 31 



1 5 29 Jer 4 2 » Ezk 24 14 . Here the word really 
means ' pity.' 20. Covenant] Josh 23 16 c.2 1 . 
In Joshua the ark is constantly called ' the ark 
of the covenant ' (Josh 3 3 , etc.). 22. Prove] cp. 
3 l * 2 . Such an expression shows how easily a 
test may become a temptation. 2$. Neither 
delivered he, etc.] a later addition : the whole 
passage deals with what occurred after the 
death of Joshua. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Story of the Judges. Othniel. 
Ehud. Shamgar 

1-6. Israel's actual relations with the Cana- 
anites. 

1. Wars of Canaan] i.e. those waged by 
Joshua, after whose death (2 21 ) the career of 
victory was made to cease by Jehovah. 2. A 
third reason for the survival of the heathen in 
Canaan, in addition to those given in 2 lf - and 
in 2 22 3 1 . 3. Philistines] see Intro. § 5. The 



Philistines occupied the lowland in the SW. 
Their five cities formed a confederacy : see 
1 6 5 , etc. , and 1 S 6 16 f . At the death of Samuel 
their power extends far into central Palestine 
(1S31 10 ). All the Canaanites] in the more 
restricted sense, the lowlanders of the SW. 
bordering on the Philistines. Hivites] read 
'Hittites' : see on GnlO 1 ^. Baal-hermon] 
In the similar passage in Joshua we read ' Baal- 
Gad under Hermon ' (13 5 ), a place on the W. 
side of Hermon. The entering in of Hamath] 
Hamath was a powerful city of the Hittites 
on the Orontes (modern Hama). The ' en- 
trance ' to it is the hollow country between 
Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, on the plain at 
the N. end of Lebanon: cp. 2S8 9 1K865 
Am6 14 , where it is regarded as the true 
northern frontier of Israel. 

5. See on 1 1-4 3 3 . To these six ' nations ' 
of Canaan the Girgashites are often added. 

6. Cp. Ex34i6 Nehl325. 



PART 2 

History of the Judges (Chs. 3 5 -16 31 ) 



On this, the main section of the book, see 
Intro. § 2 and List of Oppressions and Judges. 
The larger part of the book is concerned with 
six of the Judges, one of whom is not properly 
a Judge at all (Abimelech), and in the case 
of another (Samson) isolated forays are re- 
corded, but no actual deliverance. 

7-1 1. Chushan-rishathaim and Othniel. 

7. The groves] RV 'the asheroth.' The 
word (another plural) means the sacred poles 
set up near an altar, which were common in 
Semitic worship (even Solomon's temple had 
' pillars ' : see on 1 K 7 21 ). Here, however, actual 
goddesses seem to be intended, perhaps regarded 
as symbolised by the poles. 8. Chushan- 
rishathaim] The Heb. word means 'Ethio- 
pian of double iniquity.' The real name 
must be hidden behind this expression. Meso- 
potamia] see on G-n 24 10 . 

9. Othniel] cp. I 13 . 

10. The Spirit of the LORD] used here and 
elsewhere of the inspiration which makes a 
man capable of great and apparently super- 
human exploits and achievements : 6 34 ll 29 
146 1514. cp . a lsoEx31 3 . 

12-30. Eglon and Ehud. 

12. Moab] the high plateau on the E. of 
the Dead Sea : cp. 2K3 24 . 13. Ammon] 
N. of Moab: the Amalekites (Gn36 12 ) are 
called Edomites. They occupied the desert 
between Sinai and S. Palestine. The Kenites 
formed one of their nomad clans, but on the 
whole their enmity to Israel was constant : 
cp. lS15 2f -; hence their readiness to join 
Eglon's invasion. City of palm trees] cp. 
1 16 : Jericho, which was thus not entirely 
11 1 



destroyed (Josh 6 26 ). It would command the 
roads from central to southern Palestine. 

15. Lefthanded] lit. 'lamed in his right 
hand.' Hence the success of his ruse : but 
20 16 seems to show that ambidexterity is all 
that is meant: cp. also lChl2 2 . Present] 
i.e. tribute. 16. Dagger] RY ' sword,' about 
14 in. in the blade. Being on his right thigh 
(convenient for his left hand) the guards would 
not notice it. 17. Brought] RY ' offered,' as 
in v. 18. 19. Quarries] RM ' graven images,' 
perhaps carved stones. Once beyond these 
(cp. v. 26), though only 2 m. from Jericho, 
Ehud knew that he was safe. 

20. Summer parlour] RM ' upper chamber 
of cooling' : a room on the flat roof of an 
Oriental house ; in this case enclosed so that 
the interior was not visible from outside. 

22. No meaning can be obtained from the 
Heb. words at the end of this v. 23. Locked] 
i.e. bolted (as in the East at present). 26. Sei- 
rath] unknown. 27. Mountain] i.e. hill- 
country. The men of Ephraim (Joshua's 
tribe) are recognised as the leaders in Israel : 
cp. 8 1 . 28. Toward Moab] RY 'against the 
Moabites,' i.e. to prevent their returning. 

29. For the expression ten thousand, cp. 
14 46 73 20 34 . 30. Fourscore] two full 
generations. 

31. Shamgar] the first of the 'minor' 
Judges. The name is mentioned in 5 6 , though 
not as a ' saviour.' No Philistine oppression 
is mentioned till later. An ox goad] would 
be an efficient substitute for a spear — a six- 
foot staff tipped with a spike : cp. 15 14f - and 
2S2321. 

61 



4. 1 



JUDGES 



5.6 



CHAPTER 4 
Deborah and Barak 

This deliverance is described a second time 
in the early poem in c. 5 (see on 5 l ). No other 
narrative describes more clearly the religious 
gathering of the clans, and the prowess of the 
hardy mountaineers when united. The plain 
of Esdraelon (see Intro. § 5) is one of the 
famous battle-fields of history. It drives like a 
wedge from the coast within 1 m. of the Jordan ; 
but it is dominated by hills on all sides, and is 
almost closed by them at its western end. In 
c. 5 all the tribes are mentioned either as 
uniting or refusing to appear, save Judah and 
Simeon. Subsequently we hear no more of such 
united efforts. 

1-3. Oppression by Jabin. 

2. Jabin] In Josh 11 1-3 Jabin is defeated by 
Joshua at the waters of Merom, near the head 
of the Jordan valley, and Hazor is burned. In 
c. 5 Jabin is not mentioned, and Sisera is 
apparently regarded as king. Hazor] from 
Joshl9 36 , probably near Kadesh-naphtali. 
Harosheth of the Gentiles] or ' foreigners ' is 
thus distinguished from Hebrew Harosheth. 
Site doubtful ; probably not far from Megiddo, 
or at the W. end of the plain. 3. Chariots] 
They would be well-nigh irresistible on the 
plain. The Israelites, living in the hills, had 
none until Solomon's time. 

4-24. Defeat and Death of Sisera. 

4. Judged] not in the technical sense used 
in this book, but of the deciding of disputes (v. 
5). 5. Mount Ephraim] see on 3 2 ". Deborah's 
own tribe would seem to have been Issachar 
(5 15 ). Dwelt] RV 'sat,' as judge, to decide 
cases. Deborah] 'bee.' 6. Barak] 'lightning': 
cp. the Carthaginian name Hamilcar Barca. 
Kedesh-naphtali] i.e. Kadesh (i.e. the shrine) 
of Naphtali ; now Kades, 4 m. from the upper 
end of the waters of Merom. Mount Tabor] 
1 ,843 ft. high : it commands the plain of Es- 
draelon from the NE. Ten thousand men] 
cp. w. ID, 14, 3 20 5 8 , etc. In this c. only the 
two tribes Naphtali and Zebulun are men- 
tioned : in c. 5 as many as six gather to Barak's 
standard. Naphtali and Zebulun, bordering 
on the plain, are the most concerned. 9. Sell] 
cp. 2 14 3 s 4 2 . A woman] i.e. Jael. 

10. Went up] to Tabor. The flat summit 
of this conical hill made an excellent position 
from which the Israelites could charge down 
to the plain. IX. The Kenites] cp. 1 1( \ Father 
inlaw] is correct, not (as RV) 'brother in law.' 
The modern traveller Porter noticed the black 
tents of nomads n< ar K« desh. Plain] RV'oak'; 
evidently a prominenl tree on the N. of the 
edge of the plain of Esdraelon. 13. Kishon] 
This river rises in the high ground to the BE. of 
the plain, and flows right through it in a north- 
westerly direction. From Tabor on the NE. the 



Israelites would dash down and drive the Ca- 
naanites back upon its banks : in rainy weather 
the whole plain would be further intersected 
by the Kishon's tributaries. In 1799, after 
the battle of Mt. Tabor, numbers of fugitive 
Turks were swept away by the torrent and 
drowned. 15. Fled away] northward to Ke- 
desh, while Barak's host hurries westwards. 

18. Mantle] RV 'rug,' or perhaps 'tent- 
curtain.' 19. Bottle of milk] i.e. a lamb- or 
goat-skin. C. 5 25 adds 'butter.' 5 26 seems 
(though not certainly) to imply that Sisera is 
killed as he stands drinking. 21. The nail or 
tent-pin was of wood : to drive it into the 
ground when camping was the women's work. 
On the morality of the act see on 5 24 . 22. If 
Barak came up immediately, he must have left 
the main body of the pursuers almost as they 
left the battle-field. 24. The Israelites now 
proceed to do on a small scale what, after the 
victories of Joshua, they had refused to do on 
a large one. 

CHAPTER 5 

Deborah's Triumph Song 

This song celebrates the victory of c. 4 ; 
but from the point of view, not of a later 
annalist, but of a contemporary poet — very pos- 
sibly (though see v. 12) the prophetess herself. 
The lyric outburst is one of the finest in any 
language ; its style (though many of the words 
are now very obscure) is typical of the best 
Hebrew poetry. Its independence of c. 4 may 
be inferred from the variations it exhibits. 
Sisera is represented as king : the majority of 
the tribes, not Zebulun and Naphtali only, are 
summoned : and the manner of Sisera's death is 
different. It says much for the fidelity of the 
compiler that he did not attempt to ' edit ' 
these apparent discrepancies. 

1-5. Introductory. 

1. For the avenging of Israel] RV 'for that 
the leaders took the lead in Israel.' The 
Hebrew word most probably has to do with 
1 letting loose ' ; perhaps, k with the streaming 
locks of warriors.' 3. A good instance of the 
' parallelism ' of Hebrew poetry ; parallel, and 
sometimes almost identical thoughts are placed 
side by side. Abundant instances can be found 
in almost every Psalm. For the kings and 
princes, cp. Ps2 2 Habl 10 . 4. Seir] the moun- 
tainous region which extends from the E. of 
the Dead Sea to the head of the Red Sea. The 
northern half of it was inhabited by Edom. 
Towards the southern end of it is Sinai (v. 5). 
Jehovah is still thought of as dwelling in the 
desert, where He had first revealed Himself 
to Israel, and where He delivered them from 
Egypt. Cp. Psl8 7 IsaG4 1 Hab3!0. 

6-1 1. The Oppression. 

6. Shamgar] mentioned (if he is the same 
man) in 3 31 ; here, the reference can hardly 



162 



5. 7 



JUDGES 



6.1 



be to a Judge and deliverer. So with Jael ; 
perhaps another individual is intended ; or 
the correct name has fallen out of the text. 

Unoccupied] Because of the insecurity of 
the country. 7. The villages] RY 'rulers'; 
the word occurs in v. 11, and probably means 
1 peasantry.' The great trade routes were 
empty, and even rural life stagnated. 8. The 
first two clauses are very obscure ; the second 
should perhaps be ' the barley-bread failed.' 

10. Speak] (RY 'tell') means properly 
'meditate upon it.' Of the three classes 
addressed, the first consists of magistrates 
or leading men, the second (in judgment 
should be, as RV, 'on rich carpets') of the 
wealthy, the third of the people. II. The 
words in italics, supplied by the translators, 
help us to make sense of this v., though 
they cannot be considered certain. In con- 
trast to v. 6 there is now deep peace through- 
out the whole country-side. 

12-23. The gathering of the tribes, and the 
battle. 

12. Captivity] either 'thy captives' or 'thy 
captors ' ; cp. Ps 68 18 Eph 4 8 . 13. RV is more 
probable ; ' then came down a remnant of the 
nobles and of the people.' The two classes 
are joined as in vv. 2 and 9. 14. RY ' out 
of Ephraim came down they whose root is in 
Amalek.' This seems to suggest that Amalek 
once possessed the land of Ephraim ; but see 
on 12 15 . The largest and smallest tribes are 
mentioned together, as in Hos5 8 . Machir] a 
clan of Manasseh (apparently used here for 
the whole tribe) which is generally connected 
with Gilead. Pen of the writer] RY ' marshal's 
staff ' ; the ' writer ' is the officer who musters 
the troops. 

15. He was sent] RY ' into the valley they ' 
(the men of Issachar) k rushed forth at his feet.' 
Reuben dwelt in ~N. Moab, E. of the Dead Sea ; 
in the later history the tribe is never heard of, 
as, from this v., is not surprising. For the 
divisions] RY ' by the watercourses ' (so in 
v. 16). 17. Gilead] i.e. 'the people living 
in Gilead.' Reuben and Manasseh have been 
already mentioned ; hence, Gad. Dan] would 
seem to have already migrated to the N. 
and to have connected itself with the sea- 
faring Phoenicians (18 7 ). For Asher, see I 31 . 
Breaches] RY ' creeks,' or harbours. 

19. Kings] the petty chiefs of districts and 
towns among the Canaanites. Taanach . . 
Megiddo] see on l 27 . 20, 21. The very 
forces of nature were in alliance against 
Canaan. Kishon, though second to the 
Jordan (35 m. long from source to sea), is 
often, in parts, dry in the summer. Like 
other mountain-fed streams, it rises rapidly 
after a storm ; here, its torrents sweep away 
the Canaanite chariots. 21. Strength] Ab- 
stract for concrete. 22. RY ' Then did the 



horsehoofs stamp by reason of the pransings.' 
This v., describing the battle, would seem 
naturally to precede vv. 21 f., describing the 
rout. 

23. Meroz] an unknown place. The men- 
tion of Jael immediately after suggests that 
the villagers of Meroz might have done what 
Jael did with such success. 

24-27. The Death of Sisera. 

24. Sisera, according to the code of the 
times, on entering Jael's tent, was entitled to 
protection. Could a prophetess, it has been 
asked, invoke a blessing on an act of sheer 
treachery ? (cp. 4 17 ). There may have been 
extenuating circumstances of which we are 
ignorant ; more probably the v. is simply an 
utterance of the poet's joy at an act without 
which the victory would have been imperfect, 
and might have proved fruitless : see Intro. 
§ 7. Women in the tent] Bedouin women : 
nomads. 25, 26. These w. say nothing about 
Sisera's lying down to sleep, and they suggest 
that he was killed in the act of drinking (note 
' smote ofE ' instead of ' smote through ') : but 
(see v. 27) this is not absolutely necessary. 

25. Butter] Properly sour milk or curds. 
Lordly dish] A bowl fit for nobles. 27. The 

repetition is highly effective. 

28-30. Ironical representation of the ex- 
pectation at Sisera's home. 

28. Cried] in eager, half -anxious tones. 

30. Have they not sped ?] rather, ' Do they 
not find ? ' — the form of the word denotes an 
unfinished action, which accounts for the delay. 

A damsel or two] rather, ' A slave-girl, two 
slave girls, for each brave man.' Prey] RY 
' spoil.' Needlework on both sides] means 
two pieces of needlework (for each man). 
RY ' embroidery.' 

31. Final prayer. The last clause is added 
by the editor. 

CHAPTER 6 
Gideon and' the Midianites 

The story of Gideon, which runs from 6 1 to 
8 33 , is more detailed than that of Deborah and 
Barak ; and, from the details, it would ap- 
pear that different traditions have been used. 
Gideon, at the bidding of an angel, calls his clan 
together, and after reducing them to 300 men, 
and receiving the encouragement of a dream, 
surrounds the camp of the Midianites and 
throws them into a panic. The Ephraimites 
complete the defeat. The two kings of Midian 
are then pursued beyond Jordan and slain. 
Gideon is offered the kingdom, but refuses it, 
and lives to old age in honour. and peace. 

1-6. The Midianites oppress Israel. 

1. Midian] These desert nomads are re- 
garded by the Hebrews as akin to them (Gn 
3635; cp . Ex 2 15-21). They are found in the 
neighbourhood of the peninsula of Sinai,, and 



163 



6.3 



JUDGES 



7.25 



also wander northwards : on this occasion they 
pour westwards across the Jordan into the more 
fertile lands of Palestine. Like modern Be- 
douins they raid and harry and destroy, but 
make no permanent conquest. That the Is- 
raelites did not desert their homes is plain from 
v. 11, etc. 3. Amalekites] see on 3 13 . . Children 
of the east] other tribes living on the borders 
of the eastern desert. 4. Unto Gaza] i.e. 
the whole country from the Jordan to the 
coast. Gaza was a Philistine town on the SW. 
of Palestine which they did not venture to 
pass. 5. Grasshoppers] RV ' locusts.' 

8-10. The Israelites rebuked by a Prophet. 

8. A prophet] who brings a similar mes- 
sage to that of the angel in 2 1-3 . The pro- 
phet is the spokesman of Jehovah. See Intro, 
to Samuel. The spirit of the prophetic 
message is always (a) moral, (b) national. 10. 
Amorites] see on Gn 10 16 . 

1 1-40. The call of Gijdeon, and the tests by 
which it was proved. 

11. Angel] see on 2 1 . Ophrah] in v. 24 
' Ophrah of the Abi-ezrites.' Presumably, 
this Ophrah is near Shechem. Abi-ezer is a 
division of Manasseh (Joshl7 2 ). Wheat by 
the winepress] RV ' in ' ; i.e. for concealment. 
The usual threshing-floor is in an exposed 
place : the winepress is a shallow pit in the 
ground, from which the grape-juice runs into 
two deeper vats. There would have been but 
little wheat to thresh. 13. My Lord] not as 
Lord, the divine name, but equivalent to ' Sir.' 
14. The LORD] Here the angel is identified 
with Jehovah: cp.13 22 . 15. Poor] RY 
' the poorest.' Joash, however, can defy the 
'city,' v. 31. 17. That thou talkest] RY 
'that it is thou that talkest.' The angel has 
not, however, told Gideon who he is ; proba- 
bly this clause was not in the original narrative 
(cp. v. 22). 23. The last clause of v. 21 
should apparently follow rather than precede 
this v. 24. Jehovah-shalom] ' Jehovah is 
peace ' (v. 23) ; cp. Ex 17 |: \ 

25. The altar . . that thy father hath] Joash 
is the priesl and custodian of the village 
sanctuary. The 'grove' should be the pole 
or 'asherah' a1 its side. Such an attack- 
would naturall\ be resented by the villagers. 
26. Ordered place] RY 'orderly manner.' 
31. To avoid giving up his son (whom the 
men <li<l not venture to take by force), Joash 
asks, 'Will youbeso presumptuous as to plead 
for Baal ? Thai would be impiety worthy of 
instanl death. 1 Baal can defend himself. 32. 
Other names compounded with Baal ('lord,' 
used as equivalenl to Jehovah) exist, viz. 
[shbaal and Meribbaal. Tor • Baal,' ' bosheth ' 
(shame) i- at times substituted by later scribes 
CJSll-'). See also od LCh8 w 2S28. From 
the form of the name it should rather mean 
• Baal (or Jehovah ) founds.' 



33. Were gathered together] on the E. of 
Jordan, for another raid into Palestine, and 
' went over ' the river. The valley of Jezreel] 
leads up from the Jordan to the plain of Es- 
draelon. Jezreel is the modern Zerin. 

34. Cp.13 25 . Came upon] lit. ' clothed itself 
with Gideon.' In the strength of this inspira- 
tion he assembles not only his own clan and 
fellow-tribesmen, but the men of neighbouring 
tribes, all of whom would be threatened by the 
raid. 

37. Gideon's tests. Wool retains moisture 
for a specially long time. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Rout of Midian 
1-7. Gideon's choice of his Followers. 

I. The sites here mentioned are doubtful. 
Moreh] said to be near Shechem (Gnl2 6 Dt 
ll 30 ). After the battle Gideon crosses the 
Jordan by the fords one would take if travel- 
ling from Shechem eastwards. 3. Gilead] is 
E. of the Jordan : some other locality must 
be meant. For the return of the timid, cp. 
Dt208. 

5. Probably an arbitrary test. It is as easy 
to find abstract reasons for choosing those who 
stooped down as for rejecting them. The test 
in 12 6 is very different. 

8-25. The Rout of Midian. 

II. The author frankly admits that, in spite 
of 6 34 , Gideon is afraid to take the bolder 
course. 

13. A cake of barley bread] apparently a 
disk-like cake baked in the ashes: representing 
the Israelite peasants, as the tent represents 
the Midianite nomads. 

15. Worshipped] bowed down before God. 

16. Lamps] RV ' torches.' 

18. The sword] These words do not occur 
in the Heb. in this v. but are supplied from 
v. 20. Jehovah is the true leader of the 
Israelite host. 

19. The middle watch] i.e. when the night 
was about a third through: well before mid- 
night. 

22. These places cannot be identified, but 
were probably in the Jordan valley, towards 
a point E. of Shechem. 

23. See 6 35 . Probably those who had left 
Gideon before the surprise now hurry in 
pursuit of the flying foe. They did not, how- 
ever, as it would seem, actually join Gideon (8 4 ). 

24. Ephraim] the leading tribe has not yet 
been mentioned. Beth-barah] not certainly 
identified; probably a tributary of the Jordan, 
tin Wady Farah, which the Ephraimites would 
be able to reach before the fugitives. The 
huter — thus prevented from moving further 
southwards — would be enclosed between the 
two rivers, and helpless. Cp. Isa9 4 . 

25. Two princes] RY ' the two princes.' 



164 



8. 1 



JUDGES 



9.22 



Oreb] 'Raven.' Zeeb] l Wolf.' Other side J or- half an ounce. The whole weight would thus 



dan] This is an anticipation of the next c. (v. 4). 

CHAPTER 8 
The Pursuit of the Kings. Gideon's 

subsequent career and death 
i. Cp. c. 12. Ephraim claimed to be the 
leading tribe ; later the name was often used 
as a synonym for the northern kingdom. The 
natural jealousy of the tribe was appeased by 
Gideon's ready wit ; one might have suspected 
that, making such claims as these, they would 
not have left Gideon to take the initiative. 

2. Gleaning and vintage] note the contrast 
between these. Abi-ezer] Gideon substitutes 
this for his own name. 4. Having driven the 
Midianites into the arms of Ephraim, Gideon 
turns eastwards. V. 10 implies that a very 
considerable section of the foe had escaped 
the trap and was still formidable. 5. Succoth] 
like Penuel (Gn 33 17 ) must be E. of the Jordan, 
near the Jabbok. 6. The chiefs of Succoth 
evidently doubt whether Gideon is really 
victorious as yet. 

9. Tower] Where a city had no walls, a 
central stronghold was frequent. In the 
middle ages the church tower sometimes served 

, this purpose : cp. 9 46 . 

10. Karkor] unknown. The other two 
places are probably SE. of the Jabbok. The 
Midianites were making for the desert (cp. 
Nu32 35 ' 42 ). For the numbers cp. 7 13 . Gideon's' 
first levy is said to have numbered 32,000 (7 3 ). 

1 1 . The way of them that dwelt in tents] 
i.e. "the road usually taken by the nomads. 
12. Secure] i.e. free from anxiety, as in the 
camp W. of the Jordan (c. 7). 13. Before the 
sun was up] RV k from the ascent of Heres,' 
i.e. from the way up to Heres (see on 2 9 ). 
14. Described] RM 'wrote down' a list of 
the chief men. The elders are heads of fami- 
lies ; the princes (cp. v. 6) are the military 
leaders. 16. Taught] if right, bitterly ironi- 
cal. All the early versions read ' threshed,' 
or ' carded,' as v. 7 implies. 

18. This private wrong of Gideon's is now 
mentioned for the first time. Tabor] see on 4 6 . 

19. According to the law of blood revenge, 
the nearest relative is bound to avenge the 
victim's death (cp. !Nu35 19 ). 20. Jether] is 
the same name as Jethro(Ex4 18 1K2 5 ). To 
be slain by a boy would be a further indignity 
for the two chiefs, who meet their death 
with barbarian courage. 21. Ornaments] RY 
' crescents ': cp. v. 26. 

22-35. Gideon's subsequent career and 
death. 

22. The fame of Gideon's exploit makes his 
countrymen desire that he should become an 
hereditary monarch and not merely a judge. 
See Intro, to Samuel. 

26. Shekels'] A shekel is rather less than 



be nearly seventy pounds. Collars] RY ' pen- 
dants.' 27. Ephod] see 17 5 . An image of 
some sort used in consulting the will of 
Heaven. 28. Forty years] cp. 5 31 . 29. Jerub- 
baal] i.e. Gideon : see G 32 . 

33-35. The Israelites lapse into idolatry 
after Gideon's death. 

33. Baalim] RY ' the Baalim ' : see on 2 11 . 
Baal-berith] i.e. Baal of the Covenant. The 
alliance between the Canaanites and the He- 
brews would naturally be cemented by a com- 
mon worship, which would involve the latter 
in idolatry : cp. 9 46 (El-berith). 

CHAPTER 9 

The Story of Abimelech 

This c. breaks the regular order of the book, 
since Abimelech is not thought of as a judge, 
and the Canaanites are not here regarded as 
oppressors. The story, however, throws a 
valuable light on the way in which Israel fell 
into unfaithfulness, when free from the yoke 
of foreign oppression. 

1-6. The rise of Abimelech. 

1. As being born out of regular wedlock. 
Abimelech would be brought up at first in his 
mother's family, and reckoned as belonging to 
it (v. 2), It seems to have been of consider- 
able position in Shechem. Shechem] still, as 
in Gn 34, chiefly Canaanitish, in spite of being 
Joseph's burial-place (Josh 24 32 ). Threescore 
and ten pieces of silver] between seven and 
eight pounds sterling. 4. Vain] worthless : 
hired mercenaries of no character. 5. On one 
stone] as if they had been sacrificial animals 
(lS14 S3f -). 6. Millo] apparently a Shechemite 
family, or a town near Shechem (v. 20). The 
word has a different meaning in 1 K 9 15 2 K 
12 20 . King] Abimelech is no Israelite king, 
but simply the ruler over the single city of 
Shechem ; nothing implies that the Hebrews 
recognised this royalty. Plain] RY ' oak ' : cp. 
Gn 35 4 Josh 24 2 <3 1 S 1 1 15 . Pillar] like the ' ash- 
erah,' a regular feature of a Canaanite shrine. 

7-21. Jotham's parable and flight. 

7. Gerizim] Shechem lies between Gerizim 
(nearly 3,000 ft. high) on the S. and Ebal on 
theN. 

8-15. Jotham's Fable. Its connexion with 
the moral which Jotham wishes to point is 
somewhat loose, and perhaps it was a popular 
story ; but it sufficiently expresses Jotham's 
hatred and contempt ; feelings which find 
further vent in the sarcasm of the prayer in 
16-20. Cp. the fable of Jehoash in 2K149. 
The fruit-trees render the real service ; the 
bramble desires the empty honour. 

21. Beer] not known. The name means 
' Well ' (cp. Beer-sheba). 

22-33. The Conspiracy of Gaal. 

22. Over Israel] at most over the Manassites 



165 






9. 23 



JUDGES 



11 



who were connected with the Canaanites 
of Shechem. 23. God sent] cp. lS16 14 and 
1K22 19 . For the general attitude which re- 
gards God as the source of good and evil 
alike, cp. Am3 6 Job2 10 . This evil spirit, 
however, obviously comes as an inevitable 
retribution upon Abimelech, in fulfilment (as 
the writer means to imply) of Jotham's curse 
(v. 57). 25. The main eastern and northern 
roads both pass through Shechem. Since 
Abimelech probably took toll from the mer- 
chants who used them, these highway robberies 
would injure his treasury and his reputation 
alike. 26. G-aal is introduced quite abruptly ; 
vv. 26-41 are really in parenthesis : the main 
narrative is continued at v. 42. Ebed means 
1 slave ' ; probably the name was Obed, ' ser- 
vant ' (of God). 27. Made merry] RV ' held 
festival': see on 2 1 21 . Gaal seizes his oppor- 
tunity at this time of excitement. 28. Him] 
in each case Abimelech. The son of Jerubbaal] 
and therefore no true Shechemite. For serve, 
etc., it would make better sense to read ' Ye are 
servants of the men of Hamor,' etc. Hamor] 
cp. Gn33 19 . 29. And he said] we should read 
(continuing Gaal's speech) ' and I would say.' 
Gaal is not interviewing Abimelech (v. 30), 
who is at Arumah (v. 41). 31. Privily] RV 
' craftily,' or as RM ' at Tormah,' which per- 
haps stands for Arumah. 32. The field] the 
usual expression for the open country: cp. 
v. 36. 33. The whole atmosphere reeks with 
intrigue and cruelty : an eloquent comment on 
the Canaanite character. 

34-49. The Conspiracy is stamped out. 

35. The entering of the gate] the usual 
meeting-place. Gaal does not suspect that 
Zebul has discovered his plot, and is not on 
his guard. 37. Plain of Meonenim] lit. ' oak 
of the soothsayers.' Cp. Gnl2 G Jg4 5 . Trees 
in Palestine often served as landmarks ; a 
conspicuous tree is still regarded as endowed 
with sanctity. 38. Zebul now throws off the 
disguise. 41. Arumah] is unidentified. Gaal 
has awakened no real enthusiasm; but neither 
has Abimelech. 42. The main narrative is 
continued from v. 25. 45. To 'sow with 
salt '(Dt29 28 ) is to make utterly desolate. 

46. The tower of Shechem] This appears 
to be a place outside Shechem (perhaps like 
Millo, v. 20), whose inhabitants fear a fate 
similar to that of Shechem itself. Hold] a 
rare word for 'hiding place,' as in 1S13 6 ; 
here, perhaps, meaning some strong and 
spaeious chamber in the temple. The god 
Berith] RV 'El-berith': see on 833. 48 . 
Zalmon] probably a neighbouring hill. The 
hill in I'sC.sn ; s thoughl to be E. of Jordan 
in the Ham-aii range. 

50 57. The Death of Abimelech. 

50. Thebez] 18 in. NB. of Shechem. 51. 
Topi 1*V 'roof,' which would probably be 



le 



« 



flat, with a parapet. 53. A piece of a mill- 
stone] RV 'an upper millstone,' detachable 
from the lower; such stones weighed about 27 
pounds. The mill is of course worked by 
hand. All to brake] RV 'brake.' 'To 
brake ' is really one word, meaning ' smashed ' 
or l broke in.' 54. Armourbearer] cp. IS 
14 6 31 4 . The king's attendant has just time 
to give him a mortal wound. 55. Men of 
Israel] see on v. 22. The Israelites have sup- 
ported Abimelech against their common foes. 
56. Rendered] RV ' requited.' 

CHAPTER 10 
The Ammonite Oppression 

1-5. The Minor Judges, Tola and Jair. 

1. Defend] RV ' save.' Tola] see on 
Gn46 13 Nu26 2 3 lCh7i. Shamir] unknown. 
Issachar appears at this time to have had n 
territory of its own. 3. Jair] see Nu32 
Dt3 14 IK 4 is. Gilead is the country E. of 
the Jordan to which Jephthah also belongs, 
and which was specially open to attack. 

4. Havoth-jair] i.e. tent- villages of Jair : 
cp. lCh2 22 . 5. Camon] unknown. 

6-18. The Ammonite oppression. These 
vv. serve as an introduction to the story of 
Jephthah, and also, in part (vv. 6, 7), to those of 
Samson and Samuel. They repeat the lessons 
of c. 2, and, like that passage, remind us 
throughout of the tone of Deuteronomy. The 
sequence of thought is the same ; faithless- 
ness, oppression, repentance, deliverance. 

6. Baalim and Ashtaroth] see on 2 n - 13 . 
7. The children of Ammon] see Gnl9 38 , where 
they are said to be akin to the Hebrews. 
They claimed the land between the Arnon 
and the Jabbok, E. of Jordan, which the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad had partly possessed, 
and which includes a large part of Gilead 
(v. 8). The Amorites were the aboriginal 
inhabitants of this, as of the hill-country W. 
of the Jordan. 9. The Ammonite raids 
extended to the central strongholds of Pales- 
tine (cp. 12 1 ); but c. 11 makes it clear 
that the brunt of their ' oppression ' was felt 
in Gilead. XX. See v. 6. The two lists 
partially coincide. The Amorites] Perhaps 
a reference to Nu21 21f . Ammon] So far no 
deliverance from these has been described. 
12. AVe know nothing of a Zidonian oppres- 
sion. Amalekites] see S 13 and G 3 > 33 , also 
Exl7 8 . Maonites] LXX has ' Midianites.' 
The Maonites lived S. of the Dead Sea : cp. 
2 Ch20! RV, 26 7 . 17. Mizpeh] of Gilead, the 
scene of the compact between Jacob and Laban 
(Gn31 49 ). The name means ' watch-tower.' 

CHAPTER 11 

Jephthah's Victory over the Ammonites. 
His rash Vow 
I— II. The Choice of Jephthah. 






16G 



11.1 



JUDGES 



12. 11 



i. As the son of a harlot, Jephthah has no 
legal standing in the tribe. Gilead begat] 
Throughout the rest of the narrative Gilead is 
the name of a place, not a person (cp. 12 7 ). 
Here G-ilead's ' sons ' represent the legitimate 
tribesmen. 3. Tob] must have been near 
Gilead, probably to the NE. (cp. 2S10 6 ). 
Vain men] see on 9 4 . 'Broken men,' such 
as came to David at the cave of Adullam 
(IS 22 2 ). Went out] on forays. 9. Jephthah 
insists on being more than a hired captain : 
he will be reinstated in the tribe, and placed 
at its head permanently : cp. 1 Sll 15 . 

11. Before the LORD] in the holy place at 
Mizpeh, so that there would be no going back 
from the bargain. 

12-28. Jephthah and the Ammonite 
chieftain. For this appeal to the enemy's 
sense of right cp. JNu20 14f -, an event to 
which Jephthah here refers. 

13. See on 10 7 . Restore] The possessions 
of Israel are still in dispute. 18. Jephthah 
points out that Israel made a wide detour so 
as to leave the real territory of Moab free ; he 
does not refer specifically to Ammon, but in 
the following vv. , as here, he seems to have Moab 
specially in his mind. The two peoples were 
akin to one another : cp. Gnl9 37 > 38 . 19. See 
Nu 2 1 21 f . Heshbon is 1 6 m. E. of the Jordan, 
and 12 m. S. of the capital of Ammon. The 
Amorite territory had belonged to Moab 
formerly (Nu 2 126). 20. Coast] RY ' border,' 
i.e. territory. Jahaz] cp. Nu21 2 3 Dt2 32 ; 
a Moabite city. 22. The wilderness] the 
Eastern desert. 23. Jephthah's argument 
(see on v. 19) is that no land had been taken 
from Moab or Ammon, only from the aboriginal 
Amorites. 

24. Chemosh] properly, the god of Moab. 
The Ammonite god was Milcom (IK ll 33 , 
etc.). It has been inferred that Jephthah, or 
the narrator of Jephthah's words, believed in 
the existence and power of Chemosh as in 
that of Jehovah : but this cannot be held to 
be certain : see also v. 27. An interesting 
commentary on this passage is to be found in 
an inscrip tion of Mesha, king of Moab (2 K 3 4 f •), 
who ascribes all his defeats to the wrath of Che- 
mosh, and his conquests over Israel to Chemosh's 
goodwill. 25. RV rightly puts the stop at the 
end of the v. V. 26 begins a fresh question : 
see Nu22 2 f. 26. Aroer] on the N. bank of 
the Arnon, like Heshbon and Jahaz, is a 
Moabite town. The Ammonite town, Rabbath- 
Ammon, is unmentioned. Three hundred 
years] The different periods hitherto men- 
tioned in the book amount to 301 years. 

29-33. Jephthah's Victory over Ammon. 

29. The Spirit of the LORD] cp. 7 34 . In 
v. 11 Jephthah and all the people are already 
at Mizpeh. If these words stand in the right 
place, they must refer to further journeys 



taken by Jephthah to rouse the whole people, 
previous to attacking the Ammonites. 

30, 31. Cp. the vows of Jacob (Gn28 2 0), 
Hannah (1S1 11 ), Absalom (2S158). What- 
soever] KM ' whosoever.' Who would have 
been more likely to come out to meet the 
returning captain than his only daughter ? 
Mesha, king of Moab, sacrificed his eldest son 
in the stress of a siege (2K3 27 ), and that the 
rite of child-sacrifice was not unknown in 
Israel is shown by 2 K 1 6 3 2 1 6 Jer 7 31 Ezk 1 6 20 
2026 Mic6 7 , etc. Cp. also Gn22. 33. The 
plain of vineyards] should be a proper name, 
Abel-cheramim (so RV). 

34-40. The fulfilment of Jephthah's vow. 
The tragic story is told with consummate art 
and noble reticence. There is no reason to 
doubt its literal truth. 

34. Came out to meet him] cp. Exl5 20 
1S18 6 . 35. Thou] The pronoun is emphatic. 
Jephthah had had troubles enough both from 
his kinsmen and his foes. When his daughter 
comes out to meet him, the full significance 
of his self-imposed vow bows him strengthless 
to the ground. 36. His daughter divines 
what is in his mind : for she could hardly 
have learned of his vow beforehand (v. 34). 

37. Bewail my virginity] The greatest grief 
of a Hebrew woman consisted in being child- 
less. The writer leaves us in no doubt of her 
fate. 40. Lament] RV ' celebrate.' 

CHAPTER 12 

The Ephraimites quarrel with Jeph- 
thah. His Death 
1-6. Jephthah and Ephraim. Once more 
the members of the leading tribe find them- 
selves left out of the victory, and complain : 
cp. S l . Jephthah deals with them differently 
from Gideon. 

I. Northward] RM ' to Zaphon,' a town 
near Succoth : cp. Josh 13 27 . 2. When I 
called you] It would seem that Jephthah had 
done more than simply rouse Gilead : see on 
112S. 4. Jephthah now makes use of the 
headship promised him in ll 11 . The second 
part of the v. is unintelligible. As it stands, 
it refers to some further taunt of the Ephraim- 
ites. But ' fugitives ' means, in the original, 
' survivors ' : and the Gileadites are regarded 
in the genealogies as an offshoot of Manasseh, 
to whom, indeed, the land of Gilead was 
assigned. 5. The passages] RV ' fords.' 
Ephraim had invaded Gilead, and the Gileadites 
took advantage of a dialectical peculiarity to 
identify every Ephraimite fugitive. Some 
exaggeration of numbers seems indisputable. 

8-15. The Minor Judges, Ibzan, Elon, 
Abdon. 

8. Bethlehem] Probably in Zebulun, men- 
tioned in Josh 19 15 . 9. Thirty] cp. 10 4 . 

II. Elon] in Nu26 26 the name of a clan ; 



167 



12. 15 



JUDGES 



15. 



possibly in the cases of Ibzan and Abdon also 
the hero and his family are confused. 15. 
Pirathon] Possibly the modern Ferata, SW. 
of Shechem. Amalekites] Probably the 
Amalekites had made a settlement in Mt. 
Ephraim. 

CHAPTEK 13 

The Story of Samson 
Except for 15 20 and 16 31 , Samson has none 
of the characteristics of a Judge. His exploits 
against the Philistines are all solitary, and 
though they doubtless afforded relief to the 
Israelites, they left no permanent result. We 
learn much more of the internal organisation 
of the Philistines than of any of the other 
foes of Israel ; and it was their continued and 
formidable opposition which, under the will of 
Jehovah, really welded Israel into a single 
nation in the times of Samuel and Saul. 
Samson could not accomplish this ; his hatred 
of the Philistines is undying ; but its causes 
are private rather than national ; and his fate is 
the direct result of his unwillingness to break 
off all relations with them. He is a warning 
rather than an example ; but such stories as 
his could not fail to be popular. 

1. The Philistine Oppression : see on 3 3 . 
2-25. The Birth and Parentage of Samson. 

2. Zorah] in Josh 19 41 a Danite city; it lies 
some 17 m. W. of Jerusalem. Later, the 
Danites migrated northwards (c. 18), and 
Zorah was reckoned as belonging to Judah 
(Josh 1 5 33 2 Ch 1 1 10 ). Family] properly, clan. 

3. Angel of the LORD] cp. 2* 6 11 . 

4. 5. Wine nor strong drink] These are 
forbidden to the Nazirites (Nu 6 3 ), and here 
to the mother of the future Nazirite : cp. also 
Am 912, Unclean] regarded as unfit for food : 
we may compare our English attitude to horse- 
flesh. No razor] In NuG the ' Nazirite,' or 
religious devotee, is under restrictions only for 
a time ; he takes the condition on himself 
voluntarily ; at the close of the period he cuts 
off his hair and devotes it to God (cp. Acl8 18 ). 
Here the state begins before birth, and is to 
last till death. Samson himself does not 
appear bo abstain from wine (14 10 ). Nothing 
is here said of the connexion between Samson's 
hair and his strength. 

6. Man of God] The woman, apparently 
like Gideon (see on 6 16 ), does not recognise 
her visitor as supernatural, though she feels 
him to be inspired, she docs not venture, 
like her husband, to ask the stranger's name. 
12. Now let thy words, etc.] i.e. granted that 
this takes place, how BhaU «re, etc. How 
shall we] l!V what shall be the manner of 
the child, and what shall be his work?' 15. 
Cp. 6 17f . 16. The hist words give the reason 
for v. 15. 18. Secret] RV 'wonderful, 1 i.e. 
above your comprehension ; cp. Gn 32 '-"•'. 



n;a 



22. Cp. 6 22 f - Isa 6 5 . No man can hope to see 
God and live. Note the sound wisdom of the 
woman's answer. 

24, 25. Samson] i.e. probably 'Sun's man' : 
cp. the name of the Bethshemesh, ' place of 
the Sun,' just opposite Zorah. Move] a rare 
word, meaning to disturb or stir up : cp. 14 19 
15W, also 310 634 1129. i n Samson's case 
the narratives suggest a peculiar frenzy of 
strength and rage. Camp of Dan] RV, as a 
proper name, ' Mahaneh-dan,' which was near 
Kirjath-jearim, in Judah (c. 18 12 ). Eshtaol] 
1J m. E. of Zorah. 

CHAPTER 14 
The Marriage of Samson 
1-5. Samson chooses a wife among the 
Philistines. He and his parents go down to 
Timnath. 

2. Timnath] some 4 m. SW. of Zorah, 
allotted to Dan (Joshl9 43 ) ; it was retaken 
by the Philistines in the reign of Ahaz 
(2Ch28 18 ). Get her for me to wife] It was 
customary for parents to conduct the negotia- 
tions and pay the dowry : cp. Gn34 4 " 12 . 

3. Cp. Gn243 2634 2746. 4. It was of the 
LORD] God purposed to use Samson as a 
weapon against the Philistines. 

6-9. The slaying of the Lion. 

6. Cp. 13 25 ; for the exploit, cp. IS 1734 
2S23' 20 . 8. A swarm of bees, .in the car- 
case] probably it had dried up under the hot sun. 

10, 11. The bridal feast. 11. When they 
saw him] Many Greek MSS, by a slight 
change, read k since they feared him,' a natural 
explanation of this choice of what was practi- 
cally a w body-guard.' Cp. Mt 9 15 , ' the children 
of the bride-chamber.' 

12-20. Samson's Riddle and its conse- 
quences. 

12. Thirty] one for each of his new com- 
panions. Sheets] RV ' linen garments.' 

15. Called] i.e. invited us to your feast. 
To take that we have] RV i impoverish us.' 

16. She does not dare to tell her husband 
the real reason of her curiosity. 17. Lay sore 
upon him] RV ' pressed him sore.' 

19. Ashkelon] on the coast of the Philistine 
country. There is, however, a village of 
the same name about an hour S. of Timnath 
(mentioned in ' Survey of Western Palestine ') 
to which perhaps Samson rushed off. To 
leave the bride like this is an insult, which 
her father at once avenges by giving her to 
the ' best man ' : cp. 1 .">'-'. 

CHAPTER 15 

Samson blaughters the Philistines 

Samson, being denied his wife, burns the 

corn of tli-' Philistines. He is delivered up 

to them by the men of Judah, but bursts his 

bonds, and slaughters many of the Philistines. 



15. 1 



JUDGES 



16. 31 



i, 2. Samson is denied his wife. 

i. Wheat harvest] i.e. about May : cp. 
v. 4 f. The reason for the last clause is 
given in 14^20. 2 - The father stin desires 
to be conciliatory to one who might prove so 
valuable a son-in-law. 

3-8. Samson's Revenge. 

3. More blameless than, etc.] RY ' blameless 
in regard of . . when I do them a mischief.' 
Samson means that the Philistines have now 
clearly put themselves in the wrong. 

4. Foxes] EM' jackals.' 6. See 14 15 . 

7. Though ye have done] RY ' if ye do.' 

8. Top, etc.] RY 'cleft of the rock of Etam.' 
Samson leaves his own tribe for the neigh- 
bouring territory of Judah. 

9-13. The action of the men of Judah. 

9. Lehi] The name means ' jawbone,' per- 
haps from some resemblance in its shape. The 
site is not definitely known. 10, 11. Each 
party represents the other as the aggressor. 
Observe Judah's dread of the Philistines. It 
is not difficult, with such a spirit, to under- 
stand foreign domination. Nor is one tribe 
under any obligation to assist a member of 
another. 

14-20. Samson's Deliverance and Slaughter 
of the Philistines. 

14. The Spirit] see on 13 25 . Loosed] RY 
'dropped.' 15. New] i.e. fresh : not dry or 
brittle : such might easily be found lying on 
the ground. A thousand men] cp. 3 31 and 
2S23 11 . 16. In the Hebrew this v. reads as 
two jingling lines, with a pun on ' ass ' and 
'heaps.' 17. Called that place] RY 'that 
place was called.' Properly, Ramath means 
' height.' The name was ' Jawbone height ' : 
by another pun the meaning ' Jawbone-throw ' 
is suggested. 19. That ivas in the jaw] RY 
w that is in Lehi,' a hollow (Heb. ' mortar ') in 
the ground close to the scene of the slaughter. 
The ' caller ' (Heb. hakkore) is the name for 
the partridge : cp. 1 S 26 20 . 20. He judged] 
cp. prefatory note to c. 13. 

CHAPTER 16 

Samson's Escape from Gaza. Delilah's 
Treachery. Samson's Death 
1-3. Samson and Gaza. 

1. Gaza] 2 m. from the coast, and the last 
town of Palestine on the coast road to Egypt. 
Here Samson would be a whole day's journey 
from his mountain home, in his enemies' 
territory. 

2, 3. They appear not to have surrounded 
the house, but waited to kill him when he found 
the gates closed in the morning. He suspects 
their plan, and does not wait till morning. 
The two gates would turn on pins, and be 
made by locks or bars into one piece, which 
Samson lifts up and carries off. The distance 
from Gaza to Hebron (one of the highest 



points in the rugged land of Judah) is nearly 
40 m. 

4-22. Samson's capture through the treachery 
of Delilah. 

4. A woman] For the third time Samson's 
reckless daring in love brings him into danger. 
Sorek] a long and fertile ' wady ' or glen, 
running W. from near Jerusalem to the plain : 
cp. Gn49 n . Zorah and Timnah are both in 
this valley. 5. The lords of the Philistines] 
see on 3 3 . Wherein his great strength UetK] 
properly ' by what means his strength is great.' 
The ' lords ' fancy he must have some amulet 
or magical device. Afflict] properly, ' tor- 
ment.' Pieces] i.e. shekels. The amount to 
be paid by each is about £150. 

7. Whether Samson suspects or not, he plays 
upon her credulity. The supposed secret of 
the ' green withs,' i.e. undried bowstrings made 
from the intestines of animals, has all the 
more verisimilitude because of the sacred (and 
magical) number seven (cp. v. 13). The Philis- 
tines are deceived as readily as Delilah. 

1 1. Occupied] RY ' wherewith no work hath 
been done ' : cp. Lkl9 13 (AY). 

13, 14. The v. is incomplete. LXX helps 
us to fill the gap, thus : ' if thou weavest . . 
web, and beatest up with the pin, my strength 
will fail ; so while he slept Delilah did so, and 
she beat up the web with the pin, and said.' 
Delilah wove the long hair into an unfinished 
piece of stun 2 left on the upright loom : the 
pin was used for ' beating up ' the cloth (in 
this case, the hair) tight and firm. Went away 
with the pin of the beam] ' pin ' should here be 
omitted : Samson pulls the posts of the loom 
out of the ground. 15. Thine heart] thy mind 
or knowledge ; cp. vv. 17, 18. 

18. Delilah sees at once that Samson is no 
longer tricking her, and she makes the Philis- 
tines equally confident. The belief in the 
importance of the hair (see on 13 5 ) was wide- 
spread in antiquity. 19, Afflict] how is not 
explained. He is still asleep. 20. Departed] 
when he was robbed of the hair which it was 
his duty to preserve. 21. See 2 K 25 r . Grind- 
ing was women's work. 

23-31. Samson's Last Exploit and Death. 

23. Dagon] the chief Philistine god (IS 5). 

25-29. He would make sport enough by 
being what he was, blind and in chains. Pillars] 
Two columns on which rested the roof of a 
large verandah, perhaps attached to the temple. 
After being in the court in front, in the sight 
of all, both below and above, he is brought to 
rest against these. 28. My two eyes] RM ' for 
one of my two eyes.' A stroke of grim humour 
quite in keeping, at this supreme moment, with 
the character of Samson. 29. On which it was 
borne up] RY ' leaned on them.' 

31. The Philistines had no wish, and perhaps 
no spirit, to interfere with Samson's burial in 



169 



17. 1 



JUDGES 



18. 17 






his own country. Milton has brought out the 
tragic elements of this wild story at the end 



of ' Samson Agonistes.' 
to c. 13. 



Judged] see intro 



PAKT 3 

The Migrations of the Danites, and the Feud between Benjamin and 

THE OTHER TRIBES (Chs. 17-21) 






This concluding section is really an ap- 
pendix. Instead of describing a further 
deliverance, it recounts two tribal stories in 
which the rough manners and primitive re- 
ligious ideas of the time are shown with most 
valuable and vivid detail. Redundancies and 
discrepancies in the narratives (see on 17 3 
18 17 ) as well as differences in the language, 
suggest that more than one account has been 
used in each of the stories. This is no sign, 
however, that they are not historical ; and 
they must probably be placed earlier rather 
than later in the general framework of the 
period. 

CHAPTER 17 
The Story of Micah 

This story, which is continued in the follow- 
ing c, is undoubtedly a very old one. In 
striking contrast to many other narrative 
portions of the Old Testament, there is in the 
body of this narrative no condemnation of the 
image-worship to which the Danites attached 
such importance, nor of their mode of securing 
it. We can but wonder the more at the 
heights which the religion of Israel was to 
climb from such beginnings as this. Cp. 
Josh 19 4 7. 

1-6. Micah's idols. 

i. Ephraim] see on 3 27 . 2. Eleven hun- 
dred] see on 16 5 . Taken] as appears from 
the following clause, stolen. The mother's 
curse (though she is ignorant of the thief) will 
not allow Micah to rest till the money is re- 
stored. 3, 4. As the text stands, Micah re- 
stored the money twice over. This can hardly 
be correct. ' Yet ' (v. 4) should be ' and,' as 
in RV. Observe that the images are to be 
made in honour of Jehovah. 3. Graven image] 
specifically, an idol carved out of wood or 
stone. <>r. generally, any kind of idol. 'Molten 
image ' was added, not (as it would seem) to 
denote B second idol ('they 'in v. 4 should be 
it ' ; see also 18 30 > 31 ), but to show that the 
idol was covered over with the silver. 

5. House of gods] i.e. a private shrine. In 
lleli. the word for ' god ' may be read either as 
singular or plural. Ephod] see on 8 27 . The 
cphod is often connected with oracular re- 
sponses (ep. 1S2:'. ,; -'-' : also Ex28 Lv8); the 
priest in charge of it can make inquiry 
of Jehovah. Teraphim] cp. IIos3 4 : also 
Gn31 W 1 S16 M 19 1:!f . The word is plural in 
form, and BeeXQfl to denote household idols of 
some kind : cp. 18-'. Consecrated] Took 



into his employment for the performance of 
religious duties : cp. v. 10, 18 4 1 S 7 1 . 6. Cp. 
18 1 19 ! 2125. 

7-13. The engagement of the Levite. 
Levite] The word denotes not his tribe but 
his calling. Sojourned] The regular term used 
in connexion with a ' resident alien ' who in- 
tends at some time to return to his home. 

10. Father] cp. 2K 212 6*1; also Gn45«; 
a title of respect, which might be quite con- 
sistent with the priest's being supported as a 
son (v. 11). 

13. The professional knowledge of the 
Levite, in matters of ritual, gives him (and 
his employer) an advantage over others who 
might be selected as priests. 

CHAPTER 18 
The Danites go in Quest of an In- 
heritance. They rob Micah of his 
Images, capture and settle in Laish, 
and set up Idol-Worship there 

i-io. The Danite Spies. 

2. From their coasts] RV ' from their whole 
number.' For Zorah and Eshtaol see on 
13 25 . 3. They knew] They recognised him 
as a Levite from the prayers he was saying. 

Makest] RV 'doest.' 6. Before the LORD] 
i.e. under Jehovah's care. 7. Laish] In 
Josh 19 47 the name appears as Leshem. Later 
on it was called Dan, from its new inhabitants 
(cp. v. 29, and c. 20 l ). It lay near Lebanon 
and the sources of the Jordan in the extreme 
N. of Palestine, and was about 40 m. from 
Sidon, the famous commercial city on the sea- 
coast. The rest of the v. implies that the 
residents were a colony from Zidon. Put 
them to shame] The Hebrew here gives no 
intelligible sense. Business] RV ' dealings.' 

With any man] LXX (in some MSS) reads 
1 with Syria ' whose capital, Damascus, was 
about as distant as Sidon. 10. Secure] ;is 
always in AV, 'free from care or apprehension.' 

XX— 31. The Danite Expedition to Laish. 

11. Six hundred men] cp. '_'(i 17 ; a very 
small Dumber \\ hen compared with those given 
in 20 1: '- 17 or L5 lfi 1(>- 7 . Yet it would seem 
that the larger part of the tribe went north 
wards. Appointed] RV 'girt.' 12. Mahaneh- 
dan] see on 13? 6 ; they then turn northwards. 

16. The gate] of the village. 17. An 
amplification of v. 15 ; further repeated in 
v. 18. Here and in v. 18 'graven image' 
and ' molten image; ' are understood as two 
distinct objects. In vv. 20, 30, 31 the 



170 



18. 19 



JUDGES 



20. 27 



j molten image ' is left unmentioned. 19. See Palestine. 15. Gibeah thus proves as inhos- 



on 17 10 . 21. Carriage] RV 'goods': cp. 
Ac21 15 (what is carried: cp. the word 
' luggage '). The armed men marched last, 
expecting pursuit. 28. See on v. 7. The 
building of one city on the ruins of another 
was common, as excavations at Gezer and 
Lachish have made clear. Beth-rehob] un- 
known. 29. Israel] Jacob : see Gn35 10 . 

30. The possession of this image was 
evidently an important thing. Jonathan] 
This must refer to the young Levite, who 
has been hitherto unnamed, unless his name 
has dropped out of the text previously. Ma- 
nasseh] RV 'Moses.' This, the true text, 
was altered in later times, to save Moses 
from any connexion with such a priesthood as 
this. Captivity] Probably the depopulation 
of Northern Israel by Tiglath-Pileser in 734 
B.C. 31. In Shiloh] NE. of Bethel, where 
the ark was kept in the ' house of God ' (1 S 1-4). 
The destruction of this ' house ' is mentioned 
in Jer 7 12 26 9 . Possibly it was destroyed by 
the Philistines. In 1S22 11 the priesthood 
settled formerly at Shiloh appears at Nob. 

CHAPTER 19 

The Wickedness of Gibeah 

A Levite and his concubine meet with foul 
treatment at Gibeah, a town of Benjamin. 
The indignation of the other tribes is roused 
against the Benjamites. 

This c. gives the cause of the war between 
the rest of the tribes and Benjamin, with 
which the remainder of Judges is concerned. 
It is difficult to determine the period to which 
this war should be assigned. In c. 20 there 
is no recognised leader or judge in Israel, but 
all the tribes (quite differently from else- 
where) act together ' as one man ' (20 1 * 11 ) ; and 
the numbers given (20 2 > 15 ' 25 ) imply a very 
large population ; though an army approach- 
ing half a million in number seems unthink- 
able. On the other hand, it is hard to believe 
that Benjamin could have suffered such a 
disaster as this within a generation or two of 
Saul's accession to the throne. Probably we 
have an old story, dating from the wild days 
before Saul (19 1 20 28 ), part of which at least 
(20, 21 i- 14 ) was retold at a much later period, 
when the exact details had been lost and were 
replaced by the writer's conceptions of the 
past : see on 20 28 . 

1. When there vms no king] see on 17 6 . 
A certain Levite] see on 17 7 . 3. He re- 
joiced] feeling the separation to be a disgrace. 

10. Jebus] see l 2 * : also Josh 15 8 IChll*. 
The journey from Bethlehem would not take 
more than two hours. 12. See on 1 7 > 8 . Did 
they remember the story of Sodom (Gnl9) ? 

13. Gibeah . . Ramah] both N. of Jeru- 
salem. 14. There is hardly any twilight in 



pitable as they feared Jerusalem would be. 

1 6. The field] i.e. the open country sur- 
rounding the village. 18. The house of 
the LORD] LXX reads ' my house,' which is 
preferable. 

19. Note the politeness of the phrases ' thy 
handmaid ' and ' thy servants.' The traveller 
needs nothing except actual house-room. An 
inn is only the modern substitute for the hos- 
pitality on which originally travellers were 
compelled to rely. This hospitality the stranger 
from Ephraim (cp. LklO 33 ) insists on pro- 
viding fully. 22. Sons of Belial] The Hebrew 
means simply ' worthless men ' or ' rascals. ' 
Belial is not a proper name : cp. 1 S 1 16 ). 

23. The old man dreads being compelled to 
violate the laws of Eastern hospitality. 

29. Cp.lSlR 

CHAPTER 20 
The Slaughter of the Benjamites 
The Levite recounts his wrongs to a full 
assemblage of the tribes, who decree punish- 
ment upon Benjamin. Their first two attacks 
are unsuccessful, but the third results in the 
almost total extermination of the Benjamites. 
I -II. The Israelites assemble at Gibeah. 

1. Congregation] This word is only used in 
the later books of the OT. after Israel had 
ceased at the exile to be a nation : see intro. 
c. 19). Dan] see on 18 29 . Beer-sheba] the 
southernmost point of Palestine, 28 m. SW. 
of Hebron. See Gn. 21, 26 1 S8 2 Am5 5 . 

2. Four hundred thousand] contrast 5 8 . 

3. Mizpeh] not the place in Gilead men- 
tioned in 1 1 n , but on a hill about two hours' 
journey NW. from Jerusalem. 

12-29. The defeats of the Israelites. 

12. The responsibility for the outrage is 
regarded as resting on the whole tribe. 15. In 
vv. 44-47 only 25,600 men are accounted for. 
LXX here reads 25,000, and neglects the 700 
men of v. 16. 16. See on 3 15 . 18. Cp. I 2 . 
Bethel (RV) would be some four hours' dis- 
tance to the N. After this journey the whole 
army marches back to Gibeah. 23. This v., 
placed in brackets, should really precede v. 22, 
on which v. 24 properly follows. 25. In these 
two battles the Israelites thus lose a tenth 
of their whole number. 26. House of God] 
RV ' Bethel.' Burnt offerings . . peace offer- 
ings] Sacrifices in which the whole was con- 
sumed on the altar, and sacrifices in which part 
was eaten by the worshippers at a common 
meal. 

27, 28. This parenthesis is added to explain 
why Bethel was visited, and not Shiloh, as 
might have been expected from the statements 
made in Josh 1 8 10 and 1 S 4 3 . If the note about 
Phinehas is correct, these events must have 
taken place in the first generation after Joshua. 



171 



20. 30 



JUDGES— RUTH 



I\ T TI10. 



30-48. The destruction of Benjamin. 

31. The same stratagem as that which had 
proved successful at Ai (Josh 8 16 ). House of 
God] RV ' Bethel,' as in v. 26. 33. Baal- 
tamar] unknown. 

35. The LORD] Israel's success is really 
Jehovah's. This v. anticipates the end of the 
story. In the whole narrative there is a good 
deal of misplacement (e.g. vv. 37, 39) and 
redundancy (e.g. vv. 31,32). Y. 36 commences 
what is really a second account of the battle, 
with a very much fuller conclusion. 37. Drew 
themselves along] ' moved forward.' 42. The 
wilderness] i.e. to the more desolate region 
lying to the E. 43. With ease] RV l at their 
resting place,' or, as RM, ' at Menuhah.' The 
sunrising] i.e. the E. 45. Rimmon] 3 m. E. 
of Bethel. Gidom is unknown. 48. The men 
of every city] RV ' the entire city,' or, as RM, 
' the inhabited city.' 



CHAPTER 21 

Wives are given to the Benjamite 
Survivors 

1-6. The lamentation for Benjamin. 



1. Had sworn] see on 17 2 . All the women 
and children in Benjamin have been massacred: 
cp. v. 16. 2. House of God] RV l Bethel,' as 
in 20 26.31, 4. Burnt offerings and peace offer- 
ings] see on 20 26 . 5. Lit. 'the great curse 
had been pronounced upon,' etc. 6. Repented 
them] see on 2 18 . 

7-25. The Benjamites provided with wives. 

8. Jabesh-gilead] i.e. Jabesh in Gilead; cp. 
IS 11 31 n-^. Probably about 10 m. SE. of 
Beth-shean or Beisan. 12. Shiloh] see on 
18 si. Hitherto, Bethel had been the head- 
quarters. 13. Call peaceably] RV ' proclaim 
peace.' 14. 200 survivors were still left 
unprovided for. 19. Shechem] see on 9 1 . 
Lebonah] 3 rn. NW. of Shiloh. Shiloh thus 
lies off the main road, and soon loses its early 
importance. 21. To dance] see on 9 27 ; also 
2S6 14 . The act, like the whole feast, was 
regarded as religious. 

22. No clear sense can be obtained from the 
Heb. The general meaning must be, ' allow 
the men to keep these girls, since we did not 
find wives for them in Jabesh-gilead : and as 
your daughters were taken from you by force, 
you have not broken your oath.' 



RUTH 



INTRODUCTION 



The book of Ruth is one of the most de- 
lightful stories ever penned. It carries us 
without an effort into an old-world realm alto- 
gether unlike our work-a-day life. Whilst we 
read it the customs of that other realm seem 
quite familiar to us. And how admirably are 
the actors in the story depicted ! We are made 
intimately acquainted with Orpah and Ruth ; 
with the girl who accompanies her mother-in- 
law on the homeward journey as far as the 
border of the two countries, professes her in- 
tention to go the whole way. only wails to be 
dissuaded, weeps, kisses, turns back ; and with 
tin girl who forsakes fatherland, kindred, and 
ancestral worship, because of her deep 1«>\ e for 
the bereaved and the dead. The character of 
Naomi, too, IS -instinct with life.' In the 
difficult position of mother-in -law she knows 

how to win the tender love of the two younger 
women, ami the open secret of her influence is 
the anselfishnesB which declines ( trpah's offer 
and d< If to Ruth's interests. And 

Boas is provided with an excellent foil in the 
person of the anonymous kinsman. The latter 
is a keen and calculating individual, eagi r to 



hear of anything to his advantage, but quick 
to drop it the moment he is told of a fly in 
the ointment. The former is quietly ready to 
respond to any call of duty, yet willing to give 
up the satisfaction of doing it to one who may 
have a stronger claim. Modest and humble, 
he is at the same time beloved and respected. 
Consider, too, how different an impression is 
made on us by the critical point in the book, 
the hinge on which the whole turns, c. 3, from 
that which would be made by a modern WTiter 
treating such a theme ! The course pursued 
on that occasion is so entirely alien to OUT 
ideas and customs. Yet it is described with 
so skilful a hand, or. rather, with so pure 
a heart, thai no thoughl of evil ean obtrude 
itself. Ami the type of piety which it recom- 
mends so strongly by merely describing it is 
singularly engaging. It is so thoroughly un- 
affected, human and real. Contrast the pro- 
found feeling and perfect simplicity of 1 16 > 17 
with the stilted and unnatural paraphrase in 
the Talmud. There the older woman says, 
• We are forbidden to go beyond the limits of 
a sabbath day's journey ' : Ruth replies, ' Where 



172 



1 



INTRO. 



RUTH 



1. 8 



(i.e. as far as) thou goest I will go ' : ' It is not 
allowed amongst us for two persons of different 
sexes to be alone together ' : ' Where thou 
lodgest I will lodge ' : ' Six hundred and thir- 
teen commandments have been given us ' : 
k Thy people is my people ' : ' The worship of 
other gods is prohibited to us ' : k Thy God is 
my God ' : l The courts are allowed to put men 
to death in four ways ' : k Where thou diest I 
will die ' : and so forth. The ancient Jewish 
commentator saw more clearly the spirit of the 
book when, after feeling a little puzzled at 
finding in this Scripture no legal or ceremonial 
prescriptions, he concluded that it was com- 
posed to teach us ' how great is the reward of 
human kindness.' 

It is generally agreed that the book, though 
embodying old traditions, is of later date than 
the scenes it describes. The period of the 
Judges lay far behind (1 1 ) : the customs of 
an earlier time required explanation (4 7 ). The 
purity of its thought and style lead some 
scholars to favour a pre-exilic date ; but the 
majority are disposed to place it either during 
or after the exile. From the stress which the 
author lays on the Moabitish origin of Ruth, 
it has been inferred that he was an opponent 
of the rigorous measures adopted by Ezra and 
Nehemiah against intermarriage with foreigners 
(Ezr9! Nehl3 23 ). If he did live in the time 
of that great struggle, and was in some measure 
influenced by it, he scarcely allows this to 
appear. Other objects ascribed to him are, to 
illustrate the life of David, and to enforce the 
duty of the next-of-kin marrying a childless 
widow ; but if either of these were in his mind 
at the start, they were almost forgotten in the 
interest of the scenes and actions with which 
he deals. He could never have produced so 
beautiful a work if he had been writing a pam- 
phlet with a special didactic aim. He simply 
tells the story of a woman's fidelity and its 
reward, to show us his ideal of the ' Excellent 
Woman ' and to make us feel that God did not 
forget her. 

' How sweet an ended strife ! 
How sweet a dawning life ! ' 

As a scholar of the last generation has said : 
' The book of Ruth presents us with a simple 
story of domestic life — such as has happened, 
and is happening over and over again in this 
world — the familiar story of a daughter's affec- 
tion and a young wife's happiness. . . In Ruth 
we see a daughter clinging to a parent in her 
age, with all the unselfishness of true-hearted 
affection ; volunteering to share her lowliness 
and her distress ; finding favour for her piety 
with the Lord and also with men ; chosen by 
Boaz to be his wife ; from obscure poverty 
taken to an honourable bed ; the young lonely 
widow of the first chapter, changed in the last 
into a joyful mother of children.' 



It is interesting to remember that when St. 
Matthew traces the genealogy of Joseph he is 
careful to say (l 5 ) that Boaz begat Obed of 
Ruth ; and St. Luke has evidently the same 
line of descent in view when he mentions Boaz, 
Obed, Jesse, David, Nathan among the an- 
cestors of the mother of our Lord (3 31 > 32 ). 

Ruth occupies the second place amongst the 
' Megilloth ' or ' Rolls,' the five short writings 
kept separate from the rest, each on its own 
roll, and read in the synagogue on five great 
days of the Jewish Calendar. It is used on 
the second of these occasions, at the Feast of 
Pentecost, the great Harvest Festival. For such 
an occasion it would be difficult to find a more 
appropriate lesson than these chapters, which 
put in so pleasing a light the labours and the 
charities of the harvest season. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Exile and the Return of Naomi 

i. Beth-lehem-judah] two hours' journey S. 
of Jerusalem, is to be distinguished from Beth- 
lehem in Zebulun (Joshl9 15 ). It was but a 
short distance from Moab, which, in the days 
here referred to, was a fertile, highly cultivated 
country. Travellers still speak of it as a land 
of streams. Nothing short of the compulsion 
of famine could have induced a Hebrew to 
migrate into this foreign country where he 
would have no right of citizenship, this unclean 
land where Jehovah could not be worshipped. 

2. The name Elimelech means ' my God is 
King.' Naomi, or, as it ought to be written, 
' Noomi,' means ' pleasant.' The two sons, 
Mahlon (' sickly ') and Chilion (' wasting away '), 
evidently owe their names to the fate which 
overtook them. It is not quite certain how 
we should understand the names of their 
wives. Orpah was taken by some of the Jewish 
commentators as signifying l the back of the 
neck,' and explained by her having turned her 
back on Naomi. Ruth may be ' friend ' or 
' refreshment ' : the Talmud takes the latter 
view, ' because David sprang from her, who 
refreshed the Holy One with songs and praises.' 
Ephrathah is another name for Bethlehem, or 
perhaps the name of the district of Bethlehem. 

4. The author of our book sees nothing 
wrong in their marrying Moabite wives. In 
this he agrees with earlier ideas and customs 
(JgU lf < 164f. 2S11 33 1K7 14 ), not with such 
enactments as Dt23 3f -, or such stern proceed- 
ings as Ezra and Nehemiah took when they 
compelled the Jews to abandon their foreign 
wives (Ezr9, 10 Nehl3 23 " 30 ), or the Targum 
here, which says, ' And they transgressed the 
commandment of the Lord and married strange 
women.' 

8, 9. The young widow would naturally 
return to her mother's house, for she would 
live in the women's part of the house or tent 



173 



1. 11 



RUTH 



2.7 



(Gn 24 28, 67 J g 4i7 Song 3 4 ). The belief of 
that age was that men would receive in this 
life an exact recompense for their good and 
evil actions : see especially Ps 18 24 > 26 . These 
two good women were to find rest after the 
troubles and disappointments of their Hebrew 
marriages. 

1 1 -i 3. If Naomi had other sons the obliga- 
tion of marrying their deceased brother's 
widow would devolve on one of them. This 
Levirate law (from Levir — L a brother-in-law ') 
has been observed in many quarters of the globe, 
in India, Madagascar, Brazil, etc. Amongst 
the Hebrews the two objects which it aimed 
at were, to prevent the extinction of the dead 
man's name, and to save the property belong- 
ing to a family from being broken up and dis- 
persed among other families. The firstborn 
son of the new marriage was considered to be 
the child and heir of the dead (Gn38 Dt25 5 " 1 °). 
Naomi asks : Would ye stay for them from 
having husbands ? or, more literally : ' Would 
ye shut yourselves up from having husbands ? ' 
For the widow, awaiting* the second marriage, 
must remain at home in seclusion (Gn 38 n ). 

14, 15. Possibly Orpah did not intend going 
beyond the necessary courtesy of accompany- 
ing her mother-in-law to the border of the two 
countries. Then she would return to her 
people and ' her god ' (RV). Chemosh was the 
national god of Moab (Nu 21 29 IK 11 7, etc.). 

16-18. Ruth's impassioned declaration re- 
minds us of the Druze sheikh, who, on parting 
with Mrs. Burton, exclaimed, ' Allah be with 
you and your house ! I would we had never 
seen you, because of this parting. If you loved 
a stone I would put it in my bosom, and if you 
hated the moon I would not sit under its 
rays.' According to ancient ideas a god and 
his people were inseparable : if Ruth deter- 
mined to go over to Naomi's fatherland and 
race she necessarily accepted their deity : if 
David was driven out of Israel he was thereby 
bidden, 'Go, serve other gods' (1S26 19 ). 
Moreover, it was an even more cherished 
privilege then than now to be interred with 
one's relatives: the phrase for a desirable kind 
of burial was, 'to be gathered to one's fathers.' 
In Ezk32 17 - 32 it is implied that the various 
nations inhabit separate localities in the in- 
visible world. Ruth cleaves to her mother- 
in-law as Eliaha to Elijah (2 K 2 2-6). 

19-22. Every one in the little town knew 
her. Yet how much she had altered. The 
women, <>f course, knew her best, and they 
exclaimed, k U this Naomi ? ' She repudiated 
the old Dame, renaming herself Mara, 
'Bitter,' because the Almighty, who is here 
called Shaddai, had dealt latterly with her. 
The same expression occurs in Job 27 2 . The 
exact force of the divine name Shaddai is un- 
certain. Except in the book of Job we always 



meet it in conjunction with the general name 
God, ' God Shaddai.' Ex6 3 regards it as an 
ancient title. Jehovah testified against Naomi 
by treating her as a sinner, for suffering was 
always regarded as an evidence of guilt. When 
the widow's son dies she cries out to Elijah : 
' Art thou come to call my sin to remembrance, 
and to slay my son ? ' (1 K 17 18 ). We have no 
ground for assuming any particular transgres- 
sion on Naomi's part : the Targum is clearly 
wrong in fixing on the migration to Moab. 
How unlike Naomi's fortunes to those of 
Abraham, who from being alone became a 
multitude (Isa 51 2 ), and those of Jacob, who 
with nothing but a staff in his hand crossed 
the Jordan, and returned in two bands 
(Gn32 10 )! Barley harvest begins early in 
April. 

CHAPTER 2 

Ruth the Gleaner 

1. Boaz] ('quickness') was a kinsman of 
Elimelech's. We are not informed of the 
precise degree of relationship. Here and at 
3 2 he is designated an ' acquaintance.' It is 
by no means certain that we are to think of 
him as ' a mighty man of wealth ' ; the phrase 
here employed sometimes points out a capable, 
active man ( 1 K 1 1 28 Neh 1 1 "). The Targum 
is of course wrong in explaining it by ' a man 
strong in the Law ' — an explanation which re- 
minds us of Apollos, ' mighty in the scriptures ' 
(Ac 18 24). 

2, 3. Ruth will not sit with folded hands. 
Like any other poor person she has a right to 
glean (Lv 19 » f - 23 22 Dt24™), but the landowner 
can make the exercise of this right easier or 
more disagreeable. Hence she is not sure 
where her task will be prosecuted, and it seems 
a piece of rare, though undesigned, good 
fortune that she lights on the portion of the 
field which belongs to Boaz. The portions 
belonging to different owners were not separ- 
ated by walls, hedges or ditches, but by a stone, 
a stoneheap, ora marked tree (Dt 19 14 ). 

4-6. These ancient forms of salutation were 
distinguished by politeness, heartiness, and 
religious feeling (cp. Gn43 2 9 Jerl9 2 of. 2K42 ( .» 
Psl29 7 > 8 ). The Arabic formula now is 'God 
be with you ' : in Egypt the first speaker cries 
' Peace be on you,' and the reply comes, ' On 
you be peace, and the mercy of God and His 
blessings, ' or simply ' On you be peace.' 

7. Ruth's good qualities appear at every 
turn : she was careful to ask leave ; she worked 
steadily all through the long, weary day, not 
resting during its hottest hours. The last 
words of this verse are now corrupt : the 
original statement was ' she has not rested at 
all,' or ' she has not been home at all ' ; 
3 7 shows that there was no building in the 
field to rest in. 



174 



% 8 



RUTH 



3.8 



8, 9. His maidens were the women -servants 
who went over the ground after the reapers, 
reaping being done in so slovenly a manner in 
the East that much would be wasted if this sup- 
plementary work were not performed. The 
note on v. 3 indicates how easy it would be to 
stray into another's field. The young men 
are the harvesters who come together from all 
parts of the country, and, away from the 
restraints of their own homes, are ' apt to be 
free of speech, and loose in conduct. 

10-12. She throws herself prostrate on the 
ground, as Orientals have always done before 
their superiors. She acknowledges herself a 
foreigner, destitute of right or claims. But 
Boaz sees only the heroism implied in her 
having committed herself to the uncovenanted 
kindness of a strange people. And he com- 
mends the wisdom and piety which have brought 
her to take refuge under the protecting wings 
of Jehovah the God of Israel (Dt32U Ps36 8 
572 91 4 Lkl334). 

13. With joyful surprise she exclaims, Let 
me find favour in thy sight ! or, rather, ' I find 
grace in thy sight ! ' There is something very 
beautiful in the literal meaning of the words 
rendered ' Thou hast spoken friendly ' : it is 
' Thou hast spoken to the heart ' (Isa 40 2 
Jerl9 3 ) : the words are so friendly that they 
fall on the heart like dew. And this is all 
the more wonderful to her, seeing that, as a 
foreigner, she does not stand on a level even 
with his women-servants. ' Make me as one 
of thy hired servants ' (Lk 15 19 ). 

14. Vinegar and water was the customary 
drink of Roman soldiers and slaves. The 
harvesters in Palestine still dip their bread in 
vinegar and find it very refreshing. Parched 
corn is also a favourite article of food : the 
ears are gathered when not quite ripe, and are 
roasted on an iron plate, or are thrust in small 
bundles into a fire of dry grass and thorns ; 
there is a milky and yet crusty flavour about 
it which makes pleasant eating. ' She did eat, 
and was sufficed, and left thereof ' (RV). 

15-18. As a special favour she is to be 
allowed to glean not only where the sheaves have 
been removed, but amongst them as they stand. 
Curiously enough she is represented at v. 7 
as requesting this. The reapers are also to 
pluck out ears as they gather them up for 
binding and let them drop as if by accident. 
No wonder that when she had beaten it out 
with a stick (Jg6 n Isa28 2,r ) she had about a 
bushel of grain. As one has seen poor women 
taking home food for their children from some 
feast which has been given them, so the thrifty, 
affectionate Ruth carries to Naomi the parched 
corn which had remained over from her 
unexpected midday meal. 

19-23. Ruth now learns for the first time 
that Boaz is related to them, a near kinsman, 



one of those who have the right to buy back 
for them the land that has been parted with. 
If an Israelite was compelled by poverty 
to dispose of his property, such a kinsman 
could compel the purchaser to sell it back 
(Lv25 25 > 47 > 48 ) ; the object of the law being 
to preserve each family in possession of its 
land. Naomi felt that Providence was not 
only showing loving-kindness to her daughter- 
in-law and herself, but also to her husband 
and sons, by bringing about the prospect of 
the land which had once belonged to them 
again being called by their name. Her deep- 
seated piety comes out too ; the bitterness of 
120 yields immediately to faith, hope, and 
gratitude. And her practical wisdom is seen 
in the injunction not to vex this kind- 
hearted man by failing to make use of his 
offered kindness. Wheat-harvest is two or 
three weeks later than barley. 

CHAPTER 3 
The Appeal to Boaz 

1. Marriages are always arranged by the 
parents in Eastern lands ; here, of course, the 
mother-in-law must intervene. 

2-7. Grain is winnowed in the evening, to 
avoid the heat of the day and take advantage 
of the cool sea- wind, which blows in Palestine 
from 4 p.m. to half-an-hour before sunset. 
As a rule the threshing floor, which is an 
open space of clean, hard, dry ground, is on 
an elevated spot. But at Beth-lehem it was 
necessary to go ' down ' to it, because the 
town is on the summit of the ridge and higher 
than any of the surrounding eminences. Ruth 
is to wash and anoint herself and put on the 
simlah, the long outer robe of ceremony, for 
this was to be a formal and important visit. 
Every precaution, too, was to be taken to 
ensure Boaz being in a genial frame of mind ; 
the day's work was to be at an end, and he 
was to have eaten and drunk : cp. Gn27 4 > 25 , 
and David's assumption that even Nabal 
would be generous during the feast of sheep- 
shearing (1S25 5 " 8 ). Naomi had entire con- 
fidence in the honour of her kinsman, and 
although the procedure which she devised is 
alien to all our thoughts and customs, it is 
conceived and carried out without a spot of 
impure intention. To this day the Syrian 
farmer lies down under the shelter of a heap 
of threshed corn to protect it from thieves, 
or sleeps close by with his family in a little 
hut erected for the purpose. 

8-18. At midnight the sleeper was startled. 
He bent forward to ascertain what was there, 
and the swift, curt question, Who art thou ? 
reveals his alarm. Her request is : Spread 
thy skirt (or, thy wing) over thine handmaid, 
i.e. Become my guardian and protector by 
marrying me (Ezk 1 6 8 ), according to the duty 



175 



3.8 



RUTH 



4. 11 



of a near kinsman. The law in Dt25 required 
that a brother should do this, if he and the 
deceased had dwelt together on the land 
belonging to the family. The right or duty 
was subsequently extended to more distant 
relatives. Boaz looked on this appeal as an 
even greater loving-kindness than Ruth had 
shown to Naomi, seeing that he was no longer 
young, and younger men would willingly 
have married her. The Rabbinical commen- 
tary on this book goes curiously astray in 
fixing his age as 80 and hers as 40. All the 
' gate ' of his people knew that she was an 
' excellent ' woman. They had discussed her 
in the gate of the city, which was the place of 
concourse, consultation and gossip, like the 
Gk. agora (A.cl7 17 > 18 ), and the forum of the 
Romans. But ready as he was to take up the 
position of Goel (see on Job 19 25 ), he would not 
encroach on the stronger claim which another 
man had. For this night she must remain where 
she was, lest mischief should befall her at the 
hands of some of the roisterers who were 
especially likely to be abroad at that season 
of the year (Song 5 7 ). Yet she must leave 
whilst it was still too dark for a man to 
discern his friend if he met him ; no breath 
of scandal must touch their good name. Let 
it not be known, said Boaz, that the woman 
came to the threshing floor. The ' mantle ' 
(RV) here mentioned is not the same as the 
simlah of v. 3 ; most likely it was the veil of 
cotton cloth or coarse muslin which rests on 
the head and falls down the back of Bedouin 
and peasant women, and is often used by 
them for carrying such things as vegetables. 
The present of three-fifths of a bushel of 
barley is at one and the same time an out- 
pouring of his liberality and a precaution 
against the suspicion which might have been 
roused if any one had met her ; they were to 
be led to think that she had been to fetch 
grain. The AV" is correct in stating that she 
now went into the city ; he came later (4 1 ). 
It would almost seem as though her mother- 
in-law could not at the first moment see who 
she was : Who art thou, my daughter ? But 
perhaps the question really meant, 'How 
hast thou fared ? ' 

CHAPTER 4 
The Marriage oi Boaz and Ruth. The 

BlRTB OP THEIR CHILD 

1. Boaz went up from the threshing floor 
to the open space by the city-gate, where the 
business he bad in band would have to be 
done, where, too, be would catch the other 
kinsman on his way out to the field. The 

author docs qoI know this man's name, and 

therefore contents himself with calling him 

' So and So.' 

2. Ten was considered a perfect number 



(Jer6 2 ? 1S25 5 2S18 15 ): where ten Jews live 
there should be a synagogue; these ten elders 
are heads of the community, sheikhs, as they 
would be called to-day. 

3-5. Elimelech was not their brother in the 
strict sense, but was a member of the same 
family (Gn 1 3 8 1 S 20 6, 29 2 S 1 9 13 ). Naomi had 
already sold the land. Ruth's being under the 
necessity of gleaning shows that her mother- 
in-law was no landowner: 2 18 is an eloquent 
testimony to their poverty. The kinsman had 
now the opportunity of buying it back for 
them, and it is plain from v. 5 that this trans- 
action would take the form of a purchase from 
Naomi : the presence of the elders and the 
other inhabitants, 'them that sit here,' would 
make it a valid bargain. But if he bought the 
land he must also purchase Ruth as his wife. 
There can be no doubt that Boaz said: l Thou 
must also buy Ruth ' : Ruth has nothing to do 
with the sale ; see also v. 10. The money 
which the bridegroom used to give to the 
bride's family was compensation for the loss 
of her valuable services. And at the present 
time in Syria l No marriage is strictly legal 
among the Mussulmans without a Mahr or 
settlement from the bridegroom to the bride. 
It may consist of only a few silver pence, still 
it must be made.' Jacob's services to Laban 
were prices paid for Leah and Rachel. 

6. The kinsman draws back. The Rabbinic 
commentator thought that he was afraid of 
dying by God's judgment for marrying a 
Moabite, as Mahlon and Chilion had perished. 
But his motive seems to have been an un- 
willingness to encroach on his own property | 
for the sake of a son by Ruth, who would be 
heir of the newly acquired land and would not 
be accounted his child. 

7-10. In the case described at Dt25 9 the 
woman removes the shoe of the man who 
declines to act ; here the man himself takes it 
off : there, by that symbolic act, she takes 
away the right he will not exercise ; here, he 
renounces it. At Ps 60 10 1 08 10 the shoe thrown 
over the land is a sign that possession is taken : 
see on Am 2° 8 G . Similar customs have 
existed amongst the Hindoos, the ancient 
Germans, and the Arabs. When an Arab 
divorces his wife, he says: ' She was my babuj 
(slipper) and I cast her off.' Boaz declares it 
to be his purpose to prevent the name of the 
dead from being cut off : if Ruth should bear 
a son he would be the representative of 
Mahlon. and men would remember the father's 
name whilst they called the child Ben-Mahlon, 
Mahlon 's son. 

11, 12. No Hebrew woman could desire a 
better fortune than to resemble the two wives 
of Jacob from whom the entire people had 
sprung. And the wish of the Bethlehemites 
for Boaz was that he might win a name which 
7G 



4. 13 



RUTH— i and % SAMUEL 



INTRO. 



should be famous amongst them as the head 
of a powerful and illustrious house. Perez, 
whom they go on to mention, was the child 
borne by Tamar to Judah, when the latter 
unwittingly did her the justice (Gn 38) which 
Boaz was so willing to render to Ruth. The 
cases were also parallel as regards the respec- 
tive ages of the man and the woman. 

13-16. It was an honour and a mark of 
divine favour to have a son, a discredit and 
curse both to husband and wife to be without : 
' He who has not left a son to be his heir, 
with him the Holy One — blessed be He — is 
angry.' This son would take upon him all the 
duties of near kinsman to Naomi. He would 
be a 'restorer of life' (RV), reviving the 
fainting soul, inspiring fresh hope, joy, courage 
(Ps 1 9 8 Prov 25 13 Lam 1 16 ). His mother had 
been better to Naomi than seven (i.e. any number 
of) sons. And now the grandmother puts the 



child in her bosom, to indicate that he belonged 
to her (Gn 30 3 50 23 ), as a Roman father took up 
the child from the ground and thus owned him. 
17. The women are still to the front. As a 
rule the father or mother named the child. 
But it is the neighbours who here call him 
Obed, ' Servant,' anticipating that he would 
minister to all the wants of the aged woman 
who had been a true mother to Ruth. The 
book originally ended with the simple inti- 
mation of the manner in which all good wishes 
were fulfilled in him : ' He is the father of 
Jesse, the father of David.' The verses which 
follow may have been borrowed from 1 Ch 2 9_15 : 
in any case they were added later to bring out 
clearly the place of Boaz and David in the 
line of Judah. It is interesting to notice that 
notwithstanding 4 5 > 10 , though in agreement 
with lCh2 12 , they do not regard Obed as 
Mahlon's son, but give him to Boaz. 



THE FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF 
SAMUEL 

INTRODUCTION 



1. Scope and Contents. The two books of 
Samuel were in the original Hebrew reckoned 
as one, and classed, like Judges, among ' the 
earlier prophets.' In LXX they are divided 
and called the first two ' books of the king- 
doms ' : a title which the Vulgate altered to 

1 books of the kings.' Our own translation 
keeps the original name and the later division. 
The whole work embraces the history of the 
chosen nation from the end of the period of the 
Judges to the beginning of the reign of Solo- 
mon (1K1, 2 really belong to the period 
covered by the books of Samuel and in LXX 
are counted as 2S25, 26). The two books fall 
into three broad divisions, viz. 1 S 1-14, 1 S 15- 

2 S 8, and 2 S 9-24 ; giving the stories (1) of 
Israel under the Philistines and Samuel ; (2) 
of Saul and the rise of David ; and (3) of 
David's reign over all Israel. The whole 
period is about a century (see § 6) ; at its 
close we find ourselves in an atmosphere com- 
pletely different from that in which we start, 
though the change is made entirely natural by 
the narrative. 

The first of the three sections opens with 
the birth, consecration and call of Samuel 
(chs. 1-3), and passes to the death of Eli and 
his sons (c. 4), the captivity and restoration of 
the ark (chs. 5, 6), and the deliverance from 
the Philistines under Samuel (c. 7). The 



Israelites then demand a king ; Samuel pro- 
tests and warns (c. 8); Saul is revealed to Samuel 
as the future king, anointed, and accepted 
(chs. 9, 10) ; a victory over Ammon strengthens 
Saul's position (c. 11) ; and Samuel formally 
retires from leadership (c. 1 2). The Philistines 
are attacked and defeated (chs. 13, 14), but 
Saul, for his disobedience after the conquest 
of Amalek, is rejected (c. 15). 

The second section introduces us at once to 
David ; he is secretly anointed (16 1-13 ) and 
brought before Saul (c. 16 1*-22). He is victori- 
ous over Goliath (c. 17), and wins first Saul's 
favour and then his jealousy (c. 18). This is 
followed by a long and detailed account of 
Saul's pursuit of David, who is soon reduced 
to live the life of an outlaw (chs. 19-26), and 
at last takes refuge with the king of Gath 
(c. 27). Meanwhile, Saul is compelled to face 
the Philistines on Mt. Gilboa (c. 28); David is 
expelled from the Philistine army, and sacks 
Ziklag (chs. 29, 30) ; and Saul is defeated and 
slain (c. 31). David is then anointed as king 
of Judah (2 S 1), and gradually wears down 
the rivalry of Israel (chs. 2-4) ; he is made 
king of the whole nation, captures Jerusalem, 
defeats the Philistines (c. 5), and brings the 
ark to his new capital (chs. 6, 7). 

In the third section we find him first show- 
ing courtesy to Meribbaal (c. 9), and subduing 



12 



177 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 SAMUEL 



INTRO. 






Ammon and the Syrians (c. 10). Then follows 
theBathsheba episode (1 1-1 2 25 ), with the final 
conquest of Ammon (12 26-31). Absalom, re- 
venging Amnon's crime, is banished, and re- 
called (chs. 13, 14) ; his usurpation of the 
throne leads to his defeat and death, and to 
David's unopposed return (chs. 15—19). She- 
ba's revolt is subdued (c. 20). The avenging 
of the Gibeonites (21 l ~ u ) and sundry exploits 
of David's heroes (21 14 " 22 ) are related ; two 
psalms of David are given (22-23 7 ), and 
another list of David's heroes (23 8 ' 39 ) ; and 
the book closes with an account of the census 
and repentance of David (c. 24). The revolt of 
Adonijah, which clouded the last days of David, 
is related in 1K1, 2. 

2. Structure of the Book. As stated above, 
1 and 2 Samuel fall into three divisions ; but 
none of these divisions have been written as 
they stand. Each (like so many other books of 
the Old Testament) is a compilation from 
earlier documents. Within the first two 
sections we meet constantly with different 
accounts of the same events, coupled with 
differences in the point of view. This will 
be clear from the following : — 

1S1-15. (a) Chs. 1-4 contain the story 
of Samuel's childhood, 7 and 8 his position 
as recognised head of all Israel — a point of 
view which is maintained in 10 17 - 27 , 12, 15. 
(b) On the other hand, 9, 10 i" 16 give a 
separate version of Saul's accession, and 11, 
13, 14 follow continuously on 10 16 ; the ac- 
count of Saul's rejection in 13 8 " 14 being 
quite distinct from that of 15. Hannah's 
song in 2 (which inspired some of the noblest 
thoughts of the Magnificat) contains concep- 
tions which are inconsistent with what we know 
of the more primitive religion of this early 
period, and is probably a later poem, here 
ascribed to Hannah. The account of the ark 
in 5 and 6 has no notes of time, except that it 
must follow the battle of Aphek : it reminds 
us strongly of the narratives in Judges. Of 
the two main divisions of this section, the 
second (b), which is chiefly occupied with Saul, 
must be the earlier. From 13 20 , etc., we can 
hardly think that such a total defeat of the 
Philistines as is implied in 7 13f - took place at 
so early a period. 

1 S 16-2 S 8. In this section we find double 
narratives of David's introduction to Saul, 
Sard's offer of a daughter of his to David, 
and David's sparing of Saul's life. The in- 
oonsistencies thus resulting (of which the 
uiovt noticeable is that while David is brought 
to Saul as a young warrior in 16, he appears 
in 17 as a shepherd lad of whom Saul is quite 
ignorant) may be avoided if we place together 

L6 14 * 28 18 "-"'(with the exception of w. 14—19) 
19 n-17 21 i-i<» 22-23 " 26-27, 29, 30. The rest 
of 16-31 reads almost as one continuous nar- 



rative. There is less difficulty about the first 
8 chs. of 2 Samuel : the whole section concludes 
with a general summary of David's power and 
prestige ; and in c. 2 we have an undoubted 
poem of David himself. 

2 S 9-24. Chs. 9-20 form a very clear and 
picturesque narrative, which is quite self- 
consistent, and must have been written near 
to the events which it describes. For the 
distinctness in its portraiture of minor cha- 
racters as well as of David himself, and for 
its faithful description of the dark as well as 
the bright side of the court of Israel's great 
and beloved king, it is unequalled among all 
the fine narratives of the Old Testament. 
21-24 form an appendix ; 21 J - 14 would seem 
to refer to the earlier years of David's reign ; 
the two psalms (the first of which is almost 
identical with Ps 18) are strangely wedged in 
between the notices of David's ' mighty men ' ; 
24 should at any rate find a place in 9-20, and 
1 K 1, 2 should properly follow 2 S 20. 

3. The Rise and Growth of the Monarchy. 
To our minds the word ' king ' suggests a 
definite constitution. Even an absolute mon- 
arch must govern according to fixed laws. To 
the Hebrews, the idea of such a constitution 
was foreign. The growth of our European 
monarchical constitutions has been controlled 
by two factors : the military organisation of 
the Teutonic nations, and the Roman Law. 
The Hebrews had nothing corresponding to 
either of these. In the time of the Judges 
(see Intro, to Judges) we find the nation com- 
posed of a number of tribes largely independ- 
ent of each other, though held together (as 
were the ancient Greek states) by certain moral 
and religious customs, and also by a common 
faith in Jehovah, the national God. From time 
to time military leaders of strong personality 
(' Judges ') arise ; but the sphere of their in 
fluence is limited, and only in one case (Gideo 
and Abimelech) is there any attempt 
establish the principle of heredity. 

The great difference between the Judges 
and Saul is that, unlike the former, the latter 
is solemnly chosen by all Israel at a gathering 
presided over by the moral and religious head of 
the nation, Samuel. Saul is simply a military 
leader, chosen to offer an otherwise impossibl 
resistance to the Philistines. It was thus th< 
Philistine oppression which welded the Israel 
ites, under Saul's leadership, into a nation. His 
firsi kingly' act is to summon the whole 
nation to arms (1S11 7 , cp. Jgl9 29 ) : when 
he sacrifices, it is as the head of the army 
(1S13 9 ): he, like the Judges, receives guid- 
ance and command from Jehovah, though, 
unlike them, indirectly through Samuel : his 
military leadership, absolute from the side of 
the nation, is thus strictly limited from the 
side of Jehovah. 






I 



178 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 SAMUEL 



INTRO. 



What was the effect of his rule on Israel's 
internal life V We are merely told that he put 
away soothsayers and diviners out of the land 
(1 S 28 9 ). This in itself implies a great deal ; 
it does not imply, however, that the king was 
expected to make new laws, but only to en- 
force the old ones ; at most, like Asa ( I K 15 13 ) 
and Hezekiah (2K18 4 ), he was a reformer. 

If Jonathan had survived the battle of 
Gilboa, the whole course of Israel's history 
might have been different. As it was, Saul's 
son was at once accepted as king by the 
greater part of the nation (2 S 2 9 ). Not until 
Ish-bosheth's death was David acknowledged 
as king of all Israel. He began where Saul 
left off, as recognised military head of the 
nation. Unlike Saul, he needed no prophet 
to place him on the throne ; but, like Saul, he 
gained and held his position by his personal 
popularity (2 S3 36 ). At first he is nothing- 
more than the warrior ; and all through his 
reign he is a ' man of war ' (2 S 17 s ). But by 
his conquest of Jerusalem and his removal 
thither of the ark, he becomes the religious 
head of the nation also, appointing and super- 
vising the priests (2S8i§ 2026 ; C p. 1K2 3 5). 
He is now in a position to form foreign 
alliances and to institute an elaborate and 
thoroughly Oriental court life (2S5 13 ). He 
is also the fountain of justice (2S12 5 14 4f -) ; 
but while he enforces the traditional law, he 
does not make fresh laws. The basis of his 
internal authority (like that of the Roman 
emperors) is military supremacy: when this is 
broken he must take refuge in flight (2 S 15 14 ). 
He has his captains and high officers (2 S 20 28-26) # 
He numbers and taxes his people (2 S 24 2 ), but 
they have free right of access and complaint 
(2S14 5 24 3 ), and he acknowledges the moral 
authority of the prophets (2 S 12 25 24 n ). He 
is throughout the father and the shepherd 
more than the monarch of his people : he is 
Jehovah's representative in their midst. He 
made the kingship what it remained for four 
centuries, a rule limited by no written laws 
(save perhaps that of 1S10 25 , which is only 
k constitutional ' in a restricted sense), but dis- 
tinctly limited by the extent of the king's 
military prowess and authority, and moral in- 
fluence with his people, by the laws of the 
nation (cp. 1 K 21 3 ), and by the will of Jehovah 
as expressed by the prophets. 

4. The Beginnings of Prophecy. It is 
generally agreed that the root from which 
comes the Hebrew word for ' prophet ' 
(nabi) means to ' announce ' or k forth-tell.' The 
Hebrew prophets, however, were ' f orth-tellers ' 
of a special kind. Their messages always had 
to do with the nation and with Jehovah, the 
nation's God and protector. They were the 
heralds at once of patriotism, national unit} 7 , 
and religion. We meet them very early in 



' bands' or 'schools' (1S10 5 " 10 ) ; they seem 
to wander up and down the country excitedly 
proclaiming their message ; and they have often 
been compared to Mahommedan dervishes. We 
are expressly told that Samuel was not held to 
be a prophet in this technical sense ; but he 
organised the prophetic bands (1S19 2 0), and 
this organisation lasted on till the times of 
Elijah and Elisha (e.g. 1 K 20 35 2 K 6 1). These 
' bands ' probably gathered round some teacher 
or leader of influence. We have no informa- 
tion as to their mode of life and means of 
support. Possibly, when thus ' banded ' toge- 
ther, they bore to Samuel the same relation as 
Wycliffe's preachers bore to Wycliffe himself. 
But from the reign of David, and even (accord- 
ing to Jg6 8 ) much earlier, we meet with in- 
dividual prophets, whose function is to recall 
the nation, or more often the king, to obe- 
dience to the will of Jehovah ; in many cases 
they announce the punishment which is to 
follow upon disobedience (cp. 2S7 2 12 25 24 11 ). 
In later times both Elijah and Elisha are 
credited with miraculous powers ; but Elisha 
is the only prophet whose activity seems to 
have been as much private as public. Later 
still, in the middle of the 8th cent., the great 
series of the ' writing ' prophets begins with 
Amos ; but in the last stages of the history of 
the prophetic order, as in the first, the prophet 
is one who appears suddenly from retirement 
or seclusion, charged with a special message 
to people or king, like an embodied conscience. 

Hence, prophecy is not the opponent of 
monarchy ; it is rather the divinely appointed 
means for keeping monarchy true to its task. 
In the reign of Saul, Samuel performed this 
function (cp. 1 S 15 3 - 23 ; and see § 6). His con- 
demnation of the Israelite demand for a king 
is quite distinct from the general attitude of 
the prophets, who accepted the kings as 
Jehovah's appointed servants ; but, like the 
later prophets, Samuel claimed that the pro- 
phetic word was to receive even from the king 
absolute and unquestioning obedience. It is 
easy to see from the above how completely 
the books of Samuel justify their place in the 
Hebrew canon as prophetic books. They 
describe and emphasise the ideals of the pro- 
phets, and are full of the prophetic spirit — 
the deep conviction that Jehovah is Israel's 
God, and that to Jehovah's service Israel is 
irrevocably bound. 

5. The Ark and the Priesthood. In the 
books of Samuel the ark appears as the seat 
or dwelling-place of Jehovah ; where the 
ark is, there in some special sense is Jeho- 
vah Himself (see also Josh 3, 4, 6 Jg20 2 ?). It 
is placed in Shiloh, the centre of worship, 
where the sacred tent (' temple,' 1 S 1 9 ) is 
set up. After Israel's defeat by the Philis- 
tines it is (to the dismay of the Philistines) 



179 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 SAMUEL 



INTRO. 



taken to battle, but captured and carried off 
to various Philistine cities, in each of which it 
causes plagues. It is then returned to Kir- 
jath-jearim, where Eleazar is ' sanctified ' ' to 
keep ' it (1 S3-7). After the conquest of Jeru- 
salem David brings the ark thither (2S6). 
In Israel its presence brings blessing : to 
foreigners, or those who touch it profanely, it 
causes disaster. Later, it is brought into 
Solomon's temple, after which it disappears 
from history ( Jer 3 16 ). Probably the ark was, 
in form, a throne, on which Jehovah was 
regarded as sitting. 

Priests (as in Jgl7, 18) are men specially 
consecrated to superintend worship and guard 
sacred places and objects (1 S 21 6 ; cp. 2 K 25 18 ). 
Both Eli and his degenerate sons are priests 
at Shiloh (IS 2 13-15). The Philistines also 
have priests for their god (1 S5 5 6 2 ). The 
priest, wearing his official symbol — the ephod 
— consults Jehovah on behalf of the worship- 
per (1 S 14). The office is hereditary (1 S 143 
2S8i 7 ), and we also find a number of priests 
dwelling together (1 S22 19 ). We read of men 
being consecrated to serve apparently as priests 
(1 S 7 1 2 S 8 18 ). After the ark was established 
at Jerusalem, we find the priests in close con- 
nexion with the royal court (2 S 8 17 15 35 19 11 
20 25 ). Later, Solomon, like subsequent kings, 
is anointed by the priest (1 K 1 39), as Saul and 
David had been anointed by Samuel (IS 10 1 
1613) ; the king is 'the Lord's anointed' and 
the same word (Messiah, ' anointed ') is applied 
par excellence to the ideal king of the future. 

The priests, like the prophets, thus stand in 
a direct relation to the monarchy as soon as the 
monarchy is established. Their presence is not, 
however, essential to worship. Saul sacrifices 
at Gilgal (1S13 8 ), and he is blamed, not for 
dispensing with a priest, but for not waiting 
for Samuel. Samuel sacrifices at Bethlehem 
(IS 16 3 ) and David at Jerusalem (2S613-17). 

6. Samuel. The foregoing discussion has 
been necessary in order to avoid obscurity, 
otherwise inevitable, in the portraiture of the 
It ;i< ling characters and events h* these books. 
Without it, we should find difficulty in defend- 
ing them from the charge of carelessness and 
inaccuracy ; with it, we can pass behind the 
actual narratives to something like the reality 
which the Israelites so lovingly handed on from 
generation to generation. 

To take the case of Samuel first. In one 
instance (;i). ho is a little-known seer, who, 
however, has the insight to recognise the need 
of a king, and to find the fitting man in the 
youthful Saul. In the other (b), he is the 
acknowledged Leader of Israel (a kind of civil 
Judge), whose headquartera are at Mizpah, 
and who bitterly resents Israel's wilfulness in 
repudiating the traditional theocracy. There 
can be little doubt that (a) gives the more 



correct picture ; but it is easy to see how the 
Samuel of (a), who at a critical time takes the 
decisive step in the history of the nation, was 
elevated in the memory of Israel into a position 
higher than that of Deborah or Eli, and almost 
recalling the glory of Moses. The dread of 
the monarchy, so clearly set forth in (b), but 
absent in (a), reminds us of the attitude taken 
up towards it by the prophets Hosea, Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel. In 1 S 9 9 , the actual title of 
' prophet ' is denied to Samuel ; but his relation 
to the kingdom after the accession of Saul is 
very similar to that of Isaiah to Ahaz and 
Hezekiah, just as his position previously had 
been similar to that of the earlier Judges. His 
action is uniform, consistent and highminded; 
and there is every reason for the veneration 
with which he came to be regarded in after 
years (Ps99 6 Jerl5i). 

He has been called ' the last of the Judges 
and the first of the Kings.' In reality, he was 
neither a judge (in the sense in which Ehud 
and Jephthah were Judges) nor a king. But 
he found Israel a loosely knit body of tribes ; 
he left it a united people. Recognised as he 
was by the whole nation, he made a national 
monarchy possible ; and at the foundation of it 
he laid firmly the conception of the responsi- 
bility of the national ruler to God. 

7. Saul. In the case of Saul, as of Samuel, 
we find two distinct views of his character. 
He is first shown as a brave and vigorous 
hero, ably seconded by his son ; for his 
'rejection,' the incidents of 1S13 9 and even 
15 9 hardly seem sufficient cause. As the 
melancholy of ISI6I 4 deepens on him, his 
character becomes less and less favourable ; he 
is morose, jealous, cunning, violent, though 
not without gleams of a better nature (IS 
24 1 7 ) ; and in the tragic isolation of his last 
days he reminds us of Macbeth. Yet it is 
noteworthy that from his accession onwards, 
his position is never seriously challenged, as 
was that of David himself subsequently. From 
his first years, he sets himself to the great 
business of his reign, the long struggle with 
the Philistines ; he inflicts upon them blows 
they have never suffered before, and though 
he finally falls before them (or under the 
mental disease which paralysed his powers), 
his successor is able to bring all serious danger 
from them to an end. After the appearance 
of David, the interest of the book in Saul's 
career apart from David comes to an end ; but 
it is note wort| (Hiat not even in Judah did 
David, for a/. 1 his charm and reputation, 
succeed in producing any real disloyalty to 
Saul. If, in his last days, he had recourse to 
necromancy, he had zealously enforced the laws 
against superstition in earlier times ; and our 
judgment on his persistent hostility to David 
must be modified by David's own verdict 



180 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 SAMUEL 



INTRO. 



upon his l loveliness and pleasantness,' which 
throughout his life kept his people true to 
his rule. On the length of his reign, see § 9. 

8. David. The strongest argument for the 
truthfulness of the portrait of David is that 
so much therein is repellent not only to our 
feeling, but to that of Israel also. He is pre- 
eminently a warrior (a 'man of war,' 1S16 18 
1 Ch28 3 ), with a true warrior's resourcefulness 
and perception of the need of the moment ; 
relentless towards his foes, yet possessed of a 
peculiar personal charm which endeared him 
to his own people and to strangers alike ; he 
can make himself at home with Achish of 
Gath, and one of his closest followers in later 
years is Ittai, another G-ittite Philistine. He 
has notable skill in music (1 S 16 18 ; cp. Am6 5 ). 
It is probable that his large harem was formed 
in part as the result of political considera- 
tions ; in weakness and irresolution in dealing 
with his own family, he is like many other- 
wise vigorous Oriental monarchs — as also in his 
liability to sudden outbursts of strong feeling, 
both evil and good (2 S 1 1 2 1 2 5, 13). He pushed 
the frontiers of Israel to their furthest extent 
— an achievement which was the easier since 
at this time both Egypt and Assyria and 
Babylon were occupied within their own 
borders, and never approached Palestine ; he 
developed the simple rule of Saul (cp. 1 S 22 6 ) 
into the royalty of a court and a capital ; but 
subsequent events showed that he did not 
destroy the rivalry between the southern and 
northern halves of the kingdom. Curiously 
enough, the strength of Absalom's rebellion 
was in the king's own tribe of Judah. He was 
exalted by the affectionate memory of later 
years into the Saint and the Psalmist. It 
is no wonder that in thinking of the glorious 
future king of Israel, men should neglect David's 
degenerate successors and form the picture of 
their ideal, as ' a son of David,' on the frank 
generous character and strong vigorous rule 
of the man whom, in spite of all his faults, 
they felt to be after God's own mind (1 S 13 14 ). 
Not only was he ' prudent in speech ' and ' of 
a comely person,' but ' Jehovah was with him ' 
(IS 1618). 

9. The Chronology of the Period. The 
biblical writings themselves give us the 
lengths of various periods (judgeships and 
reigns) and of the intervals between events 
(e.g. 1 K 6 1 ). In the Assyrian canon we are 
able to fix the exact year of certain events ; 
working back from these, and reckoning the 
reigns of David and Solomon as each equal to 
40 years (2S5 4 IK ll 42 ),* we arrive at 1017 
B.C. as the date of David's accession and the 
death of Saul. The events of David's reign 
cannot well have been comprised in any shorter 



time. The Old Testament does not mention 
the length of Saul's reign ; the 40 years of 
Ac 13 21 are certainly too long; Saul can hardly 
have been older than 60 (if so old) at the 
battle of Gilboa, while almost at the beginning 
of his reign his eldest son is a powerful 
warrior. His actual age at his accession is 
wanting in the Hebrew text (1 S13 1 ), and the 
narrative of his reign suggests a very much 
shorter period than David's. We should 
therefore date his accession between 1040 and 
1030 B.C. 

For the length of Samuel's judgeship we 
have no information ; he is introduced to us 
as already occupying his position ; possibly he 
obtained it quite gradually after the death of 
Eli (of the date of this event, also, we are in 
ignorance). From 1S7 2 (KM) it might be 
inferred that for 20 years after the deposi- 
tion of the ark at Kirjath-jearim, Israel was 
satisfied with Jehovah and Samuel ; hence we 
should place the beginning of Samuel's office 
in 1060-1050 B.C.; and as he would hardly 
have been much less than 30 years old when 
he became Judge, or than 50 years old when 
he committed the kingdom to Saul, we must 
place his birth somewhere about 1085 B.C. 

io. The Religious Significance of the Book. 
The main religious lesson of the book is similar 
to that of Judges ; it is that Israel's safety as 
a nation lies in union under the guidance of 
Jehovah and resistance to foreigners. Of 
this union, the kingship is a symbol. As we 
have seen, there are two views of the origin of 
the kingship in the elevation of Saul to the 
throne ; but that of 1 S 15 (as a defection from 
loyalty to Jehovah) is certainly not maintained, 
or even referred to, later on in the book. 
Both Saul and David were firm worshippers of 
Jehovah ; in spite of their moral lapses, we 
hear nothing in their reigns of that falling 
away into idolatry which is so common both 
before and after. The references (without 
any suggestion of blame) to the ' teraphim ' 
(IS 19 13-16 ; contrast 15 23 ) and to the offering 
of sacrifices in other places besides the central 
sanctuary, and by others than priests, as well 
as the omission of all those ritual details which 
fill the pages of the parallel narrative in 
Chronicles, show that the religious ideas of 
the time (as also of the time in which the 
book was written) are still somewhat primi- 
tive (cp. also 1 S 1 6 14 , ' the evil spirit from 
Jehovah,' and 2 S24 1 contrasted with 1 Ch21 i, 
' the Satan stood up '). But though we are 
still in the childhood of Israel's religion, it is 
a childhood that is full of promise ; for it rests, 
with a loving confidence which is unshaken, 
on the firm mercy and judgment (PslOl 1 ) of 
Israel's God. 



* Forty, however, is probably a round number : cp. Intro, to Judges, 
'four' (so RM). In any case, it is too much. 

181 



Forty,' in 2S157, i 8 possibly a mistake for 



INTRO. 



1 SAMUEL 



1. 



ii. Date, Text, etc. A few miscellaneous 
points remain to be considered. When was 
the book written ? This question must mean, 
in view of § 2, when did the two books reach 
their present form ? It is impossible to reply 
with certainty ; the bulk of the three large 
narratives must have been written compara- 
tively soon after the events they refer to, 
though we can have no means of knowing when 
the poetical additions were actually made. 
Apart from these, there is very little to suggest 
a date later than the 8th cent. 

What is its relation to Chronicles ? The 
reader will easily see the similarities and the 
differences in the two parallel narratives. 
That Chronicles was written at a far later date 
is shown, apart from internal evidence, by its 
place in the Hebrew canon, almost at the end, 
and not, like Samuel, among the ' prophets ' — 
a fact which is emphasised in the name which 
the book bears in the Septuagint, ' things left 
out.' These omissions are for the most part 
lists and genealogies and details connected 
with the ark or (later on) the Temple, which 
are either new, or much more fully given in the 
later book (cp. lChll26f. 1215 with 2S612-19 
1637-43 an d the additions in c. 21). On 
the other hand, some of the most interesting 
and vividly narrated events in Samuel are 
passed over entirely, especially anything 
(except David's numbering of Israel) which 
is to the disadvantage of the king himself 
(including the story of Bathsheba and the 
whole rebellion of Absalom). In the earlier 



book, Israel is as important as Judah, apart 
from the fact that David's prominence gives 
special weight to the southern tribe ; in the 
later book (written long after the disappearance 
of the northern kingdom) Israel is of no im- 
portance at all. It is certain that the books of 
Samuel were among the sources used by the 
Chronicler, and the smaller additions seem 
intended either to be didactic, or to fill up 
apparent gaps in the earlier narrative. See 
Intro, to Chronicles. A careful comparison 
with Chronicles will bring out very clearly the 
impartiality and thoroughness of the books of 
Samuel. 

Have we the best text of Samuel before us ? 
This question is suggested by the fact (pointed 
out several times in the notes) that the text is 
often very corrupt, and also by the divergences 
constantly to be observed in the Greek trans- 
lation (the Septuagint — LXX). This Greek 
translation is itself found in three types of 
text ; where they agree, we may conclude, with 
Prof. H. P. Smith, that they represent an 
ancient Hebrew text. This text (now only 
recoverable through the Greek translation) 
would seem to have been free from several 
errors contained in the Hebrew text from 
which our own translation has been made. It 
is, however, unsafe to argue that because a 
reading is simpler, it is therefore more correct ; 
in some cases, the reading of our text has 
been misunderstood ; but in others, we must 
certainly make corrections by the help of 
the Greek version. 



1 SAMUEL 



CHAPTER 1 

The Birth of Samuel 

Hannah, the childless wife of Elkanah, is 
grieved by her childlessness, and prays for a 
son. Her prayer is heard, and in gratitude 
she consecrates her child to the service of 
Jehovah. 

i. Ramathaim-zophim] Raniathaim(' double 
heighl ') probably denotes the district in which 
Etamab ( * heighl ' ) was the chief town. It was at 
Etamab that Samuel was born, lived, laboured, 
'lied, and was buried. As Kamali was a 
common name in a hilly country like Palestine, 
Zophim is lure added to denote that this 
Etamah was in the land of Zuph (9 5 ). But 
i ren bo, fche exact position of Ramah has not 
been determined with certainty. Mount 
Ephraim] RV ' the hill country of Ephrahn.' 
Ephrathite] UV ' Kphraimite.' 

2. Two wives] The reason was probably the 

18 



barrenness of Hannah, which Elkanah would 
consider a disgrace. Thomson states that at 
the present day in the East it is considered 
sufficient reason for a divorce. But here, as 
elsewhere in OT., we find evidence of the 
mi happiness which polygamy often produced. 
3. Yearly] lit. 'from time to time.' The 
Law commanded every male to appear before 
God three times in the year, and there are 
strong reasons for assigning a very early date 
to the practice. Of course, the phrase ' from 
time to time ' can mean ' from year to year,' 
when the context so defines it (as in Ex 13 10 ); 
but otherwise there is no justification for so 
limiting it. LORD of hosts] This title of God 
occurs here for the first time, and its use was 
probably occasioned by the warlike character 
of the book. As used in the books of Samuel, 
' the hosts ' are the armies of Israel (17 45 ), but 
afterwards the idea was extended to the hosts 
of angels (Ps 1 03 20, 81). Shiloh] Joshua set up 
> 



1. 5 



1 SAMUEL 



2. 13 



the Tabernacle there (JoshlS 1 ), as being 
central and in the territory of his own tribe. 
For its position, see Jg21 19 . And the two 
sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, the priests 
of the LORD, were there] rather, ' and there 
the two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, 
were priests to the Lord.' 

5. A worthy portion] LXX reads ' But unto 
Hannah he gave a single portion.' Elkanah 
gave portions to Peninnah and to each of her 
sons and daughters. But in spite of his love 
for Hannah, he only gave her a single portion, 
because she had neither son nor daughter. The 
Heb. text, as it stands, cannot be translated. 
The portion was the part of the sacrifice 
consumed by the offerer and his family : see 
Lv7. 6. Her adversary] i.e. Peninnah. The 
word is a common one in Arabic to denote a 
rival, or fellow-wife. 7. As he did so] Pro- 
bably the true text is ' So it happened.' Did 
not eat] refused to take any part in the 
festival, of which the sacrificial meal was a 
principal feature (cp. c. 9). 

9. Eli the priest] i.e. the chief priest. How 
Eli had attained this rank we do not know, for 
he was descended from Ithamar the younger 
son of Aaron, and not from Eleazar the elder 
son. It has been supposed that in those 
troublous times the office was bestowed upon 
him on account of his ability and piety. Upon 
a seat by a post] RY ' upon his seat by the 
door post,' where he could see all who went in 
or out : cp. 4 13 . 11. See Nu6 respecting the 
Nazirite vow. 16. A daughter of Belial] lit. 
' a daughter of worthlessness,' i.e. a worthless 
woman. ' Belial ' came to be used as a name 
for Satan (2 Cor 6 15 ). Grief] RY ' provocation.' 

20. Samuel] The name Samuel is here con- 
nected with the verb saal, ' to ask ' ; but this 
seems only to have been a popular etymology. 
Most probably Samuel means ' name of G-od ' : 
cp. v. 28. 

21. His vow] Perhaps Elkanah had vowed 
an offering to Grod if Hannah had a son, which 
he now fulfilled : cp. Lv7 16 . 

22. Until the child be weaned] After this 
the ordinary attendants at the Tabernacle 
would be able to take charge of him. In the 
Koran the usual time for weaning is stated to 
be the age of two years. 

23. His word] LXX 'thy word.' No 
mention has been made in the preceding 
account of any promise of God. 24. Three 
bullocks] Probably one bullock was for the 
burnt-offering, which accompanied the dedica- 
tion of Samuel, another was for Elkanah's 
usual sacrifice, while the third was the thank- 
offering he had vowed (v. 21). 

28. Lent] RY 'granted,' as in Ex 12 36. 
And he worshipped the LORD there] These 
words interrupt the connexion and are rightly 
omitted by LXX. 



CHAPTER 2 

Hannah's Song of Thanksgiving. The 

Sin of Eli's Sons 

1 -10. The Song of Hannah. 

This beautiful poem has been well called 
the ' Magnificat of the Old Testament.' The 
song of the Yirgin Mary (Lk 1 46-55) i s clearly 
modelled on it very closely. In each case 
there is the rejoicing over the exaltation of 
the poor and despised and the humiliation of 
the rich. But there is a world of difference 
between Mary's quiet and restrained gratitude 
and calm confidence in God's mercy, on the 
one hand, and the exultant and almost fierce 
triumph of this song. Y. 5 has doubtless led 
to the attribution of the song to Hannah; but 
in its general tone it seems more suitable to 
some public person, and v. 10 (unless it be an 
interpolation) suggests a later date in Israel's 
history. Compare the expressions of national 
triumph in the songs of Moses (EX15 1 " 18 ) and 
Deborah (Jg5). 

1. Mine horn is exalted] The figure is that 
of an animal carrying its head high: cp. Ps 
112 9 . My mouth is enlarged] The idea is 
that of speaking with confidence and derision: 
cp. Isa57 4 . Salvation] In the Bible this word 
denotes help or deliverance of any kind. 

2. Holy] The Holiness of God in the OT. 
denotes positively the completeness of the 
divine nature and negatively God's unlikeness 
to anything else. Rock] This is a frequent 
metaphor to express the strength and un- 
changingness of Jehovah. The name also 
conveys the idea that the strength of God is a 
refuge for His people (Ps91 2 ). Rocks, as 
capable of easy defence, were often used as 
places of refuge. 

3. Weighed] i.e. estimated. The idea is 
the same as inProv21 2 . 5. Seven] the num- 
ber of completeness, perfection. 6. Grave] 
Heb. Sheol, the place where departed spirits 
were believed to be gathered at death. Bringeth 
up] restores to life those who were at the 
point of death. 8. Pillars] the great men of 
the state on whom it depended for its stability : 
cp. Gal 2 9 Rev 3 12 . 9. Saints] R Y ' holy ones ' : 
rather, ' pious ones, those who love God.' 
10. His anointed] a common name for the 
Jewish king. 

12. Knew] This verb in the Bible has often 
the added idea of appreciation, recognition of 
character, affection. 

13-17. The sons of Eli were guilty of a two- 
fold sin. (a) Instead of being content with their 
allotted portion (Lv7 31f -) they took all they 
could get of the offerer's portion, (b) They 
dishonoured God by making their claims take 
precedence of His. The blood and the fat 
were to be consumed on the altar immediately 
after slaughtering (Ex23 18 ), but they claimed 



183 



2. 16 



1 SAMUEL 



3. 18 



their share before this had been done. After 
the fat had been conveyed to G-od the sacri- 
ficial flesh was boiled, but Eli's sons demanded 
their portion raw with a view to its being 
roasted : see HDB. art. ' Sacrifice.' 

it. If any man] KY 'if the man,' i.e. the 
offerer. Presently] i.e. immediately, at once. 

17. For men abhorred] rather, 'for the men 
(i.e. the sons of Eli) despised.' 

18. But Samuel] Throughout this section 
Samuel is contrasted with the profligate sons 
of Eli. Linen ephod] the usual priestly gar- 
ment (1S22 18 ). 20. For the loan which is 
lent] rather, ' in return for the petition which 
was made for (i.e. for the benefit of) the Lord,' 
i.e. in place of Samuel, the man-child who, if 
born, was to be given to the Lord. 

22. Assembled at\ RV ' did service at.' It 
is probable that these women were permanently 
connected with the Tabernacle: cp. Ex38 8 . 

Lay with the women] There is no doubt that 
the surrender of their chastity was regarded 
by the women of Canaan and Syria as the 
highest sacrifice they could make in honour of 
their gods. The sons of Eli introduced these 
immoral rites into the worship of Jehovah, and 
hence the severity of their condemnation. 

25. In the original, point is given to Eli's 
rebuke by the fact that the word here used for 
' judge ' (Elohim) also means ' God.' The judge 
was regarded as the representative of God: 
see Ps82 6 . If it is a case of men, God has 
appointed some one to settle the matter; but 
when God Himself is the offended party, no 
higher power exists to whom the case can be 
submitted. God is both adversary and judge. 

Would slay them] lit. 'wished to slay them.' 
In the OT. the direct intervention of God is 
assumed, and His ever-present agency realised 
as a determining fact. We say that after a 
man has persisted for long years in sinful 
habits, he finds it impossible to alter. The 
Bible expresses the same truth by stating, first 
that the sinner (e.g. Pharaoh) hardens his own 
heart, and then that God hardens the sinner's 
heart. The punishment of the wicked is con- 
sidered to be as much in accordance with God's 
will as the reward of the righteous. 

27. A man of God] a common name for a 
prophet. With the books of Samuel we come 
to a period when God guides His people by 
human agency rather than by direct commu- 
nication. Did I plainly appear?] RV ' Did I 
reveal myself? 1 It is an impassioned question, 
' Did I or did I not?' Thy father] i.e. Aaron. 

In Pharaoh's house] LXX reads ' In bond- 
age to Pharaoh's house. ' 28. Give .. all the 
offering's] sec Lv2,6,7. 

29. Kick ye at] The figure is that of a 
pampered and intractable animal: cp. Dt32 u . 
Sacrifice and . . offering] bloody and onbloody 
sacrifices. Honourest thy sons above me] Eli 



should have removed his sons from a position 
they disgraced. But he could not bring him- 
self to humiliate them and lower his own 
position in the sight of the people. 

30. When Abiathar, the descendant of Eli, 
fled to David (22 20 ), Zadok, a descendant of 
Eleazar, may have been made chief priest by 
Saul. He appears soon after, and it is not 
known how or when the office was bestowed 
on him. David divided the dignity between 
the two (2S8 17 ), but Abiathar was deposed by 
Solomon (1 K 2 27 ), and the priesthood remained 
with Zadok and his descendants down to the 
time of the exile. Thus the prophet's threat 
was fulfilled. 

31-35. It is keenly disputed to what 
events these vv. refer. The simplest explana- 
tion is that v. 31 refers to the massacre of the 
priests at Nob, vv. 32, 33 to the deposition and 
consequent poverty of Abiathar, and v. 35 to 
Zadok. 

31. Cut off thine arm] destroy thy power, as 
PslO 15 . 32. An enemy in my habitation] lit. 
' affliction of habitation.' The context seems 
to show that the reference is to Eli's own 
dwelling. While Israel increased in wealth 
and prosperity in the reign of Solomon, Eli's 
family were to fall into poverty and obscurity. 

33. Those who did not die young would pass 
their life in vexation and grief. Thine eyes . . 
thine heart] rather as LXX, ' his eyes . . his 
heart.' Shall die in the flower of their age] 
LXX reads ' shall die by the sword of men.' 

35. I will build him a sure house] i.e. I will 
give him a continuous posterity : cp. 25 2S 
2S7 16 . Mine anointed] the king (singular), 
really referring to the long line of kings who 
were to follow David. 36. Put me into] 
rather, ' attach me to,' 'make me a hanger on.' 

CHAPTER 3 

The Call of Samuel 

1. Precious] RM, 'rare': see Isal3 12 . 
There was no prophet then. Open] rather, 
'published, widely announced ' : cp. 2Ch31 5 . 

3. Ere the lamp of God went out] The lamp 
(' the seven-branched candlestick ') burned all 
night in the sanctuary, so that the time was 
early morning : cp. Ex27 21 . Samuel seems to 
have been sleeping in some chamber near the 
ark. Cp. RV, ' was laid down to sice/), in the 
temple of the Lord, where the ark of God 
was.' On the ark see Intro. § 5. 10. Came, 
and stood] the Voice became a Vision. 

13. Made themselves vile] LXX reads 
1 Because his sons cursed God.' See on 2 S 12 14 . 

15. Doors] The Tabernacle was no longer a 
mere fcent, but at this time had been replaced 
by a substantial building. This was a natural 
consecpicnce of its occupying a fixed position. 

18. It is the LORD] So Eli was at heart 
loyal, though he had shown culpable weakness. 



184 



3. 19 



1 SAMUEL 



5. 12 



19. Let none of his words fall to the ground] 
i.e. accomplished all his predictions. For 
the idea cp. Dtl8 21 > 22 . 20. Established] 
i.e. accredited, approved. Prophet] see In- 
tro. § 4. 

21. In Shiloh by the word of the LORD] 
These words are wanting in LXX, and the 
connexion gains greatly by their omission. 

C. 4 la . And the word of Samuel came to all 
Israel] This clause should really form the 
conclusion of c. 3 as it does in RY. Samuel 
proclaimed to all his countrymen the revela- 
tion he had received. 

CHAPTER 4 
Capture of the Ark by the Philistines. 

Death of Eli 
The reason which led to 4 la being detached 
from its proper context is that without it this 
c. seems to begin with inexplicable abruptness. 
The explanation of this lack of connexion is 
that the editor is now using a different docu- 
ment. This section is in no sense a continua- 
tion of the preceding. It does not proceed 
with the history of Samuel, whose name does 
not even occur in it, but relates the journey- 
ings of the ark. Alike in style and in con- 
ception it is totally distinct from the section 
which precedes and the section which follows 
it. In many respects it resembles the history 
of Samson more closely than any other part 
of OT. 

1. The Philistines] see on Jg3 3 . Eben- 
ezer] ' stone of help.' The place is called by 
the name familiar to the readers of the book, 
though it did not actually receive the name 
till later (7 12 ). The positions of Eben-ezer 
and Aphek have not been determined with 
certainty. 

3. The ark of the covenant] so called 
because it was a sign and proof both of God's 
covenant and of His presence. 

4. RV ' which sitteth upon the cherubim.' 
This does not imply that there were figures 
of cherubim upon the ark (1K8 6 ), but refers 
to the general glory of Jehovah. The cherubs 
are heavenly beings regarded as standing in 
Jehovah's presence (cp. the seraphim of Isa 6), 
and, in Ezk 1 , 10, as of composite form. Cp. also 
Psl8 10 . In Solomon's temple two winged 
cherubs stood in the most holy place (1K6 24 ). 

The two sons of Eli] This notice is in- 
tended to remind us why the arrival of the 
ark produced no result. 

6. Hebrews] This is the general name for 
Israelites when foreigners are the speakers 
(Gn39 14 ). 8. The Philistines are not quite 
accurate in their history, but the mistake is 
not at all unnatural. 

15. Ninety and eight] This number is 
interesting as showing how mistakes arise. 
In the original it was denoted by two letters. 

1 



The LXX, losing sight of one, reads 90. The 
Syriac, confusing 9 with 7, reads 78. The 
Hebrew explains the cause of the other two 
readings. 

19 f. The narrative is somewhat obscure. 
Apparently Phinehas' wife dies in giving birth 
to her child ; before her death, she cries out 
' I-chabod,' which is thus given as the child's 
name. Y. 22 simply repeats v. 21. 

21. 'I-chabod] 'no glory.' The glory was 
that of the presence of G-od, the visible sign 
and symbol of which was the ark. 

22. Departed] lit. ' gone into exile.' The 
ark had gone into a foreign land. 

CHAPTER 5 
The Ark among the Philistines 

1. Ashdod] on an elevation overlooking the 
Philistine plain midway between Gaza and 
Joppa, and 3 m. from the Mediterranean. Its 
importance consisted in the fact that it com- 
manded the high road from Palestine to 
Egypt. 

2. Dagon] seems to have been worshipped 
in all the Philistine cities. His name is pro- 
bably merely the Canaanite pronunciation of 
the word for ' corn,' and designates him as 
the god of agriculture. The Philistines were 
not a maritime people, like the Phoenicians, 
but depended on agriculture. Stanley writes : 
' The most striking and characteristic feature 
of Philistia is its immense plains of corn- 
fields. . . These rich fields must have been the 
great source alike of the power and value 
of Philistia.' They brought it] The Philis- 
tines considered that their god, Dagon, had 
shown himself stronger than Jehovah, and so 
they brought him the symbol of his conquered 
rival. 

3. Fallen upon his face] in an attitude of 
homage. Set him in his place] they would 
think it was an accident. 4. This time all 
possibility of accident was excluded. The 
stump of Dagon] AY is right in thinking that 
some word must have fallen out of the Hebrew 
text. 

6. In c. 6 we have a plague of mice as well 
as of haemorrhoids. Some regard the intro- 
duction of this second plague as due to a 
scribe. On the other hand, LXX inserts a 
notice of the mice also in 5 6 > 10 6 1 . Well- 
hausen thinks that ' mice ' are symbolical of 
misfortune in general, and do not denote 
a second plague. Herodotus attributes the 
disaster which overtook Sennacherib's army 
and the deliverance of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. 
(2K19 35 - 37 ) to a host of mice, which destroyed 
the bowstrings of the Assyrian soldiers : cp. 
on 6 5 . 

12. So the protest of the Ekronites was not 
attended to. The Philistines were unwilling 
to part with their trophy. 
85 



6. 2 



1 SAMUEL 



8. 11 



CHAPTER 6 

The Philistines return the Ark to 
Israel 

2. The diviners] The Philistines appear to 
have been notorious for their attachment to 
divination: see on Isa2 6 . 3. The trespass 
offering was always brought to atone for some 
wrong done to, or some right withheld from, 
God or man. 5. Aristotle relates that in 
harvest entire crops were sometimes destroyed 
in a single night by the ravages of field-mice. 

7. The new cart and the kine who had worn 
no yoke were signs of respect. 9. Under 
ordinary circumstances the cows would not 
have left their calves. Beth-shemesh] the 
modern Ain-Shems, on the N. border of 
Judah. 

18. Even unto the great stone] Read with 
LXX, ' And the great stone, whereon they 
set down the ark of the Lord, is a witness 
unto this day.' 

19. It is very probable that in this v. LXX 
has preserved the original text : ' But the 
sons of Jechoniah rejoiced not with the men 
of Beth-shemesh, when they gazed (with glad- 
ness) at the ark of the Lord, and he smote 
among them 70 men.' All editors are agreed 
that the ' fifty thousand ' is a gloss which has 
crept into the text. The Hebrew phrase here 
used is not the correct method of expressing 
50,070. 

21. Kirjath-jearim] see on Jgl8 12 . For 
the further account of the ark cp. 2S6. 

C. 7 1 . This v. is the conclusion of the nar- 
rative, and should really form part of c. 6. 

We should have expected the ark to be 
taken back to Shiloh ; perhaps Shiloh had 
fallen into the hands of the Philistines, who 
now overran Israel (cp. 14 6 ' 19 ). At any rate, 
we hear no more of Shiloh as a national 
meeting-place ; for the time, whatever national 
unity exists centres round Samuel. 

CHAPTER 7 

Samuel delivers Israel from the 

Phi list inks 

The narrative in this c. is taken from a 
different source from the account which 
precedes. 

2. Twenty years] The time is reckoned till 
Israel's repentance and not to the removal of 
the ark l>y David (2S6 2 ). 3, 4. These w. 
appear to be anticipatory and in order of time 
to follow w. 5, 6. 4. Baalim and Ashtaroth] 
see on Jg'2 11 - l:! . 5. Mizpeh] in Benjamin. 

Pray] Samuel was noted as a man of prayer 
(cp. Ps99«). 

6. Poured it out] The symbolism of the act 
is uncertain. The most probable explanation 
is that of the Targum, that it represented the 
pouring out of their hearts in repentance be- 



fore the Lord : cp. 2 S 23 16 Lam 2 ™. 7. Went 
up against Israel] for the object of the as- 
sembly at Mizpeh was to throw off the Philistine 
yoke. 

9. A burnt offering wholly] RY 'a whole 
burnt offering.' The offering of the whole 
animal symbolised the self- dedication of the 
worshipper. 12. Eben-ezer] see on 4 1 . 

13. All the days of Samuel] The words 
naturally mean ' all the time he acted as judge.' 
This must be understood as the optimistic 
notice of a later writer. The narrative of 
c. 14 shows that Israel did not succeed in 
recovering from the Philistine oppression : 
see also on 7 1 9 16 . 14. The coasts thereof] 
i.e. the districts round the towns. Amorites] 
i.e. the old Canaanite inhabitants of the hill- 
country : see on Jg 1 34 . Israelite and Canaan- 
ite made peace in front of a common enemy. 

15. All the days of his life] The attitude of 
Samuel towards Saul in the matters of (a) his 
sacrifice and (b) Amalek show that he retained 
some authority even after Saul was elected 
king. 

16. He instituted what in modern language 
would be called ' courts of assize.' Gilgal] 
probably the famous site near Jericho. 

CHAPTERS 8-14 

See on 9 1 . There are clearly two accounts 
of the institution of the kingship. In c. 8, the 
wish for a king is regarded as a sign of dis- 
loyalty to the real King, Jehovah, and, as such, 
Samuel protests against it. In chs. 9-1 16 , 
Jehovah himself chooses Saul to deliver his 
people from the Philistines : cp. Intro. § 2. 

CHAPTER 8 
The People demand a King 

I. Judges] They would be subordinate to 
their father. When the son of a Judge was 
influential and popular, he might easily succeed 
to his father's position : cp. Abimelech in 
Jg9". 

5. Like all the nations] This was the sin of 
the people. God intended that they, unlike 
other nations, should be a peculiar people, 
governed directly by Himself. 

6. Displeased Samuel] They had shown 
themselves forgetful of their relation to God 
and ungrateful to Samuel himself. But in 
spite of this, he simply leaves the decision 
with God. 7. For] Samuel was not to hesi- 
tate, for the matter was one which concerned 
God rather than himself. 8. Which they 
have done] LXX adds ' to me,' an addition 
which is required by the contrast with ' to 
thee.' 

II. Tt does not follow that a Jewish king 
was actually like this description, but an 
Oriental despot was. and Israel had asked 
for a king like other nations. In later years, 



186 



8. 13 



1 SAMUEL 



10. 25 



Hebrew monarchy sank very low, both in 
Judah and Israel : cp. the tone both of Hosea 
andofEzekiel(45 9 46 18 ). 13. Confectionaries] 
EM ' perfumers ' : cp. Ex30 25 . 15. Officers] 
Heb. ' eunuchs.' 

CHAPTER 9 
Saul and Samuel meet 

For the picture of Samuel in this c, as a 
person of local rather than national import- 
ance, cp. Intro. § 6. On early prophecy, see 
Intro. § 4. 

C. 9 1 -io 16 comes from a different source 
from c. 8 : see intro. there. The author of 
this section gives no hint that the choice of a 
king was displeasing to God. But we meet 
with the views of c. 8 again when we come to 
10"*. 

1. Power] RV ' valour.' 4, 5. The dis- 
tricts of Shalisha, Shalim, and Zuph have not 
been identified. 5. Take thought] rather, 
' be anxious.' 6. In this city] probably 
Ramah. 

9. This v. is probably an explanatory note 
by the editor, though some regard it as a 
scribe's insertion. Seer] Heb. roeh, a com- 
paratively rare word, in this sense. ' They 
were called " seers " for no other reason 
than because they were thought to " see " 
what for the rest of men was hidden, the 
secrets either of the present or of the future ' ; 
e.g. in the present case, the matter of the 
asses. Prophet] The Heb. word is nabi, and 
is probably connected with the Assyrian nabu, 
'to call' or 'name.' The prophet was the 
• spokesman ' of Jehovah : see art. ' Hebrew 
Prophecy.' 

13. This refers to the solemn sacrificial 
meal after the peace offering : cp. Ex24 5 > n 
Lv7. 14. Came out against them] rather, 
' came out to meet them.' 20. On whom is 
all the desire] RV 'for whom is all that is 
desirable in Israel. Is it not for thee ? ' 
cp. Hag 2 7 RM. 21. The least of all the 
families] This is Eastern hyperbole and must 
not be taken literally : cp. Jg 6 15 . 

24. And Samuel said] The word ' Samuel ' 
is not in the original. ' And the cook took 
up . . and said.' What follows is the garrulous 
talk of the cook. Since I said] the Heb. is 
simply ' saying ' (i.e. Samuel). 

25, 26. LXX is the more probable : ' And 
when they were come down from the high 
place into the city, they spread a couch for 
Saul on the housetop, and he lay down. And 
it came to pass about,' etc. At the present 
day in the East multitudes sleep on the roofs 
of houses. 26. Samuel called Saul to the top] 
RY ' Samuel called to Saul on the housetop.' 
Saul had been sleeping on the roof, and now 
Samuel calls to him to descend. 



CHAPTER 10 



Saul is anointed King by Samuel 

I. LXX is probably right in reading at the 
end of this v. ' and this is the sign that the 
Lord hath anointed thee to be captain ' (RV 
' prince ') ' over his inheritance.' 2. Rachel's 
tomb] was not far from Bethlehem (Gn 35 19 > 2 <>). 

3. Plain] RV ' oak.' 

5. The hill of God] The word is really 
' G-ibeah,' which was Saul's own home. It is 
here called ' God's Gibeah ' because Samuel 
had established a school of the prophets there. 
Cp. the common term for a prophet, ' man of 
God' (e.g. 1K17 18 ). They shall prophesy] 
RV ' they shall be prophesying,' lit. acting as 
prophets. Music was a recognised means of 
promoting the exaltation of spirit necessary 
for inspiration (2K3 15 ). 6. Be turned into 
another man] fitted for his new career : see 
v. 9. 

8. This command appears to have been 
given during the Philistine war narrated in 
c. 13 : cp. 13 8 . Here it interrupts the con- 
nexion. 

9. Another heart] The heart is not, with the 
Hebrews, opposed to the head, as with us. The 
term is used for the general bent both of mind 
and character. Saul has a new conception of 
himself and of his life given to him. This 
is quickly followed by a sudden outburst of 
' prophesying,' here obviously used in the 
sense of ecstatic exaltation of utterance. 
Saul's liability to be carried out of himself 
(like his namesake of Tarsus) is also made 
clear in his fits of melancholic brooding and 
sudden passion (cp. 18 10 ' n , where for 'pro- 
phesied ' RM reads ' raved '). See also Intro. 
§7. 

II. Is Saul also among the prophets?] i.e. 
has he joined a school of the prophets ? He 
was not the sort of young man to adopt such 
a life. Another explanation of the saying is 
given in 19 24 . 

12. Who is their father ?] Prophecy did not 
descend from father to son, so that there was 
no reason for surprise in finding the son of 
Kish among the prophets. 

17. At this point the other narrative is 
resumed (see on 8 1 ). 

19. Thousands] The word may very possibly 
mean simply 'families' : cp. v. 21. We can 
hardly imagine this to mean that the whole 
Hebrew population of Palestine was present. 

20. The Hebrews considered that in elec- 
tions by lot, the decision was made by God 
(Josh 7 18 Provl633). 22. Stuff] i.e. the bag- 
gage : cp. 16 n . 

25. The manner of the kingdom] This was 

a legal document intended to bind both king 

and people, and probably to guard against the 

abuses mentioned in c. 8. The power of the 

87 



11. 26 



1 SAMUEL 



13.16 



Hebrew monarch was, in some respects, 
narrowly limited. 26. A band of men] Pro- 
bably the original text was ' the men of valour,' 
in contrast to ' the worthless men ' of v. 27. 
Note the simplicity and absence of ceremonial 
in the new royalty : cp. II 4 and Intro. § 7. 
27. See intro. to c. 11. 

CHAPTER 11 

Saul subdues the Ammonites 
This c. is entirely in the spirit of the 
narratives in Judges ; from v. 15, it seems to 
be independent of c. 10 ; but v. 12 points back 
to 10 27 , which is perhaps distinct from vv. 
17-24 ; even the ceremony at Gilgal may have 
been a l renewal ' (v. 10), in the renewed popular 
enthusiasm, of the ceremony at Mizpeh. But 
see on 12 12 . 

1. Nahash] It is very doubtful if this is 
the Nahash of 2S10 2 . 3. Come out] a usual 
term for l surrender.' 5. So Cincinnatus was 
found by the messengers of the State with 
his oxen. 6. Cp. JgG^ ll 29 146, etc., used 
of a sudden access of fierce patriotic zeal. 
Both cause and effect are slightly different 
in 10 10 . 7. Fear of the LORD] i.e. a dread 
inspired by the Lord ; RM ' a terror from 
the Lord.' 9. i.e. before noon : cp. v. 11. 

10. Their object was to make the attack 
come on the Ammonites as a complete surprise. 

13. Saul possessed many good and generous 
impulses (2417 26 21 ). 15. They made Saul 
king] see prefatory note. 

CHAPTER 12 
Samuel resigns his Judgeship 
This c. is a continuation of 10 17 " 24 , and 
the scene of the events recorded is the great 
national assembly at Mizpeh. Notice, how- 
ever, the reference to Nahash (c. 11) in v. 12. 

2. My sons] cp. 8 1-5 . 3. His anointed] i.e. 
Saul the anointed king. This becomes the 
regular title of the king : cp. 246-10 26 9 -n, etc. 
The word is identical with ' Messiah ' or (in 
its (Ik. form) 'Christ.' 6. It is the LORD] 
LXX reads ' the Lord is witness.' Advanced] 
RV ' appointed,' i.e. made them the leaders of 
Israel. 9. Into the hand of Sisera] see Jg4. 

Into the hand of the king of Moab] see Jg3. 

11. Jerubbaal] seeJg6. Bedan] LXX reads 
1 Barak.' Jephthah] seeJgll. Samuel] must 
be a later insertion either by fche editor or by 
a Bcribe. 12. When the LORD your God was 
your king] cp, 8' JgS 28 . Thifl is not quite 
in accord with the narrative of c. 11 as it 
Btands, where Saul has already !>een chosen 
king (v. li ; ). and where the attack on Nahash 
results from his own vigorous initiative. 

14. RV It ye will Pear. .and serve him, 
ami hearken . . and he . . followers . . well.' 

15. Against your fathers] i.e. in the times 
of the Judges. 



17. Wheat harvest] This shows that this 
occurred between the middle of May and the 
middle of June. In Palestine a summer 
thunderstorm is very unusual : cp. Prov21 1 . 
Prof. G. A. Smith writes : ' In May showers 
are very rare, and from then till October, not 
only is there no rain, but a cloud seldom passes 
over the sky, and a thunderstorm is a miracle.' 

21. For] The first ' for ' in this v. is rightly 
omitted by LXX. ' And turn ye not aside 
after vain things which,' etc. Vain things] i.e. 
idols. 22. For his great name's sake] The 
idea is explained in Ex32 12 . 

CHAPTER 13 

Saul's War against the Philistines 
1. The age of Saul at his accession has 
fallen out of the text and also one of the two 
numbers representing the length of his reign. 
Our present text is ' Saul was . . years old 
when he began to reign, and he reigned . . and 
two years. ' We have no means of recovering the 
former number. For the latter Keil, with 
great probability, conjectures 22 : see on 2S 
2 10 and Intro. § 9. 2. Michmash] still retains 
its ancient name ; it is a village 9 m. from 
Jerusalem, and is just N. of a narrow pass 
leading to G-eba ; hence it was a thoroughly 
well-chosen strategic position ; cp 14 4 . 3. And 
the Philistines . . Hebrews hear] The text is ! 
probably corrupt. Driver emends to ' And the 
Philistines heard saying The Hebrews have 
revolted,' and puts ' And Saul blew the ' 
trumpet throughout all the land ' at the begin- 
ning of v. 4. 4. Gilgal] Cornill would read 
'Gibeah' here. 5. Thirty thousand] LXX has 
' 3,000 ' ; the chariots were less in number than 
the horsemen; cp. 2S10 18 1K10 26 . 6. The 
people did hide themselves] The prompt action 
of the Philistines quite quenched the ardour 
of the undisciplined peasants with Saul. 

8. Saul at Gilgal would be anxious lest the 
Philistines should seize Geba and the heights. 
Samuel had appointed] The reference is pro- 
bably to 108. 

9. It is, to say the least, doubtful whether 
Saul offered the sacrifice with his own hands, 
or whether he caused it to be offered. At any 
rate, his offence was not in his offering sacrifice, 
but in his unwillingness to obey the directions 
of God and of God's representati ve, the prophet. 
It must be admitted that Saul's position was a 
dillienlt one ; but this single act was really an 
index bo a weakness in his character: see, 
however, on 14 - 4 . 

14. After his own heart] David's actions 
were by no means all of them the actions 
of an ideal character ; but he is presented 
in the narratives as maintaining on the whole 
an attitude towards (rod very different from 
that of Saul : cp. L6 1 . 

16. Abode in Gibeah] Saul with his reduced 



188 



13. 17 



1 SAMUEL 



15. 



numbers was compelled to abandon the other 
two positions and to concentrate his forces at 
Gibeah. 17. The spoilers] i.e. bands sent out 
to ravage the country immediately concerned 
in the insurrection. This unwise weakening 
of the Philistine forces gave the Israelites their 
opportunity. Ophrah] a town in Benjamin. 

Shual] Position unknown, as is also that 
of Zeboim in the next v. 18. Beth-horon] on 
the border of Benjamin and Ephra.im, was on 
the direct road from Michmash to Philistia. 

21. Yet they had, etc.] RM proposes, ' When 
the edges of the mattocks . . and of the axes 
were blunt.' We can hardly imagine that the 
text as it stands is to be taken literally after 
the narrative of 13 f. 23. To the passage] 
RV ' unto the pass.' 

CHAPTER 14 

Jonathan's Exploit. The Battle of 

Michmash. A Summary of Saul's Reign 

3. Ahiah] RV ' Ahijah,' probably merely 
another form of Ahimelech (21 x ). Melech 
(king) was one of the titles of Jah or Jehovah. 

4. Between the passages] RY ' between the 



9. It has been suggested that the reply 
would show that the Philistines were brave 
men, and Jonathan would give up the enter- 
prise as impossible ; but in view of v. 6, it is 
better to take the sign as a purely arbitrary 
one : cp. Jg7 4f . 14. An half acre of land . . 
plow~\ RY ' half a furrow's length in an acre 
of land,' i.e. half the length of one of the sides 
of an acre. 15. There was a trembling both 
hi the (fortified) camp and in the (open) 
country ; all the people, both garrison and 
plundering bands, trembled. 16. Behold, the 
multitude . . one another'] LXX reads, ' Behold 
the multitude melted away' (i.e. dispersed in 
confusion) l hither and thither.' 

18. LXX reads, ' Bring hither the ephod. 
For he wore the ephod.' It was the Urim and 
Thunimim in the ephod and not the ark which 
was used to discover the will of God : see 
23 9 30 7 . 19. Withdraw thine hand] Saul had 
not patience to wait : cp. 13 9 . 

24. The purpose of this ' taboo ' on food was 
probably to secure by fasting the continued 
presence of Jehovah with the victorious army. 
Israel's battles were Jehovah's, and Saul's 
motive, according to the ideas of his time, was 
religious. The people acquiesce: cp. Jg. 21 18 

25. All they of the land] Heb. ' all the 
land.' Saul's success had made all the country 
rise against the foreigners. 27. His eyes 
were enlightened] lit. ' became bright,' a sure 
sign of health and vigour. He had been weary 
with the day's exertions, and now recovers. 

31. Aijalon] see on Jgl 35 . It was the natu- 
ral route by which the defeated Philistines 
would retreat to their own country. 32. Eat 



them with the blood] in direct opposition to 
the command of God : Gn9 4 and Lv20 26 . 
This prohibition to eat with the blood is still 
carefully observed by strict Jews. 

33. Transgressed] RY 'dealt treacherously,' 
i.e. disobediently, as if they had been enemies 
of Jehovah. 34. The stone would allow the 
blood to run down from the carcase. 

35. Built an altar] to commemorate his 
victory : cp. Ex 17 15 Josh 22 34 ; or in reference 
to v. 33 ; the word for ' altar ' means, properly, 
' place for slaughtering.' 

41. Give a perfect lot] RY ' shew the right.' 

43. A?id, lo, I must die] rather, ' Here am 
I, I will die.' Jonathan does not flinch. This 
' taboo,' or ' ban,' which Saul had placed upon 
the taking of food (see on v. 24) is regarded 
with as much reverence as Jephthah's vow 
(Jgll 35 ) ; but Jonathan's life, unlike that of 
Jephthah's daughter, is important to the whole 
nation, and Saul finds that his power is very 
strictly limited by the popular will. 

45. Rescued] Heb. ' ransomed.' This does 
not mean that another person was killed in 
Jonathan's place. The ransom paid might 
be the life of an animal or a sum of money 
(1313,15). 

47-51. These vv. form a conclusion to the 
life of Saul, after which the editor turns to an- 
other section of his history, ' Saul and David.' 

47. The disastrous ending of the life of 
Saul must not blind us to his many virtues. 
The earlier part of his reign was a series of 
successes. To the end the nation was con- 
tented with his rule, and it remained faithful 
to his dynasty even after his death. See 
Intro. § 7. We know nothing from other 
sources as to any expedition against Zobah, 
and the victories over the Philistines would 
appear to be more sweepingly stated than 
seems warranted by the last disastrous battle 
on Mt. Gilboa. This brief summary aptly 
illustrates the fragmentary and episodic nature 
of the history of Saul. 

48. Gathered an host] RY ' did valiantly.' 

49. The two daughters are mentioned be- 
cause of the important part they play in the 
later history. 51. Probably the v. originally 
ran, ' and Kish the father of Saul and Ner the 
father of Abner were the sons of Abiel.' Saul 
and Abner were first cousins. 

CHAPTER 15 

Saul's Yictoey over Amalek. His 
Disobedience and Rejection 

Amalek had attacked Israel at Rephidim 
(Exl7 8f <) and opposed their entrance into 
Canaan (Nu 1 4 45 : cp. Dt 25 7f -). They are men- 
tioned as allies of the Midianites in Jg7 12 . 
The Amalekite nomads probably occupied a 
large tract of the wilderness S. of Judah. 

This c. evidently comes from a different 



189 



15. 3 



1 SAMUEL 



17. 



source from the preceding, which concludes 
the history of Saul. It forms the connexion 
between the history of Saul and that of David. 
We have no means of determining to what part 
of Saul's reign it belongs. 

3. Utterly destroy] lit. 'devote' (to Je- 
hovah). The first idea of the word (herem) 
is that the object is dedicated to Jehovah, and 
so forbidden to common use: see Josh 6 18 . 
We meet with the same root in harem (the 
women's apartments), and haram (the sacred 
enclosure at Mecca): cp. Lv27 29 . 4. Telaim] 
probably the same as Telem (Josh 15 24 ), a town 
in S. Judah. Men of Judah are thus sum- 
moned to the expedition. 5. A city of 
Amalek] EV l the city of Amalek,' i.e. the 
capital. 6. Kenites] see on Jg4 17 . They 
formed a nomad tribe, living partly in and 
partly outside Palestine. 

7. From Havilah until thou comest to Shur] 
cp. Gn 25 18 . Havilah was the eastern boundary 
of the district inhabited by the Amalekites, but 
its position is uncertain. Shur (Wall) was 
originally the name of the wall built to protect 
the eastern frontier of Egypt, and was then 
applied to the neighbouring part of the desert 
(Exl5 22 ). 8. The Amalekites subsequently 
sack Ziklag (IS 30); but from this time on- 
wards they cease to be formidable. 

11. It grieved Samuel] RV 'Samuel was 
wroth.' He was annoyed at the course events 
were taking : cp. 2 S 6 8 Jon 4 1 . It is character- 
istic of the Bible that it mentions the failings 
of its heroes and saints. 12. Carmel] a town 
in Judah, 7 m. S. of Hebron. It lay directly 
in Saul's way on his return from smiting the 
Amalekites. A place] RV ' a monument ' (to 
commemorate his victory) : cp. 2S18 18 . 

17. RM ' Though thou be little in thine own 
sight, art thou not head of the tribes of Israel ? ' 
i.e. the excuse, even if genuine, was not valid. 

22, 23. These words are in poetic form, as we 
can see by the parallelism. See Intro, to Psalms. 

22. For the views expressed in this v. cp. 
Ps40« f -51 16 i "isainf. Jer6 20 Hos6 6 Am5 21f - 
Mic6 " f . The Israelite was not left to imagine, 
like the heathen, that sacrifices were what God 
chieily desired. 23. Samuel goes behind Saul's 
pretended motive, sacrifice, to his real dis- 
obedience. Iniquity] RV ' idolatry.' Idolatry] 
I J V L teraphim ': see on 19 13 . 

24, 25. Saul's feeling was not true repent- 
ance, bul merely a desire to propitiate Samuel 
and Becure his apparenl adhesion : see v. 30. 

32. Delicately] RM ' cheerfully.' Surely 
the bitterness, etc.] Since Saul had spared his 
life, Agag though! he was secure. 

35. Came no more to see Saul] As a 
prophet he had no Longer any message for 

the rejected king, although as a man he 
mourned for the failure of a career that had 
once seemed so promising. 



The execution of Agag seems to us mere 
butchery ; but, to both Samuel and Saul, Agag, 
like the rest of Amalek, had been put under 
the ' ban,' and hence his death, even in cold 
blood, was a religious necessity. According 
to the ideas of the time, Saul had had no right 
to give any ' quarter.' Nor is it right to judge 
the ancient Hebrews by what are happily our 
higher standards of conduct. 

CHAPTER 16 

David is anointed King over Israel 

From c. 16 on, the interest centres in David 
rather than in Saul. 

1. Oil] probably consecrated oil for 
anointing. 2. If Saul hear it] Saul's action, 
recorded in 22 18 > 19 , shows that Samuel's fears 
were far from baseless. Say, I am come to 
sacrifice] Samuel was not asked to prevaricate. 
God relieved him of his difficulty by giving 
him a definite command. 4. Beth-lehem] 
originally Ephrath (Gn48 7 ), 5 m. S. of 
Jerusalem. Trembled] For Samuel had been 
wont to move from one town to another to 
punish offences (7 16 ). 5. Sanctify yourselves] 
This was done by washing themselves and re- 
moving all ceremonial defilement. He sanc- 
tified Jesse and his sons] This gave Samuel 
an opportunity for private conversation. 

6. Said] to himself, thought. 10. Again, 
Jesse made seven] RV simply, ' And Jesse 
made seven.' The sons already named are 
included in the seven. 11. We will not sit 
down] probably to the feast which followed the 
sacrifice : cp. 1 S9. 12. Ruddy] This colour- 
ing is much admired in the East where most 
are dark-skinned. Of a beautiful countenance] 
lit. ' fair of eyes.' In those hot countries 
bordering on the desert, multitudes are dis- 
figured by ophthalmia, as was Leah (Gn29 17 
RV). 13. In the midst of his brethren] Pro- 
bably they thought Samuel had anointed him 
as his follower, or to become in time a prophet 
like himself. 

13, 14. The Spirit of the LORD came upon 
David . . departed from Saul] The special 
grace conferred by anointing passed from the 
rejected Saul to the new king : cp. 10 6 . 

15. An evil spirit from God] apparently a 
gloomy, suspicious melancholy bordering on 
madness. To the Hebrew, every visitation, 
alike of good and evil, is directly from 
Jehovah : cp. 1 K2222 Am3 6 . 

22. Stand before me] i.e. be one of my 
servants : cp. 1K10 8 . 

CHAPTER 17 

David slays Goliath 

17I-18 5 is evidently taken from a different 

document from 16 14 "'-* In 1 6 1 *- 28 David is 

a man of war, and skilful in speech, and 

an expert harper, and has already become 



190 



17. 1 



1 SAMUEL 



17. 28 



Saul's musician and arraourbearer. In c. 17 
he is still a shepherd lad, who is personally 
unknown to Saul. LXX tries to get rid of 
the difficulty by omitting several vv., but the 
attempt is not altogether successful. 

I. Shochoh] identified with Shuweikeh, 'a 
strong position isolated from the rest of the 
ridge,' W. of Bethlehem. It was fortified by 
Rehoboam (2Chll 7 ). Azekah] mentioned 
in Josh 1 5 35 in connexion with Shochoh. 

4. Six cubits and a span] about 9^ ft. 

5. Brass] This is really copper : cp. Dt8 9 . 
Five thousand shekels] It is uncertain 

what was the weight of the shekel at this 
time. 6. Target] RY ' javelin.' 10. I defy] 
rather, k I have insulted.' 

12. An old man] It is intended to explain 
why Jesse sent his sons to the war but did 
not go himself. 15. Went and returned] RY 
1 went to and fro.' 

17. Parched com'] ears of corn plucked 
just before they are ripe and roasted in a 
pan or on an iron plate. It is still a common 
article of merchandise. 18. Take their pledge] 
' bring back from them some proof that you 
have fulfilled your mission.' 20. Trench] RY 
' place of the wagons.' It was a rude rampart 
or barricade formed of wagons. 22. His car- 
riage] i.e. what he was carrying: cp. Ac21 15 . 

25. Free] from forced labour or contri- 
butions : cp. 8 llf . 28. The wilderness] an- 
swered to our ' downs ' or ' common.' It was 
land suitable for grazing cattle, but not 
divided up into fields. 

37. The Lord be with thee] RY 'shall 
be.' It is an encouragement rather than a 
prayer. 38. Armed David with his armour] 
RY ' clad David with his apparel.' This was 
probably some close-fitting garment worn 
under the armour, or on occasion without it. 

39. Assayed] LXX ' wearied himself ' : cp. 
Gnl9 n . Proved] He was not accustomed to 
wearing heavy armour, and it soon became 
burdensome. 43. Staves] i.e. with a mere 
stick (v. 40) instead of weapons. 46. In true 
Oriental fashion David replies to the Philis- 
tine's brave words with equally bold language, 
heightened to something far bolder by his 
confidence in Jehovah. 

52. The valley] LXX reads ' Gath.' This 
strong fortress of the Philistines, like that of 
Ekron, checked the pursuit (cp. the end of 
the v.). Gath was not far W. of Shochoh, 
and therefore it would seem that at Shaaraim 
the stream of fugitives would part, some going 
1 on southwards to Gath, others northwards to 
Ekron. 54. Brought it to Jerusalem] But 
Jerusalem was still a non-Hebrew city 
j (2S5 4f -)- A little later we find the sword 
of Goliath at Nob (21 9 ), and hence some 
think that Nob is intended here. Stanley and 
Robinson place Nob on the Mount of Olives. 



Others think that David brought the head of 
Goliath to Jerusalem at a later period (2 S 5 7 ). 
Another reference to Goliath should be 
noted, which implies the existence either of 
other traditions, or of more than one Philistine 
champion of the name (2S21 19 ). 

CHAPTER 18 
The Love of Jonathan for David 
Yv. 6-30 of this c. seem to be connected 
with 16 14-23 and not to be taken from the same 
document as 1 7 x -l 8 5 . LXX omits a large part 
of this section and only retains vv. 6-8 a 12 a 
13-16, 20-21 a 22-26 a 27-29 a . In this case 
the LXX text gives an easy and straight- 
forward account, and many suppose that it is 
the original. But the character of the LXX 
omissions in c. 17 renders this a little doubtful. 

6. Cp. Ex 1520 Jg 1134 p s 6811 (RY). 

7. Played] lit. ' sported.' The word is used 
of festive sports and especially of festal 
dancing : cp. 1 Chi 5 29 . 8. But the kingdom] 
The knowledge of his deposition rankled in 
Saul's mind. 

10. Prophesied] The words 'prophet' and 
' prophesy ' are applied in OT. to the servants 
of the gods of Canaan as well as to the servants 
of Jehovah : cp. IKI8I 9 . The behaviour of 
these Canaanite prophets must have greatly 
resembled the possession of Saul (1K18 28 ). 
The word ' prophesy ' includes such wild out- 
breaks of frenzy as well as the calm utterances 
of Isaiah. In the case of Saul this frenzy was 
regarded as produced by an evil spirit from 
God. 

16. Went out and came in] i.e. lived in an 
open public manner in contrast to Saul's 'seclu- 
sion which was the natural result of his melan- 
choly. 17. Every battle fought by Israel 
was an act of religious worship to Jehovah : 
cp. 25 28 . 18. What is my life] RM ' Who are 
my kinsfolk ? ' The word denotes a division 
of the tribe larger than a 'father's family.' 

21. In the one of the twain] RY ' a second 
time.' It is an example of regal and rather 
caustic wit. The first time was when Merab 
was offered (v. 19). 23. A poor man] This 
would suggest that David's lack of patrimony 
had been made an excuse for not giving Merab 
to him : but see intro. note to the c. This v. is 
plainly inconsistent with vv. 19-21. 

25. Dowry] In ancient times some payment 
was made to the father by the intending bride- 
groom (Gn34 12 Ex 22 1* 3 ), a relic of still earlier 
days, when a wife was either bought from her 
parents or captured from foes. But service 
might be rendered instead of payment in 
money (Gn 29 20 ). 26. And the days were not 
expired] This appears to refer to the time, not 
previously mentioned, within which the exploit 
was to be performed. 28. Michal Saul's 
daughter] LXX ' all Israel.' 



191 



19. 2 



1 SAMUEL 



21. 5 



CHAPTEK 19 

Saul's Hatred of David. David escapes 
to Samuel 

2. Until the morning] RV 'in the morning.' 
6. It was difficult for David to estimate 
correctly Saul's feelings towards him, because 
the king's repentance was real while it lasted, 
and because much might be ascribed to his 
madness. 

io. That night] Davjd would probably flee 
at once : hence LXX may be right in joining 
these words to v. 11, ' And it came to pass that 
night that Saul sent.' 

13. An image] RV ' the teraphim.' ' Tera- 
phim,' like ' Elohim,' is a plural of dignity and 
denotes a single image, but the origin of the 
word is unknown. Such images, derived from 
Canaanite paganism, appear to have been in 
human form and to have varied in size ; for, 
while Michal's could pass for a man, Rachel's 
could be hidden under the camel's furniture 
(Gn31 34 ). Usually, perhaps, the teraphim 
was a half-length image, or a head only. Tera- 
phim were used for the purpose of divination 
(Ezk21 21 Zech 10 2 ), and Rachel probably stole 
her father's teraphim, lest he should discover 
which way she had fled. Pillow of goats' ~kair~\ 
A word from this root occurs in 2K8 15 , so 
that it appears to have been some covering 
made of goats' hair, which was placed over the 
face of a sleeping person, probably to keep off 
the mosquitoes. In this case it served as a 
disguise. For his bolster] RV ' at the head 
thereof.' With a cloth] Heb. ' with the gar- 
ment,' i.e. the mantle, which was regarded as 
the most indispensable article of dress (v. 24) 
by day and was used as a covering by night. 
So Saul's messengers would easily recognise it. 

14. Apparently Michal allowed the messen- 
gers to get some view of the recumbent figure. 

15. Bring him up to me in the bed] As an 
Eastern bed is merely a mattress, this could be 
easily done : cp. Mk2 4 . 17. Michal pretends 
that David coerced her into contriving his 
escape. 

18. Came to Samuel] David naturally turned 
to him for advice and direction. Naioth] Evi- 
dently the name of some locality in Ramah, 
but whether a building or a district it is im- 
possible to determine. 23. Once more the 
influence of the Spirit fell on Saul for his 
good. 24. Naked] i.e. without his outer 
garment : cp. Esa20 8 . la Saul also among the 
prophets?] Bee <>n 10 11 . Observe that the 
religious frenzy is contagions : cp. Intro. §4. 

CHAPTER 20 
The Friendship 01 David and Jonathan 

4. Thy soul] a pathetic periphrasis for 

'thou. 1 

5. The new moon] Many nations of antiquity 

1 



appear to have observed the day of the new 
moon as a religious festival. For its obser- 
vance in Israel cp. 2K4 23 Isal 13 Am8 5 
(where it is coupled with the sabbath) Nu 10 10 . 
Yv. 25 and 27 imply that David, like Abner, 
ate regularly at Saul's table. 6. A yearly 
sacrifice] This refers to the ordinary annual 
festival of the family. Such family festivals 
were very widespread both among European 
and Semitic peoples. 8. A covenant of the 
LORD] i.e. in which God had been invoked as 
a witness and the breach of which He would 
punish. 

1 2. About to morrow any time] R V ' about 
this time to-morrow.' Or the third day'] pro- 
bably a gloss. 

14, 15. That I die not: but also] LXX has 
an attractive reading: ' If I die, thou shalt not 
cut off thy kindness': cp. 2S9 1 . 

16. At the hand of David's enemies] David's 
enemies are a euphemism for David himself. 
Jonathan shrinks from invoking retribution 
on his friend or suggesting in so many words 
the possibility of his breaking the covenant. 

19. Thou shalt go down quickly] LXX 
reads ' Thou shalt be greatly missed,' and the 
whole clause means ' thou shalt be greatly 
missed on the third day.' The business] i.e. 
some matter well known to David and Jona- 
than. The stone Ezel] LXX ' this mound.' 

25. Jonathan arose, and Abner sat] Jonathan 
gave up his rightful place and Abner took it. 

26. He is not clean] i.e. some ceremonial 
defilement has happened to him which prevents 
him from sharing in the festival: cp. Jnl8 28 . 

30. Mother's nakedness] She would become 
the wife of the new king : cp. 2 S 12 8. 41 . Out 
of a place toward the south] LXX ' from 
beside the mound.' 

CHAPTER 21 

The Flight of David 

David first of all flees to Nob, where Ahime- 
lech supplies him with food and gives him the 
sword of Goliath. He next takes refuge with 
Achish at Gath. 

1. Nob] see on 17 6 *. Alone] He had no 
escort or retinue. 

3. Better, k Now, therefore, what is under 
thine hand? Five loaves ? Give them into 
mine hand.' 4. Hallowed bread] i.e. the shew- 
bread. It was removed every sabbath and 
fresh loaves substituted. 

5. Better, 'of a truth women have been 
kept from as as is usual, when I go on an 
expedition.' The bread is in a manner com- 
mon] The meaning is obscure. RV ' though 
it was bni a common journey ; how much more 
then to-day shall their vessels be holy?' i.e. 
their wallets and utensils were clean when 
they started and there had been no chance of 
defiling them since, although their journey was 
an 



21. 6 



1 SAMUEL 



25. 8 



an ordinary one. Ewald understands 'the 
vessels ' to refer to the young men's bodies, as 
in lTh4 4 . They were ceremonially clean, so 
that they might partake of holy things. 

6. This incident was referred to by our 
Lord (Mtl23). 

io. Fled that day] He feared that Doeg 
would give information and that pursuit would 
begin at once. Gath] This connexion with 
Gath brought David some of his most faithful 
followers. 13. Feigned himself mad] to allay 
suspicion. Easterns have a religious awe of 
madness and would not think of injuring those 
so afflicted. Scrabbled] i.e. scratched, made 
meaningless marks. LXX ' beat,' ' drummed ' 
is much more forcible. 15. In my presence] 
rather, ' to my annoyance.' 

CHAPTEE 22 
David in the Cave of Adullam. Saul's 
Slaughter of the Priests at Nob 
1. Adullam] probably in the valley of Elah 
between Philistia and Hebron. 2. Four hun- 
dred] They soon increased to six hundred 
(23 13 ). Cp. the description given of Jephthah's 
band in Jg 1 1 3 . 

5. Gad] is here mentioned for the first 
time. After David's accession he became the 
king's seer (2S24 11 ). He was sent to rebuke 
David for his sin in numbering the people, and 
after his death wrote a history of his reign 
(lCh29 29 ). From 2Ch29 25 he appears to 
have been concerned in arranging the temple 
service. Forest of Hareth] not known. 

6. In Ramah] RM k on the height.' 

14. Goeth at thy bidding] RV k is taken into 
thy council.' 15. Did I then begin?] RV'Have 
I to-day begun ? ' Ahimelech had been accus- 
tomed to place his services at David's disposal. 

17. Footmen] Heb. 'runners'; they ran 
'before the king's chariot (8 n ) and sometimes 
carried news from one place to another. On 
occasion they acted as executioners, but this 
was not their special office. 19. Saul probably 
wished to make an example which would deter 
others from rendering David any assistance. 

20. Abiathar shared in all David's wander- 
ings and was made by him joint priest with 
Zadok. But he shared in Adonijah's rising 

d was deposed by Solomon. 

CHAPTER 23 
David delivers Keilah and afterwards 

1 retires to the wilderness of zlph 
AND MAON 
6. With an ephod in his hand] This is in- 
serted to explain how it was that David was 
able to enquire of the Lord : see on 14 18 . 

9. Secretly practised] RV ' devised.' There 
was no secrecy about Saul's methods. 

14. Ziph] identified with Tell Zif, a rounded 



hill, 4 m. SE. of Hebron. 15. In a wood] 
13 



RM ' in Horesh.' But the true rendering is 
doubtful. If a proper name, it was more pro- 
bably a mountain than a wood (cp. vv. 14, 19), 
and the word may mean either. 17. That 
also] Saul knew that Jonathan was willing to 
rank second. 

19. Jeshimon] RV ' the desert.' It is the 
dreary desert of southern Judah : see Nu 2 1 20 . 

25. Maon] mentioned in Joshl5 55 in con- 
nexion with Carmel and Ziph. It is a lofty 
conical hill 7 m. S. of Hebron. 28. Sela- 
hammahlekoth] i.e. ' the rock of divisions.' 

29. This v. should be joined to the next c. 

En-gedi] A well-watered spot on the E. 
edge of the desert of Judah. It still bears the 
name Ain Jidi. ' En ' means ' well.' 

CHAPTER 24 

David spares Saul's Life at Engedi 

We have a similar incident narrated in c. 26, 
and some critics hold that the two are merely 
varying accounts of the same event. But it 
is to be noticed that almost every detail that 
could vary, does vary. Nor is there any diffi- 
culty in supposing that David spared Saul's 
life twice. 

2. Rocks of the wild goats] Some cliffs 
near Engedi, so called because wild goats 
congregated there. They are still numerous 
in this district. 3. Sheepcotes] These were 
rough, stone walls, built to protect the sheep 
from wild beasts. Thomson writes : ' There is 
scarcely a cave in the land . . but has such a 
cote in front of it.' 

4. It is probable that we should translate 
' Behold the day on which the Lord saith to 
thee, ' i.e. they interpret the opportunity as a 
manifest sign of God's intention that Saul 
should be slain. 7. Stayed] The word is a 
very strong one and shows that David had to 
exert all his authority. 10. Rather, ' The 
Lord delivered thee to-day into mine hand 
and bade me kill thee ': see on v. 4. 19. The 
LORD reward thee good] Gleams of his former 
high character still show themselves in Saul. 

CHAPTER 25 

Death of Samuel. The Incident of 

Nabal. David and Abigail 

1. Paran] That part of the desert between 
Sinai and Palestine which bordered on Judah. 

2. Possessions] rather, ' occupation,' ' busi- 
ness.' Carmel] see on 15 12 . Great] has 
frequently the meaning of ' rich ' : cp. 2 S 19 32 . 

Shearing his sheep] A special occasion for 
festivity and entertainment : cp. v. 36, 2S 13 23 . 

Of the house of Caleb] This district of the 
S. of Judah had been conquered and settled 
by Caleb. It is called ' the south of Caleb ' 
in 30 14 . 6. To him that liveth in prosperity'} 
Yulgate has ' to my brethren.' 8. A good 
day] This is the ordinary Heb. phrase for a 



193 



25. 11 



1 SAMUEL 



28. 3 



festival. II. My water] Water is precious 
in these dry lands : cp. Jg 1 15 . But LXX 
reads ' my wine.' 

1 6. A wall] The protection from Arab 
robbers deserved some recognition from those 
who lived near the desert. Precisely the same 
demand is made at present by Bedouin sheikhs 
living on the borders of civilisation. 25. Folly] 
i.e. wrong-headed and foolish obstinacy and 
churlishness. The Heb. is the feminine form 
of 'Nabal': cp. 2S333. 27. Blessing] RY 
' present ' : cp. 30 26ra *- Gn33 n . 28. Fighteth 
the battles of the LORD] David had rescued 
the inhabitants of Keilah from the Philistines 
(23 5 ), and protected the dwellers in the S. of 
Judah from the desert nomads (v. 16). 

29. A man] The reference is to Saul. 

Bound] i.e. safely bound up, so that not one 
is lost. In the bundle of life] rather, ' in the 
bundle of the living,' i.e. in the number of 
those whose lives are guarded and protected 
by God. With] ' in the custody of.' 

31. Causeless] Abigail ventures to hint that 
Nabal's answer was not a sufficient reason for 
the vengeance David proposed to take. 

33. Thy advice] RY ' thy wisdom.' 

39. Communed with Abigail] RY ' spake 
concerning.' It is the technical term for ' ask- 
ing any one's hand in marriage ' : cp. Song 8 8 . 

44. Saul considered that David, as an out- 
law, had forfeited his wife. But David him- 
self never acknowledged this, and claimed 
Michal as his wife as soon as he had the 
power (2 S3 14 ). 

CHAPTER 26 
David spares Saul's Life a Second Time 

1. Hachilah] near the wilderness of Ziph : 
see 23 19 . 4. Was come in very deed] Heb. 
' was come to Nakon.' Nakon = ' a set place ' 
(RM), though it may have been the corruption 
of a place-name, such as Maon. 

6. Hittite] So he belonged to one of the 
original inhabitants of the country. We 
might expect to find some of them among 
David's followers : cp. 22 2 . Uriah, another 
Hittite, played an important part in David's 
history. Abishai] is here mentioned for the 
first time. He saved David's life in one of 
the Philistine wars (2S21 17 ), was implicated 
in the murder of Abner (2 S3 30 ), shared the 
command of the army (2S 10 10 ), and remained 
faithful to David in Absalom's rebellion. 

8. At once] RV l at one stroke.' 

19. Let him accept an offering] cp.Gn-l 7 . 
The idea in this v. is simply that if Jehovah 
had prompted Saul's action. Saul was doing 

right, and I)a\i<l would seek pardon by an 
offering. Go, serve other gods] This seems to 
suggest that David limited the rule of Jeho- 
vah to the land of Israel as tin- Pllle of Che- 
mosh was limited to Moab : cp. Jephthah's 



reference to Chemosh in Jg 1 1 24 . In the older 
Hebrew thought, Jehovah was specially pre- 
sent in Palestine (though cp. Jg5 4 ). Hence 
it seemed difficult and almost impossible to 
worship the true God in a heathen land, since 
when a Hebrew became naturalised elsewhere, 
he would conform to the religion of his new 
home. 

20. Before the face] RY 'away from the 
presence of,' i.e. let not my blood be shed 
without Jehovah requiring it : cp. Gn4 10 . 

A flea] LXX ' my soul.' The Heb. reading 
is due to a recollection of 24 14 . 

CHAPTER 27 

David flees to Gath, and obtains Ziklag 

from achish 

2. David's position now as the captain of 
600 men was quite different from what it was 
in 21 10f . 7. A full year and four months] 
The phrase probably means ' about four 
months,' lit. ' days and four months.' 

8 The Geshurites] were the inhabitants of 
a district in the S. of Philistia : see Joshl3 2 . 
They must not be confused with the Geshurites 
who lived E. of the Jordan. The tribes men- 
tioned here were constant enemies of Israel 
whom David took the opportunity to exter- 
minate. 9. Left] The tense of the verb de- 
notes David's habitual practice. He never left 
any one alive to tell the tale. 

10. Made a road] RY 'made a raid.' The 
south of the Jerahmeelites] Jerahmeel was one 
of the divisions of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch2 9 ). 
The barren south was naturally named after the 
fertile lands on which it bordered : the ' south 
of Judah,' ' of Jerahmeel,' and so on. The 
deception was that Achish understood that 
David had smitten the Hebrew inhabitants of 
the lands bordering on the desert, whereas he 
had smitten the nomad tribes who dwelt in 
the actual desert. 11. To bring tidings to 
Gath] RY 'to bring them to Gath' in order to 
sell them as slaves.' So will be his manner] 
RY ' so hath been his manner all the while he 
hath dwelt.' 

CHAPTER 2 

Saul and the Witch of Endor 
Yv. 3-25 come from another document and 
interrupt the connexion, as will be seen if 
the account is read without them. In order 
of time their proper position is after c. 30. 
In 29 1 the Philistines are still in Aphek ; in 
29 n they advance to Jezreel, where we find 
them in 28*. In 28 s * 28 we have come to the 
eve of the battle, the account of which follows 
in c. 31. 2. Keeper of mine head] i.e. captain 
of my body-guard. 

3. This v. is inserted to explain what follows, 
By familiar spirits (Heb. o/>)some form of witch' 
crafl is intended. In v. 7 the woman is said to 



194 



28. 4 



1 SAMUEL 



31.13 



be 'the mistress of an ob.' In Lv20 27 the ob 
is said to be in the man or woman : cp.2K23 24 . 

The wizards] From Lv 20 27 it is quite clear 
that this word denotes not the magician, but 
the spirit controlled by the magician. It is 
often joined to ' ob,' and means, etymologically, 
' possessed of knowledge,' (i.e. of the future or 
the unseen) : cp. our modern clairvoyants. 

4. Shunem] in the plain of Jezreel, 4 m. 
from Mt. Gilboa. Gilboa] a mountain range 
on the E. side of the valley of Jezreel. 

6. Dreams] These are always regarded in 
the Bible as one method of divine revelation : 
see NuTi 6 . Urim] see on Ex28 30 . The ephod 
and the Urim had gone down with Abiathar 
to David (23 6 ). Prophets] We may compare 
with this 15 35 . The action of Samuel was 
apparently followed by the rest of the pro- 
phets. 7. En-dor] -4 m. S. of Mt. Tabor, and 
10 m. from Mt. Gilboa. 

11, 12. This woman would seem to have 
been what is now called a ' medium ' ; she 
sees (very possibly having become entranced) 
a figure, and Saul from her description at 
once concludes that it is Samuel. Yery possi- 
bly Saul saw nothing at all ; the words he 
heard may have come from the woman. In- 
deed, the LXX translator (who very probably 
knew as much about such matters as we do) 
wishing to mark that the words really came 
from the woman in her trance, spoke of her 
as a ventriloquist : cp. also Acl6 16 , where the 
girl, liable to fall into a state of secondary 
consciousness, is said to have a ' spirit of 
divination.' To attribute words so spoken 
to a spirit either internal or external to the 
medium, was the only course possible to a 
Hebrew or Jewish narrator. 

13. Gods] EY ' a god,' for Saul immedi- 
ately said, ' What form is he of ? ' We must 
remember that Elohim in Hebrew is more 
general than the word ' god ' is with us, and is, 
in fact, used generally for l supernatural beings,' 
or even 'spirits' : see Ps82 6 . 16. Is become 
thine enemy] LXX ' is on the side of thy neigh- 
bour.' This is based on a probable emendation. 
If ' neighbour ' is right, it must be taken in the 
sense of ' rival ' (which originally meant almost 
the same thing). 17. To him] LXX ' to thee.' 

19. Moreover. . the Philistines] LXX omits. 
To morrow shalt thou and thy sons be with 
me] i.e. in Sheol, the place of departed spirits. 

CHAPTER 29 

David Disallowed from Fighting with 

the Philistines 

1. Jezreel] the plain between Gilboa and 

Little Hermon. 3. He fell unto me~] i.e. 

' deserted to me.' 

4. An adversary] Heb. satan. Satan, the 
evil spirit, is always entitled ' the Satan,' i.e.. 
the Adversary (Jobl 2Zech3 1 ). 



6. As the LORD liveth] Achish would recog- 
nise that Jehovah was the national god of 
Israel and that He existed as well as Dagon 
(cp. IK 17 12). 

11. The Philistines went up to Jezreel] The 
Philistines could not attack Saul's position on 
Mt. Gilboa from Shunem (28 4 ), and accordingly 
they went round Jezreel to attack by the easier 
slopes there. 

CHAPTER 30 

The Amalekites raid Ziklag, and are 
pursued by David 

2. Slew not any] They would be valuable 
as slaves. 6. Spake of stoning him] They 
probably thought he had been negligent in 
leaving Ziklag without a guard. 8. Enquired 
at the LORD] by means of the Urim in the 
ephod: see on Ex 28 30 . 13. My master left 
me] The life of a slave was of little more 
importance than that of a horse. 

14. The Cherethites] Cherethite is used 
with Pelethite, perhaps another name for 
Philistine : see v. 16 and Zeph2 5 . It is very 
possibly connected with Crete, the country 
from which the Philistines were believed to 
have come (Am 9 7 ). David had the capacity 
of turning foes into faithful friends and 
soldiers. 16. Dancing] RV 'feasting,' i.e. 
enjoying themselves merrily. 17. Twilight] 
This is probably the evening twilight. 

20. The LXX has no word corresponding 
to ' David ' : ' and they took all the sheep and 
oxen (i.e. those belonging to the Amalekites) 
and drave them before the other cattle (i.e. 
those belonging to David's followers) and said, 
This is David's spoil.' In repentance for 
their former attitude (v. 6), they resolved only 
to keep what had been taken from them by 
the Amalekites, and to surrender the other 
spoil to David. 

26. He sent of the spoil] In gratitude for 
their goodwill when he was a hunted outlaw. 
David's action was also due to policy. He 
wished them to be ready to accept his rule, 
when the time came. 

CHAPTER 31 

Defeat of the Israelites at Mt. Gilboa. 

Death of Saul 

6. And all his men] LXX omits. 7. The 

valley] of Jezreel. 10. The house of Ash- 

taroth] atAskelon: cp. 2S1 20 . 

Beth-shan] between the Gilboa and little 
Hermon ranges. 11. They thus showed their 
gratitude for former kindness : see c. 11. 

12. Burnt them] The action of the men of 
Jabesh was probably due to their fear that the 
Philistines would remove the bodies. 

13. Under a tree] RY 'under the tamarisk 
tree.' It was evidently some well-known tree : 
cp.Gn35 4 Jg45. 



195 



1.1 



2 SAMUEL 



2.9 



2 SAMUEL 



CHAPTER 1 

The Lament of David over Saul and 
Jonathan 

i . There is no break between the two books 
of Samuel ; they really form one continuous 
narrative. This v. is a continuation of 1 S30, 
which describes David's successful attack upon 
Ziklag. He had not heard of the events 
narrated in 1 S31. 

2. With his clothes rent, etc.] In 1S4 12 , 
which describes the arrival of the messenger 
at Shiloh with tidings of the capture of the 
ark, these were the same indications that he 
was the bearer of evil tidings. 

8, 9. The Amalekite's account contradicts 
1 S 31 4 and is also improbable in itself . The 
man was probably lying in the hope of curry- 
ing favour with David. 10. For the practice 
of wearing signs of royalty, when going into 
battle, see 1 K22 30 . Bracelet] In the Assyrian 
sculptures warriors are often represented with 
such ornaments. 

18. The use of the bow] RY ' the song of 
the bow,' lit. ' the bow.' The text of this v. 
is doubtful, but if the words are right, ' the 
bow ' will be the title of the lamentation 
following. There is, however, no warrant for 
this in Hebrew usage. Some see an allusion 
to v. 22, ' the bow of Jonathan.' The book of 
Jasher] RV ' Jashar,' mentioned also in Josh 
10 13 . It was apparently a book of martial or 
historical poetry. Jashar is probably a name 
of Israel. We get it in Dt32 15 under the 
form Jeshurun : the word properly means 
' righteous.' 

21. Fields of offerings] fields bearing pro- 
duce, from which firstfruits are offered. Not 
. . anointed with oil] It is doubtful if this 
refers to Saul or his shield. Shields were 
greased to preserve the leather and to prevent 
spears from sticking: cp. Isa21 5 . 

22. In this figurative language, the bow is 
represented as drinking the blood of the slain 
and the sword as eating the fat of the mighty: 
cp. Dt32*2 Isa34'\ Turned not back] i.e. 
empty, as the parallel clause shows. 

24. Scarlet . . gold] These were the ordinary 
ornaments of a Hebrew woman: cp. Jer4 30 . 

25. O Jonathan, thou wcut slain in thine high 
places] RV 'Jonathan is slain upon thy high 
places.' The address is bo [srael. 

27. The weapons of war] The parallel 
clause shows thai these are Saul and Jonathan 

themselves, regarded as the sword ami how of 



the nation. It is remarkable that this poem 
makes no distinction between Saul and Jona- 
than, but praises the courage, the success, and 
the patriotism of both alike. The gloomy 
picture of Saul given in the later chs. of 1 Sam 
must not be allowed to efface the courage and 
determination of his struggle with Israel's 
foes. On the other hand, the genuine grief 
expressed in this lament (which cannot be 
anything else than authentic) over the father 
as well as the son, shows David's chivalry in 
a very pleasing light. 

CHAPTER 2 
David made King over Judah, Ish- 
eosheth over israel. asahel slain 

BY ABNER 

I. Shall I go up?] The defeat and death of 
Saul had entirely changed David's position. 
He had, for some time to come, nothing to 
fear from Abner, who was occupied elsewhere 
(vv. 8, 9). The Philistines would not molest 
him, as he was their vassal. But even so, he 
asks G-od's wishes, before he takes the decisive 
step. Hebron] There were several reasons 
which rendered Hebron suitable. It was 
fairly central, was a celebrated town, and 
David had friends there (1S30 31 ). It was 
14 m. distant from his birthplace, Bethlehem. 
No other town in Judah, while Jerusalem was 
still in Canaanite hands, had the same claim. 

5. This was probably an attempt to gain 
over Jabesh-gilead, the capital of eastern 
Palestine, and to add the trans- Jordanic tribes 
to his little kingdom of Judah. If so, it failed 
for the present. But during his flight from 
Absalom, it was in eastern Palestine that 
David found refuge. 

8. Ish-bosheth] His name was really Esh- 
baal (1 Ch833) i.e. ' man of Baal.' The name 
Baal means ' lord,' and so could be used for 
Jehovah (Hos2 16 ), but afterwards it was 
confused with the Canaanite Baal and altered 
to Bosheth, i.e. 'Shame': cp. Mephibosheth. 
Ish-bosheth was the fourth son of Saul, and 
now that his three elder brothers were slain 
(1S31 6 ). he became the heir to the throne : 
see on . r >-°. Mahanaim] was David's capital 
during his flight from Absalom (17 24 ). 

9. The Ashurites] This is doubtless a 
mistake; for Asher. Abner first gained pos- 
session of eastern Palestine, then of Asher in 
the extreme north of western Palestine, next 
<>l the great central plain of Issachar, then of 
the hill-country of Ephraim and Benjamin. 



196 



2. 10 



2 SAMUEL 



3. 35 



By this time his master's dominions touched 
those of David, and before long a collision 
occurred (vv. 12, 13). 

io. Forty years old] This number is 
probably wrong. David was 30 years old 
when he began to reign (5 4 ), and Jonathan 
would be about the same age or a little 
younger. Ish-bosheth would be younger still. 
Probably we should read 20 for 40. In old 
Hebrew writing, the numbers would be much 
alike. 

io, ii. Two years. . seven years and six 
months] Either it was five years and six 
months after the death of Ish-bosheth before 
the Israelites would accept David, or it took 
Abner that length of time to establish his 
master's son as king (v. 9). 

13. The pool of Gibeon] Gibeon was a 
large and important town (JoshlO 2 ), 5 m. IN". 
of Jerusalem. The pool still exists. Robin- 
son mentions it as an open pool 120 ft. long 
by 100 broad. 14. Play] As this word is 
not used elsewhere of fighting, a preliminary 
contest to the serious battle must be intended. 

16. Helkath-hazzurim] i.e. 'Field of sharp 
edges.' 23. The hinder end of the spear] 
Abner did not wish to kill him. The spear 
had a sharp point by which it was stuck into 
the ground. Stood still] out of grief at the 
sight: cp. 20 12 . 

27. The AY and R Y represent two different 
explanations : (a) If Abner had not spoken, 
the pursuit would have continued till the 
morning, (b) If Abner had not proposed the 
mimic fight, there would have been no battle 
at all. The former explanation seems prefer- 
able. 28. Neither fought they any more] 
i.e. on that day, for see 3 1 . 29. All that 
night] for fear of pursuit. The plain] RY 
1 the Arabah,' i.e. the valley of the Jordan. 

Bithron] the name of some ravine they 
passed through on their way. 32. All night] 
i.e. all the night after the burial. 

CHAPTER 3 

Abner is treacherously Murdered 

by Joab 

3. Chileab] We read nothing more of him 
and he probably died as a child. In lCh3 1 
he is called Daniel. Geshur] a kingdom on 
the border of Bashan, where Absalom after- 
wards took refuge (13 37 ). It must not be 
confused with the Geshur of 1S27 8 . 

4. Adonijah] see 1K1. 

7. Rizpah] see 21 s ' 11 . Gone in unto my 
father's concubine] According to Eastern ideas 
this was equivalent to laying claim to the 
throne: see 12« 16 22 1K222. 8. Am I a 
dog's head, which against Judah ?] RY ' Am I 
a dog's head that belongeth to Judah ? ' i.e. a 
despised enemy. Do shew kindness this day] 
RY ' This day ' (i.e. at the very time you bring 



this trivial charge) ' do I shew kindness ' : see 
on v. 17. This woman] LXX ' a woman.' It 
was the question of a mere woman. 9. Except 
. . even so I do to him] RY l if . . I do not 
even so to him,' i.e. support David instead of 
Ish-bosheth. 12. On his behalf] RM 'where 
he was.' Whose is the land ? saying] LXX 
omits. 13. Except thou first bring Michal] 
see 1S25 44 . 16. Bahurim] in Benjamin, on 
the road from Jerusalem to the Jordan. It 
was probably the last town in the dominions 
of Ish-bosheth. 

17. Ye sought for David] It would thus 
seem that even in northern Israel there was 
a strong party, who wished to make David 
king on the death of Saul. It was probably 
the personal influence of Abner that decided 
the day in favour of Ish-bosheth. The whole 
passage clearly shows how weak was the 
hereditary principle, and how completely the 
' king ' was still regarded merely as a military 
leader and ' judge.' The element of popular 
choice is more fully emphasised here than in 
Judges (except for the Abimelech episode). 

19. Benjamin] as being Saul's fellow- tribes- 
men they would be specially attached to the 
royal house and need additional persuasion. 

21. Make a league with thee] as they did 
with Saul (1S10 25 ) and as they tried to do 
with Rehoboam (1K12 4 ). Before making 
him king, they wished to see their rights safe- 
guarded. 22. From pursu'mg a troop] RY 
' from a foray.' David had probably arranged 
a time when Joab was absent. 24. Why is 
it that thou hast sent him away ?] As a kins- 
man of Asahel, Joab thought that David 
should have avenged his death. 

27. For the blood of Asahel his brother] 
According to Eastern ideas Joab was bound 
to avenge his brother's murder. Neither 
Judaism, Christianity, nor Mohammedanism 
has been able to eradicate this feeling. But 
the Law provided a remedy in the Cities of 
Refuge (see Nu 35 n f -). In the case before us, 
Joab was probably influenced by the fear that 
Abner would interfere with his authority : 
see on 8 1 *. 

29. On all his father's house] According to 
Jewish ideas the family was involved in the 
fate of the ancestor : cp. 2 1 6 2 K 5 27 . Leaneth 
on a staff] rather, ' that holdeth the spindle ' : 
cp. Prov31 19 . It was despicable work for a 
man. 31. Mourn before Abner] i.e. precede 
the bier. This was all the punishment David 
was strong enough to inflict. 33. Died Abner 
as a fool dieth ?] i.e. as one who runs into 
needless danger, or meets his death when en- 
gaged in a shameful conspiracy : see on 1 S 25 25 . 

35. Till the sun be down] The regular time 
for ending a fast, as it still is in Mohammedan 
countries. The Hebrew day was reckoned 
from sunset to sunset. 



197 



4.2 



2 SAMUEL 



5.25 



CHAPTER 4 
The Murder of Ish-bosheth 

2, 3. Beeroth was near Gibeon. The object 
of this note is to explain how the Beerothites 
came to be Benjamites. Properly they should 
have been Canaanites, for Beeroth was included 
in the treaty with Gibeon (Josh 9 17 > 27 ). But 
owing to the persecution of Saul (21 2 ) the 
Canaanites of Beeroth fled to Gittaim, and 
the town passed into the possession of Benja- 
min. Gittaim] in Benjamin. 

4. Mephibosheth] His name is given in 
1 Ch8 34 as 'Merib-baal' : see on 2». 5. Who 
lay on a bed at noon] rather, ' and he was 
taking his noon-tide rest,' or siesta. 

6. The LXX has an altogether different 
text for this v., ' and, behold, the woman who 
kept the door of the house was winnowing 
wheat, and she slumbered and slept ; and the 
brothers, Rechab and Baanah, escaped notice.' 
This explains how it was they were able to 
enter unperceived. 10. Who thought that I 
would have given him] better, 'in order to 
give him.' 12. Chronicles omits all mention 
of the reign of Ish-bosheth. 

CHAPTER 5 

David is anointed King, captures 

Jerusalem, and smites the Philistines 

1. There was no longer any member of the 
house of Saul who could take the lead. 

2. Feed] lit. 'act as shepherd to' (cp. 7 7 ). 
' Shepherd ' became a technical term for a 
ruler (Jer3 15 ). The figure is developed in 
Ezk34. 

4. The capture of Jerusalem marks a most 
important point in the history of Israel. 
Hitherto, the national life had had no real 
centre ; the residence of a judge or a prophet 
or a king would be a temporary rallying place, 
such as the ' palm-tree of Deborah,' Shiloh 
(see on 1S7 1 ), Mizpah, Gibeah (of Saul), Nob 
or Hebron. From this time, the centre is 
fixed, and, at least for the southern kingdom, 
all the other cities grew less and less important 
in comparison with the new capital. Its 
position, however, in the midst of the rocky, 
barren ridge running down central Palestine, 
made it always more suitable for a fortress 
than a commercial and wealthy capital, such 
as Solomon tried to make it. 

6. Except thou take away the blind and the 
lame] RM ' but the blind and the lame shall 
turn thee away.' The Jebusites considered 
their city so strong that it needed no other 
defenders. 

7. The strong hold of Zion] called later on 
the 'city' (i.e. citadel) 'of David,' because he 
built and fortified it. It is to be noticed that 
the city of David does not mean the city of 
Jerusalem but the fort on Mt. Zion. David 



does not yet venture to live in Jerusalem 
itself, outside the fort. 

The city of Jerusalem is built on high 
ground, which is shaped like a cloven tongue ; 
and it is probable that the ' city of David ' 
occupied the eastern ' tip,' behind which rose 
in later times the Temple. Gradually the city 
spread to the western 'tip' of the tongue. 
' Millo ' appears to be the name of the part of 
the city which was not fortified ; its meaning 
is uncertain ; later on it also was included 
within the fortifications. The original ' city 
of David ' is thus a triangle, two sides of 
which are naturally protected, and the third, 
probably at this time, as later, artificially. 
Below the height on which the fort is built 
is the Kidron valley. 

8. LXX reads ' Whosoever smites the 
Jebusite, let him slay with the sword both the 
lame and the blind, and those who hate David's 
soul.' 1 Ch 1 1 6 ' 9 reads, ' "Whosoever smiteth 
the Jebusites first shall be chief and captain,' 
and adds, ' And Joab the son of Zeruiah went 
up first, and was made chief ' (RV). 9. Millo] 
see on v. 7 and Jg9 6 . 

11. Hiram] If we accept the statements of 
Josephus, this Hiram was the father of 
Solomon's friend (IK 5 1 ). Tyre] the leading 
city of Phoenicia. They built] For the skill 
of the Phoenicians in masonry and building 
see 1K57. 

14-16. The list of David's sons is given 
also in lCh3 5f - 14 4f . The variations are 
interesting and instructive. 14. Nathan] one 
of the ancestors of the Messiah (Lk3 31 ). 

17. This was a united and determined effort 
to crush David before he became too powerful. 

The hold] It is uncertain what place is 
meant. 18. The valley of Rephaim] a valley 
SW. of Jerusalem, separated by a slight, 
rocky ridge from the valley of Hinnom. 

20. Baal-perazim] Perazim means 'breaches.' 
Hence the play upon words. ' The Lord has 
made a breach . . like the breach . . he called 
the name . . Breaches.' It is common to find 
the names of places compounded with the 
name of the Baal to whom they were con- 
sidered to belong : e.g. Baal-Peor, Baal-Gad, 
Baal-Perazim. Here the Baal is, of course, 
Jehovah. 21. Their images] They had 
brought them into the battle to secure victory: 
cp. IS 43. Burned them] RV ' took them 
away,' i.e. as trophies. 

23. Thou shalt not go up] LXX adds ' to 
meet them.' 24. The sound of a going] 
RV ' the sound of marching.' It was the 
heavenly host marching to join in the attack 
on the Philistines. 

25. Geba] LXX and Chronicles both have 
Gibeon, which is doubtless correct. This battle 
is apparently referred to in Isa28 21 , where 
also we have Gibeon. 



98 



6.1 



2 SAMUEL 



8. 1 



CHAPTER 6 



The bringing of the Ark from Kirjath- 
jearim to Jerusalem 

i. Again] This probably refers to the 
previous assembling of the chosen men of 
Israel to repel the Philistine invasion (5 22 * 25 ). 

2. From Baale of Judah] should probably be 
' to Baal of Judah ' (1 Ch 13 6 ). The town was 
also known as Kirjath-baal (City of Baal). 

3. Out of the house of Abinadab] It had 
been there ever since its removal from Beth- 
shemesh (1 S 7 1). In Gibeah] RV ' in the hill.' 
Kirjath-jearim was situated on high ground. 

5. On all manner of instruments made of fir 
wood] Read with Chronicles ' with all their 
might, even with songs.' 

7. He died] If this punishment seem severe, 
we must remember that one great lesson the 
Israelites had to learn was reverence and fear 
of God. The whole symbolism of both 
Tabernacle and Temple was intended to 
impress upon them the holiness of God and 
the fact that He could not be rashly approached 
by sinful man. 10. Gittite] The later tradition 
(1 Ch 15 1S ) makes him a Levite. If this is 
correct, he probably came from Gath-rimmon, 
a Levitical city (Josh 2 1 25 ). 

13. When they . . had gone six paces] They 
offered sacrifices as soon as it was seen that 
God permitted the removal of the ark. 

17. The tabernacle] This translation, though 
correct, is misleading. It was an ordinary 
tent. The Tabernacle was at Gibeon. Burnt 
offerings] represented the self-dedication of 
the worshipper. Peace offerings] were sacri- 
fices of thanksgiving. 19. A flagon of wine] 
RV ' a cake of raisins.' 

23. David thus inflicted on Michal the 
greatest disgrace which could befall an Eastern 
woman. This condemnation seems to our 
minds extreme ; but such sudden impulses 
were characteristic of David. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Promise of God to David in 
Requital of his Desire to Build the 
Temple 

This c. affords an excellent illustration of 
the way in which prophecy has often two quite 
distinct applications, one to the more imme- 
diate and the other to the more distant 
future. The primary reference is to Solomon 
(see especially vv. 12-14), but the prophecy 
looks beyond him to a greater Son, of whom 
he was only an emblem and type. We get a 
somewhat similar instance in Isa7 14 " 17 (see 
especially v. 16). Chronologically this c. 
should follow c. 8. 

2. Nathan] The prophet is here mentioned 
for the first time. He played an important 
part in David's reign (chs. 7,12,1K1) and 



afterwards wrote a history of it, and of part, 
at least, of the reign of Solomon. Curtains] 
i.e. a tent: see on 6 17 . 3. This v., when read 
in connexion with vv. 4, 5f., is important as 
showing the difference between the prophet 
as an ordinary man and the prophet as the 
spokesman of God: cp. 1 Cor7 6 > 10 > 12 . 

5. Shalt thou build] LXX « Thou shalt not 
build.' ' But his son shall ' (v. 13). According 
to 1 Ch22 8 the prohibition was connected with 
his having been a man of war. 6. Whereas] 
RV ' for.' This v. gives the reason why David 
was not to build. In a tent and in a tabernacle] 
The tent denotes the outer covering : the taber- 
nacle the framework of boards and bars. 

7. Tribes] Chronicles has preserved the 
true reading 'judges' (lChl7 6 ). 9. Have 
made] RV ' will make.' Nathan turns from 
the past to the future. 11. Also the LORD 
telleth thee] The revelation turns to David's 
posterity. 

12. In Ac2 30 this v. is directly referred to 
the Messiah. 13. He shall build an house] 
fulfilled in the person of Solomon (1K8 16 " 20 ). 
I will stablish the throne of his kingdom 
for ever] On this is based the statement in 
Lkl 33 . 14. I will be his father, and he shall 
be my son] In Heb 1 5 this is applied to Christ, 
who was God's Son in a sense that Solomon 
never was. If he commit iniquity] History 
records many instances of the transgressions 
and punishment of David's posterity. The rod 
of men] Such chastisement as fathers inflict 
on their sons. 16. Before thee] LXX and 
Chronicles ' before me.' For ever] The pro- 
mise was conditional on conduct : but the king- 
dom of Messiah, David's greatest Son, is eternal. 

19. Is this the manner of man] rather, 'this 
is the law of (i.e. imposed on) man.' God has 
made it a law regulating men's conduct, that 
kind intentions should be recognised and re- 
quited. But it was a sign of condescension 
that God should consider Himself bound to 
reward David's zeal by such proofs of regard 
and affection. 21. For thy word's sake] i.e. 
to perform the promise made to David through 
Samuel. 

23. To render this v. intelligible we must 
do two things: (a) with LXX omit the words 
' for you,' (b) with Chronicles change ' for thy 
land ' into ' drive out.' Render, therefore, ' and 
to do great things and terrible, to drive out 
nations and their gods before thy people, 
which thou redeemedst to thee from Egypt.' 

CHAPTER 8 
David's Victories, and a List of his 

Officers 
This c. concludes this account of David's 
reign. The remainder of the book is taken 
from a different source. 

1. Metheg-ammah] RV ' the bridle of the 



199 



8.2 



2 SAMUEL 



10.16 



mother city.' This is supposed to mean 'the 
authority of the capital,' namely, G-ath (cp. 
IO1I8 1 ). Many take it, however, as the 
name (perhaps corrupted) of a place which 
David took from the Philistines. EM retains 
Metheg-ammah. 

2. Casting them down to the ground] RV 
' making them to lie down on the ground.' 
David then slew two out of every three. The 
reason for this severity is not known. Gifts] 
Moab continued tributary till the death of 
Ahab (2K3 5 ). 3. Hadadezer] i.e. ' Hadad is 
a help ' : cp. Eliezer, Joezer, Azariah. Hadad 
was the supreme god of Syria. In 10 16 his 
name is given more correctly as Hadarezer. 
Zobah] a Syrian kingdom, whose territory 
seems to have lain N. of Damascus and not far 
from the Euphrates. To recover his border] 
Chronicles reads • to establish his dominion ' 
(IO1I8 3 ). 4. A thousand chariots, and seven 
hundred horsemen] RV 'a thousand and seven 
hundred horsemen.' 

5. Damascus] is situated ' in a plain of vast 
size and extreme fertility, which lies east of 
the great chain of Anti-Libanus, on the edge 
of the Desert.' It has always been one of the 
most important cities of Syria. It succeeded 
in throwing off the yoke of Israel in the reign 
of Solomon (IK ll 24 ). Its history is related 
in the books of Kings. 6. Syria of Damascus] 
The phrase indicates the small Aramaean states 
in the regions of Damascus. 

8. Exceeding much brass] i.e. copper. It 
is said that the Egyptians of the 18th and 19th 
dynasties got so much copper from Syria that 
they gave up working the mines on Mt. Sinai. 

9. Hamath] on the Orontes. 10. Joram] 
LXX ' Jeddoram,' Chronicles v Hadoram.' A 
Jewish scribe has probably altered Hadoram 
to the more familiar Joram. 12, 13. Syria . . 
Syrians] LXX and Chronicles (ICI1I8 12 ) 
rightly read 'Edom,' 'Edomites.' 

15-18. These vv. are intended by the author 
to form the conclusion of his history of David's 
reign. Another list of officers is given in 
2023-2(3 jy t Zadok . . and Ahimelech . . were 
the priests] Zadok seems to have become chief 
priest under Saul: David had his own high 
priest, Abiathar. He solved the resulting 
difficulty by dividing the office between them. 
But for the prompt action of Joab, he would 
probably have divided the command of the 
army between .Joab and Abner. Ahimelech 
the son of Abiathar] His name was really 
Abiathar, the bod of Ahimelech (see 1S22 20 
2S15 86 ). But both in <)T. and NT. the 
names are cont iimally confused. 18. The 
Cherethites and the Pelethites] see on 1 S30 14 . 
They formed part of David's foreign bodyguard. 

Chief rulers] B V 'priests,' There can be 

no doubt that the translation of RV is 
correct, for the word has never any other 



meaning than that of ' priests.' But it is far 
from clear what were the precise duties which 
they discharged. Zadok and Abiathar were 
the priests for the nation, while 20 26 and 
1 K 4 5 show that these ' priests ' stood in some 
special relation to the king. Accordingly 
Ewald conjectures that they were his domestic 
priests. In Egypt, the king's confidential 
advisers are said to have been chosen from 
among the priests, and it is this view of their 
functions which is taken in Chronicles. ' The 
sons of David were chief about the king.' 
See Intro. § 5. 

CHAPTER 9 
David and Mephibosheth 

Chs. 9-20 have apparently been taken 
from a single document, written not long after 
the events recorded, and with special and 
unique knowledge of the circumstances of 
David's court and its life. 

1-6. As soon as his wars were over, David 
remembered his promise to his friend Jonathan, 
and sends for his son Mephibosheth (or 
Merib-baal). 

7-13. David entertains Mephibosheth at his 
table, and bestows on him all the property 
that formerly belonged to Saul. 

12. Mephibosheth had a young son] When 
Saul died, Mephibosheth was only five years 
old (4 4 ), so that this brings us nearly to the 
middle of David's reign. 

CHAPTER 10 
The War with Ammon and Syria 

2. His father shewed kindness unto me] 
Occasion not stated. 3. The city] i.e. their 
capital, Rabbah. The Ammonites probably 
were thinking of the severity with which David 
had treated the neighbouring Moabites (8 2 ). 

4. Shaving the beard is the greatest insult 
that can be offered to an Oriental. The Arabs 
regard it as we should regard flogging or 
branding. 

6. Hired] cp. 1 K15is- 2 o. Beth-rehob] near 
Laish or Dan (Jgl8 2S ). King Maacah] RV 
' the king of Maacah.' Maacah was a small 
Syrian kingdom on the border of eastern 
Manasseh. Ish-tob] RV ' the men of Tob.' 
See on Jg 1 1 3 . 8. Came out] from Rabbah. 
1 1 '1 re by themselves] This implies distrust 
and disunion between the allies. 9. Joab 
took advantage of the division of the enemy 
to attack them in detail. Abisliai kept the 
Ammonites in check while Joab crushed the 
Syrians, and then the two brothers combined 
their forces and fell on the Ammonites. 14. So 
Joab returned] The great strength of Rabbah 
rendered it hopeless to attempt to carry it by 
assault, and so .Joab rested his army during the 
winter : see on 1 1 l . 16. The river] i.e. the 
Euphrates. Helam] position unknown. 



200 



10. 18 



2 SAMUEL 



14. 



18. Forty thousand horsemen] lChl9 18 
' forty thousand footmen.' 19. All the kings 
that were servants to Hadarezer] cp. 1 K 20 1( \ 

CHAPTER 11 
David and Bath-sheba 
This narrative is of the greatest value. It 
shows the faithfulness and the high morality 
of the historian, who relates, without a single 
attempt at palliation, this scandalous chapter 
in the great king's history. Further, the 
position of the prophet, even in these early 
days, as the ' conscience ' of the individual or 
the nation, is clearly described. What Nathan 
is to David, Elijah (with equal courage) is to 
Ahab. In other nations, even in much later 
times, such an act if committed by a powerful 
king would have gone unnoticed or unblamed. 

1. After the year was expired] RV ' at the 
return of the year,' i.e. in the spring. When 
kings go forth to battle] In ancient times 
hostilities ceased during the winter and began 
again in the spring. David tarried still at 
Jerusalem] He was not required to be present 
during the lengthy operations of the siege. 

2. David arose from off his bed] He had 
been resting during the heat of the day. 

6f. The subterfuges to which the sinner 
is compelled to stoop are described in pitiless 
detail. 8. A mess of meat from the king] 
This was regarded as a special mark of dis- 
tinction. Cp. Gn4334 1S923. 9. It would 
seem that Uriah's suspicions had been aroused. 

11. The ark] This accidental mention of 
the ark suggests that it was no unusual 
occurrence for it to be taken to the field of 
battle. 15. The only resource left was 
murder. 

21. Who smote Abimelech ?] see Jg9 53 . 

23. We were upon them] i.e. we opposed 
them. 

CHAPTER 12 

David's Repentance and Pardon. The 
Capture of Rabbah 

4. To dress for the wayfaring man] We 
may notice Eastern ideas of hospitality: cp. 
Gnl8 3 " 5 . 5. Shall surely die] David's im- 
pulsive temper breaks out again: cp. 1S25 22 . 

11. For the fulfilment of this threat, see 
16 21,22. David's repentance secured the for- 
giveness of God, but it did not avert the 
punishment of his sin. 13. Thou shalt not 
die] This was the punishment David himself 
had pronounced on the offender. 

14. Thou hast given great occasion to the 
enemies of the LORD to blaspheme] There is 
little doubt that the original reading was, 
' Thou hast blasphemed the Lord,' and that 
it was altered to avoid any appearance of 
irreverence. 

23. I shall go to him] There is a sugges- 



tion here of belief in some form of continued 
existence beyond the grave. 

24. Solomon] 'Peaceful.' 

25. Jedidiah] ' Beloved of Jehovah.' It is 
curious that this name should have been laid 
aside in favour of his other name, Solomon. 

27. The city of waters] i.e. the lower 
town of Rabbah, on the Jabbok. It received 
this name because of a perennial stream which 
rises within it and which still flows through 
it. 28. Encamp against the city, and take it] 
Now that the waters of the lower town were 
in the possession of the besiegers, the fate of 
the upper town, or citadel, was only a question 
of time. 

30. Their king's crown] The reference is 
probably to Milcom, the god of the Ammon- 
ites (1 Kll 5 ). His name is merely an altered 
form of Melech, i.e. ' king.' The weight of the 
crown (a talent of gold) renders it certain that 
no living person could have worn it for long. 

31. Put them under saws, etc.] The Heb. 
must be translated, ' put them to saws,' i.e. 
set them to work at saws, and harrows, and 
axes. For the forced labour of captives, cp. 
1 K 9 15 > 21 . Made them pass through the brick- 
kiln] read, ' made them work at the brick- 
mould.' 

CHAPTER 13 

The Crime op Amnon, and Absalom's 
Vengeance 

This narrative and the history of Absalom's 
rebellion is omitted in Chronicles. 

2. Tamar was in the women's apartments, 
and, therefore, safe. She was his half-sister 
and Absalom's sister: see 3 2 > 3 . 

4. Lean from day to day] i.e. getting thinner 
and paler every morning. 5. Make thyself 
sick] RV 'feign thyself sick.' 13. He will 
not withhold me] Tamar said this as a last, 
desperate expedient, for such marriages were 
unlawful (Lvl8 9 ). 16. Amnon was adding 
insult to injury. 18. Garment of divers 
colours] RM ' a long garment with sleeves ' : 
cp. Gn37 3 . 20. He is thy brother] So 
Tamar could not reproach herself for having 
gone to see him. 

23. Ephraim] an unknown town. 

37. Talmai] Absalom escapes to his grand- 
father (3 3 ) to avoid the revenge of Amnon's 
relatives. 

David mourned] His sin was finding him 
out, and he was tasting the first bitter fruits 
of it in the death of one son and the alien- 
ation of another. 

CHAPTER 14 
Absalom's Return from Geshur 
After waiting for two years, Absalom forces 
Joab to use his influence to bring about a 
reconciliation between him and his father. 



201 



14.2 



2 SAMUEL 



16.8 



2. Tekoah] 6 m. S. of Bethlehem. It was 
the home of the prophet Amos (Am 1 x ). 

7. We will destroy] She purposely makes 
the case appear as bad as possible. My coal] 
The word means a glowing piece of wood. 
The surviving son is compared to a spark left 
when the rest of the fire has gone out. The 
passage casts an interesting light on the 
informal and almost casual administration of 
justice. According to Hebrew custom the 
youth had no claim to a reprieve ; on the 
other hand, the extinction of a family was an 
admitted calamity. 

9. The iniquity be on me] i.e. if the king is 
breaking the law of God, she is willing to 
bear the punishment : cp. Gn9 6 . 11. Let the 
king, etc.] She wishes him to ratify his pro- 
mise by an oath. 13. As one which is faulty] 
The king's merciful disposition towards the 
son of a stranger condemned his severity to 
his own son. 

14. We must needs die, etc.] Life may end 
at any time, and when ended cannot be re- 
called. Hence the regret that follows harsh 
judgment when the offender is dead. Neither 
doth God, etc.] RV 'neither doth God take 
away life, but deviseth means, that he that is 
banished be not an outcast from him.' God 
is so far from taking away life that He is 
anxious that the outcast should not be lost, 
but should be enabled to return. It is possi- 
ble that the woman was hinting at the contrast 
between David's treatment of Absalom and 
God's treatment of David : see 12 13 . 

15. The people] i.e. her family. The woman 
still keeps to her fictitious tale. 20. To fetch 
about this form of speech] RY ' to change the 
face of the matter ' ; i.e. the present position 
of Absalom. 

25. His beauty] Absalom inherited the 
personal beauty of his father (1 S16 12 ). The 
fact is also mentioned in the case of Tamar 
(13 1) and of Adonijah (1K1 6 ). 26. The 
king's weight] We do not know the exact 
weight of the king's shekel, but probably 40 
shekels were roughly equivalent to an English 
pound. This notice is inserted to distinguish 
it from the sacred shekel. 27. Three sons] 
It would appear from 18 18 that none of them 
lived to grow up. 29. Joab had risked a 
good deal in sending the woman of Tekoah, 
and he did not choose to venture a second 
attempt. 

CHAPTER 15 

The Rebellion of Absalom 
His party is so strong that David is obliged 
to flee from Jerusalem. He is joined by 
Ittai the Gittite, and by Zadok and Abiathar 
the priests, and by Hushai the Archite. The 
king, however, orders Zadok, Abiathar, and 
Hushai to return to Jerusalem. 



1. Fifty men to run before him] Such 
runners have always formed part of royal 
state in the East : cp. 1K1 5 18 46 . 2. Rose] 
rather, ' used to rise,' and stand by the gate 
so as to meet all who went in or out. 

7. Forty years] This is obviously a mistake. 
Some versions read ' four.' 8. I will serve the 
LORD] i.e. by sacrifices and offerings (v. 12). 
Absalom may have remembered his father's 
device (1 S206). 9. Went to Hebron] Absalom 
probably hoped that the ancient capital, Hebron, 
would be jealous of Jerusalem. 11. Called] 
i.e. invited to share in the festivities. They 
were probably men of influence and position. 

12. While he offered sacrifices] This gave 
him an opportunity of conferring with Ahith- 
ophel without exciting remark : cp. 1S16 2 . 

14. Let us flee] LXX adds ' lest the people 
come upon us.' David is taken completely by 
surprise, and mistrusts his subjects and his 
household. 17. A place that was far off] RV 
takes it as a proper name, ' Beth-merhak.' 

18. Gittites] see on 1S30 14 . Ittai and his 
followers from Gath (Goliath's city) were now 
among David's staunchest followers. 

19. With the king] i.e. with whoever 
chances to be king. As a foreigner Ittai had 
nothing to do with the internal quarrels of 
Israel. David generously suggests that he 
should keep them out of his own conflicts. 

24. And Abiathar went up] These words 
are probably out of place. They are omitted 
in some MSS of the LXX, and look like a 
scribe's insertion. 26. In spite of all his 
anxiety and misery, David's resignation and 
piety never waver. 27. Art not thou a seer ? 
return] LXX ' see, thou shalt return.' 

28. The plain of the wilderness] The 
locality is that described in 2K25 5 as 'the 
plains of Jericho.' It was in the level plain 
of the Jordan valley and near the fords 
(1716). 

32. Where he worshipped God] RV ' where 
God was worshipped.' Olivet was a well- 
known high-place : cp. 1 K 1 1 7 . 8 . The Archite] 
i.e. an inhabitant of Erech, a town on the 
southern frontier of Ephraim, between Bethel 
and Beth-horon. 

CHAPTER 16 
Ziba, Shimei, and Ahithophel 

David, during his flight, is assisted by Ziba, 
but is cursed by Shimei. The cause of 
Absalom is promoted by the wise counsel of 
Ahithophel. 

1. An hundred of summer fruits] a hundred 
cakes into which summer fruits were com- 
pressed. 2. With true Oriental deference he 
does not venture to say they are for the king's 
own use. 8. All the blood of the house of 
Saul] The reference is probably to the inci- 
dent recorded in 21 i* 14 . 



202 



16. 11 



c 2 SAMUEL 



19.23 



ii. The LORD hath bidden him] David 
recognised that all his misfortunes were the 
consequence of his sin. The Lord had pun- 
ished him through his own son, whom he had 
forgiven and restored. Why not also through 
Shimei ? 14 Came weary] RM ' came to Aye- 
phini.' 23. Enquired at the oracle of God] 
i.e. consulted God by means of the Urim and 
Thummim. 

CHAPTER 17 
The Fall of Ahithophel 

Absalom follows the advice of Hushai rather 
than that of Ahithophel, who thereupon hangs 
himself. David retreats to Mahanaim. 

3. The death of David would put an end to 
all resistance, and bring about peace. 7. At 
this time] RY ' this time.' Hushai contrasts 
this suggestion of Ahithophel with his former 
advice (16 21 ), which was good. 8. A man of 
war] Ahithophel's advice, though plausible, 
was not sound. David was too experienced a 
warrior to be caught unprepared. 

16. Hushai was afraid that Absalom might 
change his mind and be guided by the advice 
of Ahithophel. 17. Went and told] RY ' used 
to go and tell.' This v. describes how com- 
munication between Hushai and David was 
regularly carried on. 

23. Ahithophel saw clearly that following 
the advice of Hushai meant the failure of the 
conspiracy. 

24. Mahanaim] E. of Jordan, near the 
Jabbok. 25. Israelite] more probably ' Ish- 
maelite ' (1 Ch 2 17 ). Abigail was a sister of 
David (1 Ch 2 15 > 16 ), and consequently Amasa 
was his nephew : cp. 19 13 . 

CHAPTER 18 

The Defeat and Death of Absalom 

1. Numbered] rather, ' mustered.' 3. Succour 
us out of the city] David, holding Mahanaim 
with a sufficient force, would be of the greatest 
assistance to the fugitives, if his army were 
defeated. 5. The people heard] This state- 
ment explains v. 12. 

6. The wood of Ephraim] LXX reads 'Maha- 
naim ' here. 8. The battle was there scattered] 
So Joab was able to destroy Absalom's forces in 
detail. The wood devoured, etc.] The thick- 
ness of the wood, its swamps, precipices, etc., 
militated against the fugitives, and increased the 
slaughter : cp. the manner of Absalom's death. 

9. Met] RV 'chanced to meet.' By misfor- 
tune, in his flight Absalom encountered some 
of the pursuers. His head] The tradition that 
Absalom was caught by his hair comes from 
Josephus. 13. Against me] RY 'aloof.' Joab 
would have stood on one side and let his 
accomplice bear the brunt of the king's anger. 

16. Joab held back the people] Absalom was 
dead and the war ended. 



17. A very great heap of stones] This might 
be simply to mark his burying-place. 18. This 
v. is evidently parenthetical, and informs us 
that Absalom had a suitable permanent memo- 
rial, though the building now known as Absa- 
lom's tomb in the vicinity of Jerusalem is of 
much later date. Evidently Absalom's three 
sons (1427) had died before him. Place] RV 
' monument.' 

2 1 . Cushi] R Y ' the Cushite . ' He was probably 
a slave of Joab, who could be trusted to say 
exactly what he was told. 22. Thou hast no 
tidings ready] RY ' thou wilt have no reward 
for the tidings.' His message would be a sad 
one. 23. By the way of the plain] The direct 
way lay across the hills, but Ahimaaz, by 
choosing the level road along the Jordan 
valley, reached his goal first. 24. Between 
the two gates] i.e. between the outer and the 
inner gate in the city wall. 25. If he be 
alone, there is tidings] Had he been a fugitive, 
he would have been followed by others. 

29. And me] RY ' even me.' I knew not 
what it was] This statement was untrue (v. 
20). Probably Joab had commanded him to 
leave the announcement to the Cushite 

CHAPTER 19 
David's Return to Jerusalem 

David's excessive grief for Absalom is re- 
buked by Joab. He punishes Joab for Absa- 
lom's death by making Amasa commander of the 
army. The details of his return to Jerusalem 
are given, with the strife it caused between 
the men of Israel and the men of Judah. 

David has often been accused of ingratitude 
on account of his treatment of Joab. It has 
been urged that he would never have been 
secure with Absalom at liberty, and Joab knew 
how uncertain was his master's mind. On 
the other hand, it was a serious matter to 
murder the heir to the throne, for which 
deposition was probably a lenient punishment. 

8. Then the king arose] He recognised the 
truth of Joab's statements. Sat in the gate] 
where kings were wont to give audiences (15 2 ). 

11. The talk of the people of Israel about 
David's return had come to the king's know- 
ledge, but so far the elders of Judah had not 
approached him on the subject. 

16, 17. Shimei tries to make his peace with 
David (see 16 5f -) by bringing the tribe of 
Benjamin back to their allegiance. 20. The 
house of Joseph] here stands for northern 
Israel. Ephraim was the most powerful tribe 
in the northern and central tribes, as Judah was 
in the south. 23. Sware unto him] At first 
sight it appears as if David broke his oath by 
his last directions to Solomon (1K2 8 » 9 ). But 
the way in which Solomon acted on those 
instructions suggests that he understood his 
father to be merely putting him on his guard 



203 



19.26 



2 SAMUEL 



31.1 



against a dangerous man. He put Joab to 
death at once, but merely placed Shimei where 
he could do no mischief. 

26. I will saddle] better, with LXX, 'saddle.' 
The command was given to Ziba, but, instead 
of obeying it, he drove off the asses to meet 
David. 29. I have said] RV 1 1 say,' i.e. I 
declare that this is my intention. Thou and 
Ziba] see 16 4 . 

41. Here again we may notice the jealousy 
between the powerful tribes of Judah and 
Ephraim : see on v. 20. 42. Hath he given 
us any gift ?] This was probably a hit at the 
Benjamites, who seem to have profited by their 
connection with Saul (1S22 7 ). 43. That our 
advice should not first be had] cp. the conduct 
of the men of Ephraim, narrated in JgS 1 12 x , 
although they had more excuse (see on Jg 8 1 ). 

CHAPTER 20 
The Rebellion of Sheba 

Sheba takes advantage of the jealousy of 
the men of Israel to begin a rebellion, which, 
but for the prompt action of Joab, might have 
resulted in a disruption between Israel and 
Judah. During this expedition Amasa is 
murdered by Joab. The c. concludes with 
a list of David's officers. 

This c. evidently continues the narrative of 
the concluding vv. of the preceding. During 
the period of the Judges, Ephraim had been 
the leading tribe and they could not brook to 
see their place taken by Judah. For the 
present their attempt failed, and the rule of 
Solomon was too strong for them to renew it. 
But on the accession of Rehoboam the old 
jealousy broke out again. 

This c. ends the account which the editor 
took from the document he has been following 
since c. 9. The list with which it concludes 
is similar to that at the close of the earlier 
document (8 16 ' 18 ). 

1. The son of Bichri] rather, ' a son of 
Bichri,' i.e. a member of that clan (lCh7 6 - 8 ). 

We have no part . . Israel] This was the very 
cry raised by the rebellious Israelites in the 
time of Rehoboam (IK 12™). 3. See 15 1(5 
1G 21 » 22 . 

5. He tarried] The reason is unknown. 

6. Abishai] When Amasa failed him, David, 
determined at all hazards to suspend Joab, 
turned fco Ahishai. Joab went with his brother 
in order to watch for his opportunity, which 
soon came. 8. It would Seem that Joab had 
two swords, and that Amasa, seeing one lying 
on the ground, did not suspect th;it he had 
another. 9. Took Amasa by the beard . . to 
kiss him] This is said to be still an Aral) 

custom. 

14. Unto Abel, and to Beth maachah] read 
'unto Abel of Beth maachah.' All the Berites] 
read 'all the Bichrites' (see on v. 1). Sheba 



went to the Bichrites (his kinsmen) and then 
proceeded to Abel-beth-maachah, in the ex- 
treme N. of Palestine, where he was besieged 
by Joab. 

15. They cast up a bank against the city] 
cp. 2 K 1 9 32 . It enabled the besiegers to bring 
their battering-rams close up to the wall. It 
stood in the trench] RV ' it stood against the 
rampart.' 

18. The wisdom of the inhabitants of Abel 
was so generally accepted, that their decision 
settled all disputed questions. The woman 
says this to give weight to her remonstrance. 

19. A city and a mother] i.e. a mother-city, 
a metropolis. 20. Joab was utterly unscru- 
pulous, but never wantonly cruel : cp. 18 16 . 

23-26. This list of officers concludes this 
part of the book. What follows is an appendix. 
When we compare it with the list given in 
8 16_18 , we find the amount of variation which 
we should expect, if one list refers to the 
earlier and the other to the later part of the 
reign. The names of Joab, Benaiah, Jehos- 
haphat, Zadok, and Abiathar occur in both 
lists. Sheva replaces Seraiah, and Ira takes 
the place of David's sons, while the office of 
Adoram is new. 

24. Adoram] He held the same office 
through the long reign of Solomon till the 
accession of Rehoboam (1K12 18 ). It has, 
however, been supposed that the Adoram 
mentioned in Kings was the son and successor 
of the Adoram mentioned here. 

CHAPTERS 21-24 

These chapters contain six appendices, 
which have been placed at the end of the book 
in order not to interrupt the history of the 
reign. These appendices are (1) the account 
of a famine (21 1 * 14 ); (2) exploits against 
the Philistines (21 !5- 22 ); (3) a psalm of David 
(c. 22); (4) David's last words (23 1 -?); (5) 
further exploits against the Philistines and a 
list of David's heroes (23 8-29). ((/,) the census 
of the people (c. 24). Of these six, the first 
and sixth are closely connected (24 1 refers to 
21 1 ), while the account of exploits against the 
Philistines has been cut in two by two psalms. 
But these psalms, though placed side by side, 
have no connexion with one another. C. 22 
is identical with Ps 18, and is best explained 
under that title. 

CHAPTER 21 
The Famine and some Exploits against 
tiii: Philistines 
1. 7/ is for Saul, and for his bloody house] 
rather, l upon Saul and his house rests blood- 
shed.' The Gibeonites] The lives of the 
Gibeonites had been spared, through fear 
of Gtod'fl auger being excited by any breach 
of the covenant made with them (Josh 9, 



20 1 



21. 2 



2 SAMUEL 



24 5 



especially v. 20). 2. Amorites] Strictly speak- 
ing, the Gibeonites were Hivites (Josh 9 7 ), 
but ' Amorites ' was a general name for the 
Canaanites. 3. Wherewith shall I make the 
atonement ?] i.e. what sum of money shall I 
pay as compensation ? 

4. RV ' It is no matter of silver or gold 
between us and Saul, or his house; neither is 
it for us to put any man to death in Israel.' 
They would not accept compensation in 
money, nor did they wish that Israel, apart 
from Saul, should suffer. 6. Hang them 
up] The method of execution is uncertain. 

Whom the LORD did choose] RV 'The 
chosen of the Lord.' 8. Michal] Evidently 
a mistake for ' Merab.' It was Merab who 
married Adriel (IS 1819). Brought up] RV 
'bore.' 9,10. Barley harvest is in April, and 
the early rain (until water dropped) in October. 

15-22. The text in this section and also 
in its continuation (23 8 " 39 ) is very corrupt. 

15, 16. Read, 'and his servants with him, 
and settled in Nob, and fought against the Phi- 
listines, and which was of the sons of the 

giant.' The giant's name has been lost. 

19. Jaare-oreo-im] in lCh20 5 ' Jair.' Elha- 
nan . . slew the brother of Goliath] AV repre- 
sents the reading of Chronicles. RV repre- 
sents the text of Samuel, as we now have it, 
' Elhanan . . slew G-oliath the Gittite.' If 
we adopt it, we must suppose that Elhanan 
was another name of David ; but see on 1 S 17. 

CHAPTER 22 
David's Thanksgiving Psalm 
This beautiful poem has also been preserved 
as the Eighteenth Psalm. It probably be- 
longs to the earlier portion of David's reign, 
when his conquests and God's promise (2 S 7) 
were still fresh in his mind. See on Psl8. 

CHAPTER 23 

David's Last Words. The Exploits 
of his Heroes 

1-7. This psalm is not contained in the 
book of Psalms. It is called ' the last ' (rather, 
' the latter ') 'words of David,' in contrast with 
the earlier psalm, which forms c. 22. We 
have no other means of determining its date. 

2. By me] RM ' in me.' The idea is that 
God used the psalmist as His instrument and 
spokesman to repeat His words to the people : 
cp. 1K2228Hos12. 

4. As the tender grass springing'] render, 
' when the tender grass springs.' The right- 
eous ruler is like a bright, sunny morning, 
when there are no clouds and the grass springs 
out of the earth. There are no clouds to 
darken the present or threaten the future, and 
the whole land is alive with gladness and life. 

5. This v. is better taken as a question: 
' For is not my house so with God, seeing He 



hath made . . for all my salvation and all my 
desire, shall He not make it to grow ? ' David 
refers to the promise actually made in the 
past and looks forward with confidence to the 
future. Everlasting covenant] cp. 7 15 > 16 . 

Ordered in all things'] i.e. properly drawn 
up and arranged in every respect. Grow] i.e. 
continue and increase: cp. Isa45 8 . 

6, 7. These vv. contrast the fate of the 
wicked. Thorns cannot be pulled up with the 
naked hand, but the man who wishes to cut 
them down must take in his hand a long staff 
with an iron weapon at the end. 

8-39. This list of heroes originally con- 
tained the first three, then a second three, then 
the 30 : 36 names in all, or with Joab, 37 names. 
This is the number actually given in v. 39. 

8-1 1. The first three, Ishbosheth, Eleazar, 
and Shammah. 8. The Tachmonite that sat 
in the seat] read, ' Ishbosheth the Hachmon- 
ite.' Chief among the captains] read, ' the 
chief of the three ': cp. v. 19. The same was 
Adino the Eznite] Chronicles rightly reads 
'he lifted up his spear.' 11. Into a troop] 
read, ' to Lehi.' Lehi was the scene of Sam- 
son's exploit against the Philistines (Jgl5 9f -)> 

13-16. We now get a great exploit, which 
promoted three other heroes to a place above 
the 30. 16. Poured it out unto the LORD] 
as too precious for human use. 

18-20. Two names only of the second three 
have been preserved : Abishai and Benaiah. 

24-39. Chronicles reduces this list to the 
correct number of 30, by omitting the name 
of Elika (v. 25). But we know that Asahel 
died- early in David's reign, and another may 
have been chosen in his place. 

CHAPTER 24 

The Numbering of the People, and 
its Penalty 

In punishment for David's sin in numbering 
the people, God sends a pestilence, which slays 
70,000 men. In gratitude for the stay of the 
plague, David erects an altar in the threshing- 
floor of Araunah the Jebusite. 

1. Again] This refers to the former occa- 
sion mentioned in c. 21. He moved] Chron- 
icles states that ' Satan . . provoked David.' 
The older account does not enter into the 
distinction between what God permits and 
what God causes. This distinction is the result 
of later reflection and more subtle theology. 

5-8. Their course is easy to follow, though 
several of the names are corrupt. They started 
from the city of Aroer on the Arnon, and passed 
through eastern Palestine. They next crossed 
to Zidon, and traversed western Palestine to 
Beersheba in the extreme south. 5. On the 
right side (i.e. on the south) of the city that 
lieth in the midst of the river (R V ' valley ' ) ] 
Perhaps this city was Ar of Moab (IsalS 1 ). 



205 



24. 6 



2 SAMUEL— 1 and 2 KINGS 



INTRO. 



6. Tahtim-hodshi] Thenius conjectures that 
this is a mistake for ' Kadesh,' a town on 
the r on tes marking the extreme northern 
limit of Israel. Dan-jaan] read ' Dan.' 

10. David's sin consisted in pride in his own 
strength and f orgetf ulness of his dependence on 
God. It was the very sin which ruined Saul. 

13. Seven years] LXX and Chronicles read 



' three years.' 15. From the morning even 
to the time appointed] These words occasion 
some difficulty as the pestilence was stayed 
before the appointed time. They are omitted 
in Chronicles. 22. Instruments of the oxen] 
i.e. the wooden yoke: cp. 1K19 21 . 23. This 
v. continues Araunah's speech : RY ' all this, 
king, doth Araunah give.' 



THE FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF 
KINGS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Character and Contents. The books of 
Kings take up the account of the Jewish 
people at the point where it is left by 2 
Samuel. The division into two books is not 
original , and seems to have been introduced 
from the LXX, where they are termed the 
' Third and Fourth books of the Kingdoms,' 
the First and Second being 1 and 2 Sam. 
Their contents embrace the history of the 
period between the last years of David's reign 
(about 980 B.C.) and the Fall of Jerusalem in 
586, closing with the release of Jehoiachin 
from prison by Evil-Merodach in 561 ; so 
that the space of time covered is rather more 
than 400 years. Their final completion must 
be later than the date last mentioned, and 
their composition is separated from many of 
the events related by a considerable interval ; 
so that for the bulk of the information which 
they comprise they are dependent upon earlier 
records. In the Talmud, the authorship is attri- 
buted to Jeremiah (perhaps on the strength of 
the general tone of the books, or of the recur- 
rence in Jer 39-42 and 52 of parts of 2 K 24, 25), 
but the statement is improbable, so far at 
least as the present form of the books is con- 
cerned. Jeremiah, whose prophetic ministry 
began as early as the 13th year of Josiah 
(Jerl 2 ), i.e. about 627, can scarcely have 
survived till after 561. 

2. Sources. In the course of the narrative 
reference is made to three different sources 
as authorities for the history of the times 
described, viz. the Acts of Solomon (1 K ll 41 ), 
the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 K 14 19 , 
etc.), and the Chronicles of the Kings of 
Judah (1K14*>, etc.). The mention of a 
Recorder among the officials of many of the 
Kings (IK 4:* 2K18 18 ) suggests thai the 
several writings just named may have pre- 
served information derived from the State 



archives, though the nature of some of the 
statements for which they are cited renders it 
probable that they were not themselves official 
documents (see IK 16 20 2K15 15 2117). In 
certain instances they are referred to as 
supplying matter which the books of Kings do 
not furnish (see 1K14 19 22 39 ) ; but it seems 
likely that much that is included in Kings is 
really drawn from them. There is no explicit 
statement, however, to show in what way 
these or any other sources were utilised in 
the compilation of the work, though certain 
conclusions respecting the nature of some of 
the written documents that lie behind our 
books and the method followed in the com- 
position of them may be obtained from an 
analysis of their structure, which consists of 
the following elements : — 

(a) A detailed account of the last days of 
David (IK 1,2). 

(b) Passages relating in detail the construc- 
tion or repair of the Temple (1 K6-9 2 K 124-16 
1610-16, etc.). 

(c) Lengthy narratives dealing with the 
prophets Elijah and Elisha (IK 17-19, 21, 
2K 12-17 2, 4-623, etc.). 

(d) Passages relating at length certain poli- 
tical events (IK 20 221-38 2 K 34-27 624-720 
1813-2020, etc.). 

(e) Succinct accounts of many of the kings, 
written in stereotyped phrases, beginning with 
the date of each king's accession, the length 
of his reign and his character (certain other 
particulars being added in the case of kings 
of Judah), and ending with a reference to the 
' Book of the Chronicles ' of the kingdom con- 
cerned, and a mention of the king's successor. 

Of these (a) probably comes from the same 
source as the narratives contained in 2 S 9-20, 
which it resembles in character ; (b) may be 
assumed to be based on records drawn up by the 



206 



INTRO. 



1 AND 2 KINGS 



INTRO. 



priesthood ; whilst (c) must have originated 
in prophetic circles (such as the communities 
of the ' Sons of the Prophets '). The pas- 
sages classified under (d) and (e) may be 
derived from the annals to which reference is 
made. But the brevity and uniform phraseology 
characteristic of (e), which are in marked 
contrast to the picturesque and varied style 
of the longer sections, make it probable that 
these are epitomes constructed by the actual 
compiler of Kings out of his materials, whereas 
the other portions of his book are extracts 
made by him from the sources he used. As 
may be seen by a comparison of numerous 
passages in Chronicles with the parallels in 
Kings, Hebrew historians were in the habit 
of incorporating in their own compositions 
passages taken verbatim from other works ; 
and the differences in style and vocabulary 
between various sections of Kings, the abrupt- 
ness with which personages not previously 
mentioned are introduced (e.g. 1K17 1 ), and 
certain discrepancies in the narratives, all 
indicate that the course which the writer of 
Chronicles has pursued towards the books of 
Kings the writer of the latter has followed in 
regard to still earlier productions. 

For the sake of convenience the writer of 
these books has been spoken of in the singular, 
and the completion of his work has been fixed 
as later than 5G1 B.C., and therefore some 
time after the destruction of the kingdom 
of Judah. But in certain of the narratives 
phrases are used which imply that when they 
were written Judah existed as a state, and the 
Temple was still standing (see 1K8 8 1219 
193 2K822 1411 i 6 6 1718). s ome f the 
phrases occur in sections which have probably 
been incorporated from previous writings (e.g. 
1K19 3 ), and consequently the use of them 
only shows that the sources from which the 
author of Kings borrowed were composed 
before the exile ; but there are others (e.g. 
2 K 8 22 ) which are found in the short annalistic 
passages that have been assigned to the com- 
piler. Consequently it is probable that the 
bulk of the book was composed before the 
exile ; but that subsequently additions were 
made to it by a writer who lived after the Fall 
of Jerusalem, and who appended chs. 24 and 
25. In the earlier chapters also there are a 
few expressions which could only have been 
written in Babylonia after the overthrow of 
Judah, e.g. 1K424 (see note) 2K17i9,20 ; ^ 
that the author of the supplementary chapters 
seems not only to have continued his pre- 
decessor's work, but to have introduced a few 
insertions into the body of it. But the spirit 
and style of the two writers are so much alike 
that except where specific allusions betray the 
date of the narrator, it is as unnecessary as it 
is difficult to distinguish between them. 



3. Value. If the conclusions just stated 
respecting the probable sources of the narra- 
tives be correct, it will be apparent that Kings 
is a most valuable authority for the history of 
the times it deals with, especially in those 
parts which may reasonably be regarded as 
based upon the State and Temple records. 
Unfortunately the information respecting this 
period which is obtainable from other sources, 
such as the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments, 
is not as full as could be desired ; but in 
general, what has been learnt from these 
quarters harmonises with, or plausibly supple- 
ments, the biblical account, even where it does 
not actually confirm it. In order, however, to 
estimate fairly the good faith of the writer 
and his merits as an historian, it is important 
to bear in mind the conditions under which he 
wrote. Neither the means at his disposal, nor 
the methods of composition that then prevailed, 
were calculated to secure the accuracy and 
precision of statement which are now expected 
in historical works. 

(a) The materials employed by Hebrew 
writers generally are not expressly named, but 
there are allusions in various passages of the 
OT. to tablets (probably of wood) and rolls 
(of skin or leather): see Isa8! 30 8 Hab2 2 
Jer36 2 Ezk2 9 . Materials like these must 
have rendered it difficult for mistakes once 
made to be corrected ; and if the documents 
consulted by successive historians were of such 
a character, it is obvious that the process of 
verifying statements could not be an easy one. 
Moreover, the nature of the Hebrew writing, 
in which there were then no vowel signs, must 
have conduced to the production of various 
readings ; and many of the differences between 
the Heb. original and the LXX version have 
arisen from this cause. 

(b) The practice of reproducing the exact 
words of previous writers has led to the 
retention of many discrepancies and inconsist- 
encies, which may have admitted of being 
harmonised by the compiler, through know- 
ledge which he possessed, but of which the 
explanation is, in many instances, quite irre- 
coverable by us. 

(c) In the absence of a fixed era an accurate 
system of chronology was almost impossible. 
In connexion with the kings of Israel and 
Judah, the accession of each king is generally 
marked by reference to the corresponding year 
in the reign of the contemporary sovereign ; 
but whereas, in most cases, fractions of a year 
are counted as a whole year (e.g. Nadab is 
said to have reigned two years, though he came 
to the throne in Asa's second year and was 
succeeded by Baasha in Asa's third, 1 K 15 25 > 33 ), 
in other cases this rule is not observed (e.g. 
Rehoboam is described as reigning only 17 
years, though his successor Abijam came to 



207 



INTRO. 



1 AND % KINGS 



INTRO. 



the throne in the 18th year of Rehoboam' s 
contemporary Jeroboam : 1 K 1 4 21 1 5 v ). Owing 
to these different systems of reckoning or 
other causes, many of the chronological state- 
ments in Kings are inconsistent (as is pointed 
out in detail in the Commentary). The 
discrepancies apply to the totals as well as to 
individual figures, for whereas the sum of the 
reigns between Jeroboam and Jehoram of 
Israel, and between Rehoboam and Ahaziah 
of Judah, should be equal, the numbers are 
respectively 98 and 95 ; and similarly, whilst 
the years between Jehu and the Fall of 
Samaria, and between Athaliah and the 6th 
year of Hezekiah (when Samaria was taken), 
should be the same, they are respectively 143 
years 7 months and 165 years. Moreover, 
the mention of certain Hebrew kings in the 
Assyrian inscriptions as being contemporary 
with particular events which are precisely 
dated shows that the length of some reigns is 
over-estimated by the Hebrew historian (e.g. 
those of Pekahiah, Pekah and Hoshea, which 
together seem to have amounted to 16 instead 
of 31 years). 

But to regard the writer of Kings as a 
secular historian would be to mistake the 
purpose of his history. That his main object 
was not to chronicle political and social events 
is plain from two facts, (a) He treats with 
extreme brevity reigns which on his own 
showing were, from a secular point of view, 
of great importance, e.g. that of Jeroboam II 
(2K14 25 ) ; (b) he expressly refers his readers 
to other sources for further information 
respecting wars and other occurrences of 
interest (IK 14 ™ 22 39 ). His principal aim 
was to set forth the religious lessons which 
the history of his countrymen afforded, to 
trace the ill consequences that followed upon 
disobedience to the divine laws, and the 
happy results of faith in, and loyalty to, the 
Lord. In pursuance of this aim, he selected 
from the narratives which his authorities 
supplied the incidents which illustrated the 
principles he sought to enforce. In particular, 
he gave prominence to the glory of Solomon, 
which confirmed the divine promises made to 
his father David, the misconduct of the same 
king and the chastisement that punished it, 
the words and works of the various prophets 
who appeared at intervals, and the final over- 
throw which overtook both branches of the 
house of Jacob for their sins. In the sections 
which he himself composed he briefly appraised 
the character of the Beveral sovereigns accord- 
ing to their faithfulness or unfaithfulness to 
the Law ; and at certain crises of the national 
history he reviewed at Length the causes of 
the catastrophes described. 

4. Summary of the History. The political 
history contained in the hooks of Kings may 



be conveniently divided into four periods : — 
(a) The reign of Solomon over the united 
people ; (b) the period of about 200 years 
from the revolt of the Ten Tribes (about 
937 B.C.) to the downfall of Jehu's dynasty 
in Israel and the reign of Uzziah in Judah ; 
(c) the century that elapsed between the close 
of the last-mentioned period and the reign of 
Josiah ; (d) the last fifty years of the kingdom 
of Judah, from about 630 B.C. to the Fall of 
Jerusalem in 586. 

(a) The successful wars waged by David 
had secured for Israel control over many of 
the smaller Palestinian states, such as Moab, 
Ammon, and Edom ; and garrisons had been 
placed even in Damascus. The position thus 
established was maintained throughout the 
pacific rule of Solomon except that Damascus 
regained its independence ; but the interest 
of Solomon's reign centres not so much in 
the country's external relations, as in its 
internal development. It was marked by (i) 
the extension of foreign commerce through 
the help of Hiram of Tyre, (ii) the execution 
of great building schemes, intended partly to 
secure the safety of the kingdom against 
attack, and partly to foster religion and adorn 
the capital. The king's trade was conducted 
by sea with Ophir (probably S. Arabia) and 
perhaps Tarshish (Tartessus or Tarsus) ; and 
by land with Egypt, the Hittites, and the 
Syrians. It doubtless increased the wealth 
and advanced the culture of the nation ; but 
the people nevertheless suffered much in con- 
sequence of the contributions exacted for the 
support of the royal court, and the system 
of forced labour imposed to carry out the 
king's building projects. The discontent thus 
created was a principal cause of the revolt 
of the Ten Tribes against the authority of 
Solomon's son Rehoboam. 

(b) The period that succeeded Solomon's 
death began with a conflict between Israel 
and Judah, owing to a natural desire on the part 
of the early Judaean kings to recover the lost 
provinces of their house ; but it was mainly 
occupied by a protracted war between Israel 
and Syria. Syria entered the war as an ally 
of Judah, but the hostility between the two 
Hebrew kingdoms subsequently gave place to 
better relations, and Judah became Israel's 
ally against the Syrians. The object which 
the latter people chiefly had in view in its 
struggle with Israel was the command of the 
roads, leading on the one hand to the Mediter- 
ranean coast and Egypt, and on the other hand 
to Arabia along the E. side of the Jordan 
and the Dead Sea. During this period the 
northern kingdom underwent many dynastic 
changes, hnt its foreign policy was not greatly 
a licet ed in consequence, and the house of 
Jehu, no less than the house of Omri which 



208 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 KINGS 



INTRO. 



it displaced, suffered from the attacks of its 
eastern neighbours. Another nation with 
which Israel at intervals had hostilities was 
Moab, which, after being severely handled by 
Omri (as the Moabite Stone declares) rebelled 
in the reign of Ahab and conquered several 
cities belonging to Reuben and Gad ; but was 
again subdued by Jeroboam II, who extended 
his rule to the ' brook of the Arabah.' Dur- 
ing this period Judah, besides helping Israel 
against Syria, was also frequently engaged in 
maintaining by force its authority over Edom, 
or else in recovering it when lost. 

(c) The third period, which may be regarded 
as beginning with the reigns of Shallum and 
Menahem in Israel, was marked by the 
ascendency of Assyria. Israel had previously 
come into contact with the Assyrians in the 
reign of Ahab (who fought against Shalmaneser 
II in defence of Hamath in 854), and of Jehu 
(who paid tribute to the same monarch) ; but 
it was Tiglath-pileser who first seriously 
interfered with the Hebrew states. The 
advance of Assyria produced counter move- 
ments on the side of Egypt (which had left 
its Hebrew neighbours undisturbed since the 
invasion of Shishak in the reign of Rehoboam), 
and there consequently arose both in Israel 
and Judah parties which relied for help on 
one or other of these two powers against its 
rival. Egypt, however, proved a broken reed, 
and constantly disappointed those who reposed 
confidence in it. The common danger threaten- 
ing from Assyria finally drew Syria and Israel 
together, and they sought unsuccessfully to 
force Judah to join a coalition against their 
enemy. Eventually both the confederates 
succumbed before the Assyrian arms ; whilst 
Judah, which in the reign of Hezekiah, acting 
in conjunction with an anti- Assyrian faction 
in Philistia, revolted against Sennacherib, 
was only preserved by what was regarded 
as a signal interposition of divine providence. 
At a later date Egypt itself was successfully 
invaded by the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and 
Asshurbanipal. 

(d) The final period saw the downfall of 
the Assyrian power. This was accomplished 
by the Babylonians and Medes, who took 
Nineveh in 607. Egypt, which had regained 
its independence, attempted to assert claims 
to a share in the partition of the Assyrian 
possessions, and Nechoh, the Egyptian sove- 
reign, advancing into Palestine, not only 
killed Josiah in battle but deposed his suc- 
cessor. He was, however, defeated at Car- 
chemish by the Babylonians, who succeeded 
to the position previously occupied by Assyria. 
Disaffection on the part of Judah against 
Babylonian authority brought speedy retribu- 
tion, and finally Jerusalem was captured and 
its population carried into captivity in 586. 



Judah survived by nearly 150 years the 
sister kingdom of Israel, although the latter 
was the larger and more powerful of the 
two. From a secular point of view the chief 
reason for the earlier extinction of Israel is 
to be found in its position. The main roads 
leading from the Euphratene states (Syria 
and Assyria) to Phoenicia and Egypt passed 
through its territory and exposed it to the 
designs of its ambitious neighbours ; whereas 
Judah lay off the route between the eastern 
and western empires, and it was only because 
Jerusalem was too strong a fortress to leave 
on the flank of an army invading Egypt, that 
its conquest became desirable. A contributing 
factor likewise was the weakness introduced 
into the northern kingdom by dynastic rivalries, 
whilst, on the contrary, Judah was undisturbed 
by internal commotions, the house of David 
occupying the throne without a break for 
more than 400 years, except during the brief 
usurpation of Athaliah. But to one who, like 
the writer of Kings, traced in the fortunes of 
men the judgments of God, the ultimate cause 
must have appeared to be the greater cor- 
ruption of religion which prevailed in Israel 
as compared with Judah, and which brought 
upon it a swifter and more irreversible 
punishment. 

5. The Religion of the Period. The religious 
history of each of the two kingdoms was 
characterised by distinct features. In Israel 
there was no preeminent sanctuary like the 
Temple at Jerusalem to suggest any restriction 
upon the practice of worshipping at local 
shrines (' high places ') ; and this practice pre- 
vailed as long as the kingdom stood. At 
certain of these shrines Jehovah was wor- 
shipped under the emblem of a calf or young 
bull ; and the use of these symbols was main- 
tained by all those kings who upheld the 
ancestral Hebrew faith. The ' high places,' 
however, were not always devoted to the 
service of the Lord, for both the historian 
and certain contemporary prophets imply 
that the worship of the Canaanite Baalim 
was sometimes practised at them (Hos2 13 ). 
And at two periods alien forms of religion 
were introduced from abroad and diffused 
through the influence of the reigning sove- 
reign. The first was that of the Phoenician 
Baal, brought into Israel by the alliance of 
Ahab with Ethbaal, king of Zidon, and strenu- 
ously opposed by the prophets Elijah and 
Elisha. The second, imported at a later 
date, was due to connexion with Assyria, and 
consisted of planet- or star-worship, to the 
prevalence of which allusion is made by the 
prophet Amos (5 26 ). 

In Judah the Temple built by Solomon 
naturally dwarfed the importance of all other 
sanctuaries, but the ' high places ' were never- 



14 



209 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 KINGS— 1 KINGS 



1.7 



theless long maintained even under the rule 
of pious kings. But in the reign of Hezekiah 
an attempt was made to suppress them and to 
confine all national acts of religion to the 
Temple ; and a still more complete reform in 
this direction was effected by Josiah. The 
greater success that attended Josiah's efforts 
was largely due to the discovery of a copy of 
the book of Deuteronomy, in which the restric- 
tion of worship to a single locality is expressly 
enjoined. In Judah calf -worship never seems 
to have been practised ; and though the wor- 
ship of the Lord was often corrupted, its 
supremacy was never seriously disputed by 
any other religion during the first half of the 
history, except in the reign of Athaliah, who 
was a votary of the Zidonian Baal. Subse- 
quently, however, Assyrian forms of worship 
penetrated into Judah as they had into Israel. 
Ahaz was attracted by the rites which he saw 
at Damascus when summoned thither by Tig- 
lath-pileser, whilst Manasseh is described as 
having worshipped the ' host of heaven.' After 
Assyria had fallen before Babylon, Babylonian 
cults began to be imitated ; and both Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel allude to the worship paid to the 
' queen of heaven ' (perhaps Ishtar) and to 
Tammuz, a deity adopted by the Greeks under 
the name of Adonis (see Jer44 18 Ezk8 u ). 

6. The Prophets who appeared at intervals 
in the course of the history fall into 3 groups : 
— (a) Those who were contemporary with the 
war against Syria, such as Elijah and Elisha ; 
(b) those who witnessed the rise and pre- 
dominance of Assyria, viz. Amos, Hosea, 
Isaiah and Micah ; (c) those who lived during 
the decline of Assyria and the early years of 
Babylonian supremacy, viz. Nahum, Zephaniah, 
Habakkuk, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. At all 
periods the prophets were statesmen no less 
than moral teachers, religion being viewed from 
a national rather than an individual standpoint. 



But the prophetic ideals and methods varied 
in different ages, those of Elijah and Elisha, 
for instance, offering many features of con- 
trast to those of later times. Thus Elijah was 
content to maintain the claims of Jehovah to 
be the God of Israel without explicitly affirm- 
ing Him to be the only God, and he seems to 
have tolerated the unspiritual conception of 
religion involved in the worship of the golden 
calves ; whereas Hosea ridiculed such worship, 
and Isaiah expressly described by a term 
meaning ' nonentities ' the gods revered by 
foreign nations and disloyal Israelites. And 
similarly whilst Elisha sought to bring about 
a religious reformation by means of a political 
revolution, and presumably sympathised with 
Jehu's action in exterminating by violence the 
family of Ahab, the later prophets, in trying 
to direct the policy of their countrymen into 
right channels, confined themselves to peace- 
ful methods, and Hosea even declared that 
the Lord would visit upon the house of Jehu 
the blood shed by him in Jezreel. 

7. Chronological Table. As has been already 
said, it is difficult to construct an accurate 
scheme of chronology from the statements 
furnished by the Hebrew historians, partly 
because they did not fix events by any era 
which can be determined with precision, partly 
because they used inconsistent methods of 
reckoning the length of reigns, and partly 
in consequence of miscalculations or textual 
corruptions. But the mention of certain 
Hebrew kings in the Assyrian and other in- 
scriptions enables us to bring the biblical 
history into relation with that of the surround- 
ing nations ; and from a comparison of the 
figures given in the books of Kings with the 
dates obtained from the inscriptions, a table 
has been drawn up (see HDB. i. pp. 401-402), 
which may be taken as an approximation to 
the truth : see art. ' Chronology of the Bible.' 



1 KINGS 



CHAPTER 1 
An Intrigue for the Succession 

This c. relates Adonijah's attempt to obtain 
the succession, its defeat through the agency 
of Nathan, and the enthronement of Solomon. 
The history contained in it is omitted in 
1 Ch, where, however, mention is made of 
Solomon's having been crowned not once only 
but twice (lCh29 M ). Probably the Becond 
occasion corresponds to what is related in 
1 K L» (cp. LCh29 M with 1 K 1 i. 

1. Now] better, 'and,' connecting this 



book with the history contained in the pre- 
ceding. 

5. Adonijah] The fourth son of David (2 
S3 4 ). Of his three elder brothers, two, 
Amnon and Absalom, were certainly by this 
time dead ; and the indulgence with which 
Adonijah was treated by his father (v. 6) 
makes it probable that he was the eldest sur- 
viving son. 6. His mother bare him after Ab- 
salom] MX -lie was born after Absalom'; 
Adonijah and Absalom were sons of different 
mothers (2 S3 8 .*). 

7. JoabJ David's nephew, and at this time 



210 



1.8 



1 KINGS 



% 9 



captain of the host or national militia (2 S 8 16 ). 
His support of Adonijah was probably due to 
the latter's being the eldest surviving son of 
David, and to his active character. Abiathar] 
son of Ahimelech the priest of Nob, who had 
been put to death by Saul (1 S 2220). He was 
a descendant of Aaron's son Ithamar. 

8. Zadok] a descendant of Aaron's son 
Eleazar (1 Ch6 4 " 8 ). It is not clear what were 
the relative positions of Abiathar and Zadok 
to one another. In IChIG 39 Zadok is stated 
to have ministered at the sanctuary at Gibeon, 
but in 2 S 1 5 2i both Abiathar and Zadok are 
represented as being at Jerusalem. In the 
LXX of 1K2 35 it is implied that Abiathar 
was the first, or principal, priest, and Zadok 
presumably the second. Benaiah] son of 
Jehoiada (v. 36) and commander of the body- 
guard of Cherethites, Pelethites and Gittites 
(see further on v. 38). For his early exploits 
see 2 S 23 20-23. Nathan] For other notices of 
Nathan see 2 S 7 2 1 1 2 1 f . The mighty men] 
This was a body of distinguished warriors, 
nominally 30 in number, who were perhaps 
officers either of the bodyguard or of the host, 
and whose names are given in 2 S 23 24-39 \ (jfo 
1 1 26A7 . 

g. Slew sheep and oxen] probably a sacri- 
ficial feast is meant, whereby Adonijah in- 
tended to solemnise his succession : cp. 2 S 
15 12 . The stone of Zoheleth . . En-rogel] En- 
rogel is probably to be identified with the 
modern Bir-eyub, a well (not a spring) situated 
at the junction of the valley of Hinnom and 
the gorge of the Kidron, S. of Jerusalem 
(cp. Josh 15 8 18 16 ). 

13. Didst not thou . . swear?] That this was 
true is acknowledged by David in w. 29, 30. 

20. The eyes of all Israel are upon thee] 
Though the right of the firstborn to succeed 
was beginning to be recognised, the sovereign 
still possessed the power of nominating his 
successor. 

33. Gihon] probably the modern Virgin's 
Fountain, in the ravine of the Kidron, about 
half-a-mile from En-rogel (Bir-eyub). 

36. Amen] an expression of assent or con- 
currence: cp. Nu5 22 Jer28 6 . 

38. Cherethites] a bodyguard of foreign 
extraction, like the Swiss guards of the French 
kings or the Yarangians of the Byzantine 
sovereigns. The Cherethites came from the 
S. of Philistia (1S30 14 ), the name being 
generally supposed to be connected with 
Crete, and the Pelethites were perhaps likewise 
Philistines. David may have enrolled this force 
after the conclusion of his Philistine wars. 

39. The tabernacle] RY 'the Tent'; pro- 
bably the tent erected by David to shelter the 
ark (2S617). According to lChl639 the 
Tabernacle made by Moses was at Gibeon. 
For the anointing oil see Ex 30 22-33. 



42. Valiant] RY 'worthy.' 46. Solomon 
sitteth on the throne] similarly Jotham ruled 
during the lifetime of his father (2K15 5 ). 

47. Bowed himself] i.e. in worship: cp. Gn 
4731. 

50. The horns of the altar] The altar in- 
tended was probably one erected in or before 
the tent that sheltered the ark : see on v. 39 
and cp. 229 315. The horns were projections 
at the four corners (Ex27 2 ), to which the 
victim to be sacrificed may have been attached 
(Ps 118 27), and which were sometimes smeared 
with its blood (Ex29 12 ). It was customary 
for homicides to seek refuge at the altar of 
the Lord from the avengers of blood, but 
deliberate murderers might be dragged from 
it (Ex 2 1 14 ). A similar right of asylum be- 
longed to heathen temples in classical times 
and to Christian churches in the middle ages. 

51. To day] RM < first of all.' 

CHAPTER 2 

David's last Will and Testament 
The recital of David's last charge to Solo- 
mon and his death is followed by an account 
of the execution of Adonijah, Joab, and 
Shimei. 

3, 4. Cp.Dtl7 2S7. 

5. Abner . . Amasa] For Abner see 1 Ch 9 36 
IS 1450 2S2,3 ; for Amasa see 2 S 17 25 (cp. 
1 Ch 2 17), 19 13 20 4 -i 3 . Joab's slaying of Abner 
may be palliated, though not justified, in con- 
sideration of his kinship with Asahel, whom 
Abner had killed ; but his assassination of 
Amasa was due merely to the mortification he 
had sustained when the latter displaced him in 
the king's favour. He had thus been guilty 
of murder, which, if unavenged, would bring 
guilt on the land : cp. 2S 21 . David may also 
have thought it expedient to remove Joab in 
order to safeguard Solomon's throne, which 
could never be secure so long as so capable 
and unscrupulous an officer was alive. The 
blood of war . . girdle] The LXX has ' innocent 
blood,' which the sense requires. 

6. The grave] Heb. Sheol, the abode of 
departed spirits. 

7. Barzillai] For his kindness to David see 
2S193if. 

8. Shimei] For his offence against David 
and David's oath to him see 2ST65-13 1918-23. 

9. Hold him not guiltless] Personal resent- 
ment seems to have entered into David's feel- 
ings towards Shimei, but it is probable that 
his injunctions respecting him were partly 
dictated by political reasons, for Shimei was a 
Benjamite who had reproached David with 
supplanting Saul, and might be suspected of 
hostility towards David's successor ; and who 
was influential enough to be attended by a 
thousand of his fellow-tribesmen when he met 
the king after Absalom's defeat (2S19 17 ). 

211 



2. 10 



1 KINGS 



1.7 



io. The city of David] i.e. the stronghold 
of Zion : see 2 S 5 6_9 . At this time Jerusalem 
probably occupied only the eastern of the two 
hills upon which the modern city stands. 

David's reign was more important and 
critical than any other in the history of Israel, 
both from a secular and from a religious point 
of view. In the first place, he consolidated 
into a kingdom what had previously been an 
aggregate of jealous tribes, and so enabled his 
countrymen to take a place among the nations 
of the Eastern world ; and, in the second place, 
he strengthened his people's attachment to the 
Lord, alike by the zeal he showed for God's 
honour and worship, and by the obedience he 
rendered to the prophets who counselled or 
admonished him in the divine name. Con- 
sequently later times regarded the period of his 
rule as Israel's golden age, and the memories 
of it coloured the anticipations which were 
entertained respecting the coming of the Mes- 
siah. His character, indeed, was not free from 
reproach ; for, besides being guilty of adultery 
and murder, he was cruel in war(2S8 2 12 31 ) and 
negligent of justice at home (though in these 
respects he was doubtless no worse than his 
contemporaries). But if he sinned grievously, 
he repented sincerely ; and by his humility 
under reproof (2S12 13 ), his resignation in 
adversity (2S15 25 > 26 ), and his faith in the 
divine mercy (2S24 14 ), he still affords an ex- 
ample for Christian people. 

17. That he give me Abishag] Amongst 
Eastern nations the wives and concubines of a 
deceased or dethroned king were taken by his 
successor (see 2S12 8 16 21 > 22 ) ; and so Adoni- 
jah's request for Abishag was regarded as tan- 
tamount to a claim on the throne. 19. Rose 
up to meet her] the queen-dowager occupied a 
very important position at the court of the 
kings of Israel : cp. 1K15 13 Jerl3 18 . 

23. God do so, etc.] an expression implying 
a wish that God would avenge the failure to 
carry out what was promised or threatened. 

24. Made me an house] see 2S7 11 . 

26. Anathoth] NNE. of Jerusalem. It was 
the home of the prophet Jeremiah ( Jer 1 l ). 

Barest the ark] perhaps referring to the 
transport of the ark from the house of Obed- 
edom to Jerusalem (1 Chl5), or to its removal 
from Jerusalem on the occasion of Absalom's 
rebellion (2S15 24 .39). 

27. That he might . . the LORD] see 1 S 
281*86. ft is not meant that the fulfilment \v;is 
<lcsi'_ f ne<l by Solomon, but lie was the uncon- 
scious agenl of divine providence. 

28. Horns of the altar] see on 1 r '°. The 
tabernacle] Bee Oil I :; '-'. 31. Bury him] Denial 
of burial would have made Joab's fate more 
ignominious: Bee 2 K 9 10 » w Esal4 18 » ao . Take 
away the innocent blood] Tins, if not avenged, 
would have brought a judgment upon the 



king and his people : see Nu35 33 , and cp. 
2S21 1 " 14 . 32, 33. In these vv. the futures 
are best rendered as wishes. Captain of the 
hcst of Judah] At this time there was no 
formal division between Israel and Judah, but 
Amasa had been specially connected with 
the latter : see 2S19 11 - 13 20 4 . 34. Buried in 
his own house] cp. 1S25 1 2K21 18 . In the 
wilderness] i.e. of Judah, to which tribe Joab 
belonged. 35. Put . . Abiathar] i.e. appointed 
him to be first priest, instead of Abiathar. 

36. Build thee an house in Jerusalem] i.e. 
that he might be under surveillance. 37. The 
brook Kidron] This would actually limit him 
only on the E., the quarter in which his for- 
mer home, Bahurim, was situated ; but it was 
doubtless meant to designate the distance be- 
yond which he was not to go in any direction : 
cp. v. 42. 39. Shimei's visit to Achish might 
be construed as an intrigue with a foreign 
power. 43. The oath of the Lord] i.e. the 
oath which the Lord witnessed. 

CHAPTER 3 

Solomon's Choice 

This c. relates how Solomon, out of various 

gifts offered to him by the Almighty, chose 

wisdom, and adds an illustration of the use he 

made of the gift with which he was endowed. 

1. Pharaoh] probably one of the immediate 
predecessors of the Shishak (Sheshonk) men- 
tioned in ll 40 is intended. His own house . . 
LORD] see chs. 7 and 6. Both of these 
buildings were outside the limits of the city 
of David. 

2. High places] Both the Canaanites (see 
Nu33 52 Dtl2 2 ) and the early Israelites (see 
1 S 9 12 2 S 15 30 > 32 ) used to worship on hill-tops, 
possibly as being nearer heaven, the dwelling- 
place of the Deity, or perhaps (more probably) 
as being the best sites for burning the victims 
that were offered in sacrifice. In Dt 12 10f - the 
worship of the Lord is ordered to be restricted 
to a single sanctuary ; though the history shows 
that religious practices at the high places were 
permitted even by the best of kings (see 15 M 
22 43 ) until the reign of Hezekiah (see 2K 18 ')• 

4. Gibeon] in the tribe of Benjamin (Josh 
18 25 ). To sacrifice there] in 2 Ch 1 8 it is stated 
that the Tabernacle of the congregation was at 
Gibeon ; if so, it must have been removed 
tliither from Shiloh when the latter place was 
destroyed (Jer7 12 ), or from Nob, to which it 
may have been conveyed from Shiloh. The 
ark which it had originally contained, was 
not restored to it when brought back by the 
Philistines ( 1 S6), but put by David in a tent 
at Jerusalem. 

7. I an/ hut a little child] The words seem 
to imply that Solomon was quite youthful 
when he came to the throne ; but the politic 
measures by which he secured his crown, as 



! 



212 



3.9 



1 KINGS 



4. 31 



described in c. 2, suggest that he had attained 
to full manhood, and according to 1K14 21 he 
left, after a reign of 40 years, a son who was 
41 when his father died, and who therefore 
must have been born before his father became 
king (but see note there). Josephus gives 
Solomon's age at the beginning of his reign as 
14. Go out or come in] i.e. pursue the active 
life of a man in his prime : cp. Nu 27 17 1 S 18 13 
Dt312. 

9. Solomon's prayer exhibits (a) a strong 
sense of responsibility and a conviction that 
high position involves corresponding duties ; 
(b) a consciousness that truth and falsehood, 
right and wrong, are not always easy to dis- 
tinguish, and that to discern between them 
there are needed special gifts of the heart and 
understanding ; (c) that such gifts are derived 
from God, who bestows them in answer to 
prayer. 14. I will lengthen thy days] The 
promise was made on conditions which Solomon 
did not observe : see 1 1 1_s . 

15. The ark of the covenant] This had 
been placed by David in a tent at Jerusalem 
(2S6 12 > 17 ). Solomon fitly inaugurated his 
reign by acts of religious worship at his capital 
as well as at Gibeon (v. 4). Burnt offerings . . 
peace offerings] see on Exl8 12 . 

26. Her bowels] i.e. her heart. 27. Give 
her the living child] The pronoun refers not to 
the last speaker but to her rival (as LXX 
explains). 28. The wisdom of God] Solomon's 
wisdom was divine not only in its source but 
in its quality. 

CHAPTER 4 

Solomon's Officers and Court 
2. Azariah the son of Zadok] he was really 
the grandson of Zadok (1 Ch 6 8 > 9 ). 3. Shisha] 
also called Shavsha and Sheva. In David's 
reign he filled the same office now discharged 
by his sons (2 S 20 25 ). Scribes] i.e. the royal 
secretaries. Jehoshaphat] he had previously 
served David (2S8 16 20 24 ). Recorder] pro- 
bably the keeper of the state archives (EM 
' chronicler '), though some suppose that his 
function was to remind the king of state mat- 
ters that required his attention. 4. Abiathar] 
Abiathar was priest during a very brief period 
of Solomon's reign : see 2 26 » 27 . 5. The officers] 
probably the officers named in vv. 7-19. Prin- 
cipal officer] RY ' priest.' The term is used 

I in 2S8!8 of David's sons, and in 2S20 26 of 
Ira a Jainite, who perhaps belonged to the 
tribe of Manasseh — both being, to all appear- 
ance, instances of priests of other than Levi- 

1 tical descent. The king's friend] The same 
title is applied to Hushai in 2S15 37 . 6. Over 
the household] i.e. steward or treasurer : cp. 
Isa22 15 . The position was one of sufficient 
dignity to be filled sometimes by the son of 
the sovereign (2 K 1 5 5 ). Adoniram] The name 



appears in a shortened form as Adoram in 2S 
20 2 ^ IK 12 is. Tribute] RY 'levy.' This was 
a body of men subjected to forced labour and 
employed on Solomon's buildings (9 15 ). It 
corresponded to the French corvee. 8. Mount 
Ephraim] R Y ' the hill country of Ephraim ' : 
and so elsewhere. 

9-12. Of the localities mentioned in these 
vv. several (Makaz, Elon-beth-hanan, Aruboth, 
Hepher) are unknown. Shaalbim was in Dan ; 
Beth-shemesh (modern Ain shems) and Sochoh 
were in Judah ; Dor was on the coast, near 
Carmel ; Taanach, Megiddo, Jezreel, Jokneam 
(RY ' Jokmeam ') were in or near the plain of 
Esdraelon ; Beth-shean (the modern Beisan), 
Zartanah, and Abel-meholah were in the Jordan 
valley. 13, 14. The places named in these 
vv. were E. of Jordan. Argob is the Tracho- 
nitis of the NT., a volcanic district, now called 
the ' Leja,' lying S. of Damascus. 19. He 
was . . land] The text is probably corrupt. It 
will be observed that in the division of the 
land between the several officers, the tribal 
boundaries were to some extent ignored, only 
five or six tribes being retained as departments. 
Possibly this was done to weaken tribal senti- 
ment, which tended to disunion. 

21. The river] the Euphrates. 22. Mea- 
sures] Heb. cars (a cor = a homer, and con- 
tained over 80 gallons). 24. On this side the 
river] RM 'beyond' (i.e. W. of) 'the River' 
(Euphrates), i.e. Palestine and the neighbouring 
region as viewed from the standpoint of a resi- 
dent in Babylon (E. of the Euphrates) where 
the book of Kings was probably completed. 

Tiphsah] Thapsacus, on the upper course of 
the Euphrates. Azzah] Gaza in Philistia. 

26. Forty thousand] in 2 Ch9 25 ' four thou- 
sand,' which would be sufficient for the 1,400 
chariots mentioned in 10 26 . The possession 
of a large force of cavalry was a departure 
from the practice of David, who, like Joshua, 
destroyed the horses taken from his enemies. 

27. Those officers] i.e. the officers described 
in v. 7 f . They lacked nothing] better, ' they 
let nothing be lacking.' 28. Dromedaries] 
RY ' swift steeds.' Where the officers were] 
RY (after LXX) ' where the king was ' ; RM 
1 where it ' (the barley and straw) ' should be,' 
i.e. wherever it was required 

29. Largeness of heart] i.e. great intellectual 
capacity : see on v. 3 9 . 30. Children of the east 
country] The term is applied in Jer39 28 to 
the Arab tribes dwelling at Kedar, and pro- 
bably describes generally the inhabitants of 
the Syrian desert: cp. Gn29! Jg6 3 . For 
Arab wisdom see Jer 39 7 . 31. Ethan, etc.] 
The same four names (with the substitution 
of Dara for Darda) occur among the sons of 
Zerah the son of Judah in lCh26. If the 
allusion is to these, Mahol may be their father 
and Zerah a remote ancestor. The individuals 



213 



4. 32 



1 KINGS 



6. 



meant must have been ancient sages proverbial 
for their wisdom. 32. Proverbs] Some are 
doubtless included in the extant book of 
Proverbs. Songs] The Song of Songs and 
two of the canonical psalms (72 and 127) bear 
Solomon's name. Certain so-called ' Psalms 
of Solomon ' really belong to the age of 
Pompey. 33. He spake of trees, etc.] This 
may mean both that he drew examples from 
the vegetable and animal kingdoms to illustrate 
his maxims (as in Prov6 6 ), and that he in- 
vestigated and described their properties (as 
in Prov30 15 > 29 - 31 ). 34. All people] cp. the 
visit of the Queen of Sheba (c. 10). 

CHAPTER 5 

Solomon's Preparations for building 
the Temple 

1. Hiram] see 2S5 11 1 Chl4i. It has been 
questioned whether this Hiram, who was living 
as late as Solomon's twentieth year (1K9 10 ), 
is really identical with the Hiram mentioned 
in connexion with David (2S5 11 lChl4 1 ), 
because, according to Josephus, his reign lasted 
only 34 years. But it is possible that David 
did not undertake the buildings in which 
Hiram assisted him until comparatively late 
in his life. 

3. Could not build an house] see ICh 228 . 
Here the reason given why David could not 
build the Temple is the turmoil that filled his 
reign. 4. Occurrent] i.e. occurrence. 5. As 
the LORD spake] see 2S7 13 . 

7. Blessed be the LORD] Hiram, who, as 
king of Tyre, was a worshipper of Melkarth 
and Ashtoreth, would not regard the Lord 
(Jehovah) as the only God, but would acknow- 
ledge Him as the God of Israel. Jehovah's 
existence and power were similarly recognised 
by the Syrian Naaman, who was himself a 
worshipper of Rimmon (2 K 5 n ) : cp. also the 
language of the Moabite king Balak (Nu23 17 
24 11 ). 9. Convey them, etc.] RV 'make them 
into rafts to go by sea.' The place] Joppa 
(2Ch2i6). To be discharged] RV 'to be 
broken up.' II. Measures] Heb. cora (see on 
4 22 ). For twenty measures of pure oil L XX 
has ' 20,000 baths of oil ' (a ' bath ' being one- 
tenth of a ' cor ' : cp. 2 Ch 2 10 . For the export 
of corn and other produce from Judah to 
Tyre cp. Ezk27 17 . The nearness of Lebanon 
must have prevented the Tyrians from obtain- 
ing much corn from their own soil. 13. Thirty 
thousand men] These were probably taken 
from native Israelites (cp. the prediction in 
1 88 ll-M) ; whereas the 1 50,000 labourers 
mentioned in v. 15 were ' Btrangers thai were 
in the land of [srael' (2Ch2" : cp. 1 Kit-"'.-' 1 ). 
David seems to have imposed forced labour 
apOD the latter only (lCh22 8 ); ami the 
different practice of his son caused the dis- 
content that eventually rent the kingdom in 



two (12 4 ). 14. By courses] i.e. by turns or 
shifts. Adoniram] see 4 6 , the Adoram of 12 1 8. 
17. Great stones] Some of these perhaps 
still remain, for stones 30 ft. long and 1\ ft. 
high have been found (it is said) ' at the SW. 
angle of the wall of the Haram area in the 
modern Jerusalem.' 18. The stonesquarers] 
RY ' Gebalites ' : the inhabitants of Gebal or 
Byblus, a maritime town at the foot of 
Lebanon. 

CHAPTER 6 

The Construction of the Temple 
In shape the Temple was a rectangular 
hall 60 x 20 x 30 cubits (a cubit being about 
18 inches). On its E. face it had a porch 
(forming an entrance) which extended across 
the whole front and added 10 cubits to the 
length of the building (v. 3). The height of 
this is given in 2 Ch 3 4 as 120 cubits; but such 
a measurement is out of all proportion to the 
others, and is probably an error (one of the 
MSS of the LXX substitutes 20 cubits). On 
three sides of the house were built a number 
of chambers (Josephus says 30) in three storeys 
(vv. 5, 10), intended for the accommodation of 
the priests and for storing things required for 
the Temple services: cp. 2K11 2 >3 Nehl3 4 > 5 
(of the Second Temple). The beams that sup- 
ported the cielings of these storeys rested on 
ledges in the outer face of the Temple wall 
formed by successive reductions of its thick- 
ness (v. 6). Above the topmost row of 
chambers the Temple wall was pierced with 
windows of narrow lights (RV ' windows of 
fixed lattice work,' i.e. which could not be 
opened like most lattices), resembling the 
clerestory of a modern cathedral. In the 
interior, the building was divided by a partition 
(see v. 16) into two apartments, the larger (to 
the E.) being called the Holy Place, and the 
smaller (to the W.) being styled the Oracle 
or Most Holy Place, which bore to one another 
the same relation as the nave and chancel of 
our own churches. 

Solomon's Temple resembled in general 
plan the Tabernacle as described in Ex 25-27, 
its length and breadth being exactly double. 
In idea, it was, like the Tabernacle, the 
dwelling-place of the God of Israel (see 
1 K8 13 , and cp. Ex 25 s ), wherein He received, 
and held communion with, His worshippers 
(2K19 14f -, cp. Ex33<). But it differed from 
most other sanctuaries of antiquity in contain- 
ing no image ; so that though the conception 
of divine worship had not yet become 
independent of locality or material oblations 
(see Jn4 21_8 *), the conception of the Deity 
Himself was purely spiritual. 

In the Holy of Holies (the Presence chamber 
of the Divine King) there was nothing except 
the ark (containing the Decalogue), the cover 



214 



6. 1 



1 KINGS 



7. 



of which was regarded as the throne of the 
Lord, who was thought of as seated between 
the cherubim that overshadowed it (2K19 15 ). 
In the Holy Place there were situated the 
Altar of Incense and the Table of Shew bread. 
In the court before the House stood the Altar 
of Burnt Offerings and the several vessels 
used by the priests in their ablutions (7 23f -). 

i. The four hundred and eightieth year] 
The sum of the periods mentioned or implied 
in the previous books since the exodus much 
exceeds this figure. The real length of the 
interval is uncertain, and the number of years 
here indicated is probably not based on historic 
records but is a conventional expression for 
twelve generations (a generation being reckoned 
at 40 years). Approximately the date of the 
commencement of the Temple may be put at 
973 B.C. The month Zif] In early times the 
Hebrew year ended and began in the autumn 
(see Ex23 16 34 22 ), but at a later period the 
beginning of the year was in the spring, and 
Zit, which corresponded to our April-May, 
became the second month. It was subse- 
quently called Iyyar. 

2. The house] The Temple was built on the 
N. of the hill upon which Zion, ' the city of 
David,' stood, there being an ascent from the 
latter to the former (see 8 1 ). Its site had 
originally been occupied by Araunah's thresh- 
ing-floor (2 Ch 3 1 ). For its position relative to 
the rest of Solomon's buildings see on 7 9 . 

8. The middle chamber] LXX has 'the 
lowest chamber,' which the sense requires. 

The right side] the S. 9. Covered the 
house] Roof ed or cieled' it. Whether the roof 
was flat or gable-shaped is uncertain, though, 
as houses were generally flat-topped, this was 
probably no exception. 

12. Conce ruing this house, etc.] The erection 
of the Temple was an external and material 
indication of Solomon's allegiance to the Lord; 
but to obtain the Almighty's continued favour, 
it was necessary besides to submit his life and 
conduct to the control of God's moral laws. 

Which I spake unto David] see 2S7 13 . 
G-od renewed to Solomon the promises made 
to his father on condition of his obedience. 

15. Both the floor, etc.] mg. 'from the floor 
of the house unto the walls,' etc., i.e. from top 
to bottom. 16. He built. . on the sides, etc.] 
RV ' he built . . on the hinder part,' etc. This, 
as appears from a comparison of the measure- 
ments given in vv. 2 and 17, does not mean 
that the Most Holy Place (or Oracle) was an 
additional structure built on the rear of the 
house, but that it was an apartment formed 
within the house (cp. v. 19) at its W. end by 
the erection of a partition made with boards 
of cedar. As its length, breadth and height 
were each 20 cubits (v. 20), its form internally 
was a perfect cube, though externally it was 



perhaps of the same elevation as the rest of 
the buildings. 18. Knops] i.e. knobs, and 
so in 7 24 . RM has 'gourds,' implying that 
the ornaments intended, which were carved 
in relief, were globular in shape, resembling 
pumpkins. 20. The oracle in the forepart] 
better, ' the oracle within.' The altar] i.e. the 
altar of incense : for its situation see v. 22. 

21. Made a partition, etc.] RV 'drew 
chains of gold across before the oracle,' i.e. 
across the entrance that led from the Holy 
Place into the Most Holy. But 2Ch3i4 
mentions a veil, and the translation should 
perhaps be ' drew a veil before the oracle by 
means of chains of gold.' 22. By the oracle] 
The altar was not actually within the oracle 
but near it. 

23. Cherubims] These were large winged 
figures of composite character, perhaps with 
four faces, those of a man, a lion, an ox, and 
an eagle (Ezk 1 10 ), or with the face of an ox 
only (to which the term ' cherub ' seems to have 
strictly applied: cp. Ezk 10 14 with l™). They 
represented God's chariot (cp. Psl8 10 ), and 
perhaps symbolised certain of the divine 
attributes (power, celerity, etc.). The original 
conception (as Ps 18 1(Kl4 suggests) was probably 
derived from a storm-cloud: see on Ex25 18 . 

27. The inner house] i.e. the Oracle or 
Most Holy Place. 29. Palm trees] Figures 
of these are frequent on the Assyrian monu- 
ments. Within and without] i.e. within and 
without the dividing partition between the 
Holy and Most Holy Place, so that both 
chambers are meant. 

31. The lintel] According to some 'the 
pilasiers,' small pillars projecting from the 
surface of the side posts. A fifth part] mg. 
'five-square,' i.e. the top of the door was 
pentagonal in form. The words ' of the wall ' 
are not in the original. 32. The two doors] 
i.e. two leaves, forming a single door. 33. A 
fourth part] mg. 'four-square.' The head of 
the door was square: see on v. 31. 

34. The two doors] The door of the Holy 
Place consisted of two halves, but each half 
had two leaves. 

36. The inner court] This was the court 
before the house (8 64 ), open to the air, and 
was surrounded by a fence of stone surmounted 
by a row, or paling, of cedar beams. It was 
on a higher level than the ' great court ' of 
7 12 , and is called in Jer36 10 'the upper court.' 

38. The month Bui] Corresponding to 
October-November. As this was the eighth 
month and the Temple was begun in the 
second, the time actually occupied in its con- 
struction was, in strictness, 1\ years. 

CHAPTER 7 
Solomon's Palace 
This c, besides giving a description of 



215 



7. 1 



1 KINGS 



7.38 



Solomon's palace, contains an account of the 
principal utensils belonging to the Temple. 

i. Thirteen years] The Temple was of 
small extent compared with the royal palace, 
so that the time spent on the latter exceeded 
that required for the former. The various 
buildings mentioned in vv. 2-8 seem together 
to have constituted the house of v. 1. 

2. He built also] RV k for he built.' The 
house of the forest of Lebanon] so called from 
the quantity of cedar wood from Lebanon em- 
ployed in its construction. It was a rectangular 
hall, 100 x 50 x 30 cubits, its roof being sup- 
ported by cedar beams resting upon three rows 
(so LXX for four rows) of cedar pillars, num- 
bering 45 in all ; and was used as an armoury 
(Isa 22 8 ). 4. Light . . ranks] The external 
walls were pierced with three rows of windows, 
so arranged that those in each side corresponded 
in position to those in the opposite side. 

5. Were square, with the windows] RV 
'were square in prospect': i.e. the doors were 
rectangular (not pointed or arched). 

6. A porch of pillars] There was another 
building with numerous pillars, having a portico 
(the porch was before them), of which the thick 
beam was the threshold. 

7. A porch for the throne] This was a third 
building which served as a court of justice. 
From one side . . other] better, ' from floor to 
cieling.' 

8. Another courtJftLer. behind the porch of 
judgment there wasjajcqurt which enclosed the 
king's palace; this was' probably the same as 
'the middle court' of 2K20 4 (if that is the 
right reading). 

9. According to . . stones] RV ' even hewn 
stone, according to measure ' : and so in v. 11. 
Within and without] i.e. both the outer and 
inner surfaces. The great court] This was 
perhaps a large court enclosing all the preced- 
ing structures, including the Temple. It con- 
tained (in order from S. to N.), 1. certain 
public buildings, (a) the house of the forest of 
Lebanon, (b) the porch of pillars, (c) the porch 
of the throne ; 2. a second court, enclosing the 
royal residences, the king's house and the house 
of Pharaoh's daughter ; 3. the 'inner court' 
(i)''), surrounding the Temple. 12. Both 
for . . and for] RV ' like as . . and.' The mean- 
ing is that the great court, the inner (or Temple) 
court, and the court of the house (or palace) 
each had a fence of similar construction : 
op. ''.■■". 

13. Hiram] also spelt 'Huram' and 'Hiroin.' 
The Tynan tang and the Tyrian architect both 
seem to have borne the same name. 14. A 
widow's son . . Naphtali] in 2Ch2 M his mo- 
ther is called a daughter of Dan, the Danite 
settlement within Naphtali being perhaps 
meant. 

15. Two pillars] These pillars, though 



placed at the porch (v. 21), probably did not 
support its roof but were detached from the 
building, and intended for symbolic purposes 
only. Two similar pillars are said to have stood 
in the temple of Melkarth at Tyre, one of gold 
and the other of emerald (or green glass) ; and 
the like are depicted on the coins of Paphos. 
Originally such pillars, whether natural obelisks 
or artificial columns, were regarded as the 
abode of the Deity, so that offerings were placed 
or poured upon them in order to be conveyed 
to the indwelling spirit (of which primitive 
notion the action of Jacob at Bethel shows a 
surviving trace, G-n 28 18 ), but subsequently they 
became emblems merely, marking the spot 
where they stood as sacred: cp. Isal9 19 . The 
details of the pillars erected before the Temple 
are obscure (the text in places being defective 
or disordered), but their general appearance is 
easily intelligible. They were hollow ( Jer 52 21 ) 
columns of brass, 12 cubits in circumference 
and 18 cubits high, surmounted by capitals 
(chapiters) five (in 25 17 three) cubits high, 
globular in shape (v. 42) and decorated with 
tracery (v. 17). Around each capital ran two 
rows of pomegranates, and above each rose an 
ornament, 4 cubits high, shaped like the cup 
of a lily. 17. Seven . . seven] probably a 
mistake for ' a network . . a network,' there 
being only two networks in all (see v. 41). 

21. Jachin . . Boaz] i.e. ' He (God) will es- 
tablish,' and ' In Him (G-od) is strength.' 

23. A molten sea] i.e. a large vessel con- 
taining water. For its use see 2Ch4 6 . 

26. An hand breadth] i.e. 3 inches. With 
flowers of lilies] RV ' like the flowers of a lily,' 
the rim curving outwards. Two thousand 
baths] A ' bath ' was rather more than 8 gallons. 
To contain all this, the sides of the molten sea 
must have bulged considerably. 

27. Bases] movable supports or carriages 
for the lavers of v. 38. The description is very 
obscure, but it has been in part ehicidated 
by a bronze stand of Mycenaean workmanship 
recently found in Cyprus. Each base consisted 
of a hollow cube (4x4x3 cubits), the sides 
of which had panels (borders) between raised 
edges (ledges). At the lower corners there 
were legs (the undersetters of v. 30, 34), which 
rested on large wheels. Above rose a pedestal 
(the base of vv. 29, 31) with a capital (the 
chapiter of v. 32) which had a hollow 
(mouth) to receive the laver, which was 
further supported by stays (the undersetters 
under the laver of v. 30). 29. Additions made 
of thin work] RV ' wreaths of hanging work,' 
i.e. festoons; so also in vv. 30, 3G. 34. Were 
of the very base itself] i.e. were cast with it 
and not subsequently attached. 36. According 
to the proportion] RV ' according to the space 
of each ': i.e. so far as the space permitted. 

38. Ten lavers] for the purpose of these 



216 



7.39 



1 KINGS 



8. 65 



see 2 Ch4 6 . Forty baths] about 320 gallons. 
39. Eastward . . south] i.e. at the SE. corner. 

40. Lavers] LXX has ' pots ' as in v. 45. 

41. The bowls] i.e. the globular portions 
of the two capitals. 46. The plain of Jordan] 
i.e. the Jordan valley. Succoth and Zarthan] 
Succoth was in Gad (Joshl3 27 ). Zarthan is 
probably the Zaretan of Josh 3 16 . 48. The 
altar of gold] i.e. the altar of incense (6 22 ). 

The table of gold] in 2Ch4 8 mention is 
made of ten tables, but cp. 2Chl3 n 29^. 
The Tabernacle had only one table for the 
shewbread (Ex 25 23 ). 

49. The candlesticks] better, ' lampstands.' 
In the Tabernacle there was only one (Ex 25 31 ). 

50. Censers] RY 'firepans.' 51. Which 
David . . had dedicated] see 2S8 11 . 

CHAPTER 8 
The Dedication of the Temple. Solomon's 
Prayer 
1. The chief of the fathers] i.e. heads of 
families. Out of the city] The Temple and 
Palace were built on the site of Araunah's 
threshing floor (2C113 1 ), which would natur- 
ally be outside the city walls and on higher 
ground : cp. 9 24 . 2. Ethanim] The later 
Tishri, corresponding to Sept.-Oct. The feast 
referred to was Tabernacles (Lv23 34 ). 

3. The priests] 2Ch5 4 has 'the Levites,' 
certain of whom (the Kohathites) had, accord- 
ing to Nu 4 15 , the special duty of bearing the 
ark. But the priests are likewise represented 
as bearing the ark in Josh 3 6 > 13 4 9, etc. 

4. Tabernacle of the congregation] RV 
' tent of meeting ' : i.e. the sanctuary in which 
the Lord used to commune with His wor- 
shippers (Ex 33 9 Null 25 ). This, which (ac- 
cording to 2 Chi 3 ) was at Gibeon, may have 
been preserved for its sacred associations, for 
the ark had long been separated from it. 

7. The staves] the poles, inserted in rings, 
by means of which the ark was carried : see 
Ex25 1215 . 8. They drew out the staves] 
RY ' the staves were so long ' : owing to their 
length they could be seen from the Holy 
Place, though not without (i.e. outside it). 

Unto this day] The date implied is that of 
a narrator living before the destruction of the 
Temple, whose language the compiler (who 
lived after that event, cp. 2K25) has in- 
corporated without alteration : cp. 9 21 . 

9. There v:as . . stone] The writer of 
Hebrews (9 4 ) mentions also the golden pot 
that contained manna, and Aaron's rod ; but, 
in strictness, these were placed before the 
ark (Exl6 34 Nul7!0). 

1 o. The cloud] cp. Ex 40 34 > 35 33 9 Nu 1 1 25 
12 5 . This was called by the later Jews the 
Shechinah. 11. Could not stand] for the awe 
which the near Presence of the Lord inspired : 
cp. Ex3 6 Isa6 5 Ezkl 2 8. 



12. The thick darkness] cp. Lv 16 2 . Hither- 
to the Lord had dwelt not in an habitation 
made by human hands, but in Nature's cloud- 
pavilions (Ps 18 n ). 15. Which spake .. unto 
David] through the prophet Nathan (2 S 7 6 "7). 

22. The altar] The altar of burnt offering, 
in the court before the Temple. 

23. And he said] The passage that follows 
is full of a sense of God's infinitude (v. 27), 
righteousness (v. 32), and omniscience (v. 39), 
whilst at the same time it manifests faith in 
His constancy and forgivingness (vv. 25, 29, 
30, 34, etc.) ; and though it contemplates 
principally the needs of Israel, yet it embraces 
a petition for the stranger that is not of 
Israel (vv. 41-43). 25. So that] i.e. provided 
that (as in 6 12 ). 27. The heaven . . contain 
thee] cp. ^66! Jer23 24 . 29. Make toward 
this place] In later times the Jews, when 
praying in foreign lands, turned their faces 
toward Jerusalem (Dan6 10 ). 31. And the 
oath come] RY ' And he come and swear.' 

37. In the land of their cities] LXX ' in 
one of their cities.' 38. The plague of his own 
heart] i.e. the plague or chastisement which 
each is conscious of suffering : cp. 2 44 Ex9 14 . 

41. Concerning a stranger, etc.] for the 
future worship of the Lord by the Gentiles, 
cp. Isa2 3 567 Zech8 2 o- 22 . 43. Is called by 
thy name] i.e. belongs to Thee : cp. 2 S 12 27, 28. 

50. Give them compassion . . captive] The 
prayer was fulfilled when Cyrus allowed the 
Jews, who were captives in Babylon, to return 
to their home (Ezrl 3 ). 51. Furnace of 
iron] i.e. a furnace hot enough to melt iron. 

53. O Lord GOD] better, '0 Lord 
Jehovah.' 

56. Hath given rest] cp. Ex33 14 . 

60. That all the people, etc.] Israel had a 
mission to discharge to the other nations of the 
world, partly by exhibiting conspicuously in 
its fortunes the moral principles on which 
God governed mankind (Josh 4 24 Isa55 5 
Ps67 7 ) and partly through the agency of 
its spiritual teachers the prophets (Isa42 1 ). 

61. Perfect with] i.e. not divided between 
the Lord and other gods : see 9 6 ll 4 . 

63. Two and twenty thousand, etc.] The 
quantity seems enormous, but numbers in 
the OT., as in other ancient writings, cannot 
always be relied on, and profuse sacrifices were 
common in antiquity. 64. The middle of the 
court] On what is believed to be the site of 
the Temple court there is a large slab of 
rock, which would form a natural altar. Meat 
offerings] RY ' meal offerings,' and so else- 
where. 65. A feast] i.e. of Tabernacles (v. 2). 

The entering in of Hamath] Hamath was 
situated on the Orontes, the approach to it 
from the S. being by the gorge between 
Lebanon and Hermon. The river of Egypt] 
the modern Wady el Arish, a stream flowing 



217 



8. 66 



1 KINGS 



10.1 



from the Sinaitic peninsula into the Mediter- 
ranean. Seven days and seven days] The 
seven days' feast of Tabernacles was preceded 
by a seven days' Dedication festival. 66. On 
the eighth day] i.e. at the close of the seven 
days' feast of Tabernacles. Unto their tents] 
The phrase is a survival from the tent-life which 
prevailed before the settlement in Canaan. 

CHAPTER 9 

God's Response to Solomon's Prayer. 
Solomon and Hiram 

i. When . . finished] The Temple does not 
seem to have been dedicated until all the 
king's buildings were completed, the Temple 
and Palace being probably included within a 
single wall and regarded as a unity. In vv. 3-9 
is contained the divine response to the prayer 
offered by Solomon at the dedication festival. 

3. Mine eyes . . perpetually] Though God's 
care extends over all His creation, yet those 
are nearest to His heart who render to Him 
the sincerest and worthiest service. At Jeru- 
salem not only did the splendour of the Temple 
attest Israel's desire to pay honour to the 
Lord, but the worship conducted there was 
the most spiritual of contemporary forms of 
devotion, being free from the sensuous and 
often impure elements that entered into 
religious rites elsewhere. 

8. At this house, vihich is high] The original 
has ' the house shall be high,' which may 
mean ' shall be conspicuous,' as a warning to 
others. But the Syriac has ' this house shall 
be a heap ' (of ruins). 

11. Twenty cities] As the payment for the 
supply of timber consisted of wheat and oil 
(5 9-11 ), the cities must have been in return for 
the supply of gold : see on 2 Ch 8 2 . Galilee] 
The region thus designated is not defined in 
the OT., but the name seems to have been 
applied to a part of Zebulun and Naphtali, 
where the non-Israelite population was numer- 
ous enough to lead to its being called ' the 
Galilee (or Circuit) of the Gentiles' (IsaQ 1 ). 
In NT. times it extended from the Leontes in 
the N. to the ridge of Carmel in the S. 

13. Cabul] There was a city called Cabul 
in Asher (Josh 19 '-"), and its name may have 
been taken to describe the district owing to 
its assonance with a Heb. phrase signifying l ;is 
good as nothing.' 14. Sixscore talents] weigh- 
ing nearly 13,000 11). 

15. Millo] some part of t lie fortifications of 
Jerusalem La meant, perhaps a solid tower, but 
its place is not known. The LXX renders it 
l>\ 'citadel,' and its importance is evidenced 
by its being so frequently rebuilt (II- 7 
2Ch32 5 ). Hazor and Megiddo] ECazor, near 
Lake Merom, guarded the northern frontier, 
whilst Megiddo protected the approach to the 
plain of Esdraelon from the SW. Gezer] on 



the W. border of Ephraim, the modern Tell 

Jezer, 18 m. from Jerusalem. Gezer and Beth- 

horon (v. 17) protected the valley of Aijalon. 

16. A present] RY ' a portion ' (or dowry). 

18. Baalath] a little N. of Beth-horon the 
nether. Tadmor, afterwards called Palmyra, 
in the Syrian desert, NE. of Damascus. 
Another reading has ' Tamar,' a place in the 
S. of Judah (Ezk47 19 ), the same as Hazezor 
Tamar or Engedi (Gnl4? 2Ch20 2 ). In the 
land] i.e. within the borders of Israel. This, 
as it stands, is only appropriate as a description 
of Tamar, but it is possible that some name 
(e.g. of ' Aram' or of l Hamath '), descriptive 
of the locality of Tadmor, has been lost. 

19. Desired to build] i.e. for his pleasure : 
cp. v. 1. In Lebanon] where residence would 
be desirable during the summer heats. 

22. No bondmen] This apparently means 
that no native Israelites were permanently com- 
pelled to render forced service. But a consider- 
able body of such was temporarily employed 
upon the construction of the Temple (5 13 ) : 
cp. also 1128 124. 23. Five hundred and fifty] 
These were probably the officers who directed 
the labour of the 30,000 native Israelites : 
2 Ch8 10 has 250. 24. Unto her house] see 7 8 . 
For Millo see on v. 15. 25. Three times in a 
year] see 2Ch8 13 , and cp. Ex23 14 - 17 34 23 
Dtl6!-i7. 

26. Ezion-geber . . Eloth] The two places 
were at the N. extremity of the gulf of 
Akaba. 28. Ophir] variously identified with 
the Indian coast (near the mouth of the Indus), 
the E. coast of Africa (Abyssinia or Somali- 
land), and S. Arabia. In favour of the latter 
is the fact that in Gn 10 29 Ophir is represented 
as the son of Joktan, the ancestor of several 
Arabian tribes. Four hundred and twenty 
talents] For the weight of a talent see 9 14 . 

CHAPTER 10 

Solomon and the Queen of Sheba 
1. Sheba] the Sheba of Gn 10 28 (in Arabia), 
not of Gn 10^ (in Africa). Arabia seems fre- 
quently to have been ruled by queens ; more 
than one is mentioned in the Assyrian inscrip- 
tions. If Ophir was in Arabia (see on 9 28 ), it 
may have been through the traders at thai 
port that the queen here alluded to had heard 
of Solomon. 

Hard questions] These were probably of 
the nature of puzzles or riddles, the same 
word being used of Samson's riddle (Jgl4 12 ). 
Legend relates that one of the puzzles that 
Solomon was set to solve was how to dis- 
tinguish between a bunch of natural and a 

bunch of artificial Sowers without leaving his 
seat to examine them. The king ordered the 
windows of the room to be opened, and the 
bees, coming in, alighted on the former and 
ignored the latter. 



218 



10. 5 



1 KINGS 



11.36 



5. His ascent, etc.] perhaps better, ' his 
burnt offering which he offered in.' 

9. Blessed be the LORD] cp. the language 
of the Phoenician Hiram (5 7 ). 

11. Almug trees] conjectured to be sandal 
wood. 2 Ch 9 10 has ' algum trees.' 12. Pillars] 
RM 'a railing,' or balustrade for the staircase : 
cp. 2 Ch 9 n . Harps . . psalteries] The former 
probably had a square frame, with the sound- 
box at the base ; the latter may have been 
triangular in shape, with the sound-box form- 
ing one of the sides. 

15. The kings of Arabia] RY ' kings of the 
mingled people,' i.e. the population of mixed 
descent which lived on the confines of the 
kingdom. The same word is used of the 
' mixed multitude ' that came up with Israel 
out of Egypt (Exl2 3S ). 16. Targets] large 
shields. Shekels'] a shekel was 224 grains. 
The shields were probably overlaid with the 
gold, not made of it. 17. Pound] Heb. maneh. 
This contained 50 shekels. The house . . 
Lebanon] see on 7 2 . The shields here described 
were taken away by Shishak in the reign of 
Rehoboam(14 26 ). 19. The top of the throne] 
perhaps a canopy over the throne, of which 
the stays were the arms. 

22. A navy of Tharshish] better, ' Thar- 
shish ship,' i.e. a stoutly-built vessel, such as 
was accustomed to voyage to Tartessus in 
Spain, or perhaps Tarsus in Cilicia, but which 
Solomon probably sent to Ophir (see 9 26 " 28 
10 n ), since Ezion-geber was his port. 

27. Sycomore trees] not the English syca- 
more, but a kind of fig-tree. In the vale] 
RY ' in the lowland,' i.e. the downs between 
the hills of Judah and the coast. 

28. Horses . . Egypt] The Jews depended 
upon Egypt for horses not only at this time, 
but also in the reign of Hezekiah (IsaSl 1 
36 9 ), and at a still later date (Ezk 1 7 15 ). Linen 
yarn] This should probably be rendered 
■ droves,' and connected with the following 
clause — ' and in droves the king's merchants 
received them, each drove at a price.' But 
for ' in droves ' the LXX has ' from Tekoa,' 
where there may have been a horse fair, whilst 
the Latin has ' from Coa ' (i.e. Cilicia). 

29. The Hittites] This people were pro- 
bably of Mongolian race, and drew their origin 
from Cappadocia. They came in contact with 
Israel chiefly on its northern border ( Jg 1 26 ). 

By their means] Heb. ' in their hand,' i.e. 
with them. Solomon's merchants conducted 
the profitable traffic in horses between Egypt 
and the various states on the N. and NE. of 
Palestine. 

CHAPTER 11 
Solomon's Errors and their Conse- 
quences. His Death 
This c. furnishes an account of Solomon's 



marriages with numerous foreign princesses, 
and traces the evil effect of such in the tolera- 
tion of idolatry, which provoked the Lord's 
anger. This was manifested in the growth of 
opposition abroad and disaffection at home, 
so that an otherwise brilliant reign had a 
cloudy ending. 

3. Seven hundred wives] The Persian king 
Darius Codomannus is said to have had, be- 
sides his own wife, 329 concubines. 4. Not per- 
fect] Solomon's heart was divided between the 
Lord and other gods. Without abandoning the 
service of Jehovah, he tolerated, and even took 
part in, the religious rites practised by his 
wives. His luxury and sensuality led to more 
serious errors still. 5. Ashtoreth] the Phoe- 
nician name of the goddess worshipped by the 
Babylonians under the title of Ishtar, the god- 
dess of love. Milcom] identical with the 
Molech of v. 7. 7. Build an high place] i.e. 
construct an altar or sanctuary upon a height. 
Chemosh] The name of this god occurs on the 
inscription of Mesha, king of Moab, who was 
contemporary with Ahab. Before Jerusalem] 
i.e. E. of Jerusalem, the corresponding ex- 
pression ' behind ' being used to denote the 
W. (Josh 84,9 Dt 11 24RY). The hill here 
designated is the Mt. of Olives : cp. Ezk 1 1 23 . 

15. David. . Edom] see 2S8 14 . Joab] cp. 
Ps60 (title). According to 1 Ch 18 12 the actual 
victory over the Edomites was gained by 
Abishai, the brother of Joab. 18. Midian . . 
Paran] NE. and 1ST. of the Sinaitic peninsula. 

19. Pharaoh] either the Egyptian king 
whose daughter Solomon had married, or his 
predecessor. 23. Zobah] a small Syrian state 
lying eastward of Mt. Hermon. 24. Damas- 
cus] According to 2S8 6 David had placed 
garrisons in Damascus, which Rezon and his 
followers must have expelled. 

26. Ephrathite] i.e. an Ephraimite (as in 
1S1 1 ), not a Bethlehemite (as in Ruthl 2 ). 

28. Made him . . charge] RY ' gave him 
charge over all the labour'; see 5 13 > 14 . As 
the system of forced labour introduced by 
Solomon had as its object the adornment of 
his capital, which was most closely connected 
with Judah and Benjamin, it would be the 
more resented by the other tribes : cp. 12 4 > 16 . 
Jeroboam's position enabled him to detect and 
work upon the discontent, which would be 
strongest in Ephraim, inasmuch as in the times 
of Joshua and the Judges it had enjoyed the 
preeminence which had now passed to Judah. 

29. The Shilonite] i.e. a native of Shiloh 
(14 2 ). 30. Rent it .. pieces] The prophets 
frequently illustrated the meaning of their 
utterances by the use of impressive symbolic 
actions: see 22" Isa20 2f - Jerl9!- 13 Ezk 12 
Zech 11 7,io,i4. 

32. One tribe] in 12 21 . 23 Benjamin is reck- 
oned with Judah, -but see on 12 20 . 36. A 



219 



11. 



1 KINGS 



12. 28 



light] cp.Psl32i7 and contrast Job 18 6 . The 
figure is drawn from the fire or lamp which is 
usually associated with a permanent habita- 
tion. 38. If thou wilt hearken] the same con- 
dition as in 9 4 . A sure house] i.e. a long and 
unbroken line of descendants. As the con- 
dition imposed was not fulfilled, the promise 
was not carried out, and Jeroboam's house 
was extirpated in the second generation by 
Baasha. 

39. Not for ever] in spite of the humiliation 
suffered by the house of David through Jero- 
boam's revolt, the Davidic dynasty in Judah 
outlasted the kingdom of the Ten Tribes ; and 
though it finally lost all temporal power, it 
attained higher preeminence than ever when 
Christ was born of Mary, a descendant of 
David. 40. Sought . . to kill] This implies that 
Jeroboam had excited the king's suspicions by 
some open act of disloyalty. Shishak] i.e. 
Sheshonk, the first king of the 22nd dynasty, 
of Libyan descent. 

41. The book, etc.] probably a history based 
on the official documents kept by the ' re- 
corder.' 

The instructiveness of Solomon's history is 
twofold. (1) Outward zeal for the honour of 
the Lord, such as Solomon showed by build- 
ing the Temple, is no proof of inward devo- 
tion. (2) Material blessings bestowed by God 
(like the wealth and honour conferred on 
Solomon) bring with them increased tempta- 
tions, needing divine grace for their conquest. 

CHAPTER 12 

The Eevolt of the Ten Tribes. Reho- 
boam and Jeroboam 

The revolt of the Ten Tribes against the rule 
of Rehoboam had its origin partly in the dis^ 
content which the burdens laid on the people 
by Solomon had created and which Jeroboam 
(who knew of it, see 1 1 28 ) had perhaps stimu- 
lated, and partly in the jealousy subsisting 
between the northern tribes and Judah, which 
had manifested itself previously in the separate 
kingdoms of Ish-bosheth and David, and the 
insurrections that disturbed David's reign over 
the whole people (2 S 20 l ) ; whilst the bond 
of union constituted by a common religious 
faith must have been weakened by Solomon's 
idolatry. 

1. Shechem] The principal town of Ephraim 
(the modern Nablus) : it had manifestly been 
restored after its destruction as related in 
Jg9 '"'. The choice of this city as the place of 
assembly was due partly to the importance of 
Ephraim as a tribe, and partly to its nearness 
to a sanctuary (that on Mt. Ebal, JoshS 30 ). 
It was a gathering place for the tribes in 
Joshua's days (Josh2 1 '). For all Israel., 
king] The tribal spirit of independence was 
still sufficiently strong to make it necessary 



for the Judaean Rehoboam to receive separately 
the homage of the other tribes. 2. Dwelt in 
Egypt] LXX has ' returned from Egypt.' 

3. Called him] This implies that Jeroboam 
was known to sympathise with the grievances 
under which the people laboured. 4. Made 
our yoke grievous] i.e. by the forced labour 
imposed upon them (5 13 ). 7. If thou wilt be 
a servant] i.e. by making timely concessions 
to his people. 10. My little finger~] a figura- 
tive expression, explained by what follows. 

11. Scorpions] a rod or lash used in scourg- 
ing. 15. The cause . . LORD] i.e. the turn of 
events was the means appointed by God's 
providence to bring about the punishment 
merited by Solomon's sin (ll 11-13 ). 

16. What portion] for this signal of revolt 
cp. 2S20 1 . Now see. . house] a declaration 
of independence and a warning against further 
interference. 17. Children of Israel .. Judah] 
probably, in the main, members of the tribe of 
Simeon : cp. 1 K 1 9 3 with Josh 1 5 28 . 1 8. Ado- 
ram] cp. 2 S 20 24 . He is called Adoniram in 
46. Tribute] RV ' levy.' Stoned him] Stones 
were the usual weapons in outbreaks of popu- 
lar fury: cp. Exl7 4 1S30 6 . 19. Unto this 
day] This passage must originally have been 
written not only before the destruction of 
Jerusalem but of Samaria: cp. 8 s . 

20. The tribe of Judah only] This accords 
with the words of Ahijah in ll 32 ; and if the 
remaining tribes that fell to Jeroboam are 
reckoned as ten (ll 31 ) and not eleven, the ex- 
planation is to be found in the omission of Levi 
(as the priestly tribe) and in regarding Ephraim 
and Manasseh as constituting the single tribe 
of Joseph : cp. 11 2 ». But in vv. 21, 23, Ben- 
jamin is joined with Judah as belonging to 
Rehoboam ; and this, in large measure, was 
really the case, the frontier between the two 
kingdoms lying within that tribe. Simeon, 
too, by its position must have been practically 
absorbed by Judah. 

22. Shemaiah] mentioned again in 2Ch 
125,7,15 23. The remnant of the people] i.e. 
those belonging by lineage to the other tribes : 
cp. v. 17. 

25. Built] i.e. fortified: cp. 9 17 . Penuel] 
in Gilead, E. of Jordan : cp. Jg8 8 . 

26. Now shall . . David] Jeroboam feared 
that if his people still went to Jerusalem three 
times a year to keep the feasts, they would be 
tempted to return to their allegiance to Reho- 
boam. He had not sufficient faith in God's 
power to bring about His promises (ll 38 ), and 
so adopted measures to safeguard his newly- 
won throne which branded his name for ever 
with infamy (cp. 14 16 ), and brought calamity 
both on his house and his people. 

28. Two calves of gold] The calves were 
not intended as substitutes for the Lord 
(Jehovah) but as symbols of Him, as appears 



220 



12. 29 



1 KINGS 



14.9 



from the king's words to the people. It has 
been thought by some that such symbols were 
derived from Egypt where the living bull Apis 
was worshipped, and where Jeroboam had 
lived in exile. But the calves which he set up 
were probably imitations of the calf made in 
the wilderness by Aaron ; and it is scarcely 
likely that the Israelites, when escaping from 
Egypt, would, to represent their own God, 
borrow an emblem from their task-masters. It 
is more probable that a calf or young bull was 
chosen as a religious symbol because to an 
agricultural people the bull was a natural em- 
blem of force and vigour. But though Jero- 
boam, in setting up the calves, did not break 
the first commandment of the Decalogue, he 
yet violated the second, and from motives of 
state policy (vv. 26, 27) corrupted the religious 
worship of his people, not only by making it 
sensuous instead of spiritual, but by employing 
symbols which represented merely Jehovah's 
power (whether displayed in creation or de- 
struction) and altogether failed to suggest His 
highest attributes — those of righteousness, 
i holiness, and love. That these coarse symbols 
long continued to be worshipped appears from 
Hos8 5 > 6 10 5 . Thy gods] The plural is used 
because there was more than one image, but 
the same God was represented by both. 

29. Beth-el . . Dan] on the S. border of 
Ephraim and in the N. of Naphtali respect- 
ively, and so at the two extremities of the 
kingdom to meet the convenience of the 
people. Both places had previously been 
the seats of religious worship : see, for Bethel, 
Gn28 1 " 22 35 L 7 Jg20 26 1S10 3 ; and for Dan, 
Jgl8 30 . Jeroboam hoped to revive their 
ancient popularity. 30. Before the one] The 
text is incomplete : EM ' before each of 
them.' 

31. An house of high places] LXX 'made 
houses (i.e. sanctuaries) upon high places ' : 
see on 3 2 . Of the lowest of the people] better, 
' from all the people indiscriminately.' In 
Dt the priesthood is restricted to the Levites 
(see on 8 4 ), and the narrator judges Jeroboam's 
conduct from the standpoint of the Deutero- 
nomic law. 

32. The feast] i.e. the Feast of Tabernacles 
or Ingathering, on the 15th day of the 7th 
month. The new feast instituted by Jeroboam 
was placed a month later, probably on account 
of the later date of the vintage in N. Palestine. 

He placed in Beth-el] Bethel appears to have 
been, at least in later times, the royal sanc- 
tuary (Am7 13 ). 33. Of his own heart] For 
political and self-regarding reasons he dis- 
turbed the hallowed associations which had 
gathered round the month previously set apart 
for the Festival of Ingathering. He offered 
upon the altar] The king himself officiated as 
priest. The v. is closely connected with 13 1 . 



CHAPTER 13 

The Disobedient Prophet 

2. Josiah] for the fulfilment see 2 K 23 15-20. 
Some 300 years separated the prediction from 
the event, and the mention by name of the 
king destined to accomplish it is unlike the 
methods of Hebrew prophecy in general. It 
is possible that the records upon which the 
present account is based were less precise, and 
that Josiah's name was introduced by the 
compiler of the book of Kings, who lived 
after Josiah's time and was familiar with 
what he had done. Offer] better, ' slaughter.' 
They would not be offered in sacrifice. 3. A 
sign] The fulfilment of the prediction in v. 3 
would be a warranty for the fulfilment of the 
prediction in v. 2 : cp. IS 234 Isa38 7 > 8 . 

8. I will not . . thee] The prophet, who 
had come from Judah, was not to hold any 
friendly intercourse with the offending nation, 
or receive hospitality within its borders. 

11. There dwelt. . Beth-el] The fact that 
the old prophet remained at Bethel and 
acquiesced without protest in the king's 
idolatry indicated that he was not loyal to 
the principles of spiritual religion. Being 
unfaithful himself he became the tempter of 
others (v. 18). 

22. Shall not come . . fathers] This was 
esteemed a dishonour : cp. 2Ch21 20 . 

24. A lion] for lions in Palestine cp. Jgl4 5 
1 S 17 34 2 S 23 2 o 1 K 20 36 2 K 17 2 5. Their chief 
haunt would be the jungle in the Jordan valley. 

28. The lion had not eaten] So strange an 
occurrence was calculated to attract attention 
to the prophet's fate. 31. Lay my bones, 
etc.] To prevent them from sharing the dis- 
honour which the man of God had said would 
befall the graves at Bethel : see 2K23 1 ?> 18 . 

The moral conveyed by the fate of the 
prophet from Judah is that those who, like 
the old prophet of Bethel, are false to their 
own manifest duties (see on v. 11), are to be 
distrusted when they offer advice in matters 
of right and wrong. 

33. Consecrated] see on Ex28 41 29 24 . 

CHAPTEE 14 

The Sins of Jeroboam and Rehoboam 

and their punishment 
2. Shiloh] The modern Seilfin, N. of Bethel 
and E. of the road leading from Bethel to 
Shechem (Jg21i9). 3. Take with thee] The 
gift proffered by the queen was a small one 
to suit her disguise : contrast 2 K 5 5 . Cruse] 
a flask or bottle (and so in 17 12 ). 9. Above 
all that were before thee] Solomon's idolatry 
was perhaps worse than Jeroboam's in being 
the worship of false gods, but it was at any 
rate not deliberately propagated among the 
people at large. 



221 



14. 10 



1 KINGS 



15. 18 



io. Shut up and left] A comprehensive 
phrase to describe all classes, but its precise 
signification is uncertain. It has been taken 
to mean (a) restrained by, and free from, 
ceremonial impurity (which prevented persons 
suffering from it from entering the Temple, 
cp. Jer36 5 ) ; (b) imprisoned and free (cp. 
Jer 33 l ) ; (c) married and single ; (d) under, 
and over, age. Will . . remnant] For the ful- 
filment of the prediction see 15 29 . 13. He 
only . . grave] Abijah, for his goodness, was 
taken away from the evil to come (cp. IsaS? 1 ), 
though it is possible that the reward of his 
piety is meant to be not a timely death, 
but an honourable burial. 14. But what ? 
even now] i.e. is not the predicted event 
happening even now ? 

15. The river] i.e. the Euphrates. Groves] 
RV ' Asherim ' (pi. of Asherah), and so in v. 23 
and elsewhere. These were poles used as 
religious emblems (cp. Isa 17 8 ), and were pro- 
bably intended to imitate trees, which, from 
being endowed with life and growth, were in 
early ages thought to be the abodes of divine 
powers, and so were regarded as appropriate 
seats of worship : cp. v. 23. Though perhaps 
most commonly associated with Ashtoreth, the 
goddess of fertility and productiveness, they 
were not the exclusive symbols of any particular 
deity ; and the Israelites were inclined to 
adopt them even in connexion with the worship 
of their own God, as may be gathered from the 
prohibition against planting ' an Asherah of any 
kind of tree beside the altar of the Lord ' 
(Dtl6 21 RY), and the fact that though Jehu 
restored in Israel the worship of the Lord, 
yet in the reign of his son Jehoahaz ' there re- 
mained the Asherah in Samaria ' (2 K 13 6 RY). 

17. Tirzah] afterwards the capital, until 
Samaria was built by Omri (see 15 33 16 8 > 15 ' 23 ). 
It was WW. of Shechem, overlooking the 
Jordan valley. 19. The rest of the acts of 
Jeroboam] see 2Chl3 3-20 , which describes a 
severe defeat which he sustained at the hands 
of Abijah of Judah. The book of the 
chronicles] probably annals based on the state 
documents kept by the official recorder. A 
similar reference occurs in connexion with 
most of the following reigns. 21. Forty and 
one years old] It is implied in 12 8 2Chl3 3 
that Rehoboam was young when he came to the 
throne ; and one MS of the LXX here substi- 
tutes ' sixteen years old.' His mother's name] 
the name of the mother of each succeeding 
king (see L5 10 22« 2K8 25 , etc.) is expressly 
mentioned because of the position which the 
queen dowager occupied : see on 2 19 . 

23. Images] RV 'pillars' : for their signi- 
ficance see on 7 ]r >. 24. Sodomites] Persons 
who dedicated I licmsel \ es to tlie impure rites 

which were observed in honour of certain 
deities in the neighbourhood of their temples. 



25. Shishak] see on ll 40 . A list of towns 
taken by Shishak has been preserved in an 
inscription by the conqueror himself at Karnak 
in Egypt. Among them were Keilah, Socoh, 
Aijalon, Beth-horon. Gibeon and Makkedah in 
Judah, and Taanach, Shunem, and Mahanaim 
in N. Israel. The mention of Israelite as well 
as Judaean towns seems to imply that Shishak 
attacked both of the Hebrew sovereigns, unless 
the towns in Israel were in revolt against Jero- 
boam, and the Egyptians were helping him to 
reduce them. 

31. Abijam] called Abijah in LXX and in 
2Chl2 1( \ The latter is probably the correct 
form of the name. 

CHAPTER 15 

The Reigns or Abijam and Asa, Nadab 
and Baasha 
2. Abishalom] i.e. Absalom. In 2Chl3 2 
his mother is called Micaiah, the daughter of 
Uriel, and if this is correct, Absalom was pro- 
bably her grandfather, and her mother the 
Tamar mentioned in 2 S 14 27 . 4. A lamp] see 
on ll 36 . The divine promise made to David 
prevented Abijam' s sins from being punished 
by the transfer of the throne to another line. 

6. There was war . . life] a repetition of 
1430. 2Chl32 has 'between Abijah and 
Jeroboam.' ; 

7. The rest of the acts] In 2Chl3 3f - there' 
is described a great battle between Judah and 
Israel. Before the engagement Abijah (Abijam) 
contrasted the worship of the calves and the 
expulsion of the Levitical priests by Jeroboam 
with the different practices followed by the 
kings of Judah. Jeroboam laid an ambush 
for the Judaeans, but the latter called upon the 
Lord, who delivered them, and Israel was not 
only defeated but lost several cities. 

10. Maachah] If the Maachah of v. 2 is 
meant, mother must mean ' grandmother.' 

13. From being queen] i.e. from being queen 
dowager : see on 2 19 . An idol in a grove] 
better, ' an abominable image for Asherah." 
The term Asherah here seems to mean not an 
emblem but a goddess : cp. 18 19 2K21 -. By 
the brook Kidron] better, 'in the torrent 
valley of the Kidron,' i.e. the ravine E. of 
Jerusalem, between the city and the Mount 
of Olives (mod. Wady Sitti Maryam). 

14. The high places were not removed] The 
same condition of things continued until the 
reign of Hezekiah : see 1 K22* 3 2K 12 3 18 4 . 

15. Brought in . . of the LORD] to replace 
the losses sustained in the invasion of Shishak 
(1426). 

17. Ramah] the modern er Ram, on the S. 
frontier of the kingdom, some 5 m. N. of 
Jerusalem, which it menaced. 18. Sent them 
to Ben-hadad] Asa's appeal to Syria illustrates 
how far the Jewish kingdom had declined since 



222 



15.19 



1 KINGS 



17. 



Solomon's time. Probably three kings of this 
name are mentioned in OT. : see 20 1 2K13 24 . 

19. There is a league, etc.] Asa, as the de- 
scendant of David, to whom the Syrians had 
submitted (2 S 8 6 ), urged that Syria's connexion 
with the royal house of Judah was of longer 
standing than its connexion with the house of 
Baasha ; but he ignored the revolt of Damascus 
in the reign of Solomon. Break thy league] 
As Israel cut Syria oif from the sea, Benhadad 
would be the more willing to accept Asa's 
overtures. In 2Chl6 7 - 10 Asa's conduct is 
represented as being condemned by the seer 
Hanani. 20. Ijon, Dan, etc.] localities in the 
neighbourhood of Lake Merom and the Sea of 
Galilee. Cinneroth is the G-ennesaret of the 
NT. 21. Left off .. Ramah] The invasion in 
the N". prevented further operations in the S. 

Dwelt in Tirzah] LXX has 'returned to 
Tirzah,' which suits the context better. 

22. Geba . . Mizpah] fortresses N". of Je- 
rusalem. 

23. The rest of all the acts of Asa] see 
2 Chi 4^. The chief incidents added by 
Chronicles are the defeat of an invasion by the 
Ethiopian Zerah, the making of a national 
covenant with the Lord, the king's punish- 
ment of the seer Hanani for censuring his 
alliance with Syria, and his oppression of his 
people. 27. Gibbethon] within the territory 
assigned to Dan (Josh 19 44 ). The Philistines, 
who had been crushed by David, now that the 
Hebrew kingdoms were in conflict, once more 
began to move. 29. The saying of the LORD] 
see 14 7 " 11 . The personal ambition of Baasha 
was the agency through which the Lord 
punished the house of Jeroboam for the sins 
of its founder. The decay of spiritual religion 
in N. Israel was accompanied by the weakening 
of moral restraints, and none of the dynasties 
that successively occupied the throne lasted 
longer than four generations. 

CHAPTER 16 

The Reigns of Elah, Zimri, and Omri . 

1. Jehu the son of Hanani] Hanani is men- 
tioned in 2 Ch 1 6 7_1 °. Jehu's denunciation of 
Baasha is similar to Ahijah's denunciation of 
Jeroboam (14 7 " 11 ). 9. As he was .. drunk] 
Elah's incapacity and dissoluteness doubtless 
tempted Zimri to aspire to the throne. 

13. Vanities] i.e. idols, and so in v. 26. 

15. Gibbethon] see 15 27 . The siege, begun 
in the reign of Nadab, had apparently not 
succeeded, and had been resumed. 18. Palace] 
RY 'castle.' 19. For his sins, etc.] The 
phrase is a stereotyped one, and so is applied 
to Zimri in spite of the fact that he only 
reigned seven days. 

23. In the thirty and first year of Asa] pro- 
bably an error : v. 27 gives ' in the twenty- 
seventh year of Asa.' 24. The hill Samaria] 



This stood in the middle of a wide and fertile 
valley (cp. Isa28 1 ), and was a place of great 
natural strength, as is evidenced by the pro- 
tracted sieges sustained by the city that was 
built upon it (2K 6 M 1 7 5 ). Called the name . . 
Samaria] Heb. Skomeron. 

27. The rest . . Omri] Omri seems to have 
engaged in war with the Syrians, but was 
so unsuccessful that he had to grant them 
the privilege of having ' streets ' (i.e. trading 
quarters) in Samaria (20 34 ). Two additional 
facts respecting Omri's reign are furnished 
by certain inscriptions, (a) On the Moabite 
Stone it is stated by Mesha, the king of Moab, 
that Omri ' afflicted ' that country, (b) On 
the Assyrian monuments Israel is regularly 
termed ' the land of Omri,' a designation 
which suggests that it was in his reign that 
the Assyrians came first into contact with 
Israel. It was probably in view of Assyrian 
aggression that Omri cemented an alliance 
with the king of Zidon and Tyre (Ethbaal) 
by a marriage between his own son Ahab 
and the Zidonian princess Jezebel (v. 31). 
According to Menander, Ethbaal (Gk. Itho- 
balos) was the great-grandfather of Dido, the 
founder of Carthage. 

31. Served Baal] Baal was merely a title 
(meaning ' lord ' or ' owner ') and was applic- 
able to a number of deities (hence the plural 
Baalim) who were described as the Baals 
of particular localities (' Baal Peor,' ' Baal 
Hermon '). The introduction into Israel of 
the worship of the Zidonian Baal was more 
dangerous than that of other Baals in propor- 
tion as it was more powerfully supported ; 
whilst Ahab's sin was worse than Jeroboam's, 
since the calves worshipped by the latter were 
at least symbols of the Lord. 

34. Did . . build] i.e. fortified. Jericho, in 
the Jordan valley, a little N. of the Dead 
Sea, had been rebuilt since its destruction by 
Joshua, for it is mentioned in David's time 
(2S10 5 ). In Abiram] RY 'with the loss 
of Abiram.' The word of the LORD] see 
Josh 6 26 . For the potency believed to attach 
to a curse see Nu22 6 2K2 24 . Possibly the 
mention of Hiel's conduct in fortifying Jericho 
in spite of the malediction of Joshua is 
intended to illustrate the prevalent lack of 
faith in Jehovah's power. 

CHAPTER 17 

Elijah and the Widow of Zarephath 
The prophet Elijah, who occupies so large 
a space in the succeeding history, is, like his 
successor Elisha, conspicuous among the pro- 
phetic figures of the OT. as a worker of 
miracles ; and to him belongs the further dis- 
tinction of having been removed from earth 
without dying. His prophecies differed from 
those of most later prophets in having in 



223 



17.1 



1 KINGS 



18.30 



view only certain critical occasions of con- 
temporary history, and in having no reference 
to the remote future or the Messianic age, 
though the moral and religious principles 
which they affirmed had, of course, a wide 
application. 

i. Of the inhabitants of Gilead] RM 'ac- 
cording to LXX, of Tishbeh of Gilead.' Said 
unto Ahab] Nothing is related about the 
reason for the drought which the prophet 
predicted ; but the cause was doubtless Ahab's 
idolatry (16 31 " 33 : cp. Lv26 19 Dtll 1 ?). Jose- 
phus quotes a Tyrian historian who states 
that a drought occurred during the reign of 
Ethbaal (the king of Tyre and Zidon named 
in 16 31 ), which lasted a year. 3. Hide thy- 
self] The prophets of the Lord were in 
danger from the anger of Jezebel : cp. 18 13 . 

Brook] strictly, a ravine or torrent- valley. 

Before Jordan] i.e. E. of Jordan, in the 
Gilead he was familiar with. 4. The ravens] 
The original may possibly mean ' traffickers ' 
(or merchants) or ' Arabians ' : if this is the real 
meaning of the word, the command resembles 
that given in v. 9. 

9. Zarephath] The 'Sarepta' of Lk 426. 
The modern Sarafend. It lay between Tyre 
and Zidon, and, from its nearness to these locali- 
ties, might be a safe, because unsuspected, 
hiding-place. 12. As the LORD . . liveth] 
Elijah was probably recognised by speech or 
dress as an Israelite. May eat it, and die] 
implying that the drought and consequent 
famine extended to Zarephath : see on v. 1. 

16. The barrel, etc.] cp. the miracle of 
Elisha (2 K 4 42-44). 

18. To call . . to remembrance] The pres- 
ence with her of a prophet whom the divine 
care watched over might (she feared) attract 
God's attention to herself and to some past sin 
which seemed to have been overlooked. 19. A 
loft] better, ' the upper chamber ' : cp. 2 K 4 10 . 

20. Hast thou . . evil] A like despondency 
is observable in the prophet's language in 19 4 . 
Here he complains that evil dogs his steps 
wherever he turns and fastens even on those 
who befriend him. 21. Stretched himself] As 
though to convey the warmth of life from his 
own frame to that of the dead child: cp. 
2K4 3 * Ac20 1 °. 

CHAPTER 18 
Jehovah or Baal ? 
1. In the third year] in Lk4 25 Jas5 17 
the duration ol the famine is given as 3 
ream and 6 months. 3. The governor of hit 
house] The nine office as that alluded to in 
4 6 16 9 . Feared the LORD greatly] Bis name 
('Servanl of Jehovah') was a true index of 
his character. 4. Cut off the prophets] 
Nothing is related of this beyond what is im- 
plied in L9 W . 12. The Spirit .. thee] cp. 



2K2 16 : the prophet's movements being di- 
rected toward different and higher purposes 
than those of ordinary men, his friends would 
have no clue to guide them in tracing him. 

17. Art thou he . . Israel ? ] RV ' Is it thou, 
thou troubler of Israel ? ' : alluding to Elijah's 
prediction in 17 1 . 18. Baalim] RV ' the 
Baalim' : i.e. the Baals : see on 16 31 . 

19. Carmel] The only promontory on the 
coast of Palestine, rising at the summit to nearly 
1,800 ft. above the sea. The prophets of the 
groves] better, ' the prophets of Asherah ' 
(the term here apparently denoting a deity). 
These prophets are not mentioned in the 
sequel. 

21. Halt] not in the sense of suspending 
judgment, but of pursuing a vacillating and 
irregular course, serving at one time Baal 
and at another time the Lord (Jehovah). The 
word literally means ' limping. ' And the 
people, etc.] They were reluctant to break 
with either form of worship. 22. I, even I 
only] The other prophets of the Lord, if not 
destroyed (see v. 4), were at any rate silenced. 

24. Your gods] RV ' your god ' : and so in 
v. 25. The LORD] better, ' Jehovah,' and 
so in v. 39. The God that . . fire] For the con- 
sumption of sacrifices by fire from heaven, 
cp. Lv9 2 * lCh2126 2Ch7i. 

In the minds of the multitude the question 
to be decided doubtless was not whether 
Jehovah or Baal was the sole god, but which 
of them was the more powerful god, and, there- 
fore, had the greater claim upon the nation's 
devotion. It was not until a later date that it 
was explicitly asserted by the prophets that 
Jehovah was the only Deity and that beside 
Him there was no other (Isa44 c > 8 45 5 > 6 ). 
Elijah, as his mocking language in v. 27 sug- 
gests, must have come near to holding the same 
belief, though the fact that he denounced 
Ahaziah for consulting a foreign, not an ima- 
ginary, god (2K1 6 ) seems to imply that he 
had not quite attained to it. 

25. Dress it first] The contrast between 
Jehovah's power and Baal's impotence would 
thus be more impressive. 26. Leaped upon] 
RV ; leaped about': lit. 'limped about': i.e. 
they performed an irregular and uncouth 
dance round the altar. 27. Talking] RV 
' musing ' : i.e. lost in meditation. Pursuing] 
RV 'gone aside.' 28. Cut themselves] (hash- 
ing the body was frequently practised by the 
votaries of heathen deities, probably for the 
purpose of making a ' blood covenant ' between 
themselves and the god they worshipped. 

Lancets] should be ' lances.' 29. Prophe- 
sied] i.e. gave utterance to fervid and ecstatic 
cries: cp. 1S10 5 . The evening sacrifice] the 
same as ' the evening meat (i.e. meal) offering' 

of 2K k; 1 - 

30. The altar . . down] Carmel had been a 



2^4 



18. 31 



1 KINGS 



19. 15 



' high place ' dedicated to the worship of Je- 
hovah, but the spread of Baal worship had 
led to its neglect, and the altar on it had been 
overthrown (19 10 ). 31. Twelve stones] In 
spite of the partition of the Hebrew tribes 
into two kingdoms, a sense of their original 
unity was continually present with the prophets, 
and certain of them looked forward to their 
reunion: see Hos 1 " Jer3 18 Ezk37 15 ' 22 . 

Israel . . thy name] see Gn32*s 3510. 

32. Measures] Heb. seahs, a seah- being -rV 
of an ephah, about 2J gallons. 33. Fill . . with 
water] A well still exists a little below the 
summit of Carmel. 37. Thou art the LORD 
God] better, ; Thou Jehovah art God.' 

39. The LORD . . God] better, ' Jehovah, 
He (not Baal) is the God. 1 

40. The brook Kishon] a stream flowing 
into the Mediterranean at the foot of Carmel. 

Slew them there] in accord with the spirit 
of Dt 13 6-11 17 2 "~. The prophet probably was 
not himself their executioner, but made the 
people give practical evidence of the sincerity 
of their conversion. 

42. Cast himself down] in fervent prayer : 
cp. Jas 5 17 . 43. Seven times] used vaguely of a 
considerable number : cp. Ps 12 6 119 164 . 

44. Like a man's hand] i.e. in size. 

45. There was a great rain] Solomon's 
prayer (in 8 35 > 36 ) that if the people turned 
from their sin, the Lord would send rain upon 
the land was now granted. 46. The hand of 
the LORD . . Elijah] i.e. the prophet acted 
under a divine impulse : cp. 2K3 15 . To the 
entrance of Jezreel] between 15 and 20 m. 
from Carmel. Ahab had a palace there (21 1 ). 

The contest on Mt. Carmel was of the 
greatest importance for the future of religion 
in Israel, for it determined whether Jehovah, 
whose character was moral and spiritual, was 
to command the exclusive allegiance of the 
people, or was to share their devotion with the 
god of Zidon, who, like other Baals, was a 
nature-god. and whose worship was associated 
with unspiritual ideas and immoral rites. But 
whilst it primarily relates'to a particular crisis 
in the history of a single people, it is also 
typical of every conflict in which opposite 
principles of conduct meet, and in which the 
need of prompt decision must always be as 
urgent as in the days of Elijah. 

CHAPTER 19 
Elijah at Horeb 

2. Then Jezebel sent, etc.] Her religious 
feelings as a votary of Baal and her dignity 
as the queen had both been outraged by the 
prophet, and she at once sought revenge. 

3. And when he saw that, etc.] In men of 
impetuous disposition displays of fiery courage 
often alternate with moods of despondency. 

1 Elijah's character resembled that of St. Peter, 



who first struck a blow in defence of his 
Master and then denied Him (Jnl8 10 > 15f .). 

Beer-sheba] within the territory of the tribe 
of Judah, but assigned to Simeon (Josh 15 28 
1 9 2 ). It was a sanctuary in the time of Amos, 
and may have been the same in the time of 
Elijah. 

4. Into the wilderness] Since the king of 
Judah was an ally of Ahab, the prophet did 
not consider himself safe from Jezebel's fury 
until he was beyond Judaean territory. A 
juniper tree] a kind of broom, with purplish 
white flowers, that grows to the height of 10 or 
12 ft. Requested . . might die] The nervous 
tension caused by the scene on Carmel was 
now succeeded by reaction and exhaustion. 
Elijah felt that he had been no more successful 
in checking the nation's apostasy than the 
prophets who had been before him. 

6. Coals] perhaps stones heated by a fire of 
wood, kindled with twigs of broom : cp. Ps 
1204. 

8. Horeb] i.e. Sinai. The forty days and forty 
nights are not to be taken as a measure of the 
distance of Horeb from the prophet's starting- 
point (w. 3, 4), for this (about 180 m.) could 
be traversed in a much shorter time, but are 
meant to associate Elijah with Moses (see 
Ex 24 18 Dt 9 n > 18 ). In solitary communion with 
God, such as Moses had enjoyed, the prophet 
would recover his fortitude. The mount of 
God] cp. Ex3 x . Horeb had probably been a 
sanctuary even before Moses' time. 

10. Thine altars . . thy prophets] cp. 18 30 > 13 . 

11. The LORD passed by] All the expe- 
riences here described formed part of a single 
manifestation of the divine presence, but the 
earlier stages did not reveal God in the same 
degree as the last. Elsewhere in the OT. 
wind, fire, and earthquake are frequent accom- 
paniments of a Theophany : see Exl9 18 Ps 
187-13 973-5 2S524 Job38i Ezkl*. 

12. A still small voice] cp. Job4 16 . The 
LXX renders, ' the sound of a gentle breeze.' 
The hurricane, the earthquake, the lightning, 
were all tokens and agencies of God, but none 
disclosed Him so convincingly as the peaceful 
calm that followed the tempest. It awakened, 
and blended with, the prophet's conscience ; 
and he thus came to realise the true value of 
patience and forbearance in the furtherance 
of the divine purposes, as compared with the 
violence which he himself had displayed in his 
conflict with idolatry (18 40 ). 

13. He wrapped his face in his mantle] in 
awe at the near presence of God. Moses 
similarly hid his face when God addressed him 
out of the bush (Ex3 6 ). 14. I have been very 
jealous] The prophet, as yet unsubdued by the 
influences of the scene, returned the same in- 
dignant answer as before (v. 10). 

15. The wilderness of Damascus] i.e. the 



15 



225 



19.16 



1 KINGS 



20. 40 



Syrian desert in which D. is situated. Anoint] 
not used in a strict sense, since neither Hazael 
nor Elisha is described as having been anointed, 
whilst Jehu was anointed not by Elijah but 
by a young prophet commissioned by Elisha 
(2 K 9). The lesson which the direction given 
to Elijah in this v. conveyed was that he still 
had work to do even though he might not see 
the issue of it. He was not to relinquish it 
as he had desired (v. 4), just because he was 
himself unsuccessful, but was to transmit it to 
others, and so pave the way for success in the 
distant future. Hazael] see 2K8 8f . 

1 6. Jehu the son of Nimshi] He was really 
son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi 
(2K9 2 ). 17. The sword of Hazael] For the 
calamities brought on Israel by Hazael see 
2K10 32 . The sword of Jehu] For the de- 
struction of the house of Ahab by Jehu see 
2K9 and 10. Shall Elisha slay] doubtless 
through the agency of others. The prophets 
are frequently described as effecting what they 
enjoin or announce (Hos6 5 Jerl 10 ). 

18. I have left] better, ' I will leave.' Elijah 
was mistaken in thinking that he was the only 
survivor of the Lord's loyal servants. Jeho- 
vah's cause was not desperate because His 
prophet had fled from the field of conflict. 

Kissed him] For this as an act of devotion 
seeHosl3 2 . In Job31 26 > 27 sun-worshippers 
are described as kissing their hand to the 
object of their adoration. 19. With twelve 
yoke] Elijah himself guided only one ' yoke ' 
(or pair), the remaining eleven being in charge 
of his servants. His mantle] A hairy mantle 
was the characteristic garb of the prophets 
(Zechl3 4 ). 20. What have I done to thee?] 
whatever sacrifice was involved in the prophetic 
call was to be made ungrudgingly. Elijah, like 
our Lord, would have no half-hearted service : 
cp. Lk9 59 " G2 . 21. The instruments of the 
oxen] The wooden yoke and the framework of 
the plough served as fuel : cp. 2 S 24 22 . 

CHAPTER 20 
War between Israel and Syria 

The Syrians besiege Samaria, but a sally 
being made from the city by the direction of 
a prophet, they are driven off, and the next 
year are beaten at Aphek. Ahab, having 
■pared Benhadad the Syrian king, is rebuked 
by a prophel in fche name of the Lord. 

1. Ben-hadad] probably the son of the Ben- 
hadad mentioned in 15 18 . In the Assyrian 
inscription he is termed Dad-idri, i.e. Eadadezer. 

The history here revertfl to fche Syrian attacks 

upon Israel made originally at fche instigation 
of Jndah (16*>). Thirty and two kings] 
probably vassal princes : cp. v. 24. 14. The 
young men . . provinces] the servants (or 
esquires) of the Israelite chiefs who had been 
driven by the Syrian invasion from the pro- 

2 



vinces into the capital. 16. At noon] a time 
when the beleaguering host would be resting 
during the heat of the day. 20. With the 
horsemen] RV ' with horsemen ' : i.e. with 
some mounted attendants. 21. Smote] the 
LXX has 'took.' To aid his pursuit Ahab 
took the horses abandoned by the Syrians. 

22. See what thou doest] i.e. consider what 
thou shouldest do, take the necessary pre- 
cautions. At the return of the year] in the 
spring, when military operations would again 
be possible : cp. 2S11 1 . 

23. Their gods . . the hills] RV ' Their god 
is a god of the hills.' A national god was 
believed to exert his power chiefly within his 
own land, and the Syrians regarded Jehovah's 
power as confined to the hill-country in the 
neighbourhood of Samaria ; whereas in the 
plain (or plateau) E. of the Jordan, of which 
they doubtless considered themselves masters, 
they expected their own deity to prevail. 

24. Take the kings away] The disaster 
recorded in v. 20 seems to have been in part 
attributed to the misconduct of the vassal 
kings, and their places (or posts) were now 
taken by Syrian officers, in whose loyalty and 
obedience more confidence could be placed. 

26. Aphek] probably a city E. of the Sea of 
Galilee. 27. Were all present] RV 'were 
victualled.' 30. A wall (RV ' the wall ') fell] 
either as a result of the Israelites' assault, or 
in consequence of an earthquake. Probably 
it was crowded with defenders. 

33. Did diligently observe . . from him] RM 
' took it ' (i.e. the expression ' he is my 
brother ') ' as an omen, and hasted to catch it 
from him ' : i.e. they fastened on the kindly 
expression and repeated it to attract attention 
to it and make withdrawal difficult. To come 
up . . chariot] This was a mark of honour : cp. 
2K10 15 . 34. The cities .. I will restore] 
This promise was apparently not faithfully 
fulfilled : see 22 3 . Make streets . . Damascus] 
i.e. have certain parts of Damascus assigned 
for the use of Israelite traders (like the 
' English quarters ' in Shanghai and other 
Chinese towns). 

35. A certain man] identified by Josephus 
with Micaiah (22 8 ). The sons of the prophets] 
bodies of youths organised and trained by the 
prophets to serve as their ministers and envoys, 
and perhaps eventually to succeed them in 
their office. They were established at Bethel, 
Jericho, and Gilgal (2K2-V 438), an d doubt- 
less at other centres. Smite me] The wounds 
wonhl support his story that he had been 
present in the battle (v. 30), and had received 
injury either from the enemy or from the man 
whose prisoner he suffered to escape. 

38. With ashes, etc.] RV ' with his head- 
band over his eyes' : to conceal his identity : 
so in v. 41. 40. Thyself hast decided if] by 
26 



i 



20. 42 



1 KINGS 



1.6 



his own confession he had neglected his 
charge. 

42. Because thou hast let go] It is possible 
that Ahab's clemency towards Benhadad was 
due to the threatening attitude of the 
Assyrians, against whom it may have seemed 
expedient for Israel and Syria to unite. In 
any case, the Assyrian inscriptions record that 
Ahab and Benhadad both sent forces to aid 
Hamath, when it was attacked by Shalmaneser 
II in 854, and with their allies were- defeated 
by the Assyrian king at Karkar (a city near 
the Orontes). The alliance between the two 
countries thus failed in its object ; and that 
the Syrians proved false to their engagement 
to restore the captured Israelite cities is pro- 
bable from 22 3 . The prophet's censure of 
Ahab's conduct thus appears to have been 
justified by events. 

CHAPTER 21 
Naboth's Vineyard 

1. After these things] The LXX places this 
c. after c. 19, and so prevents the separation of 
chs. 20 and 22, which are closely connected. 

Jezreel] in the plain of Esdraelon. 

3. The inheritance of my fathers] cp. 
Lv25 23 Nu367> 8 . 

8. Unto the elders . . nobles] The adminis- 
tration of justice rested with the chief men 
of each locality: cp. Dtl9 12 212. 9 . p ro _ 
claim a fast] perhaps intended as a public act 
of humiliation for Naboth's alleged crime (cp. 
1ST 6 ), but in any case calculated to draw the 
people together. Set Naboth on high] per- 
haps equivalent to placing him at the bar of 
justice, but Josephus takes it to mean that he 
was given a position of honour as being of 
illustrious family. 10. Set two men] The 
testimony of two witnesses is required by the 
law in Dtl7 6 . Sons of Belial] EM 'sons 
of worthlessness ' : cp. Dt 13 13 1 S 2 12 . Blas- 
pheme] RV 'curse': cp. Ex22 28 Lv24!6. 
Carry him out] Jezebel had no doubt that 
the evidence of the perjured witnesses would 
be accepted. 

15. Take possession] Presumably the pro- 
perty of one who was executed as a criminal 
passed to the crown. 

18. Behold. . vineyard] The details of the 
meeting between the king and the prophet 
are given somewhat differently in 2 K 9 26 . 

19. In the place, etc.] Naboth must have 
been executed just outside Jezreel (v. 13), 
but the fulfilment of the prediction respecting 
Ahab took place at Samaria (22 38 ) ; on the 
other hand, the dead body of Ahab's son 
Jehoram was actually cast ' into the portion 
of the field of Naboth ' : . see 2 K 9 25 . 23. The 
dogs . . Jezebel] For the fulfilment of the pre- 
diction see 2K9 36 . 3 '. The wall] 2K9 10 has 
j the portion ' (i.e. the district). 26. Amorites] 



here used for the heathen inhabitants of 
Canaan generally : see on GnlO 16 Josh 24 18 . 

27. Went softly] i.e. went quietly, as one 
who was humbled and penitent. 29. I will 
not bring, etc.] The judgment incurred by 
Solomon had been postponed (ll 12 ) for his 
father's sake. In Ahab's case the threatened 
penalty was mitigated in consideration of his 
repentance. 

CHAPTER 22 
Ahab and Micaiah. Ahab's Death at 
Ramoth-gilead. Reign of Jehosha- 
phat, king of judah 

1. Three years] probably calculated from 
the peace described in 20 34 . 

2. Jehoshaphat . . came down] The earlier 
hostility between Judah and Israel (see lb™-^) 
had by this time given place not only to peace 
but to friendship, which had been cemented 
(as appears from 2K8 18 ) by a marriage be- 
tween Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram and Ahab's 
daughter Athaliah. It is possible that the 
change in the relations of the two countries 
had been brought about by success on the 
part of the northern kingdom, and that Judah 
had become a vassal of its neighbour: at any 
rate, both on this occasion and on a later one 
(2K37f-) ? the king of Judah is found aiding 
the king of Israel in a war which only pro- 
moted the interests of the latter. The cessa- 
tion of hostilities between the two kingdoms 
was in many ways a benefit to both ; but for 
Judah the connexion with Israel was attended 
by serious drawbacks, for besides having to 
furnish assistance in war, it became infected 
with the Baal worship introduced by Ahab. 
Jehoshaphat's alliance with Ahab is explicitly 
condemned in 2Chl9 2 . 

3. Ramoth in Gilead] situated a little N. of 
the Jabbok (the modern es Salt). The city 
had perhaps been amongst those which had 
been taken from Omri by Benhadad I, king 
of Syria, and which his son, Benhadad II, had 
agreed to restore (20 34 ). 

5. Enquire . . of the LORD] Jehoshaphat's 
piety led him to seek the divine guidance 
before starting on the proposed expedition. 

To day] better, ' first of all ' : cp. 1 si 
Gin 25 si (RM). 

6. The prophets] These must have been 
prophets of the Lokd (vv. 5, 11), so that 
though the worship of the Lord (Jehovah) 
had ceased to be predominant in Israel, it 
was far from being extinguished, and the 
prophets had probably recovered some of 
their influence after the repentance of Ahab 
recorded in 21 2 ?. But though the 400 were 
doubtless prophets of the true God, they were 
presumably in sympathy with the prevalent 
calf-worship, and escaped persecution by 
tolerating Baal worship. 



227 



22.7 



1 KINGS— 2 KINGS 



1.2 



7. A prophet of the LORD besides] i.e. is 
there not another prophet of the Lord beside 
these, one who dissociated himself from the 
prophets alluded to in note on v. 6. 8. He 
doth not . . good] cp. on 20 35 . 10. In the 
entrance of the gate] the usual place for 
popular assemblages (cp. 2S19 8 ) and the 
dispensing of justice (2S15 2 ). II. Made 
him . . iron] For symbolic acts employed by 
prophets see on ll. 31 . Horns were natural 
emblems for weapons of offence (Dt 23 17 ). 

15. Go, and prosper] Micaiah, as the king 
saw, was not speaking seriously, but repeated 
in mockery the words of the 400 prophets 
(v. 6), which had doubtless been reported to 
him (v. 13). 

19. I saw the LORD] For similar prophetic 
visions see Isa6 Ezkl. The host of heaven] 
i.e. angelic spirits (cp. Psl03 20 > 21 ) constituting 
the court of heaven in attendance upon its 
king. 21. There came forth a spirit] In 
several passages in the OT. infatuation is 
ascribed to the influence of an evil spirit from 
the Lord (see Jg9 23 IS 16" 199), though the 
personal nature of such a spirit is not gener- 
ally so clearly implied as here. The lying 
spirit is regarded as one of God's ministers, 
occasioning harm, indeed, but in subordination 
to the divine purposes: cp. Jobl 6 2Th2 n . 
The doctrine of an evil spirit antagonistic to 
God is not developed in the OT. 

24. From me . . to thee] Zedekiah claimed 
to be inspired by the Lord (v. 1 1), and there- 
fore challenged Micaiah to explain how he, 
likewise professing to speak in the name of 
the Lord, could utter a prophecy of such 
different tenor. 25. To hide thyself] when the 
news arrived of Israel's defeat. 26. The king's 
son] He was obviously placed in a position of 
authority. The sons of Jehoshaphat similarly 
had charge of 'fenced cities' (2Ch213). 

27. Bread of affliction] i.e. prison fare. 

29. Jehoshaphat . . went up] Jehoshaphat 
had consented to Ahab's proposal before 



seeking counsel of the Lord, and in spite of 
Micaiah's warning found himself committed 
to the expedition. 30. I will disguise myself] 
Ahab's action implies that Micaiah's words 
had made some impression upon him, though 
not sufficient to make him desist from his 
purpose. Put thou on thy robes] cp. 2 S 1 10 . 

31. Thirty and two captains] cp. 20 24 . The 
command given to them is, of course, not to 
be understood literally. 32. Cried out] Some- 
thing in his cry, which was perhaps a prayer 
to the Lord (cp. 2Chl8 31 ), revealed that he 
was not the king of Israel. 34. At a venture] 
Not without a definite aim, but in ignorance 
that his mark was the king of Israel (RM ' in 
his simplicity '). 

39. The ivory house, etc.] For the use of 
ivory in building see Am3 15 Ps45 8 . Though 
Ahab by his alliance with Zidon had corrupted 
the religion of the nation, he must have 
augmented its material prosperity. 

41. And Jehoshaphat, etc.] This account of 
Jehoshaphat's reign follows on 15 24 . 45. The 
rest of the acts, etc.] see 2 Ch 17-20, which 
records (in addition to what is here related) 
the institution of a body of Levites to visit 
the various cities of Judah to teach the people 
the Law, the establishment of courts of justice 
both in Jerusalem and in the fenced cities, 
and the providential deliverance of the king 
and his army from a great host of Moabites, 
Ammonites, and Edomites. 

47. A deputy was king] The royal house 
of Edom. which had recovered power in the 
time of Solomon, had been overthrown, and 
a viceroy, appointed by the king of Judah, 
now ruled the country. The subjugation of 
the Edomites probably followed upon the 
disaster sustained by them and their allies as 
described in 2Ch20. 

48. Ships of Tharshish . . Ophir] The ships 
that sailed to Ophir (in Arabia or E. Africa, 
see on 9 28 ) were similar to those which traded 
to Tartessus or Tarsus (in the Mediterranean). 



2 KINGS 



CHAPTER 1 
Elijah CALLS DOWN FlKB PROM HEAVEN 
1. Moab..Ahab] Moab had been con- 
quered by David (2S8 2 ), and at the revolt of 
t he Ten Tribes had passed underthe authority 
of the northern kingdom. The revolt here 
alluded to took place, according to the inscrip- 
tion of Mesha, before the death of Ahab, 
win rcas the presenl passage implies that it- 



happened later, in the reign of Ahaziah or 
Joram : cp. 3 G . 

2. A lattice] lit. ' a network,' — perhaps a 
balustrade. Baal-zebub] supposed to mean 
1 lord of flies,' in the sense of being their con- 
troller and averter, since flies are one of the 
greatest plagues of Eastern countries : cp. the 
(Jk. Zeus Apomuhs. But in kindred names 
like Baal-Peor, Baal-Hermon, etc., the second 
element is the name of a place, which suggests 



228 



1.3 



2 KINGS 



2. 24 



that -zebub is likewise a local name. Ekron] 
One of the five confederate Philistine cities, 
lying nearest to the frontiers of Israel. 3. Is 
ft not because, etc.] RV ' Is it because there is 
no God in Israel ? ' and so in vv. 6, 10. 8. An 
hairy man] better, as in RM, ' a man with a 
garment of hair,' a characteristic dress of the 
prophets : cp. Zechl3 4 Mkl 6 . 9. A captain 
of fifty] a recognised division of the Israelite 
army: cp. 1S8 12 . 

10. Let fire come down] The - king in 
despatching soldiers to arrest the prophet 
dishonoured the Lord, whose servant Elijah 
was ; and the unity that subsisted between a 
king and his subjects (as between a father and 
his children) was so strongly felt in ancient 
times that there was little sense of the. in- 
justice involved in the death of so many 
innocent persons for the sin of another : see 
on 9 26 . A consciousness of individual rights 
only asserted itself gradually in Israel (see 
Jer31 29 > 30 Ezkl8 2 - 4 ) ; and a spirit akin to 
that of Elijah was manifested even by the 
Apostles, but met with rebuke from their 
Lord (Lk 9 55). 

17. In the second year of Jehoram] The 
calculation here arrived at seems to follow 
upon what is stated in 1 K 1 6 23 , where Omri 
begins to reign in Asa's thirty-first year (Omri's 
12 + Ahab's 22 + Ahaziah's 2 + Jehoram's 1 = 
Asa's last 10 + Jehoshaphat's 25 + Jehoram's 
2). A different reckoning is adopted in 3 1 . 

Had no son] Jehoram, who succeeded Aha- 
ziah, was his brother. 

CHAPTER 2 
Elijah's Translation to Heaven 
The great service rendered to Israel by the 
prophet whose life is here closed was the 
stand which he made for the religion of 
Jehovah when its supremacy was threatened 
by the worship of the Zidonian Baal intro- 
duced by Jezebel. In view of such a crisis, 
the degradation of Jehovah's worship by the 
association with it of the golden calves set up 
by Jeroboam could for a while be ignored, a 
superstitious form of the true faith being 
preferable to total apostasy ; though later, 
when the religion of Baal had been abolished 
by Jehu, the time came for a protest against 
the calf -worship, such as that which was made 
by Hosea (10 5 ) and Amos (8 14 ). The pre- 
eminence which Elijah, by his zeal and devotion 
in this struggle against Baal worship, won for 
himself among the prophets of the Old Testa- 
ment is evidenced by the expectation subse- 
quently entertained that he would come again : 
see Mal45,6 ? and cp. Mtll 1 4 17 n Lkl 1 7 Jn 1 «. 
It is said that a chair is still placed for him by 
the Jews at the circumcision of every child, 
and that at the Paschal feast the door is set 
open for him to enter. At our Lord's Trans- 



figuration he is recorded to have been present, 
together with Moses, and to have talked with 
Him(Mtl7 3 Mk9 4 ). 

1. When the LORD . . Elijah] The only 
parallel to this narrative in the OT. is the 
account of the translation of Enoch in Gn 5 24 . 
The mention (in 2Ch21 12 ) of a letter from 
Elijah in the reign of Jehoram has led some to 
think that the event related in this c. is placed 
out of its proper order. Gilgal] probably 
identical with the modern Jiljilia, a place 
between Bethel and Shechem in the hill- 
country of Ephraim. 

2. Tarry here] Elijah may have wished to 
spare Elisha the awe-inspiring vision of his 
departure. The sons of the prophets] see on 
IK 20 35 . 3. Knowest thou, etc.] Knowledge 
of Elijah's impending departure seems to have 
prevailed both at Bethel and Jericho. 9. A 
double portion] i.e. the share of the firstborn 
son (Dt21 17 ), twice as much as that of any of 
the other ' sons ' of the prophet. Elisha 
wished to be, in spiritual power, the chief 
among Elijah's disciples and successors. 1 1. A 
chariot of fire] cp. 2K6 17 . 

12. The chariot of Israel] The words are 
probably a figure to describe the prophet, who 
in virtue of the supernatural powers that were 
at his service had been to Israel a greater pro- 
tection than its military forces : cp. the similar 
expression used of Elisha in 13 14 . Rent them] 
a usual token of grief: cp. 5 7 6 30 Gn37 29 2S 
13 19 Ezr9 3 . 13. The mantle] The symbol of 
prophetic authority: see l 8 , and cp. 1K19 19 . 

16. The Spirit of the LORD] some strong 
impulse of divine origin : cp. 1 K 18 12 . 17. Till 
he was ashamed] i.e. to persist in further 
refusal. 

19. This city] Jericho (v. 18). The water] 
not of the Jordan but of an affluent of it, the 
modern Ain es Sultan. 20. Salt] a preserva- 
tive and a symbol of wholesomeness and 
purity : cp. Mt 5 13 . 22. Unto this day] see 
on 1K88. 

23. Little children] RM 'young lads.' Beth- 
el, one of the seats of the calf -worship, was 
at a later date a royal chapel (Am7 13 ), and 
perhaps enjoyed the same distinction in Elijah's 
day ; and the prophet, by his zeal for the Lord, 
may have there incurred popular resentment, 
of which the mockery here described was a 
symptom. Thou bald head] a bald forehead 
might give rise to the suspicion and reproach 
of leprosy (Lvl3 42 - 44 ). 

24. Cursed them] see on 1K16 34 . Elisha 
seems to have shared the fiery disposition of 
his master Elijah (1 10 ), and the spirit he mani- 
fested on this occasion stands in impressive 
contrast with that enjoined and exemplified 
by our Lord (Mt5 44 Lk23 34 ). She bears] 
for the presence of bears in Palestine cp. 1 S 

1734-36, 



229 



2 KINGS 



CHAPTER 3 

Jehoram and Elisha. Victory over 

MOAB 

1. The eighteenth year of Jehoshaphat] ac- 
cording to 1 17 , ' in the second year of Jehoram 
son of Jehoshaphat.' 

2. The image of Baal] RV 'the pillar of 
Baal.' No mention is made of this in the 
account of Ahab's reign ; but it is stated that 
Ahab erected an altar for Baal (1K16 32 ), 
beside which the pillar here alluded to was 
doubtless raised. For the significance of such 
pillars see on 1K7 15 . That Jehoram's re- 
ligious reformation was not very complete is 
plain from 10 19 " 28 : cp. c. 13. 

4. Mesha] see on Nu21 29 . This king, in 
his inscription on the Moabite Stone, refers to 
the affliction which his country suffered from 
Israel, and to the war which put an end to it, 
though he places the latter in the time of Ahab. 
Lambs . . rams] For a tribute, or present, of 
sheep from Moab cp. IsalG 1 . 

7. Sent to Jehoshaphat] see on 1K22 2 . 
Jehoshaphat himself had been attacked by the 
Moabites(2Ch20 1 ). 8. Which way shall we 
go?] The usual route from Israel would be 
across the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, 
Moab being then invaded from the north. 

Through the wilderness of Edom] i.e. S. of 
the Dead Sea. Edom, though it had a king, 
was at this time under the control of Judah 
(1K22 47 ), and additional forces could be ob- 
tained from thence in the course of the march. 

9. Fetched a compass] RV ' made a circuit.' 

11. Poured water on the hands of] i.e. acted 
as his attendant. In the East water is still 
poured over the hands after eating, since the 
fingers generally serve as forks. 

14. I would not look toward thee] Jehoram 
was not only the son of the idolatrous Ahab. 
but is described in v. 2 as having done evil in 
the sight of the Lord. At a later date, how- 
ever, Elisha's attitude towards him changed : 
cp. c. 6. 

15. Bring me a minstrel] For the connexion 
of music with prophecy cp. 1S10 5 . The 
hand of the LORD] cp. Ezk33 22 . 

16. Valley] The Heb. means a ravine or 
water-course which was then dry — possibly the 
WAdy el Ansa. Ditches] RV l trenches ' : to 
retain fche promised water for drinking pur- 
poses. 17. Neither shall ye see rain] It is not 
implied that the water would be produced by 
any other means than rain, but the rain would 
fall at a distance : cp. v. 20. 20. When the 
meat offering was offered] i.e. the daily morn- 
ing sacrifice at Jerusalem : cp. 1K18 29 . 

22. As red as blood] Coloured by the red 
soil of Edom (Edom meaning 'red'), or re- 
flecting the red tints of the morning sky. 

25. Filled it] thereby rendering it useless 



for tillage or pasture. Kir-haraseth] pro- 
bably the Kir of Isal.5 1 and the Kir-heres of 
Jer48 31 > 36 . 26. The king of Edom] probably 
in the hope that he, as a discontented vassal of 
Judah, would connive at his escape. 27. For a 
burnt offering] presumably to Chemosh, the 
Moabite deity. Human sacrifices in ancient 
times prevailed amongst most Semitic nations ; 
but the offering of a son or daughter must 
generally have been confined to occasions when 
some great offence had to be atoned for 
(cp. Mic6 7 ) or some great calamity averted. 
Such sacrifices at one time were not unknown 
in Israel (Gn 22 Jg 1 1 30f -) ; but the higher re- 
ligious consciousness of the Hebrews led them 
to realise much earlier than other races how 
alien they were to the divine character. There 
was great indignation] RM ' there came great 
wrath upon Israel.' Probably the combined 
forces of the invaders met with some signal 
disaster which was attributed to divine anger 
against them, stimulated by the king's sacri- 
fice. From him] i.e. from the king of Moab. 
On the Moabite Stone Mesha relates his 
capture of various towns (Nebo, Jahaz) and 
the fortifications of others (Baal-Meon, Kiri- 
athaim, Bezer, Dibon, Medeba, Beth-dib- 
lathaim), which were all N. of the Arnon, and 
some of which are expressly enumerated in the 
Bible among the cities of Reuben and Gad ; so 
not only must the Israelites have retired from 
Moab, but the Moabites must have made them- 
selves masters of what had previously been 
Israelite territory. 

CHAPTER 4 

Various Miracles of Elisha 
The miracles related of Elisha in this and 
the following chapters resemble many of those 
previously recounted of Elijah. Thus both 
prophets multiplied the sustenance of a woman 
in need (2K4*-7 1K178-16); both restored a 
dead child to life (2 K 48-27 IK 17 17-24) . both 
came into conflict with their king on the 
occasion of a famine (2K6 24 " 33 IK 18) ; and 
both brought a violent death upon certain in- 
dividuals who offended them (2 K 2 2 3 , 24 2K1). 
But the habits of Elisha were seemingly more 
social, and his disposition less stern, than were 
those of his great predecessor : he was a fre- 
quenter of cities, was closely associated with 
the ' sons of the prophets,' and many of the 
miracles recorded of him are connected with 
private individuals and incidents of common 
life. The contrast in this respect which Elisha 
offered to the ascetic Elijah resembles that 
which subsisted between our Lord and St. John 
the Baptist : cp. Mtll 18 - 19 . 

The several stories here told of Elisha are 
somewhat disconnected, the indications of time 
that occur in them are vague (see 4 8 > n > 18 ), and 
there are a few inconsistencies which are left 



230 



4. 1 



2 KINGS 



5. 17 



unexplained by the historian : contrast 6 23 
with 6 24 and 5 2 ? with 8™. 

i. To be bondmen] For the sale of an in- 
solvent debtor and his family see Lv25 39 , 
and cp. Neh5 5 . 

8. A great woman] i.e. wealthy and influ- 
ential : cp. 1 S 25 2 2 S 19 32 . io. A . . chamber 
. . on the wall] probably an upper chamber, 
above the ordinary roof. A stool] better, a 
I chair ' or ' seat ' (the same word being used of 
a royal throne). Candlestick] better, ' lamp- 
stand' : cp. Ex25 31 . 

13. He said unto him, etc.] in the East 
women were (and are) lightly esteemed, and 
direct communications were rarely held with 
them by persons who had a character for 
sanctity (cp. Jn 4 27) : se e v. 27 and 5 10 . What 
is to be done for thee ?] Elisha, who, unlike 
Elijah, seems to have attended the royal court 
(5 3 ), offers to use his influence on her behalf. 

I dwell . . people] i.e. I live among friends, 
and therefore do not need special protection 
against oppression. 16. According to the time 
of life] RY l when the time cometh round,' 
i.e. in the spring of the following year. 

19. My head] He had perhaps sustained a 
sunstroke. 

23. Neither new moon, nor sabbath] The 
Shunammite's husband did not connect his 
wife's proposed visit to the prophet with the 
death of his child, but with some religious 
duty. The new moon (i.e. the first day of 
the month) and the sabbath were feasts at 
which the prophets might be asked to preside, 
as Samuel did at the feast held at the high 
place of Ramah (1 S 9 12 > 13 ). 

24. Slack not thy riding] RY ' slacken me 
not the riding ' : the servant probably ran on 
foot beside his mistress. 26. It is well] The 
purpose of the answer was obviously not to 
deceive but to dismiss the questioner. 

29. Gird up thy loins] The direction was 
necessary, for the garments were usually worn 
loose and flowing. Salute him not] To do so 
would waste time. 

Lay my staff] Elisha seems to have thought 
that as Elijah's mantle had been powerful in 
his own hand (2 14 ), so his own staff would 
be equally potent in the hands of another. 
But the secret of miracles must be looked for 
in personalities, not in inanimate things. 

35. He returned, etc.] The prophet showed 
the importunity which should mark all effort 
to obtain a divine blessing. 

38. A dearth] Perhaps the famine related in 
8 1_6 . 39. A wild vine] not a real vine, but a 
vine-like plant, usually identified with the 
bitter cucumber or colocynth, bearing a fruit 
resembling an orange, which is very bitter in 
taste. 42. Baal-shalisha] Perhaps the same 
as the 'land of Shalisha' (1S9 4 ) in the hill- 
country of Ephraim. The firstfruits] Elisha 



probably dwelt at a sanctuary (perhaps Gilgal) 
where firstfruits were required to be pre- 
sented (Ex23 19 ). In the husk thereof] RY 
' in his sack.' 43. What, should . . men ?] cp. 
the like doubt raised by the disciples of our 
Lord (Jn6 9 ), and the similar, but even more 
impressive, sequel. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Healing of Naaman and the 
Punishment of Gehazi 

1. The LORD . . Syria] Possibly the enemies 
from whom the Syrians had been saved were the 
Assyrians. Naaman, in delivering his country- 
men from them, had been an unconscious in- 
strument in the hands of Jehovah. A leper] 
see on Lvl3. Leprosy is of slow develop- 
ment, and as Naaman retained his military 
command, his malady cannot have reached a 
very advanced stage. It is not likely, in any 
case, that the Syrians observed the same strict 
rules regarding it as the Jews. 

2. By companies] i.e. by raiding bands. 

5. The king of Israel] probably Jehoram. 
Ten talents] A talent was a weight of 96 lb. 
Pieces of gold] probably shekels, and so in 

6 25 , a shekel being a weight of 224 grains. 

Changes of raiment] For such a present cp. 
Gn45 22 . The expression implies costly robes. 

6. That thou mayest recover] i.e. by using 
his influence with the prophet. 

10. Sent a messenger] cp. 4 13 . Seven 
times] The figure probably stands for an 
indefinite number (cp. 1K18 43 ); but it is 
possible that it also had special religious asso- 
ciations (cp. Gn21 2 8 Josh 6 4 ). The prophet's 
direction to Naaman to wash in the Jordan 
did not imply any miraculous quality in the 
water of the river, but was intended to test 
the sufferer's faith. 

11. Strike] better, 'wave,' for he would 
probably avoid actual contact. 

12. Abana and Pharpar] These two rivers 
rise in Mt. Hermon and lose themselves in 
a marshy lake near Damascus. Though smaller, 
they are much clearer than the Jordan. 

13. My father] a title of honour : cp. 2 12 
621. ^ He returned] The distance from the 
Jordan to Samaria was some 30 m. 

A blessing] RY 'a present' : cp. Gn33 n 
Jgl 15 . Naaman did well to seek to show 
his gratitude to the Lord by a gift to His 
prophet, but Elisha's refusal meant that for 
imparting a divine blessing which he was 
empowered from on high to bestow, he could 
receive no personal gain. 

17. Two mules' burden of earth] It was 
believed that a national deity was intimately 
connected with the country he protected, so 
that Naaman, being desirous of worshipping 
the Lord (Jehovah) in Syria, wished to trans- 
port thither some of the soil of Israel as being 



231 



5. 18 



2 KINGS 



7.13 



associated with His presence and so most 
fitted for the construction of an altar to Him. 

1 8. Rimmon] identical with the Assyrian 
storm- god Ramman. 

19. Go in peace] Elisha, to avoid putting 
too severe a strain upon the incipient devo- 
tion of his foreign convert, did not demand 
consistency, though his predecessor Elijah, in 
the case of native Israelites, had protested 
against such divided allegiance (1K18 21 ). 

22. Mount Ephraim] RV ' the hill country 
of Ephraim.' Bethel and Gilgal, where there 
were bodies of ' sons of the prophets ' (c. 2), 
were situated in this district. 23. Be content] 
i.e. consent : cp. 6 3 . 24. The tower] RY 
' the hill ' : probably an elevation near Samaria. 
Some take it to mean ' the citadel.' 

26. Is it a time] The occasion had not been 
a suitable one for acquiring gain, but for 
rejoicing over the manifestation of the Lord's 
power and graciousness, calculated as it was 
to awaken the wonder and gratitude of the 
foreigner, Naaman, which Gehazi's covetous- 
ness might now repress. 

CHAPTER 6 
Elisha and the Siege of Samaria 

1. The place where we dwell] The mention 
of the Jordan (v. 2) suggests that these sons 
of the prophets dwelt near Jericho : cp. 2 5 . 
Probably Elisha did not permanently abide 
with them, but visited them occasionally for 
supervision and instruction. 6. The iron did 
swim] The prophet's powers were exerted to 
help one who was honest enough to be the 
more concerned for his loss because the axe 
was not his own. 

8. The king of Syria] perhaps the Ben- 
hadad of v. 24 and 1K20 1 . 13. Dothan] 
commanding a pass which crossed the ridge of 
Carmel (the mountain of v. 17). 

17. Round about Elisha] cp. Ps34? 91 4 . 
God's servants often experience providential 
succour in times of danger, though they can- 
not confidently reckon upon protection from 
earthly peril. What alone is assured to them, 
if they continue loyal, is spiritual security. 

22. Wouldest thou smite, etc.] If the king 
would not smite captives whom he had taken 
by his own valour, much less could he expect 
to be allowed to smite those who had been 
delivered into his hands by another. The 
prophet by preserving their lives, secured that 
information respecting his wonderful powers 
waa conveyed to the Syrian king. 

24. And it came to pass, etc.] This section 
obviously hat no close connexion with the 
preceding, as the inconsistency between tins 
v. and v. 23 shows, though Josephus explains 
that the long of Syria, out of teat- of Elisha, 
abandoned his secret designs against the 
Israelites in favour of more open war. 



25. An ass's head] The ass being an un- 
clean animal, its flesh would not be eaten 
except in times of great scarcity. Cab] a 
little less than 2 quarts, so that a fourth part 
would be about a pint. Dove's dung] Though 
this is usually supposed to be a kind of pulse, 
yet pigeon's dung was eaten in a siege that 
took place in the year 1316 a.d., probably 
because of the seeds it contained. 29. Boiled 
my son] The same kind of incident occurred 
in connexion with the siege of Jerusalem by 
Nebuchadnezzar, Lam4 10 : cp. also Lv26 29 
Dt28 52 " 55 . 31. The head of Elisha] Possibly 
the prophet had held out promises of relief 
which had not yet been realised. 32. This 
son of a murderer] i.e. this murderer : cp. 
Isa 1 4 . Hold . . door] RY ' hold the door fast 
against him.' Is not . . feet] The king, after 
giving orders to execute Elisha, had changed 
his purpose, and was hastening after the 
messenger to countermand his directions. 

33. And he said] These words are spoken 
by the king, which should be substituted for 
the messenger in the first part of the v. : cp. 
7 17 . Wait] i.e. hold out in the hope of God's 
intervention. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Relief of Samaria 

1. A measure] Heb. a seah, equal to 6 cabs, 
and rather less than 3 gallons. In the gate 
of Samaria] The open space at the gate of an 
Eastern city served as a market-place. 

2. Windows in heaven] These were the 
outlets from which the rain came (Gn7 n ), 
and the officer asked scornfully whether the 
famine could be relieved even if rain fell 
immediately. 

3. The gate] Lepers would be required to 
keep outside the city : cp. Lvl3 45 » 46 . 5. The 
uttermost part] RY ' the outermost part ' 



the 



camp 



on the side 



the outer limits of 
nearest to them. 

6. The Hittites] see on 1K10 29 . The 
Assyrians used their name to describe the 
whole of Palestine, which they called ' the 
land Khatti.' The Egyptians] Parts of Egypt 
were governed by petty kings who were vassals 
of the Pharaohs. A combination of Hittite 
and Egyptian forces, coming from the N. and 
S. respectively, would have entrapped the 
Syrians between them. But mention is made 
in the Assyrian inscriptions of a land called 
Musre adjoining the Hittite country, and it is 
possible that Mizraim (the Heb. for Egypt) is 
a mistake for this. 

10. The porter] Perhaps used collectively 
(see v. 11) and hence the plur. pronoun l them. 1 

13. They are as, etc.] i.e. they are in 
danger of starvation like the rest of us. and 
so have no more to fear, if they are captured 
by the enemy, than will befall them if they 



232 



7. 15 



2 KINGS 



9. 23 



remain in the city : cp. v. 4. 15. Unto 
Jordan] The Syrians in their retreat from 
Samaria would naturally make for the fords 
of the Jordan at Bethshan and Bethbarah. 

17. The people trode, etc.] He was knocked 
down in the rush of famished citizens hasten- 
ing to the Syrian camp, and trampled to death, 
thus fulfilling Elisha's prediction (v. 2). 

CHAPTER 8 
Elisha and the Shunammite. Elisha 
and Hazael. Reigns of Jehoram and 
Ahaziah of Judah 

1. Then spake Elisha] The occasion is not 
indicated, all the stories related of Elisha in 
this and the three preceding chs. being dis- 
connected. A famine] Perhaps the same as 
that referred to in 4 3S . 2. The land of the 
Philistines] This was a corn-growing district, 
near the still more productive country of 
Egypt. 3, To cry unto the king - ] Her pro- 
perty, being vacant during her absence, had 
seemingly passed to the crown : cp. v. 6. 

7. To Damascus] It is possible that Elisha in 
thus visiting the Syrian capital was carrying 
out a commission of Elijah's (1K19 15 ). For 
Ben-hadad see 6 24 . 8. Hazael] one of Ben- 
hadad's servants. 10. Say unto him] Elisha 
presumably meant that the disease from which 
Benhadad was suffering was not a fatal one, 
but that he would die by other means. Some 
suppose that Elisha spoke ironically (like 
Micaiah in 1K22 15 ). 11. Until he was 
ashamed] Hazael became discomposed under 
the prophet's gaze, being conscious of a guilty 
purpose. 12. The evil, etc.] described in 
1032 133,22 Am 13, 4 . 

13. But what, etc.] RY 'but what is thy 
servant, which is but a dog,' the expression ' a 
dog ' being a term of contempt (1 S 17 43 24 14 ). 
Hazael meant that he could scarcely credit 
that so great a destiny was in store for one so 
humble as himself. 

16. Jehoshaphat being then king of Ju- 
dah] an accidental repetition of the words 
' Jehoshaphat king of Judah,' that follow. 

18. He did evil , . LORD] This does not im- 
ply that he abandoned altogether the worship 
of the Lord, since he made offerings to the 
Temple (12 is). 19. A light] see IK 11 36 
15 4 . In consequence of the divine promises 
made to David, Jehoram's sins were not 
punished by the overthrow of his dynasty but 
by other means. 

20. Edom revolted] in the reign of Jeho- 
shaphat Edom had been subject to Judah and 
ruled by a viceroy (1K22 47 ). Its success in 
throwing off the yoke of Judah is alluded to 
in Gn27 40 . 21. Zair] This place is only 
mentioned here, and the Vulgate reads Seir, 
another name for Edom. The people . . tents] 
The people referred to is the people of Judah. 



Joram, when surrounded by the Edomites, cut 
his way through them and escaped, but his 
army was defeated and dispersed. The verse 
accounts for the successful revolt of Edom. 

22. Yet] RY ' so ' : see 2 Ch21 10. Unto this 
day] The writer whose materials the author 
of Kings is here drawing upon must have 
lived before the destruction of the Judaean 
kingdom. Libnah] situated in the lowland. 
Its revolt was perhaps aided by the Philis- 
tines: cp. 2Ch21 1 M7. 23. The rest . . Joram] 
see 2Ch21, which relates both the public and 
personal losses sustained by the king. 

24. Ahaziah] in 2 Ch 21 17 called Jehoahaz. 

26. Two and twenty] in 2Ch22 2 'forty- 
two.' Daughter of Omri] strictly she was 
' grand- daughter ' of Omri. The terms ' son ' 
and ' daughter ' were used not only of remote de- 
scendants but even of successors who were not 
blood-relations ; e.g. Jehu in the Assyrian in- 
scriptions is called ' the son of Omri.' 28. He 
went with Joram] Ramoth G-ilead at this time 
was in the hands of Israel, but threatened by 
Syria (9 14 ). 29. Ramah] i.e. Ramoth Gilead. 

CHAPTER 9 
Jehu and his Bloodshed 
This c. relates the anointing of Jehu by 
order of Elisha ; and the death of Jehoram 
(of Israel), Ahaziah (of Judah), and Jezebel. 

I. Box] RY 'vial.' For the use of oil in 
anointing sovereigns see 1S10 1 16 13 . Ra- 
moth-gilead] The Israelite army was on guard 
here (v. 14). 9. Like the house of Jeroboam . . 
of Baasha] Both these families had been ex- 
tirpated: 1K15 29 16 1 1 . 10. In . . Jezreel] the 
scene of Ahab's murder of Naboth (1 K21). 

II. This mad fellow~\ The wild demeanour 
and excited utterances of the prophets (see 
lS10 5f 19 20f ) particularly exposed them to 
this reproach: cp. Jer29 26 . Ye know the 
man] Probably the sons of the prophets, like 
the prophets themselves, could be distinguished 
by their dress : see on 1 8 . But Jehu's words 
possibly imply that he suspected his colleagues 
of having prompted the prophet's action. 

13. Put it under him] either for a cushion 
(as an extemporised throne) or for a carpet. 

On the top of the stairs] RM ' on the bare 
steps ' ; these would be outside the house. 

17. Is it peace ?] i.e 'is all well ?' (the same 
word as in v. 11 and in 5 21 ). 18. Turn thee 
behind me] The command had the same object 
as that in v. 15, viz. to prevent warning being 
given. 

22. Whoredoms] i.e. the practice of idol- 
atry: see Jg2i- Hos2 2f . Witchcrafts] i.e. 
dealings with wizards and diviners (prohibited 
in Ex 22 is ■ cp . a i so Dtl8 n Lv20 2 ?). 

23. Turned his hands] i.e. to wheel his 
chariot about. 25. Rode together after Ahab] 
i.e. behind him in the same chariot, as his 



233 



9. 26 



2 KINGS 



10.34 



attendants. Laid this burden upon him] RM 
' uttered this oracle against him.' The term 
' burden ' is similarly used of a prophetic utter- 
ance in Isal3i 15 1 17* Nah 1 * Hab 1 1, etc. 

26. The blood of his sons] The execution 
of Naboth's sons has not previously been 
mentioned ; but at this period a man's guilt 
was held to attach to his children likewise 
(the sense of individual responsibility being 
only imperfectly developed), and his offence 
was generally expiated by their punishment as 
well as his own. 

27. The garden house] better, ' Bethgan,' a 
place on the direct road from Jezreel to the 
S. Ibleam] about half-way between Sa- 
maria and Jezreel. A different account of 
Ahaziah's death is given in 2Ch22 9 . Me- 
giddo] on the ridge of Carmel. 

29. Eleventh] in 8 25 ' twelfth.' 

30. Painted her face] RY 'painted her 
eyes ' (eyelids), i.e. with a preparation of anti- 
mony, to make them appear larger and more 
brilliant. 

31. Had Zimri peace, etc.] RY ' is it peace, 
thou Zimri, thy master's murderer ' : see IK 
169-19. Perhaps Jezebel, by reminding Jehu 
of the fate of Zimri, wished to suggest to him 
the wisdom of making overtures to her. 

34. A king's daughter] She was daughter 
of Ethbaal. king of Zidon (IK 1631). 

35. They found no more, etc.] The loss of 
burial added further ignominy to her death : 
see on 1 K2 31 . 36. In the portion of Jezreel] 
see IK 21 23. 

CHAPTER 10 
Jehu's Extermination of Baal Worship 

1. Ahab . . sons] These were probably his 
grandchildren rather than his children. Unto 
the rulers of Jezreel] LXX has 'unto the 
rulers of Samaria,' which the sense requires. 

2. A fenced city] i.e. Samaria. Ahab's 
dynasty had obtained the throne by force of 
arms (1 K16 21 > 22 ), and Jehu implied that its 
supporters must defend it by the same means. 

4. Two kings] Jehoram of Israel and 
Ahaziah of Judah. 5. Over the house . . over 
the city] These officials are also alluded to in 
1K4*-22 M 2K18 1S Ism 22 U. 6. Take ye 
the heads] By slaying the young princes the 
mien and elders would be implicated in 
Jehu's treason and would therefore in self- 
defence have to support him. 

9. Ye be righteous] Jehu appeals to the 
people fco judge between him and any that 
might accuse him. The fad that the elders of 
the city had put Jehoram's sons to death argued 
that the overthrow of Ahab's dynasty was not 
due solely to Jehu's private ambition bul to 
widespread disaffection against a guilty house. 
But Jehu unfairly concealed his own com- 
munications with the elders (vv. 1-3). 



10. The word of the LORD] see 1 K 21 19,29. 
Though Ahab had repented of his murder of 
Naboth, and the chastisement he had incurred 
was for a time postponed, and though Jehoram 
seems to have attempted some religious 
reform (3 2 ), yet the evil influence of Jezebel 
had spread widely (see 10 19f '), and eventually 
brought judgment upon the impious family. 

13. The king . . the queen] i.e. Joram and 
Jezebel (the term ' queen ' denoting the queen- 
mother). 14. The pit] i.e. the tank or pool 
where the sheep were washed. 

15. Jehonadab] Jehonadab was a Kenite 
(lCh2 55 ), the tribe of Arabian nomads to 
which Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, belonged 
(Jgl 1G ). If it be] spoken by Jehu (so the 
LXX). Give me thine hand] i.e. as a pledge : 
cp. EzrlO^Ezkms. 

18. And Jehu, etc.] Jehu proceeded to use 
the same crafty secrecy in the extirpation of 
Baal worship as he had displayed in destroying 
Ahab and his house (9 1Gf - 10 lf< ). 22. The 
vestry] Part of the Temple where the k changes 
of raiment,' usually worn on festal occasions, 
were stored. 25. To the city of the house 
of Baal] This seems unintelligible, and the 
word ' city ' is probably a corruption of the 
word ' oracle ' (see 1 K 6 5 ), the Hebrew being 
somewhat similar. 26. The images] RV 
' the pillars ' : and so in v. 27. They were 
probably mere columns, not figures of the 
human form. 27. Draught house] equivalent 
to a dunghill : cp. Ezr6 n Dan2 5 . Unto this 
day] see on 1 K 8 8 . 

30. Of the fourth generatioji] see 15 12 . The 
four generations were Jehoahaz, Joash, Jero- 
boam II, and Zechariah. Jehu's dynasty sat 
longer than any other on the throne of Israel. 

31. Jehu took no heed . . heart] Jehu was a 
worshipper of the Lord (Jehovah), and, in 
his violent extirpation of the house of Ahab, 
was doubtless actuated by religious zeal as 
well as by motives of ambition, whilst his 
desire to suppress the worship of Baal which 
had been encouraged by Ahab and Jezebel 
was reinforced by indignation at the tyranny 
manifested by the reigning house in the matter 
of Naboth: cp. 9 25 > 26 . But the combined 
revolution and reformation which he effected 
were accompanied by massacres which, at a 
later date, excited the abhorrence of the prophet 
Hosea (1 4 ) ; and though the religion of 
Jehovah was restored by him to its previous 
supremacy, it retained the idolatrous character 
which Jeroboam I had given it by represent- 
ing the Deity under the figure of a young bull. 

32. Coasts] i.e. borders. For Hazael's 
barbarities in Cilead (v. 33) see Ami 3 - 4 . 

34. The rest of the acts of Jehu] An Assyrian 
Inscription (now in the British Museum) 
recoil Is that Jehu paid tribute to Shalmaneser 
II. That king in 842 B.C. defeated Hazael the 



234 



11. 1 



2 KINGS 



12. 17 



king of Syria ; and the injuries that the latter 
inflicted upon Israel (vv. 32, 33) would natur- 
ally lead Jehu to court the friendship of his 
conqueror. Among the gifts that formed part 
of Jehu's tribute were ' bars of silver, bars of 
gold, a golden ladle, golden goblets, golden 
pitchers, bars of lead, a staff for the hand of 
the king, shafts of spears ' (Schrader, Cot, i, 
199). 

CHAPTER 11 

The Usurpation of Athaliah and 
Preservation of Joash 

i. Athaliah] She was the daughter of Ahab 
and Jezebel (8 18 > 26 ), possessed her mother's 
high courage, and, like her, was a devoted 
worshipper of Baal. Her position as queen- 
mother she would naturally lose on the acces- 
sion of Ahaziah's son, the deceased monarch's 
wife becoming queen-mother in her stead. 
She, therefore, took measures to place herself 
on the throne by removing all rivals, and then 
proceeded to make the worship of Baal pre- 
dominant in the land : see 2 Ch 24 7 . 

2. In the bedchamber] This was presumably 
one of the side-chambers of the Temple de- 
scribed in 1K6 5 " 10 . 

4. Jehoiada] He was the high priest and 
married to the princess Jehosheba (2 Ch 22 n ). 

Rulers] For their names see 2 Ch 23 1 . Cap- 
tains] RV ' Carites' (and so in v. 19). These 
were probably foreign mercenaries from Caria 
in Asia Minor (they are mentioned by Herodo- 
tus as employed by the Egyptian king Psam- 
metichus), who formed the bodyguard of the 
Judgean sovereigns. 

5. A third part of you, etc.] The precise 
arrangements are obscure, but it is probable 
that on the sabbath one -third of the royal 
guards were on duty at the palace and two- 
thirds at the Temple ; of these the former 
body, separated into three divisions (vv. 5, 6), 
was posted at different parts of the building 
to prevent Athaliah's personal supporters 
from leaving it (though she herself was allowed 
to do so), whilst the latter, and larger, body 
was assembled at the Temple to secure the 
safety of Joash (v. 7). 

6. The gate of Sur] RV omits 'of.' In 
2 Ch 23 5 it is called ' the gate of the foundation.' 
Position unknown. That it be not broken 
down] better, ' and be a barrier.' 8. Ranges] 
RV 'ranks,' and so in v. 15. II. Along by 
the altar] i.e. the troops were posted in two 
columns converging towards the altar of burnt 
offering in the Temple court, so as to enclose 
a triangular space. 

12. The testimony] i.e. a copy of the Law : 
cp. Ex25 16 , and see Dtl7 18 . But the literal 
rendering is, ' they put upon him the crown 
and the testimony,' and the last word should 
perhaps be ' the bracelets ' which kings wore 



as part of their insignia (2 S 1 10 ). (In the Heb. 
there is only a difference of a single letter.) 

14. By a pillar] perhaps better, ' on the 
platform,' from which the king used to address 
the people. 15. Without the ranges] RV 
' between the ranks,' so that she was sur- 
rounded by troops. 16. Laid hands on her] 
So the LXX. R V has, ' made way for her ' (so 
that she might be got out of the Temple before 
she was slain). 

18. The house of Baal] i.e. of the Zidonian 
Baal to whose worship Athaliah, as the 
daughter of Jezebel, adhered. According to 
Josephus this temple was built by Jehoram and 
Athaliah. 

20. All . . rejoiced] The brief usurpation of 
Athaliah was the only interruption to the 
orderly succession of kings of the house of 
David throughout the history of Judah, a fact 
which testifies to the strong attachment which 
the people felt towards it, and forms a striking 
fulfilment of the promise made to David 
(2S7 15 . 16 ). 

CHAPTER 12 

Joash repairs the Temple 

2. All his days] According to 2Ch24!7f. 
Joash took to evil courses after the death of 
Jehoiada. 3. The high places, etc.] The wor- 
ship at the 'high places' was first abolished 
by Hezekiah, and then, after its renewal by 
Manasseh, by Josiah. 

4. The money . . is set at] RV ' the money 
of the persons for whom each man is rated.' 
The money devoted to the repair of the 
Temple was that received for (a) the supply 
of vessels dedicated to the Temple services ; 
(&) the redemption of vows (Lv27 2-8 ); (c) 
free-will offerings. According to 2Ch24 6 > 9 
the chief source of the money was the half- 
shekel appointed by Moses to be paid by every 
Israelite for the maintenance of the Tent of 
the Testimony (Ex 30 n - 16 ). The account] RM 
' the numbering? 

9. The altar] i.e. the altar of burnt offering, 
outside the Temple building : cp. 2 Ch 24 8 . 
The door would be the entrance into the 
Temple court. 11. Told] RV ' weighed out.' 

13. There were not made] 2Ch24 14 has 
' were made,' perhaps having in view the sur- 
plus remaining after the repairs of the Temple 
were completed. 16. The trespass money, 
etc.] RV ' money for guilt offerings and money 
for sin offerings.' Some suppose that fines are 
meant, but the money may have been applied 
to the purchase of victims for sacrifices : see 
Lv4,5. 

17. Gath] one of the five Philistine cities ; 
to reach it Hazael must have marched through 
the kingdom of Israel, and his invasion is 
probably to be connected with the attacks 
upon Jehu and Jehoahaz (10 32 13 3 > 4 ). For 



235 



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2 KINGS 



14.9 



the movement upon Jerusalem see 2 Ch 24 23 » 24 , 
where it is stated that Jehoash sustained a se- 
vere defeat before he surrendered his treasure. 

19. The rest of the acts of Joash] see 
2 Ch 24 17 " 27 , which relates that after Jehoiada's 
death Joash departed from the Lord, and 
even killed Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, 
who had rebuked him for his idolatry. 

20. The house of Millo] If Millo was a fort 
in Jerusalem (see on 1 K 9 15 ) ' the house ' was 
perhaps a palace attached to it. 21. Jozachar] 
in 2 Ch 24 2(5 (where ' Jozachar ' is corrupted 
into l Zabad ') the conspiracy is described as 
intended to avenge the death of Zechariah : 
see on v. 19. 

CHAPTER 13 

Reigns of Jehoahaz and Joash of Israel. 
The last Prediction of Elisha 
3. All their days] RY 'continually,' i.e. 
throughout the reign of Jehoahaz. 5. A 
saviour] either Jehoash (v. 25) or Jeroboam II 
(1425-27) i s meant. In their tents] i.e. in their 
homes, the phrase being a survival from earlier 
times when the Israelites were a body of 
nomads roaming the desert. 6. The grove] 
RV l the Asherah ' : see on 1 K 14 15 . If Jehu 
had altogether abolished the worship of Baal 
(10 28 ), this Asherah must have been connected 
with the worship of the Lord, like the pillars 
before the Temple of Solomon (lK7 15f -)« 

13. Jeroboam] usually designated as Jero- 
boam II. 

14. Joash . . unto him] Both Elijah and 
Elisha, though strenuous antagonists to the 
religion of Baal, yet seem to have tolerated 
the worship of the Lord under the form of a 
calf, for both prophets had friendly relations 
with kings who retained that mode of worship. 
Corrupt in character as it was, it was neverthe- 
less directed towards the true God. This 
passage is the first mention of Elisha since he 

• sent a prophet to anoint Jehu (c. 9). The 
chariot of Israel] The reference is to Elisha, 
who bad been Israel's greatest safeguard, a 
host in himself : cp. 3 15f - 6 9 . 

16. Elisha put, etc.] in order to indicate 
that the king's destined success came from 
another source than his own strength. 17. The 
arrow, etc] The shooting of the arrow east- 
ward was Bymbolic of a victory in that direc- 
tion. Syria Lying NE. of Israel. Aphek] the 
Aphekof 1 K 20 28 . 19. The man of God was 
wroth] because the king displayed too little 
confidence in the Q-od whose minister the 
prophet was. 

20. The bands of the Moabites] If Elisha 
was buried either at Samaria or at his home 
of Al.cl meholah, the Moabites must have 
crossed the Jordan. 21. Touched] The corpse 
would not be placed in ••• coffin bul Bwathed in 
grave clothes ; and the tomb was probably an 



excavation in the side of a hill, not a hole in 
the ground. 

24. Ben-hadad] Probably the third of the 
name mentioned in the Bible : see 1 K 15 18 20 1 . 

25. Three times] in accordance with Elisha's 
prophecy (v. 19). The success of Israel over 
Syria was probably aided by the disasters 
which that country sustained from Assyria. 
The contemporary Assyrian king was Ram- 
man-nirari, who in his inscriptions relates that 
he besieged Damascus and compelled its ruler 
to tender allegiance and pay tribute. The 
Syrian king is called ' Mari,' but this may be a 
title, not a proper name. Ramman-nirari also 
claims to have received tribute from ' the land 
of Omri,' i.e. Northern Israel ; so that Jehoash 
may have purchased the aid of the Assyrian 
king against Syria by sending presents to him. 

CHAPTER 14 
Reigns of Amaziah of Judah and 

Jeroboam of Israel 
1. In the second year of Joash . . king- of 
Israel] Joash of Judah reigned 40 years, and 
as his thirty-seventh year corresponded to the 
first year of Joash of Israel (13 10 ) the acces- 
sion of his son Amaziah could not coincide 
with the Israelite king's second year ; so that 
there is some slight error of calculation. 

3. Not like David] He was not perfectly 
faithful to the Lord, for late in his reign he 
worshipped the gods of Edom (2 Ch 25 14 ). 

6. The children . . he slew not] see Dt 24 16 , 
and cp. Ezkl8 2 ' 4 . The contrast between 
Amaziah's conduct and the practice recorded 
in 2S216 2K9 26 shows that by this time a 
clearer conception had been acquired of the 
rights of individuals, which prevented the 
guilt of the parent from being held to extend 
to all his family. 

7. Edom] see further in 2 Ch 25 5 " 16 . The 
valley of salt] immediately S. of the Dead 
Sea. Selah] the later Petra, E. of the Ara- 
bah. Joktheel] said to mean ' subdued by 
God.' Unto this day] i.e. unto the time of 
the writer whose materials are here used by 
the historian. The dale is probably early, for 
the Edomites practically recovered their in- 
dependence in Ahaz' reign (16 6 ), and would 
naturally restore their capital's former name. 

8. Let us . . face] i.e. meet face to face 
in hat tie. If Judah at this time was a vassal 
of the northern kingdom (see on 1K22 2 ), 
Amaziah's motive in courting a quarrel with 
his neighbour was probably a desire to free 
Judah from this position of subservience. His 
recent success over Edom doubtless encouraged 
him ; but he miscalculated the respective 
resources of himself and his opponent. 

9. The thistle] The thistle represents Ama- 
ziah and the eedar Jehoash, whilst the lion 
symbolises the ruin that humbled the arrogance 



236 



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2 KINGS 



15. 19 



of the former ; but the fable does not quite 
suit the circumstances, as Amaziah was seeking, 
not a friendly alliance, but a quarrel. For the 
use of fables cp. Jg9 s " 15 . 

ii. Bethshemesh] In the Lowland (Sheph- 
elah) of Judah, 15 m. W. of Jerusalem. 

13. From the gate. . gate] The wall that 
was dismantled was on the N. side of the city, 
which was thus left defenceless to attacks from 
that direction, in case it gave further provoca- 
tion. 19. Lachish] on the Philistine border, 
but within the territory of Judah (Joshlo 39 ). 
It is usually identified with the modern Tell el 
Hesy. 

21. Took Azariah] called in 15 13 (see note) 
and elsewhere Uzziah. The fact that though 
Amaziah was dethroned and put to death, his 
son was nevertheless made king in his room 
witnesses to the affection that continued to be 
felt for the dynasty of David. 

The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser mentions 
among the kings from whom he received 
tribute a certain Azriyahu of Jaudi, who has 
been thought by some scholars to represent 
Azariah of Judah, but the identity of the two 
names is now questioned. 

22. Elath] see on 1K9 26 , and for its 
eventual loss see 2K16 6 . Its restoration to 
Judah implies the subjugation of Edom. 

23. Jeroboam . . forty and one years] This 
is inconsistent with the figures given in 14 2 
and 15 8 , for Jeroboam's reign covered 15 years 
of Amaziah's and 37 of Azariah's, making 52 
in all. 

25. Restored the coast] i.e. extended the 
territory of Israel to its original boundaries 
when at the height of its prosperity: see on 
v. 28. The entering of Hamath] i.e. the gorge 
between Lebanon and Hermon. The sea of 
the plain] RV ' the sea of the Arabah ' : i.e. 
the Dead Sea, the Arabah being the long de- 
pression extending from the Sea of Galilee to 
the Gulf of Akaba. Jeroboam's conquests 
probably included Moab, and to his reign the 
invasion of that country described in IsalS 1 to 
16 12 may be most plausibly assigned. His 
success was facilitated by the inactivity of 
Assyria at the time. Jonah] The same prophet 
who is the subject of the book of that name. 

Gath-hepher] in Zebulun, a little to the N. 
of Nazareth. 

Jonah was not the only prophet who was 
active in Israel during this reign, for both 
Hosea and Amos were his contemporaries. 
Of these Hosea belonged by birth to the north- 
ern kingdom, but Amos was a native of Judah. 
From the writings of Amos it was plain that 
though the prosperity of the kingdom had 
greatly increased during the reign of Jeroboam, 
its moral condition was sadly in need of reform. 
Social oppression (Am 2 6 " s 5 n ), commercial 
dishonesty (8 5 » 6 ), and judicial corruption (5 7 ) 



were rife in the land, and in consequence the 
prophet declared that the nation would be 
punished by captivity in a foreign land (5 27 
67 79,1V). Amaziah the priest of Bethel de- 
nounced him to Jeroboam, and bade him flee 
back into Judah, counsel which the prophet 
requited by predicting that Amaziah would 
share the captivity of his countrymen and his 
family be destroyed by the sword. 

26. Any shut up] see on 1K14 10 . 

28. Damascus and Hamath] Both these 
places had been included within the possessions 
of Solomon (1K4 21 ), but the former was lost 
to him by the success of Bezon related in 
1 K 1 1 23-25. The re-conquest of the places 
here named could not have been long main- 
tained, for Amos speaks of Damascus, the nearer 
of the two, as an independent state (Am 1 3 ). 

CHAPTEB 15 

Sundry brief Annals 
This c. relates the reigns of Azariah and 
Jotham of Judah, and of Zechariah, Shallum, 
Menahem, Pekahiah, and Pekah of Israel. 

1. In the twenty and seventh year] Since 
Jeroboam came to the throne in the fifteenth 
year of Amaziah (14 23 ), and Amaziah only 
reigned 29 years (14 2 ), his son must have 
succeeded him in Jeroboam's fifteenth year. 
Azariah in vv. 13, 30 is called Uzziah. 

5. The LORD smote the king] For the reason 
see 2 Ch 26 16 " 20 . A several house] KM ' a lazar 
house,' in which he was secluded in accordance 
with the principle laid down in Lvl3 46 . Was 
over the house] He held the same office as that 
alluded to in 1K4 6 . Judging the people] i.e. 
acting as regent for his father. 

6. The rest of the acts of Azariah] For 
details see 2Ch26 1_15 . It was in the last year 
of Azariah (Uzziah) that the prophet Isaiah 
entered upon his ministry (Isa6). 

12. This was the word of the LORD] In 
spite of the ability and success of Jeroboam II 
the corruption of the people (which Amos and 
Hosea attest) bore its natural fruit, and the 
nation became the prey of faction, resulting in 
the downfall of Jehu's dynasty. 

13. Uzziah] For the two names Uzziah and 
Azariah applied to the same individual see 
lCh6 24 ' 36 ; and the interchange of Azareel 
and Uzziel in 1 Ch25 18 > 4m s. 14. Tirzah] see 
on 1K14 17 . Though it had ceased to be the 
capital, it was doubtless still an important 
place. 16. Tiphsah] not the Tiphsah of IK 
4 24 , which represents Thapsacus, a far distant 
town on the Euphrates, but some unknown 
place in Israel itself. Some suggest that it is 
a mistake for Tappuah (Josh 1 7 8 ). 

19. Pul] usually identified with the Tiglath- 
pileser named in v. 29, who was the successor, 
though not the son, of Asshur-nirari, his reign 
lasting from 745 to 728 B.C. The Assyrians 



237 



15. 20 



% KINGS 



16.8 



had come in contact with Israel previous to 
this (see on 10 34 ) ; but it was only under 
Tiglath-pileser that they began seriously to 
endanger the independence of the northern 
kingdom, and the invasion here described is 
the first recorded of their many attacks upon 
the Hebrew states. Menahem gave Pul] cp. 
Hos5 13 . Tiglath-pileser himself in his in- 
scriptions records that he received tribute 
from ' Menahem of Samaria.' 

20. Exacted the money] The sovereigns of 
Judah usually bribed their foreign allies, or 
bought off foreign invaders by drawing upon 
the treasures stored in the Temple (IK 15 18 
2 K 12 is 16 8 18 15) ; though Jehoiakim followed 
the same course as Menahem, and taxed his 
subjects (23 3 5 ). 

25. Pekah] Menahem and his son Pekahiah 
had depended for support upon the protection 
of Assyria ; but Pekah belonged to a faction 
which was opposed to Assyrian influences. 

Palace] RV 'castle' : cp.lK16i8. 

27. Twenty years] The Assyrian inscriptions 
show that no more than four years separated the 
close of Pekah's reign from that of Menahem, 
so that the latter here must be over-estimated. 

29. Tiglath-pileser] see on v. 19. The in- 
vasion here described was connected with the 
attack made by Pekah and his ally Rezin of 
Damascus, upon Ahaz of Judah (16 5f ). Of the 
places taken by Tiglath-pileser Ijon and Abel- 
beth-Maachah were near the sources of the 
Jordan, N. of Lake Merom ; Kedesh and 
Hazor lay to the W. of the same lake ; the 
site of Janoah is uncertain. Carried them 
captive] This deportation took place in 734 
B.C. It is recorded by Tiglath-pileser himself 
in his own inscriptions, though he says exag- 
geratedly that he deported ' the whole of the 
inhabitants.' The purpose of such wholesale 
removals of the population of a conquered 
country was to destroy national sentiment and 
traditions, and so prevent all attempts to re- 
cover independence by killing the aspiration 
for it. 

30. Hoshea . . conspiracy] Hoshea pursued 
a different policy to Pekah and sought Assyrian 
support by paying tribute (17 3 ). In the 
twentieth year] According to v. 33 Jotham 
reigned only 16 years, and Pekah's reign was 
contemporary with part of that of Ahaz (17 v ). 

35. He built, etc.] Other allusions to his 
buildings occur in 2Ch27 8 . 

36. The sest . . Jotham] see 2Ch27 2 - 8 . The 
prosperity which Judah enjoyed during Uz- 
ziuh's reign continued through that of his 
BUCCeSBOr (if Csa2 maybe taken as descriptive 
of it); l.ut the accumulation of wealth was 
accompanied by religions corruption: see 
Isa_! r, ' s . 37. Rezin .. Pekah] The war which 
broke out in the reign of Alia/ was threatening 
during the reign of Jotham (see on 16 ,r '). 



CHAPTER 16 

Ahaz and Assyria 

This c. describes the reign of Ahaz of Judah, 
his appeal to Assyria when attacked by Pekah 
of Israel and Rezin of Syria, and the overthrow 
of Damascus by the king of Assyria. 

3. He walked, etc.] see 2 Ch 28 2 where he is 
described as making images for Baalim. Made 
his son . .fire] Children were sometimes actually 
sacrificed and burnt (see 17 31 3 27 ), and the 
same thing may be meant here, but some think 
that the rite here described was a kind of 
ceremonial purification by fire, the child being 
merely passed across, or over, the flame in the 
course of idolatrous worship. Ahaz is the 
first Judaean king who is said to have adopted 
this practice ; but he was followed in it by 
Manasseh (21 6 ), and frequent protests against 
it occur in the writings of successive prophets 
(Jer73i 195 Ezk 20 26, etc.). 

5. Came up to Jerusalem] Pekah's policy 
was to oppose the Assyrians, and in conjunction 
with Rezin he sought to induce Ahaz to join a 
coalition against them. Failing to persuade 
him, they took up arms for the purpose of 
dethroning him, and replacing him by ' the 
son of Tabeal' (Isa7 6 ), who was either a 
creature of the two confederates, or Pekah 
himself (' Tabeal ' being a cypher for Remaliah, 
the name of Pekah's father). The successes 
of the invaders are described in 2 Ch 28 5_15 , but 
though they inflicted much loss on Judah, they 
failed to take Jerusalem. 

6. To Syria . . the Syrians] The context 
requires ' to Edom . . the Edomites ' (the latter 
correction being found in the LXX), since 
Elath had belonged to Edom and had been 
taken from it by Azariah (Uzziah, 14 22 ). Ac- 
cording to 2Ch28 17 the Edomites took part in 
the war. 

7. Sent . . Tiglath-pileser] This step was 
opposed by the prophet Isaiah, who counselled 
Ahaz to put his trust in the Lord, and asserted 
that the combination against him was not 
really formidable and would soon be over- 
thrown (i.e. by Assyria, whom they had pro- 
voked). As a sign to reassure the king the 
prophet predicted the birth of a child whom 
his mother would call Immanuel (' God with 
us ') ; and declared that before he ceased to be 
an infant, both Israel and Syria would be 
deprived of their kings. Ahaz, however, dis- 
regarded Isaiah's counsel ; and the prophet 
accordingly predicted that the intervention 
of Assyria which he was inviting would be 
attended by calamities for Judah as well as 
for her enemies. See Isa 7. 

8. Sent /'/ for a present] Tiglath-pileser, in 
his inscriptions, records that he received tribute 
from 'Jehoahaz of Judah,' Jehoahaz being 
probably the full name of Ahaz. 



238 



16.9 



2 KINGS 



17. 13 



9. Hearkened unto him] The adhesion of 
Judah would facilitate Assyria's operations 
against Egypt. Damascus] Damascus was 
taken and its people deported in 732 B.C., the 
event having been predicted by Amos (1 5 ). 

Kir] near the lower Euphrates, the original 
home of the Syrian people (Am9 7 ). 

10. Went to Damascus] perhaps to do 
homage to the Assyrian king there. Saw an 
altar] probably of Assyrian pattern, since 
Ahaz would be more likely to introduce into 
his own land the religion of the victors than 
of the vanquished, n. Urijah] perhaps the 
Urijah of Isa8 2 . 13. Meat offering] RV 
' meal offering ' : and so in v. 15. 

14. The brasen altar] i.e. the altar con- 
structed by Solomon (1K8 64 ). This had 
hitherto occupied a central position in the 
court in front of the Temple ; but now, in 
order to make room for the new altar (the 
'great altar' of v. 15), was placed between the 
latter and the N. side of the court. 

15. To enquire by\ i.e. to obtain indications 
of the divine will, possibly by the inspection 
of the victims that were offered upon it. But 
some render, ' shall be left for further con- 
sideration.' If this is correct, Ahaz was too 
busy with his new altar to decide what was to 
become of the other that was consecrated to 
the service of the Lord. 17. The borders] 

I RV ' the panels ' : i.e. of the stands of the ten 
I lavers made for Solomon : see 1 K 7 27_39 . 

The sea] i.e. the molten sea (1K7 23 " 26 ). 
Ahaz probably removed these various works 
of art to conceal them from the cupidity of 
the Assyrians. 

18. The covert] RV 'the covered way' : 
not mentioned in the description of Solomon's 
Temple. Turned he from] RV ' he turned 
unto.' What is meant is obscure. For] RV 
' because of ' : probably the alterations described 

' were intended to make the Temple appear 
less attractive, lest the Assyrian king should 
wish to dismantle it and appropriate its 
decorations. 

19. The rest of the acts of Ahaz] see 2 Ch 
28 24 > 25 . In Isa 7 is an account of the inter- 
view between Ahaz and the prophet Isaiah 
alluded to in the note on v. 7. 

CHAPTER 17 

The Fall of Samaria 
This c. relates the reign of Hoshea. He 
intrigued with Egypt and rebelled against 
Assyria ; and Samaria, in consequence, was 
taken and its people carried into captivity, 
their place being filled by a mixed population. 
1. Hoshea] Hoshea, unlike Pekah (16 5 ), 
belonged to the faction in Samaria which re- 
lied on Assyrian support, and Tiglath-pileser, 
in his inscriptions, states that after he had 
slain Pekah, he ' appointed ' Hoshea to rule 



over Israel, and received as tribute 10 talents 
of gold and 1,000 talents of silver. 

3. Shalmaneser] succeeded Tiglath-pileser, 
his reign lasting from 727 to 723 B.C. 

Gave him presents] i.e. rendered him tribute. 

4. So] This king, whose name should perhaps 
be written Seve, is generally identified with Sa- 
bako, the first king of the 25th dynasty, though 
some authorities regard him as a petty prince 
who was vassal of the Pharaoh. The inter- 
ference of Assyria with the Israelite kingdoms 
raised the fears of Egj'pt, which accordingly 
encouraged any disaffection which the Israelite 
sovereigns manifested towards their Assyrian 
over-lords. But the hopes whichHoshea enter- 
tained of Egyptian support proved as delusive 
to him as they did subsequently to Hezekiah 
and Zedekiah : cp. Isa 30 3 31 1 Jer37 7 . Shut 
him up, and bound him] Possibly Hoshea was 
either captured, or surrendered before his 
capital was taken. 

6. The king of Assyria] Not Shalmaneser 
(v. 3), who died before Samaria was captured, 
but his successor, Sargon (723-705). The fall 
of Samaria took place in 722 B.C. Carried 
Israel away] The numbers deported, as given 
in Sargon's own inscription, amounted to 
27,280 ; so that a considerable population must 
have been left behind : cp. 2Ch349. Of the 
localities where the captives were settled, 
Halah is not known. In Habor by the river 
of Gozan] should be ' on Habor ' (the Chaboras, 
mod. Khabour), ' the river of Gozan ' (part of 
Mesopotamia). The cities (LXX ' mountains ') 
of the Medes] S. of the Caspian Sea. 

8. The kings of Israel] especially Jeroboam, 
who introduced the calf -worship, and Ahab, 
who introduced Baal worship. 

9. The tower of the watchmen] i.e. the 
watch towers erected for solitary guardians of 
the vineyards and flocks in lonely localities, 
the phrase from the tower . . fenced city thus 
embracing thinly and thickly populated places. 

12. Ye shall not do this thing] cp. Dtl2 3 i. 
Some of the pillars and Asherim (so read for 
' images and groves ' in v. 10) were probably, 
like the calves, erected in honour of the Lord, 
and the LXX after ' things ' adds ' unto the 
Lord.' If so they had an evil tendency, 
because they were associated with the cor- 
ruptions of the old Canaanite worship. 

13. By all the prophets] Among the pro- 
phets who laboured in Israel were Ahijah, 
Jehu (son of Hanani), Elijah, Elisha, Micaiah, 
Jonah, Oded, Amos, and Hosea ; whilst those 
who ministered in Judah included (up to the 
time here indicated) Shemaiah, Iddo, Azariah, 
Hanani, Jehu, Zechariah (son of Jehoiada), 
Micah, and Isaiah. Through such agents God 
exhorted and warned His people before send- 
ing upon them the punishments which their 
sins deserved. 



239 



17. 15 



2 KINGS 



18. 4 



15. Vanity] often applied to idols (IK 16 13 ) 

16. All the host of heaven] i.e. the stars. 
There is no previous reference in Kings to 
this form of idolatry in N. Israel, but an allu- 
sion to it occurs in Am5 26 , where the name 
' Chiun ' probably denotes the planet Saturn. 
Warnings against it are found in Dt4 19 17 3 . 

19. Walked . . Israel] as when Athaliah, the 
daughter of Ahab, introduced Baal worship : 
cp. 8 18 > 27 16 3 . 20. All the seed] The writer 
here anticipates the future, and refers to the 
destruction of Jerusalem, an event which he 
still has to relate. 

24. Brought men from, etc.] Of the names 
that follow, Babylon was on the Euphrates ; 
Cuthah was between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris ; Ava, perhaps the Ivah of 18 34 , is 
identified by some with the Ahava of Ezr8 15 ; 
Hamath was on the Orontes ; Sepharvaim (' the 
two Sippars ') was in Babylonia. The con- 
quest of some of these places is alluded to in 
18 34 . Sargon in one of his inscriptions men- 
tions the transportation of some of the in- 
habitants of Babylon to ' the land Khatti,' 
which, though strictly designating the country 
of the Hittites, may be intended to denote 
Palestine generally ; but according to another 
inscription the people settled in Samaria 
consisted of Arabian tribes. 

25. Lions] These, which were common in 
the Jordan valley, would multiply in conse- 
quence of the depopulation of the country. 

26. The manner] i.e. the ordinances of wor- 
ship. 27. One of the priests] The priests alone 
were acquainted with the proper ritual. Let 
them] i.e. the priest and his attendants. 

30. Succoth-benoth] perhaps Zir-banit, the 
wife of Merodach. Nergal] the Assyrian god 
of war. 31. Adrammelech and Anammelech] 
probably the gods Adar and Anu, with the 
addition of the word ' melech ' (' king '). 

32. Of the lowest of them] better, 'of all 
classes ' : cp. 1 K 12 31 . 

33. They feared the LORD and served, etc.] 
cp. v. 41. The religion that prevailed was 
a combination of the worship of the Lord 
(Jehovah), as the God of the land of Israel 
( v. 27), with that of the various deities adored 
by the different nations from which the settlers 
were drawn. The worship of the Lord was 
maintained among them as late as the return 
of the Jews under Zerubbabel (see Ezr 4 2 , one 
reading); and they approached the latter with 
a request to be allowed to share in the restor- 
ation of the Temple. Whom they carried 
away from thence] RV 'from among whom 
they' (the settlers) "had been carried away.' 

34. They fear not the LORD] i.e. the wor- 
shi|) of the LORD implied in v. 33 was not 

such as Q-od desired. 

41. Unto this day] i.e. as late as the time 
of the writer of the passage, though whether 



the statement proceeds from the compiler of 
the book, or from one of his authorities, is not 
certain. 

The Israelite exiles, whose native land was 
thus occupied by strangers, lost their nation- 
ality in the country of their captivity, and 
never again formed a distinct community. 
When, however, the people of Judah were de- 
ported some 150 years later into Babylon by 
Nebuchadnezzar, individual members of the 
northern tribes joined themselves to them in 
the course of the Exile, and accompanied them 
back to Palestine when Cyrus the Persian per- 
mitted them to return to their homes. In 
1 Ch 9 3 ' children of Ephraim and Manasseh,' 
as well as of Judah and Benjamin, are men- 
tioned as dwelling in Jerusalem after the Re- 
turn ; and Anna the prophetess was of the 
tribe of Asher (Lk2 3 <5) : cp. also Tob 1 l Judith 
6 15 . But in 2Esdr 13 3 9-47 it j s related that the 
Ten Tribes, after being carried into Assyria 
by Shalmaneser, decided to leave the heathen 
and go forth ' into a further country where 
never mankind dwelt, that they might there 
keep their statutes which they never kept in 
their own land ' ; and from thence their restor- 
ation is predicted. These Lost Tribes have 
been fancifully identified with various nations, 
including our own. 

CHAPTER 18 

Hezekiah and Sennacherib 
This c. describes the reign of Hezekiah of 
Judah, his religious reforms, and the invasion 
of Judah by Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
who sent one of his officers to demand the 
surrender of Jerusalem. 

1. Now it came to pass, etc.] The northern 
kingdom having been destroyed, the history is 
henceforward confined to the events connected 
with Judah only. 

2. Twenty and five years old] Probably an 
error, for if Ahaz was only 3fi at his death 
(16 2 ) his son could scarcely be 25. 

4. He removed the high places] cp. v. 22. 
This was the first attempt to put an end to 
the provincial shrines which had co-existed 
with the Temple as seats of worship from the 
time of Solomon onward: see 1K14 23 15 14 
22 ,: : 2 K 1 2 3 144 15 4 . Though dedicated to the 
service of the Lord, the rites conducted at 
them were peculiarly liable to corruption, and 
the interests of true religion were now seen to 
require their abolition. But the religious 
reform here described cannot have been very 
thorough, for the 'high places' built by Solo- 
mon for his foreign vrives were not destroyed 
until the reign of Josiah (2 K 23 18 ) ; and Isaiah, 
in propheoies belonging to this reign, alludes 
to graven and molten images as being still 
objects of adoration ( Isa 30 22 31 "). The brasen 
serpent] see Nu21 9 . Nothing is recorded of 



240 



18. 5 



2 KINGS 



18. 22 



its history since the time of Moses. Nehushtan] 
It is not clear whether this was the name (' the 
Brasen ') by which it was known when an ob- 
ject of worship, or a term of contempt (' a 
mere piece of brass ') applied to it when marked 
for destruction. 

5. None like him] The same praise is given 
to Josiah (23 25 ). 

7. The LORD was with him] Though Heze- 
kiah, in consequence of pursuing a mistaken 
policy, experienced great calamities in the 
course of his reign, yet his fidelity to the Lord 
had its reward in a signal overthrow of the 
same Assyrian power that within Hezekiah's 
lifetime had destroyed the much stronger 
kingdom of Israel. 

He rebelled] It may be inferred from Isa 
1428-32 that Hezekiah at the beginning of his 
reign received from the Philistines a proposal 
urging him to join a movement against Assyria, 
but that Isaiah, confident that the Lord would 
protect Zion, sought to dissuade him from ac- 
cepting it. Probably Isaiah's counsel prevailed, 
and the king continued for a time to be a 
vassal of Assyria. But when in 705 Sargon 
was succeeded by Sennacherib, several of the 
vassal states again attempted to regain their 
independence ; and with a view to obtaining 
Hezekiah's help, envoys were sent to Judah 
(about 703) by Merodach Baladan of Babylon 
(see 20 12f -) and by the Ethiopians (Isa 18), the 
latter probably on behalf of the king of Egypt. 
At the Judaean court the hope of an Egyptian 
alliance exercised a strong attraction (see Isa 
30, 31), but it was opposed by Isaiah, who con- 
tinued to advocate confidence in the Lord, the 
promotion of social and religious reforms, and 
abstention from foreign entanglements. Even- 
tually those who supported the alliance with 
Egypt prevailed ; and in 701 Hezekiah, in co- 
operation with a section of the Philistines, 
rebelled against Assyria. 

8. Smote the Philistines] probably such as 
remained loyal to Assyria. 

9. Shalmaneser . . came up] w. 9-12 repeat 
in brief the account of the capture of Samaria 
already given in 17 5f . 11. The cities of the 
Medes] Media was the mountainous district 
S. of the Caspian. 

13. In the fourteenth year] The Assyrian 
invasion here described took place in 701, and 
therefore according to this v. Hezekiah's acces- 
sion was in 714 ; but v. 10 states that Samaria, 
which fell in 722, was captured in Hezekiah's 
1 sixth ' year, which makes 727 the date of his 
accession. The section vv. 13, 17-37 recurs 
in Isa 36 !- 22 . 

Sennacherib] succeeded Sargon in 705. 
The beginning of his reign was much dis- 
turbed, and his first campaign was against the 
Babylonian prince, Merodach Baladan, whom 
he drove from his capital. This was followed 



by an invasion of the Cassi, a people of Elam ; 
and then in 701 he undertook the expedition 
against Judah and the other Palestinian states, 
which is described in the text. 

Against all the fenced cities] Sennacherib 
in his inscriptions relates that he captured forty- 
six cities of Judah and deported more than 
200,000 of the inhabitants. Hezekiah himself 
was besieged in his capital and compelled to 
tender submission, as recorded in v. 14. 

14. Lachish] The place at this time was being 
besieged by Sennacherib (2Ch329). Three 
hundred talents] According to the inscrip- 
tions the fine was 800 talents of silver and 
30 talents of gold, besides other treasures. 

17. The king - of Assyria sent] It is pro- 
bable that the surrender, described in v. 14, 
was expected by the Jews to secure their city 
from further molestation ; but Sennacherib 
was moving towards Egypt, and doubtless 
thought it dangerous to leave so strong a 
fortress in other hands than his own. The 
consequent demand for its capitulation, here 
recorded, exposed Sennacherib to the charge 
of breaking his covenant : see Isa 33 8 . 

Tartan . . Rabsaris . . Rab-shakeh] the titles 
of military officers, meaning respectively 
' commander-in-chief,' ' chief of the princes,' 
and ' chief of the captains.' The conduit of 
the upper pool] This pool has been identified 
by some with the modern Birket Mamilla, 
situated W. of the city ; but more probably it 
is the pool of Siloam, near the S. end of Mt. 
Zion, to which the conduit here mentioned 
carried water from the spring of Gihon in 
the Kidron valley (see on 1 K 1 33 ). 

18. Shebna] Shebna, who, from his name, 
was probably a foreigner, had previously 
occupied the position now filled by Eliakim 
(Isa 22 15 ), and seems to have advocated 
reliance upon the support of Egypt, a policy 
which Isaiah had opposed. When Hezekiah 
was compelled to make submission to the 
Assyrian king, Shebna naturally fell into dis- 
grace and was degraded to an inferior office, 
Eliakim being promoted in his room. 

21. This bruised reed] For a similar con- 
temptuous estimate of Egypt cp. Ezk29 6 . 

Pharaoh] This was probably Shabako, the 
successor of So (17 3 ). The inability of Egypt 
to help those who trusted it, as shown in the 
case of Hoshea of Israel (see 17 4-6 ), was again 
displayed by the defeat of an Egyptian army 
at Eltekeh, which had come to relieve Ekron, 
one of the Philistine towns besieged by Senna- 
cherib. It was this success which left the 
Assyrian king free to invade Judah, as 
described in v. 13. 22. Whose high places, 
etc.] Rabshakeh thought that such sacrilege 
was calculated to provoke the anger of the 
Lord, whereas Hezekiah's action really con- 
duced to religious purity : see on v. 4. 



16 



241 



18. 23 



2 KINGS 



19.29 



23. Give pledges] RM ' make a wager.' 

24. Put thy trust . . horsemen] For reliance 
upon Egypt for a supply of horses see 
IsaSl 1 " 3 . 25. Am I now come up without 
the LORD ?] He might have regarded his 
capture of the Judaean cities, described in 
v. 13, as an indication that the Lord had 
given them up into his hand because of 
Hezekiah's action in removing the high places. 

26. The Syrian language] i.e. Aramean, a 
language which served as the principal medium 
of intercourse between the various nationalities 
in the East. This would be intelligible to the 
state officials both of Assyria and Judah, but 
unfamiliar to the bulk of the citizens of 
Jerusalem ; and so Eliakim, who desired to 
keep both the threats and promises of the 
Assyrian officer from the multitude, wished 
the conference to be conducted in it. 

27. That they may eat, etc.] The garrison 
had taken up their position on the ramparts, 
with all the extremities of starvation before 
them ; and Rabshakeh now appealed from 
the king and his advisers to the rank and file 
of his army (in violation of all honourable 
usage). 

31. Come out] i.e. capitulate, before incur- 
ring the further calamities of a protracted 
siege. 

34. Hamath, etc.] For most of the towns 
here named see on 17 24 . Arpad has been 
identified with some ruins NW. of Aleppo. 

35. That the Lord should deliver, etc.] The 
Assyrian argued that the national god of a 
little state like Judah would not be able to 
defend His people more effectually than the 
deities of other nations, subdued by the 
Assyrians, had done. He had to learn that 
the God of the Jews was also the Lord of all 
the earth. 

CHAPTER 19 
The Deliverance of Jerusalem 

2. Isaiah the prophet] This is the first 
mention of Isaiah in this book, but his own 
writings show that he had been an active 
teacher and statesman not only during the 
earlier years of Hezekiah himself, but also 
during the reign of Hezekiah's predecessor 
Ahaz : see on 16 7 18 7 . The chapters in the 
prophet's writings which relate to the present 
occasion are 105-126 1424-27 1712-14 2 2, 29-33, 
36, 37 (the last two of which substantially 
repeat IK IS, 19). 

3. Blasphemy] RV ' contumely ' : such as 
the nation was experiencing at the hands of 
Hi. invader. The children .. bring forth] a 
figure for powerleasness in the time of peril. 

4. Remnant] op. v. 30, IsalO' 20 . A large 
number of bhe Judsean cities had been captured 
(see on 18 18 ), so that the population of the 
capital might well be thus described. 7. Send 



a blast upon him] R V ' put a spirit in him ' : 
i.e. an impulse of fear. A rumour] 111 tidings 
respecting his army, which was destined shortly 
to perish in its advance against Egypt. 

8. Returned] to Sennacherib. Libnah . . 
Lachish] in southern Judah. 

9. Tirhakah] an Ethiopian, who was at first 
the general and subsequently the successor 
of the Egyptian king Shabako (18 21 ). He 
was contemporary not only with Sennacherib, 
but with his two successors, Esarhaddon and 
Asshurbanipal. 

12. Gozan, etc.] These places were all in 
the neighbourhood of the Euphrates. Gozan 
is mentioned in 17 6 ; Haran in G-n 11 31 ; Eden 
in Ezk27 23 . 13. Hamath] see on 17 24 . It 
had revolted against Sargon in 720 B.C., but 
the insurrection was crushed and its king 
Jahubidi slain. 

15. Thou . . even thou alone] Whereas Sen- 
nacherib had counted the God of Israel among 
a number of deities all equally unable to with- 
stand him (18 33 " 35 ), Hezekiah here asserts that 
the Lord (Jehovah) is the only God, and 
implies that whatever the Assyrian had 
accomplished had been done by His per- 
mission. 19. That all . . may know] If a 
small kingdom like Judah successfully re- 
sisted Assyria, it could only be through the 
supremacy of its God. 

21. The daughter of Zion] For the per- 
sonification of a city as a woman cp. Mic 4 10 
Isa23 10.12 47 if. 23< The lodgings, etc.] RV 
' his farthest lodging place, the forest of his 
fruitful field.' 

24. I have digged . . waters] Sennacherib 
implies that the progress of his armies on 
foreign soil could not be hindered by the 
enemy stopping up the water-springs: he at 
once digs fresh wells. Besieged places] RV 
' Egypt.' The numerous channels of the Nile 
were ordinarily a means of defence to Egypt 
(cp. Nah3 8 ), but Sennacherib implies that 
they were inadequate to stay his advance. 

25. Hast thou . . done it] This begins the 
Lord's response to Sennacherib's boastings. 
The Assyrian king had in reality only been 
an agent deputed to carry out the divine 
purposes: cp. Isal0 12f - 47 6 Zech l 15 . 

28. My hook] cp. Ezk38 4 . The expression 
may be an allusion either to the method 
adopted for controlling wild animals (cp. 
Ezk 1 9 4 ), or to a practice employed by the 
Assyrians towards their captives: see 2Ch 
33'i km. 

29. A sign unto thee] i.e. unto Hezekiah. 
The occurrence of the earlier and harsher 
part of the prophet's prediction would be 
a warranty for the fulfilment of the later 
and more cheerful portion of his message, 
viz. that the land should be free from in- 
vasion and cultivated in peace. This year.. 



242 



19.30 



2 KINGS 



20. 17 



the third year] The reckoning is inclusive, 
' this year ' meaning the year of the invasion, 
and ' the third year ' being the second year 
after it. 

30. The remnant] cp. v. 3. The popula- 
tion, so sadly thinned by the war, would again 
recover its strength and numbers. 31. Out 
of Jerusalem, etc.] The country folk that had 
been driven into the capital by the invasion 
would again return to their homes. 32. Cast 
a bank] a mound of earth with an inclined 
surface, raised against the wall of a besieged 
city to enable the besiegers to reach the top. 

34. Mine own sake] God's intentions to- 
wards His people could not be foiled alto- 
gether through the sins of the latter ; so that 
though the divine justice had demanded the 
chastisement of the nation, the divine faith- 
fulness required that it should be preserved 
from complete destruction. 

35. The angel of the LORD] cp. Exl2 23 . 
In 2S24 15 > 16 the pestilence that punished 
David's numbering of the people is attributed 
to an angel ; and it is probable that it was a 
similar calamity that destroyed Sennacherib's 
army. It seems more likely that the disaster 
occurred in the low-lying ground on the 
Egyptian frontiers than in the neighbour- 
hood of Jerusalem ; and the Greek historian, 
Herodotus, who gives a fanciful account of 
an overthrow sustained by the Assyrians in a 
campaign against Egypt, places it near Pelu- 
sium. But wherever and however it happened, 
it was a signal confirmation of Isaiah's faith 
in the Lord and a striking vindication of his 
prescience. 

36. Nineveh] its ruins have been found 
opposite the modern Mosul. 

37. His sons smote him] Sennacherib's 
death did not occur until some 20 years after 
the destruction of his army, as described in 
v. 35 ; but though he took part in several 
expeditions subsequent to his invasion of 
Judah, he never again molested the Hebrew 
state. Esarhaddon] reigned from 681 B.C. to 
668. 

CHAPTER 20 
Hezekiah's Sickness and Recovery 
I. In those days] The incidents related in 
this c. probably took place before Sennacherib's 
invasion, for (a) the deliverance from the 
Assyrians is still future (v. 6) ; (b) Hezekiah is 
in possession of great treasures (v. 13), which 
could scarcely have been the case after the 
surrender described in 18 14 » 15 ; (c) Merodach 
Baladan, king of Babylon, was driven from 
his throne before Sennacherib attacked Judah. 
Chronologically, therefore, this c. should pre- 
cede 18 rf - Thou shalt die] Prophetic pre- 
dictions were generally conditional and not 
absolute ; a threatened judgment might be 



averted by repentance and a promised blessing 
forfeited by misconduct : see Jer 18 7 ' 10 26 18 > W. 

3. How I have walked, etc.] In the absence 
of any complete belief in a future life, this 
world was held to be the only sphere within 
which God's moral governance of mankind 
displayed itself, length of days being regarded 
as the reward of righteousness, and a short 
life being thought to imply great guilt. Hence 
Hezekiah, with the prospect of an untimely 
death before him, appealed to God to bear 
witness to his uprightness. A perfect heart] 
i.e. a heart not divided between devotion to 
the Lord and devotion to other gods : cp. 
1 K 8 61 and contrast 1 K 1 1 4. 

4. The middle court] RV ' the middle part 
of the city.' 

7. A lump of figs] A plaster of figs is known 
from other sources to have been used as a 
remedy for boils, but since Hezekiah was ' sick 
unto death ' (v. 1), his cure is doubtless regarded 
as miraculous. 

8. What shall be the sign, etc.] vv. 8-11 
ought to precede the statement of the king's 
recovery in v. 7. 

9. Shall the shadow, etc.] better, as in RM, 
' the shadow is gone forward ten steps, shall it 
go back ten steps ? ' 

11. The dial of Ahaz] Probably a platform 
surrounded by steps and surmounted by a 
pillar, the shadow of which fell upon a smaller 
or larger number of the steps according as the 
sun mounted or declined in the sky. It has 
been conjectured that a slight alteration of the 
length of the sun's shadow might be produced 
by a partial eclipse ; if so, the sign consisted 
in the event taking place in agreement with the 
prophet's prediction. 

12. Berodach-baladan] Isa 39 * has the more 
correct form ' Merodach-baladan.' This prince 
was a Chaldean who twice made himself master 
of Babylon and was twice expelled from it by 
the Assyrians. In 2Ch32 31 the motive of his 
embassy is said to have been a wish to enquire 
into the unusual occurrence described in v. 1 1 ; 
but it is probable that he likewise sought to 
obtain Hezekiah's aid against the Assyrians. 

13. The house of his armour] Probably the 
house of the forest of Lebanon ; cp. 1K10 17 
Isa228. 

14. Then came Isaiah] Isaiah opposed all 
political entanglements as involving reliance 
upon material resources instead of confidence 
in the Lord. Hezekiah had still to learn how 
powerless was his own strength or that of 
foreign allies to save him in the hour of his 
need. 

17. Into Babylon] The prophet probably 
regarded Babylon as a province of Assyria, 
not as an independent power ; and it was to 
Babylon that an Assyrian king carried Manasseh 
the son of Hezekiah (according to 2Ch33 11 ). 



243 



20. 19 



% KINGS 



22. 13 



19. Good is the word] Hezekiah showed the 
same submissiveness as Eli had manifested on 
a similar occasion (1 S3 18 ). 

20. The rest of the acts] Among other acts 
related in 2 Ch 29-31 are the purification of the 
Temple (desecrated by Ahaz), the celebration 
of a solemn passover, and the arrangement of 
the priestly courses. A pool, and a conduit] 
The ' pool ' is probably the pool of Siloam, 
which was fed by a conduit from the spring of 
Gihon : cp. 2Ch32 3 °. The 'conduit' was 
perhaps at first a surface aqueduct, which 
Hezekiah replaced by a tunnel to secure the 
supply of water from being interrupted. Such 
a tunnel has been found, and an inscription 
describing its construction. 

CHAPTER 21 
The Reigns of Manasseh and Amon 
3. The high places, etc.] Manasseh not only 
restored the country sanctuaries which had 
been destroyed by Hezekiah as seats of cor- 
ruption (see 18 4 > 22 ), and renewed the Baal 
worship practised by the house of Ahab (see 
ll 18 , and cp. 1K16 31 ' 32 ), but also introduced 
star worship, a form of religion previously un- 
known in Judah. The host of heaven] The 
worship of the stars, which was probably in- 
troduced from Assyria, was conducted on the 
flat roofs of the houses : see Jerl9 13 Zephl 5 , 
andcp. 2311.12. 

5. In the two courts] If the view expressed 
in the note on 1K7 12 be correct, the two 
courts may be the inner (or upper) court im- 
mediately surrounding the Temple, and the 
court enclosing the Palace. 

6. Pass through the fire] see on 16 3 . For 
his son 2Ch33 6 has 'his children.' Observed 
times] RV ' practised augury ' : by the observa- 
tion of the clouds, etc. Familiar spirits] RV 
' them that had familiar spirits ' : such persons 
were believed to be animated by, or to have 
intercourse with, the spirits of the dead : cp. 
1 S 28 7 . One of the devices employed by them 
was probably ventriloquism, the spirit appear- 
ing to speak from the ground (Isa8 19 29 4 ). 

7. A graven image of the grove] better, ' a 
carved Asherah.' This was placed in the Temple 
itself, whence it was removed by Josiah (23 °). 

9. Manasseh seduced them] The evil 
example of Manasseh and his court had a 
worse effect upon the people at large than that 
of any previous Judaean king, so that at a much 
later 'late the prophet Jeremiah declared that 
it was for what Manasseh did that the judg- 
ment announced by him was to come upon the 
nai ion (Jer 1 ."> '). 

11. The Amorites] The inhabitants of 
Canaan had been destroyed for the very ini- 
quities which Manasseh was now surpassing: 
cp. Dt'.i •. 

13. The line of Samaria] The judgment 



denounced against Judah would be carried out 
with the same precision and exactness as the 
judgment that overtook the northern kingdom 
and the dynasty of Ahab. As a man wipeth 
a dish] i.e. Jerusalem would be finished and 
done with. 14. The remnant] see 19 3 . Je- 
rusalem had survived the calamities that had 
been inflicted on the rest of Judah by the 
Assyrians (18 13 ), but it would not be delivered 
from the enemies that awaited it in the future. 

17. The rest of the acts] see 2Ch33 1 2-w 
where it is related that Manasseh was taken 
captive by the king of Assyria to Babylon, 
repented there of his sins, was restored to his 
kingdom, and instituted a religious reformation. 

19. Jotbah] cp. DtlO? Nu33 33 . 

CHAPTER 22 

Josiah. The finding of a Book of the 

Law 

1. Boscath] in Judah : cp. Joshl5 39 . 

4. That he may sum, etc.] Josiah was 
contemplating a restoration of the Temple 
similar to that carried out previously by Joash 
(12 4f -), and a collection of money had been 
made for the purpose: see2Ch34 9 . 5. The 
doers of the work . . to the doers of the work] 
The first were the overseers, the second were 
the labourers. 7. There was no reckoning] 
cp. 1215. 

8. The book of the law] As the book 
found in the Temple was brief enough to be 
read at a single assembly (23 2 ), whereas the 
reading of the Law by Ezra occupied several 
days (Neh8 18 ), it can scarcely have included 
the whole of the Pentateuch ; and the religi- 
ous reforms that Josiah carried out after its 
discovery and perusal (23 4f -) point to its 
being Deuteronomy only. Deuteronomy con- 
tains a record of Moses' farewell address to 
his countrymen, and reproduces much of the 
Mosaic legislation that is comprised in 
Ex 20-23, 34. But it does not profess to be 
written by Moses (indeed, in its present form 
it cannot proceed from him since it gives an 
account of his death, 34 5 ), and there are cer- 
tain features in it which, when compared with 
other parts of the Pentateuch and with the 
history of the period between Moses and 
Joshua, have led many scholars to conclude 
that it was composed after the time of Moses 
out of materials of earlier date. Its conceal- 
ment in the Temple was probably due to the 
persecution of the worshippers of the LOBD 
by Manasseh, for it condemns in particular 
those idolatries which Manasseh practised. 

13. Because our fathers, etc.] Whether 
Deuteronomy was actually written by Moses 
or al a later date, the bulk of its teaching had 
long been familiar to the people, since it con- 
tained the substance of the book of the 
covenant (Ex24 7 ), embracing Ex 20-23. 



244 



>. 14 



2 KINGS 



14. Huldah] The only other prophetesses 
mentioned in the OT. are Miriam (Exl5 20 ), 
Deborah (Jg4 4 ), and Noadiah (Neh(5 14 ). In 
the college] RV ' in the second quarter,' a 
certain division of the city which in Zeph 1 10 
is associated with ' the fish gate,' a gate in the 
N. or NW. wall. 

19. A curse] cp. Dt28 15 . The condition 
of Jerusalem should be such that people desir- 
ous of cursing their enemies could wish them 
no worse a fate. 

20. In peace] Josiah, though he fell in 
battle (23 29 ), yet was spared the pain of wit- 
nessing the calamities sustained by his country 
in the time of his successors. He was one of 
' the righteous who were taken away from the 
evil to come' (IsaS? 1 ). 

CHAPTER 23 

Religious Reform. Josiah's Death 

2. The prophets] Jeremiah, Habakkuk, and 
Zephaniah lived about this time. Read in 
their ears] cp. the similar proceeding related 
in Neh8 4f - 3. By a pillar] or, 'upon a plat- 
form' : cp. II 14 . 

4. The priests of the second order] probably 
to be corrected into ' the second priest ' (as in 
25 18 ), i.e. the high priest's deputy. Grove] 
see on 21 7 . 5. The planets] or, 'the signs of 
the zodiac' The word is said to mean ' man- 
sions,' the stars being the abodes of gods. 

6. Of the children of the people] RV ' of 
the common people': cp. Jer26 23 . The 
graves of the poorer classes were probably 
made in the ground, whereas the tombs of the 
wealthy were constructed in the rocks, and 
were not so available for the purpose here 
described — viz. the defilement of the idolatrous 
emblems : cp. v. 14. 7. Sodomites] The 
suppression of such is directed in Dt23 17 >" 18 . 
Hangings] lit. ' houses,' i.e. tents which shel- 
tered the Asherah (or emblem of Ashtoreth). 

8. Defiled the high places] That some of 
these were dedicated to the worship of the 
Lord appears from the following v., which 
implies that the priests who served them were 
priests of the Lord. The destruction of these 
sanctuaries thus resulted in confining the public 
rites of worship to the Temple at Jerusalem 
(according to the law of Dtl2 5 " 14 ), and the 
removal of the priests who had previously 
ministered at them. From Geba to Beer- 
sheba] the northern and southern borders of 
the kingdom. Of the gates] Probably an error 
for ' of the satyrs ' or ' he-goats,' which were 
objects of worship and called ' devils ' in 
Lvl7 7 2 Chi lis. The Heb. words closely 
resemble one another. 

9. Did eat . . bread] It is not clear whether 
they were maintained by the offerings of their 
kinsfolk in their several localities or whether 
they shared the offerings made to the priests 



at Jerusalem, but were debarred from minis- 
tering in the Temple (as was the case with 
priests who were otherwise disqualified, 
Lv 21 21-23) : cp . Dt 18 6-8. By unleavened bread 
is probably meant the priestly dues generally. 

10. Topheth] The name literally means 
' spittle ' or ' spitting,' and so designates the 
locality as a place of abhorrence. The valley 
. . Hinnom] usually identified with the valley 
that flanks the modern city of Jerusalem on 
the ~VV. ; but if the ancient city occupied only 
the eastern of the two hills upon which the 
present city stands, the valley here mentioned 
may have been the depression between them 
(subsequently called the ' Tyropseon '). To- 
pheth, however, was in any case situated in the 
broad space formed by the junction of the three 
valleys immediately S. of the city. It was 
from the sacrificial fires lighted there for 
human sacrifices, as well as from those that 
were afterwards kindled in the same place to 
destroy the refuse of the city deposited in it 
that the Heb. name Ge Hinnom in the form 
Gehenna came to be used to denote the place 
of punishment for the unrepentant after 
death. Molech] see IK 11?. The rite here 
referred to is prohibited in Dtl8i°. 

11. The horses] A chariot was similarly 
dedicated to the sun at Sippar in Babylonia ; 
and it is probable that it was connected in idea 
with the sun's course through the sky. The 
kings of Judah] presumably Manasseh and 
Amon : see 21 3 > 5 . Of the house . . by the 
chamber] better, 'from the house . . to the 
chamber,' marking the extent of the stables. 

12. On the top of the upper chamber] These 
altars were probably connected with the wor- 
ship of the host of heaven : see on 21 3 . 

13. Before Jerusalem] i.e. E. of the city. 
It is surprising that these, dating from the 
time of Solomon (see 1 K 1 1 1_8 ), had not been 
destroyed by Hezekiah ; but see on 18 4 . 

Mount of corruption] i.e. the Mt. of Olives, 
the later 'mount of offence.' 14. The 
bones of men] i.e. to desecrate them, since 
dead bodies communicated uncleanness : cp. 
Nul9 16 . 15. The altar that was at Beth-el] 
see 1K12 32 > 33 . Burned the high place] 
probably the shrine erected upon it, which 
elsewhere is styled a ' house of high places.' 

16. In the mount] presumably some adjoin- 
ing elevation. According to the word of the 
LORD] see 1K13 2 . 17. Title] RY 'monu- 
ment' : marking the place of burial. 18. Sa- 
maria] here used of the country rather than 
the city, since the prophet alluded to belonged 
to Bethel. 

21. The passover] Of this passover details 
are given in 2Ch35i- i9 . 22. There was not 
holden, etc.] On this occasion not only were 
the injunctions of the Law more strictly fol- 
lowed than had been the case previously, but 



245 



23. 24 



2 KINGS 



24.8 



exceptionally large numbers took part in the 
festival. 

24. Images] B,V ' teraphim,' which were 
probably models of the human figure repre- 
senting household deities and used in divina- 
tion : see Gn31 19 IS 19 « Ezk212i. 

29. Pharaoh-nechoh] i.e. Nechoh II, a king 
of the 2Gth dynasty (610-595 B.C.), whose 
father Psammetichus, at one time a tributary 
of the Assyrians, had secured independence 
for Egypt in 664 B.C. 

The king of Assyria] i.e. the king of Baby- 
lon. Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, fell in 
607 before the united forces of the Median 
Cyaxares and the Babylonian Nabopolassar ; 
and it was to dispute the spoils of the fallen 
empire with Nabopolassar that Nechoh ad- 
vanced northward through Palestine. The 
king of Babylon is here called by the name of 
Assyria, the country he had conquered (cp. 
Ezr6 22 , where a Persian king is likewise 
styled ' king of Assyria,' the Persians having 
subdued and dispossessed the Babylonians). 

Josiah went against him] Josiah's motives 
can only be conjectured, but it is probable 
that in the downfall of Assyria's power he 
hoped to extend his authority over what had 
once been the northern kingdom, and feared 
that his designs would be foiled by the 
Egyptian advance. At Megiddo] see on 9 27 . 
Josiah took up his position here to dispute 
the passage across Carmel. The Greek his- 
torian Herodotus probably alludes to this 
battle when he states that Nechoh defeated 
the Syrians at Magdolus. When he had seen 
him] i.e. when he encountered him in 
battle : cp. 14 8 . For the sorrow occasioned 
by Josiah's death see 2Ch35 25 Ecclus49 2 » 3 . 

30. Jehoahaz] also called Shallum(Jer 22 n 
1 Ch 3 15 ). He was the younger brother of 
Jehoiakim who succeeded him (v. 36). 

33. Riblah] on the Orontes, between Da- 
mascus and Hamath. Nechoh, after his suc- 
cess at Megiddo, had marched northward to 
meet the Babylonians, who eventually defeated 
him at Carchemish (Jer 46'-'). 

34. Made Eliakim . . king] Jehoahaz had 
been chosen by the people without the sanction 
of Nechoh, who therefore asserted his author- 
ity by deposing him, and substituting his 
brother. In the room of Josiah] Nechoh did 
not recognise Jehoahaz. Turned his name to 
Jehoiakim] The bestowal of a new name by 
NicIk.1i upon Kliakim indicated thai the latter 
was a Bubjed or vassal prince of the Egyptian 
king. For a similar change cp. 24 17 . and sec 
Gn41 4 "' Dan 1 " (where, however, the new 
names are foreign, not, as here, Hebrew). * 

CHAPTER 24 
JEHOIACHIN and Nebuchadnezzab 

This c. recounts the reigns of Jehoiakim 



and Jehoiachin, the invasion of Judah by 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (who carried 
into captivity Jehoiachin and numbers of the 
people), and the reign of Zedekiah. 

1. Nebuchadnezzar] called more accurately 
in Jer 25 9 and elsewhere ' Nebuchadrezzar.' 
He was the son of the Nabopolassar who 
conquered Nineveh (see on 23 29 ), and, as his 
father's general, defeated the Egyptians in 
605 at Carchemish on the Euphrates (Jer 46 2 ). 
This success left the countries lying between 
the two great powers of Babylon and Egypt 
at the mercy of the former (24 7 ) ; and conse- 
quently when Nebuchadnezzar succeeded his 
father, Jehoiakim (as here related) submitted 
to him. Some inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar 
have been discovered in various parts of 
Palestine, but such as are decipherable relate 
not to his campaigns but to his buildings. 

Became his servant three years] It is rather 
difficult to harmonise the statements respecting 
Jehoiakim's reign contained in this c. with 
2 Ch 36 5-8 and in Dan 1 2. In 2 Ch 36 6 Jehoia- 
kim is said to have been bound in fetters by 
Nebuchadnezzar in order to be carried to 
Babylon, and in Daniel his capture is described 
as having taken place in his third year. He 
was, however, in his own capital in the 'fourth' 
year of his reign (Jer 3 6 x ) ; so that if these 
passages are to be reconciled with Kings it must 
be assumed that he was restored to his throne 
by the Babylonian king, and that the events 
here related took place after his restoration. 

2. The Chaldees] here used to designate the 
Babylonians. Syrians . . Moabites . . Ammon] 
For these as enemies of Judah at this period 
see Jer 35 11 48 2 7Ezk25 lf . 

His servants the prophets] The most pro- 
minent of the prophets who denounced judg- 
ment against the offending nation at this time 
was Jeremiah : see especially Jer 25, 26, 35, 36, 
45. Unlike his predecessor Isaiah, the prophet 
declared that Jerusalem would be totally 
destroyed if its inhabitants did not repent ; 
and for this he was adjudged worthy of death, 
though his life was preserved by the inter- 
ference of certain elders. Another prophet 
named Urijah, who also prophesied against the 
city, fled to Egypt to escape destruction, but 
he was surrendered to Jehoiakim by the 
Egyptian king and put to death : see Jer 26. 

5. The rest of the acts] The circumstances 
of Jehoiakim's death are uncertain. The pre- 
dictions of Jeremiah (22 18 > 1! ' 36 8 P) suggest that 
he died a violent death and that his corpse was 
left unburied, and Josephus states that Nebu- 
chadnezzar, to whom Jehoiakim had capitulated,- 
broke his pledges and slew him. But v. 6 is 
rather opposed to this. 

7. The river of Egypt] see on 1 K 8 G5 . 

8. Jehoiachin] also called Coniah and Je- 
coniah (Jer 22-' 241). 



246 



24. 11 



2 KINGS 



25.21 



ii. And . . besiege it] RY ' while his ser- 
vants were besieging it,' implying that the city- 
was invested before Nebuchadnezzar, who was 
engaged in besieging Tyre, appeared in person 
to conduct the war. 

12. His mother] i.e. the queen-mother : see 
on 1K2 19 . In the eighth year] i.e. of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign. In Jer52 28 mention is 
made of a capture of 3,023 persons in Nebu- 
chadnezzar's seventh year, of which there is no 
record in Kings, while Jeremiah makes no 
allusion to the deportation of prisoners here 
related. 

14. The poorest sort] They were as worth- 
less in character as obscure in station : see 
Jer24 1-8 . Among the better class who were 
carried away on this occasion was the prophet 
Ezekiel. 

16. Seven thousand . . a thousand] If these 
numbers are included in the 10,000 of v. 14, 
it must be assumed that the princes and their 

- numerous retainers constituted the remaining 
2,000. 

17. Mattaniah] as Mattaniah was brother 
of Jehoiakim, he must have been uncle of 
Jehoiachin ; so that 2 Ch 36 10 in describing him 
as brother of the latter uses the term vaguely. 
In 1 Ch 3 16 he is called son of Jeconiah, in the 
sense of successor. Changed his name] see 
on 2334. 

18. Hamutal] Zedekiah was only half- 
brother of Jehoiakim but full brother of 
Jehoahaz (see 23 31 ), and as Jehoahaz was 
imprisoned by the king of Egypt, Nebuchad- 
nezzar may have calculated that in his brother 
he would find a loyal vassal who would support 
Babylonian rather than Egyptian interests. 

19. He did that which was evil] cp. Jer37 2 . 
Zedekiah seems to have been weak but not 
unmerciful, and he was unable to cope with the 
princes who were his advisers : cp. Jer38 4 > 5 . 

- "When the latter put Jeremiah in prison on a 
charge of deserting to the enemy, Zedekiah 
delivered him (Jer39 n ' 21 ) ; and on a second 
occasion, when he was flung into a foul dun- 
geon, he was once more rescued with the 
king's consent (Jer38 6f *)- 

20. Rebelled] Zedekiah was bound by oath 
to Nebuchadnezzar (2Ch36 1 3 EzkH^), but 
overtures from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and other 
countries drew him from his allegiance, in 
spite of the opposition of the prophet 
Jeremiah (Jer27), and as hopes were enter- 
tained of Egyptian help rebellion was finally 
resolved on. 

CHAPTER 25 

The Fall of Jerusalem 

This c. relates the siege and destruction of 

Jerusalem, the capture of king Zedekiah, and 

the deportation of most of the Jewish people. 

I. In the tenth day] The successive stages 



in the overthrow of the city are carefully 
marked by the historian : cp. vv. 3, 8. Forts] 
perhaps movable towers for throwing troops 
upon the walls. 

3. The famine] the sufferings of the be- 
sieged are described in Jer21' ir - 9 Lam4 8f - 5 10f . 

4. The city was broken up] RY ' a breach 
was made in the city.' Before this happened 
an Egyptian force had advanced to the relief 
of Jerusalem, and the Babylonians in conse- 
quence retired (Jer37 5 - n ), but the relief was 
only temporary (as Jeremiah had predicted) 
and the siege was resumed. The king's 
garden] S. of the city near the pool of 
Siloam (Neh3i5). The plain] RY 'the 
Arabah ' : i.e. the valley of the Jordan. The 
design of the fugitives was to cross the river 
by the fords of Jericho. 

7. Put out the eyes] Zedekiah was taken to 
Babylon, but he did not see it, just as Ezekiel 
had predicted (12 13 ). An Assyrian king is 
represented on one of his monuments as blind- 
ing a captive with the point of his own spear. 

11. The rest of the people] i.e. those that 
remained in the country after the deportation 
related in 24 14 > 15 . Of the multitude] better, 
' of the artificers.' In addition to this depor- 
tation in Nebuchadnezzar's 19th year Jeremiah 
(52 29 ) mentions one that occurred in his 18th 
year and another in his 23rd year, though the 
first of these may be identical with the one 
here described. 

13. The pillars of brass, etc.] see lK7 15f « 
Jer52 17 - 23 , where some of the details are given 
differently. 15. In gold . . in silver] better, 
' as so much gold . . as so much silver.' 

18. The second priest] i.e. the high priest's 
deputy. For Zephaniah cp. Jer29 25 > 29 . 

Keepers of the door] i.e. of the entrance of 
the Temple. 

19. That . . presence] i.e. those of the king's 
ministers who enjoyed freedom of access to 
him. The principal scribe, etc.] RM 'the 
scribe of the captain of the host ' : i.e. the 
official who superintended the conscription. 
Nebuchadnezzar, instead of consigning the 
citizens to indiscriminate massacre, selected 
for punishment only the most responsible 
personages. 

21. So Judah was carried away] The de- 
struction of Jerusalem and the final deportation 
of its chief inhabitants took place in 586 B.C. 
The kingdom of Judah, like the kingdom of 
the ten tribes, now came to an end, as Jere- 
miah (20 4 ) had predicted ; and its historian 
here brings his record, to a close, only pausing 
to describe the arrangements made for the 
government of the desolated country and the 
treatment received from Nebuchadnezzar's 
successor by the captive Jehoiachin. The 
mention of the latter fact is probably due to 
the writer's desire to show that the divine 



247 



25. 22 



2 KINGS— 1 and 2 CHRONICLES 



mercy attended the house of David even in 
the time of its deepest humiliation. 

22. The son of Ahikam] Ahikam had be- 
friended Jeremiah when the people sought to 
put him to death (Jer26 24 ). 

23. And when all the captains, etc.] For a 
fuller account of the events recounted in vv. 
23-26 see Jer40 7 -43 13 , from which it appears 
that Ishmael was instigated by Baalis the king 
of Ammon, and murdered G-edaliah treacher- 
ously. Mizpah] perhaps Mizpah in Benjamin 
(IK 1522). 

25. In the seventh month] subsequently 
observed as a fast (Zech 7 5 ). 



INTRO. 

26. Came to Egypt] In doing this the 
people acted in defiance of the counsel of 
Jeremiah, whom they took with them : see 
Jer 42, 43. 

27. Evil-merodach] son of Nebuchadnezzar, 
succeeding to his throne in 561 B.C. It was 
in the first year of his reign that he manifested 
to Jehoiachin the leniency here recorded. 

Did lift up the head] i.e. showed favour to: 
cp. Gn 40 13 . 28. The kings that were with 

him] possibly other captive sovereigns. 

29. Did eat bread . . before him] i.e. was a 
guest at the royal table. For a like privilege 
see 2S193 1K2?. 



THE FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF 
CHRONICLES 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Character and Contents. Chronicles at 
first not only formed a single book but probably 
constituted one continuous work with Ezra 
and Nehemiah. The English name is a toler- 
able equivalent of the Hebrew ; whilst the 
corresponding Greek rendering probably means 
' supplement ' (lit. ' things passed over,' i.e. 
by the preceding historical books). Its author 
is unknown ; but from the prominence which 
is given in the book to the Levitical order it 
has been conjectured that he was himself a 
Levite. Its contents comprise, (a) certain 
genealogies, (b) the history of David and 
Solomon, and (c) the history of Judah (the 
history of the northern kingdom being entirely 
omitted). Its date, in conjunction with that 
of Ezra and Nehemiah, may be approximately 
determined by the mention in 1 Ch 3 24 of the 
sixth generation after Zerubbabel (who was 
living in 520 B.C.), which implies a date subse- 
quent to 340 ; and this is supported by the 
reference in Nehl2 11 >22 to Jaddua, who was 
high pries) in the time of Darius Codomannus 
(335 330) and of Alexander the Great (336- 
323). It was thus probably composed not 
much before 300 B.C., and consequently separ- 
ated by a much longer period than Kings 
from the events it records. 

2. Sources. Among the sources of informa- 
tion referred to in the course of the aarrativeare 
(a) genealogical babies (1 Ch5 17 ); (M ,n(> ,,(,<, '< 
of the kings of Judahand [srael (2Ch L6 11 , the 
same work being probably meant by the slightly 
different titles in 27- 33 18 ); and (c) the 
writings of certain prophets, Samuel, Nathan, 



Gad, Ahijah. Shemaiah, Iddo, Jehu, and Isaiah 
(lCh29 2 9 2Ch929 1215 1322 20 34 2622 3232). 
But certain of the authorities included in (c) 
are expressly stated to have been inserted in 
the historical work mentioned in (b) — see 2 Ch 
20 34 3232 Ry . an d f t i s possible that the others 
were also embodied in the same book, which 
will then be the immediate authority to which 
the writer is principally indebted. It will be 
obvious, however, from a comparison of the 
parallels between Chronicles and earlier books 
of the Bible, that large parts of the former 
are practically derived from Genesis, Samuel, 
and especially Kings, by a process of mere 
transcription ; so that at first sight it would 
seem that the canonical books of Kings consti- 
tute the work just alluded to. But as the 
latter is quoted as recording the prayer of 
Manasseh, which finds no place in our Kings 
(2Ch33 18 ), and as Chronicles also contains 
much matter (2 Chi 15-12 266-10 28 17 > 18 ) which 
is likely to have come from an annalistie 
writing, but does not occur in Kings, it is 
probable that the book which is cited by name 
was different from, but based on, our Kings, 
and was the means through which the writer 
of Chronicles came to incorporate portions of 
the latter. The differences between Chroni- 
cles and Kings consist of omissions, additions, 
and minor modifications. The former, besides 
leaving out all the history of the Ten Tribes 
after the Separation, omits most of the sins 
and weaknesses of David and Solomon. Its 
principal additions comprise details of the 
Temple organisation and certain incidents in 



248 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 CHRONICLES— 1 CHRONICLES 



2. 18 



the history of the kings of Judah. For some 
statements of Kings it substitutes others, the 
alterations being most noticeable in connexion 
with numbers, those of Chronicles being gener- 
ally the higher (cp. 1 Ch215 with 2S249, 2Ch 
315 with 1K715, 2Ch45 with 1K7 2 6). 

3. Value. In considering the historical 
value of Chronicles account need only be taken 
of those parts in which it differs from Kings. 
In view of its greater remoteness from the 
events described, it cannot be considered so 
good an authority as the latter, and in cases of 
discrepancy the statements of Kings deserve 
the preference. In regard to matters upon 
which it is the sole informant, earlier materials 
seem to have been utilised ; but in many 
cases the numbers given in connexion with the 
different subjects are too large to be probable 
(see lCh29, 2Chl3, 14, 17, etc.), and later 
details appear to have been read into the 
description of the Temple arrangements as 
organised by David (1 Ch 23-26). On the 
other hand, the religious value of Chronicles 
is as manifest as that of Kings. In it, as in 
the latter, those events of the national history 
have been selected for treatment which most 
conspicuously illustrated the divine purpose 



and providence. The writer, even in a greater 
degree than his predecessor, points the moral 
of the events which he relates (2Chl2i2 25 20 
27 6 ), both the judgments and mercies of God 
being shown to stand in intimate connexion 
with human conduct. Even if there are ana- 
chronisms in his account of the Temple services, 
light is thereby thrown on the state of the 
organisation of religion in his own time, and the 
spiritual instruction conveyed is not seriously 
affected. The interest manifested in the 
details of the Temple regulations calls atten- 
tion to the care which the public worship of 
God ought at all times to claim. The music, 
to which such importance is attached, has its 
value in promoting unity of feeling amongst 
a number of individual worshippers, and in 
elevating and sustaining the religious emotions. 
The author of Chronicles, in dwelling at such 
length upon the external side of religion, was 
animated by the spirit of his age. But he is 
far from being exclusively concerned with the 
outward forms of worship. He devotes a 
great deal of space to the activities and teach- 
ing of the prophets ; and those who have 
less sympathy than he with religious ceremonial 
can still derive edification from his work. 



1 CHRONICLES 



CHAPTER 1 
Genealogies 



The writer begins his history with a series 
of genealogies, without introduction or head- 
ing, which embraces the descendants of Adam 
to Noah, the descendants of Noah through 
Japheth, Ham and Shem, the descendants of 
Abraham through Ishmael and the sons of 
Keturah, the descendants of Isaac through 
Esau and the rulers of Edom. These gene- 
alogies, which occupy the first nine chapters of 
this book, and occur frequently throughout 
the remaining chapters, relate to (a) peoples, 
(&) localities, (c) families. Those which 
refer to peoples (lChl 5f -) and to localities 
(lCh2 4 M 3 >50 78) f or the most part imply 
nearness of position, not blood relationship ; 
it is only those which refer to families which 
are genealogies in the strict sense. Such 
became extremely important after the exile 
when descent from Aaron was rigorously 
required as a condition for the priesthood 
(Ezr26i,62 Neh7 63 > 64 ), and when efforts were 
made to secure the purity of the Jewish race 
as a whole against contamination by prohibit- 
ing intermarriage with foreigners (Ezr 9, 10 
Nehl3 23f -). In certain places there are gaps 
in the lines of descent, some names having 
fallen out (e.g. 2^7 322 48,9, e tc), whilst others 
have undergone textual corruption. 



if. The names that are enumerated are 
taken, with a few unimportant variations, 
from various chs. of the book of Genesis : see 
Gn5, 10, 11, 16, 21, 25, 36. 

5. The sons of Japheth] Where several 
children of one father are mentioned, the 
descendants of the son through whom the 
main line of descent is transmitted are re- 
served until the collateral branches have been 
described and dismissed : cp. vv. 29, 32, 35. 

38. The sons of Seir] These were aboriginal 
Horite families (Gn36 20 ) who dwelt in Seir 
(Edom) before the descendants of Esau. 

51. And the dukes of Edom were] better, 
' and there arose dukes of Edom, to wit, duke 
Timnah,' etc. The writer implies that after 
Hadad's death, kings were replaced by dukes. 

CHAPTER 2 

Genealogies (continued) 
The genealogies in this c. comprise the 
descendants of Isaac through Israel (Jacob), 
and the descendants of Judah. 

3. The sons of Judah] Some of the names 
that follow are given differently in the other 
books where they occur. 9. Chelubai] the 
Caleb of vv. 18, 42. 15. David the seventh] 
In 1S17 12 it is implied that Jesse had eight 
sons. 

18. And of Jerioth] The passage is probably 
corrupt, and Jerioth may be the name of 



249 



2.21 



1 CHRONICLES 



4. 31 






Azubah's father. 21. The father of Gilead] 
i.e. the occupier and lord of Gilead: see 
Nu32 40 . The term 'father' is used in the 
same sense in vv. 24, 42, 45, 50, 51, etc. 

22. Jair] apparently the Jair of Jgl0 3 > 4 . 

23. And he took, etc.] RV ' and Geshur 
and Aram took the towns of Jair from them.' 
Geshur was a small Aramean (Syrian) state 
on the border of the Manassite settlements 
E. of the Jordan (Dt3 14 ), and the passage 
implies that the Geshurites and other Aramean 
peoples eventually deprived the tribe of 
Manasseh (from whom Machir was descended) 
of the cities here mentioned. 

24. In Caleb-ephratah] The LXX suggests 
that the true reading is ' Caleb went in unto 
Ephrath, the wife of his father Hezron ' (see 
v. 19), ' who bare him Ashur,' etc. The union 
here implied was not in early times held to 
be incestuous, for an heir inherited his father's 
wives like the rest of his property : cp. 
2S16 21 . 

25. The sons of Jerahmeel] For the Jerah- 
meelites in Israelite history see 1S27 10 30 29 . 

35. To Jarha his servant] with the purpose 
of making him his heir. For the inheritance 
by a servant of his master's property cp. 
Eliezer and Abraham : Gnl5 2 RV. 49. She 
bare also Shaaph] better, with the LXX, 
' Shaaph ' (v. 47) ' begat the father of Mad- 
mannah.' 

50. These were . . Caleb] This sentence 
refers to the preceding vv. 42-49, and should 
be followed by a full stop. The son of Hur, 
etc.] This should be ' the sons of Hur the first- 
born of Ephratah' (v. 19) 'were: Shobal,' etc. 

55. Kenites] for the Kenites in Israelite 
history see Jgl 16 4" 1S15 6 27 10. Rechab] 
Allusions to the descendants of Rechab occur 
in 2K10 15 Jer35 2 . 

CHAPTER 3 

Genealogies (continued) 
The genealogies here include the sons of 
David, his successors on the throne of Judah, 
and the descendants of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin). 
1. The sons of David] Some of the names 
that follow are given differently in the cor- 
responding sections in 2 S3 2-5 5 13-16 : cp. also 
14 3 ' 7 . 5. Nathan] According to St. Luke's 
genealogy he was ancestor of our Lord, 3 31 . 
Bath-shua] i.e. Bathsheba. 15. Johanan] 
This son of Josiah was never king and pre- 
sumably died before his father. Shallum] 
probably the Jehoahaz of 2K23 80 , since he 
was younger than his brother and successor, 
.Ichoiakiiii : cp. also Jer22 ' '. 

16. Jeconiah] called aKo Jehoiachin 
(2K24*) and Coniah (Jer22 8 *). Zedekiah 
his son] The Zedekiah of this verse is probably 

identical with the Zedekiah of v. 15, and con- 
sequently was brother (not son) of Jehoiakim 



(2 K 24 17 ), and uncle of Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) 
whom he succeeded. 

17. Jeconiah; Assir] RV 'Jeconiah the 
captive.' Salathiel] the Shealtiel of Ezr3 2 . 
He is called son of Jeconiah because he was 
his heir, but he belonged to the line of Nathan, 
a younger son of David. 18. Shenazar] 
possibly the Sheshbazzar of Ezr 1 8 : see note 
there. 19. Zerubbabel] here represented as 
son of Pedaiah and nephew of Salathiel 
(Shealtiel); but in Ezr3 2 styled 'son of 
Shealtiel ' : see note there. 

21. Pelatiah, etc.] It seems most likely that 
this and the five names that follow all repre- 
sent sons of Hananiah, constituting a single 
generation, in which case the generations 
reckoned after Zerubbabel amount to six. 
Zerubbabel lived about 520 B.C., and if 30 
years be reckoned as a generation, the sixth 
generation would bring the last down to about 
340 (the time of Alexander the Great). 

CHAPTER 4 
Genealogies (continued) 

This c. enumerates further descendants of 
Judah, and the descendants of Simeon. 

1. Sons] rather, 'descendants.' Carmi] pro- 
bably an accidental substitution (from 5 3 ) for 
Chelubai or Caleb : see 2 9, 18. 2 . Reaiah] 
the Haroeh of 2 52 , whence the posterity of 
Shobal is continued. 

9. And his mother . . sorrow] better, ' though 
his mother called his name Jabez, saying, 
Because I bare him with sorrow ' (Heb. ozeb). 
The sorrow implied by his ominous name was 
averted by his prayer. 

17, 18. And she bare] It has been con- 
jectured that the last clause of v. 18 (And 
these are . . Mered took) should be inserted 
before these words, Bithiah and Jehudijah 
(or ' the Jewess ') being the two wives of 
Mered. The daughter of Pharaoh] If 
Pharaoh here means the king of Egypt, Mered 
must have been a person of distinction. The 
name Bithiah (lit. ' daughter of Jehovah ') 
suggests that his Egyptian wife at her mar- 
riage adopted the religion of her husband. 

19. His wife Hodiah] RY ' the wife of 
Hodiah.' 22. Who had the dominion in Moab] 
better, ' who married in Moab ' (like Mahlon 
and Chilion, Ruth 1 1 " 4 ). And Jashubi-lehem] 
The Vulgate suggests the reading, ' and 
returned to Beth-lehem.' 23. And those., 
hedges] RV ' and the inhabitants of Netaim 
and Gederah.' Dwelt with the king - ] i.e. on 
the royal estate as workmen. 

24. The Simeonites are mentioned here 
because they shared Judah's inheritance 
(Josh 19 9). 

31. Unto the reign of David] The writer 
seems to be quoting from some account 
belonging to the time of David, in whose 



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6.77 



reign a census was taken of the people (2 S 24) : 
cp. 7 2 . 41. These written byname] probably 
those enumerated in w. 34-37. The habita- 
tions] RV -the Meunim ' (who are the 
Maonites of JglO 1 -). 43. The rest of the 
Amalekites] In spite of Saul's destruction of 
them, as related in IS 15, a certain number 
survived: see IS 27 s 30 1 2S8 12 . Unto this 
day] The phrase, like the parallel expressions 
in Kings, refers to the date of the source 
which the writer is incorporating in his own 
work. 

CHAPTER 5 
Genealogies (continued) 
This c. gives lists of the descendants of 
Reuben, the families of Gad. and the families 
of the eastern division of Manasseh. 

1. His birthright] This was a portion of the 
inheritance, twice as great as that given to 
each of the other sons. The two children of 
Joseph together received the share which, in 
right of birth, should have been Reuben's, 
each being placed on a level with their uncles, 
the sons of Jacob : cp. Gn48 5 . And the 
genealogy] Joseph, though receiving Reuben's 
birthright, is not given precedence of him in 
the table of descent ; and so Reuben's sons 
are enumerated before Joseph's. 

2. For Judah prevailed, etc.] This v. 
explains why Judah' s descendants were 
described before those of his elder brother 
Reuben : he was the ancestor of the royal 
line. 6. Tilgath-pilneser] i.e. Tiglath-pileser. 
whose invasion is described in 2K15 29 . 

7. Were the chief, Jeiel. etc.] better. ' were. 
Jeiel the chief.' etc. : cp. the expression in 
v. 12. 8. Aroer, etc.] All the places named 
in this v. were E. of the Dead Sea. 9. The 
Reubenites touched the Syrian desert 

1 between the Euphrates and Palestine. 

10. Hagarites] Arabian tribes who traced 
their descent to Hagar through Ishmael : cp. 
v. 19 with l 31 . The' east land of Gilead] RY 
* The land east of Gilead." i.e. in the Syrian 

i desert. 

16. In Gilead in Bashan] perhaps, better. 
' in Gilead. in Jabesh ' (1 S 11 1 ). Bashan was 
given to Manasseh (JoshlS 30 ). Suburbs] 
better. ' pasture lands." and so elsewhere. 

17. Jeroboam] i.e. Jeroboam II. whose 
reign was contemporaneous with at least part 
of Jotham"s reign. 

22. The captivity] i.e. the deportation of 
the eastern tribes by Tiglath-pileser : cp. 
j w. G. 26. 

26. Pul . . and . . Tilgath-pilneser] The two 
names denote the same person. Pul being the 
proper name of a usurper who in 745 took 
possession of the Assvrian crown and assumed 
the title of Tiglath-pileser III (after an earlier 
sovereign) Halah, etc.] In 2K 15 29 1 7 8 these 



2c 



are the places to which the Israelites on the 
W. of Jordan were deported by Sargon in 
722. Habor was the river Chaboras. Halah a 
city and Gozan a district near it. whilst Hara, 
if not a corruption, may represent Haran 
(Gn 1 1 31 ) on the Euphrates. The river 
Gozan] RY k the river of Gozan.' 

CHAPTER 6 

Genealogies (continued) 
This c. records the descendants of Levi, 
traces the line of the high priests to the 
captivity, and enumerates the cities of the 
Priests and Levites. 

3. Nadab, and Abihu] see LvlO 1 - 2 1 Ch242. 
Ithamar" The descendants of Ithamar are 

not given here, but several occur in Samuel and 
Kings (Eli. Hophni and Phinehas. Ahimelech, 
Abiathar). and ' courses ' of priests who traced 
their origin to him are enumerated in 1 Ch24. 

4. Eleazar begat, etc.] The section vv. 4—15 
is a list of high priests from the death of 
Aaron to the captivity, but is incomplete, 
for between Ahitub and Zadok in v. 12 another 
name is inserted in 9 11 , and several names 
are omitted which occur in the history of the 
monarchy, viz. Jehoiada (2K11 13 ). Urijah 
(2KlG 17 j. and the Azariahs who were con- 
temporarv with Uzziah and Hezekiah 
(2Ch26 17 31 10 ). In w. 9 and 10 there is 
some confusion, for the chronology makes it 
probable that the Azariah of v. 9 (and not of 
v. 10) was the high priest in Solomon's reign. 

22. Amminadab] the Izhar of v. 38 : Xu 16 1 . 

27. Elkanah his son] ought to be followed 
by • Samuel his son." 28. Samuel] Samuel's 
father Elkanah is here regarded as a Levite, 
whereas in 1 S he is an Ephraimite. 

Vashni] This is a corruption of the word 
for ' the second.' the name of the firstborn 
(Joel v. 33) being lost. 

31-48. The genealogies of David's singers. 
Such names as Heman, Asaph, Ethan (or 
Jeduthun) are familiar to us from the Psalm 
titles. 39. His brother] i.e. kinsman, or per- 
haps fellow-craftsman, both being singers. 

54. Castles . . coasts] RY -encampments . . 
borders." Their's was the lot] RV "theirs 
was the fir.<t lot * : Josh 21 10 . 61. Which were 
left] i.e. other descendants of Kohath. exclusive 
of the sons of Aaron. Out of the half tribe] 
The names of Ephraim (v. 66) and Dan are 
accidentally omitted : see Josh 21 5 . 

65. Which are . . names] RY ' wliich are 
mentioned by name ' : vv. 57-60. 67. The 
cities of refuge" 1 In strictness Shechem alone 
of those mentioned in this and the following 
vv. was a city of refuge. 69. And Aijalon] 
This and the following city belonged to Dan : 
Josh 21 23,24 77 . The rest of the children of 
Merari] RY ' the rest of the Levites, the sons 
of Merari.' 
1 



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9. 35 



CHAPTER 7 

Genealogies (continued) 

This c. traces the descendants of Issachar, 
Benjamin (Dan), Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, 
and Asher. 

2. Of Tola] The numbers given in this v. 
are those of Tola's descendants by his younger 
sons as contrasted with his descendants through 
his firstborn Uzzi : vv. 3, 4. 

ii. By the heads of their fathers] RV 
' according to the heads of their fathers' 
houses' 1 : and so elsewhere. They were divided 
into a number of patriarchal clans. 12. Sons 
of Aher] better, ' the sons of another,' the 
' other ' being Dan, from whom Hushim was 
descended : Gn46 23 . 

14. Whom she bare] The name of Asriel's 
mother is lost. The Aramitess] i.e. a Syrian 
woman. 15. The second] i.e. the second son of 
Manasseh, Machir being the first. 

21. Whom the men of Gath . . slew] The 
occurrence alluded to probably took place after 
Israel was settled in Canaan, the Ephraimites 
having descended from the hill-country to 
make a raid upon the Philistines in the mari- 
time plain. In v. 22 Ephraim is a collective, 
not a personal, name. 23. Beriah . . evil] 
Heb. Beriah . . beraah. 27. Non . . Jehoshuah] 
i.e. Nun and Joshua. 28. Gaza] not the 
Philistine Gaza, which, though it is assigned 
to Judah in Josh 15 47 , can never have belonged 
to Ephraim. 

40. The children of Asher] These close the 
historian's enumeration, the descendants of 
Zebulun being entirely omitted. 

CHAPTER 8 

Genealogies (continued) 
This c. contains a second account of the 
descendants of Benjamin, and traces the 
ancestors and descendants of Saul. 

1. Now Benjamin, etc.] The names of 
Benjamin's descendants are repeated (with 
some variants) from 7 7f- , in order to lead up 
to the mention of Saul (v. 33), the predecessor 
of David (10 14 ), whose history forms the 
chief subject of this book. 

3. And Abihud] perhaps to be corrected to 
'father (Heb. Abi) of Ehud' : see v. 6 and 
.IltI 1 '. 6. Removed] RV 'carried them 
captive ' : and so in v. 7. The occasion is not 
known. 8. After he had, etc.] RM ' after he 
had Benl away Hushim and Uaara his wives.* 

12. Ono and Lod] These towns elsewhere 
are mentioned only in post-exilic times 
t \\/.v'l ■■■'). so that the personal or family names 
in these vv. probably belong to that period. 
Benjamitea are expressly mentioned in ( .) :{ 
.Neh 1 1 '. as being among those who returned 
l'roin tin- captivity. 29. The father of 
Gibeon] the 'Jehiel 1 of '.»•'. 



33. Ner begat Kish] Ner and Kish were 
brothers (9 36 ), so that the text should be 
corrected to ' Ner begat Abner and Kish begat 
Saul ' : cp. 1 S 1 4 57. Esh-baal] the ' Ish-bosheth ' 
of 2 S 2 8. The title ' Baal,' meaning ' lord " or 
' possessor,' was at first used of Jehovah as 
well as of other deities (see Hos 2 16 ) and 
entered into several Hebrew names (' Eshbaal,' 
'Merib-baal,' 'Beeliada'). But in consequence 
of the evil associations that gathered round it, 
it afterwards came to be disused in connexion 
with the Lord, and in the personal appella- 
tions of which it formed part the word bosketk 
Q shame ') was often substituted to indicate 
abhorrence (' Ish-bosheth,' ' Mephibosheth '). 

34. Merib-baal] i.e. Mephibosheth : see on 
v. 33. 40. Archers] for the skill of Ben- 
jamites with the bow see 2Chl4 8 . 

CHAPTER 9 

Genealogies (concluded) 

This c. furnishes a record of the families 

and numbers of those who dwelt at Jerusalem 

after the captivity, and relates the ancestry 

and posterity of Saul. 

1. In the book, etc.] RV 'in the book of 
the kings of Israel : and Judah was carried 
away . . to Babylon.' 

2. Now the first inhabitants, etc.] This 
section (vv. 2-34) relates to the reoccupation 
of Jerusalem after the return from the exile, 
and appears to be a defective duplicate of 
Neh ll 3 with some variations in the names. 

The Israelites] i.e. the lay population as 
contrasted with the ecclesiastical orders. 

Nethinims] These were persons selected 
from the people, in the ratio of one for every 
fifty, and given to the Levites as their servants 
in the times of Moses and David (Nu31 47 
Ezr8 20 ). From the mention of Mehunims 
among them (Ezr2 50 ), who were doubtless 
descendants of the people of that name who 
were conquered by Uzziah (2Ch2G~), it has 
been inferred that they included foreigners 
who were either prisoners of war, or who 
surrendered as the Gibeonites did : Josh 9 27 . 

5. Shilonites] better, ' Shelanites,' the de- 
scendants of Judah's son Shelah : Nu2C> 20 . 

11. The ruler of the house of God] applied 
in 2Ch31io,i3 to the high priest, but in 35* 
to others besides. 

18. The king's gate] In pre-exilic times 
this communicated between the Temple and 
the royal palace (2 K 16 ls ). The companies] 
RV 4 the camp ' : the phrase is transferred 
from the time of the wanderings, certain 
positions in the Temple corresponding to 
similar positions in the camp of the wilderness. 

33. These are the singers] a list of names 
has fallen out. Free] i.e. were exempt from 
other duties. 35. And in Gibeon, etc.] This 
account of Saul's ancestry and descendants is 



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13.5 



repeated from 8 29 - 38 as an introduction to the 
narrative of his death given in c. 10. 

CHAPTER 10 
Saul's Overthrow and Death 

This c. is abbreviated from 1S31 1 - 13 , but 
supplements it by statements that Saul's head 
was fastened in the temple of Dagon, and 
by a brief explanation of the causes of his 
overthrow. 

6. All his house] This cannot . mean ' all 
his family,' since Ish-bosheth and others of 
his children survived him (2 S 2 8 2 1 8 ), but 
must refer to those of his household who 
attended him at Gilboa. 13. His transgres- 
sion] The writer refers to what is related in 
1S13 13 > 14 15 1 ' 9 28 7 . 14. Enquired not of the 
LORD] Saul at first enquired of the Lord 
(2 S 28 6 ), but on receiving no answer had re- 
course to the witch of Endor instead of being 
importunate in his supplications. 

CHAPTER 11 

David's Coronation at Hebron and 
his Capture of Zion 

The writer, though mentioning David's 
crowning at Hebron, omits all description of 
his 7 years' reign there, and in this c. unites 
with some variations and additions two sections 
of 2S, viz. 5 1 " 10 and 238-39. 

6. So Joab, etc.] This is an addition to 
the account in 2S5 8 . 

10. Strengthened themselves] better, 'ex- 
erted themselves.' n. The chief of the 
captains] another reading is ' chief of the 
thirty ': cp. v. 15. Three hundred] 2S23 8 
has ' eight hundred,' which is preferable as 
representing Jashobeam's prowess as greater 
than Abishai's: v. 20. 12. The three mighties] 
The third, not here mentioned, was Shammah 
(2S23 11 ), to whomvv. 13 (last-half) and 14 
refer (where ' they,' ' themselves,' ' them ' 
should be ' he,' ' himself,' ' him '). 

18. The host of the Philistines] i.e. the 
outpost at Bethlehem (v. 16), not the camp in 
the valley of Rephaim, which was N. of 
Bethlehem. 20. Chief of the three] It is 
difficult to make out the relations between this 
three, the ' three ' of v. 12, and the ' thirty ' 
of vv. 15 and 25 ; and there is probably 
some corruption. 25. Honourable among] RY 
' more honourable than.' 47. Mesobaite] This 
should perhaps be corrected into ' from Zobah.' 

It is noteworthy that this list of David's 
' valiant men ' contains several non-Israelites : 
w. 39, 41, 46. 

CHAPTER 12 

Various Statistics 
This c. is entirely supplementary to what is 
related in 2 S, and gives particulars respecting 
certain companies that joined David at various 



times, and the numbers that came to crown 
David at Hebron. 

2. The right hand and the left] For this 
faculty in connexion with Benjamin cp. Jg3 15 
20 15 > 16 . Saul's brethren] i.e. fellow-tribesmen : 
cp. v. 29. 4. Among the thirty] not included 
in the lists of 2S23 24f - lChll 2 6 f -, and pre- 
sumably belonging to the thirty at a different 
period. 8. Buckler] RV 'spear.' 14. Was 
over] RY 'was equal to': cp. Lv26 8 . 

15. The first month] Nisan( = March- April), 
when the river was in flood after the melting 
of the snow. Put to flight, etc.] Their en- 
deavours to join David were opposed on both 
sides of the river, but unsuccessfully. 17. If 
ye . . come peaceably] The advances of a second 
body of deserters made David suspicious of 
treachery. 18. The spirit came upon, etc.] 
Amasai's decision to throw in his lot with 
David was due, like every other wise resolve, 
to the inspiration of the Divine Spirit. 

19. They] i.e. David and his men : see on 1 S 
28 1 ' 2 29. Upon advisement] i.e. upon reflec- 
tion : cp. 21 12 . 21. The band] i.e. the Amalek- 
ites who attacked and burned Ziklag during 
David's absence with the Philistines (1 S30). 

29. Kept the ward, etc.] i.e. maintained 
their allegiance to Saul (2S2), a fact which 
accounted for so small a number assembling at 
Hebron. 32. Had understanding, etc.] pos- 
sessed practical statesmanship : cp. Esth 1 13 . 

All their brethren] The rank and file were 
obedient to their chiefs. The full numbers of 
Issachar are not given. 

39. Eating and drinking] A covenant was 
usually accompanied by a feast (see Gn 31 44 > 46 ), 
and the passage doubtless has in view a com- 
pact made between the new sovereign and his 
people : cp. 1 K 1 9 . 40. They that were nigh] 
i.e. relations. 

The total numbers of those who assembled 
to crown David at Hebron, as enumerated in 
vv. 23-40, amount to 340,822, a military force 
(v. 23) which contrasts remarkably with the 
30,000 (described as ' all the chosen men of 
Israel') of 2S6 1 . It is noteworthy, too, that 
128,600 come from the three northern and 
most distant tribes, Zebulun, Naphtali, and 
Asher ; 120,000 from the eastern tribes, 
Reuben, Grad, and half Manasseh ; and only 
6,800 from Judah. Some corruption of the 
numbers may be suspected. 

CHAPTER 13 

The Removal of the Ark from 

KlRJATH-JEARIM 

This c. merely expands 2S6 141 , with some 
unimportant differences. 

3. We enquired not at it] perhaps, better, 
' we did not seek it,' i.e. to convey it to a place 
of honour : cp. 15 13 . 

5. Shihor of Egypt] usually employed to 



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18.1 



designate the Nile (Isa23 3 Jer2 18 ), but here 
applied to the 'brook of Egypt' (Joshl5 4 ), 
the modern El Arish, a small stream on the 
borders of Egypt flowing into the Mediter- 
ranean. The entering of Hemath] i.e. the de- 
file between Lebanon and Hermon, forming 
the approach to Hamath from the S. 

6. Whose name is called on it] better, ' who 
is called by the Name,' this serving as a sub- 
stitute for a more explicit mention of the 
divine name which is disguised in Jehovah. 

ii. Made a breach] RV ' had broken forth.' 
Perez-uzza] i.e. the Breach of Uzza. 

CHAPTER 14 
Hiram and David. David's Children 
This c. reproduces 2S5 11 " 25 with some varia- 
tions in the names of David's children, and 
the additional fact that David burnt the idols 
of the Philistines. 

7. Beeliada] This name contains the title 
' Baal,' which, as has been already implied (see 
on 8 33 ), had at first an innocent sense. When, 
later, it contracted evil associations, the names 
in which it occurred underwent alterations, 
and for Beeliada was substituted the form 
'Eliada': 2S5 1 *. 

12. Left their gods] These had doubtless 
been carried into battle in the belief that they 
would bring success to the Philistine forces 
just as the Israelites carried the ark with them 
to the battle of Ebenezer : 1 S4 3 . 16. Gibeon] 
in 2 S 5 25 ' G-eba,' both places being close 
together. 

CHAPTER 15 

The transport of the Ark to 
Jerusalem 

This c. is parallel to 2 S 6 12_23 , but contains 
much new matter respecting the Levites who 
bare the ark, and the singers. 

1. Pitched for it a tent] According to 16 39 
the Mosaic tabernacle still existed, but the 
ark, since its capture by the Philistines, had 
not rested in it, and a new tent was now sub- 
stituted to contain it. 4. The children of 
Aaron] i.e. the priests. 13. After the due 
order] It is implied that the conveyance of 
the ark in the manner described in chapter 13 
was irregular. 

16. To be, the singers] Singing had accom- 
panied the ark on the first occasion (13 8 ), but 
the musical arrangements were now committed 
exclusively to the Levites who subsequently 
had charge of the music of the Temple services : 
23 fi 2Ch5 ia 78. 

18. Ben] The word means ' son of,' and the 
name of Zeohariah's father has probably been 
lost. The word does not occur in the corre- 
Bpouding lists in 7.20,16 8 . Theporters] This 
applies only to Obed-edom and Jeiel. 

20, 21. Alamoth . . Sheminith to excel] see 



Pss46 and 12 for meaning of these musical 
terms. 22. Was for song] RM l the carrying,' 
i.e. of the ark. 24. Trumpets] made of 
metal and straight in shape, whereas the 
' cornets ' of v. 28 were of rams' horns and 
curved in shape. Jehiah] The Jeiel of v. 18. 
26. When God helped] The fact that the 
ark was now moved without disaster" indicated 
that God's favour was attending those who 
carried it. 27. The master of the song] better, 
' the chief for carrying ' (the ark) : cp. v. 22. 
The addition with the singers is probably an 
interpolation. 

CHAPTER 16 

The Celebration of the Event 

Only the first three vv. and the last v. of 
this c. are derived from 2S6 17-20 , the rest, 
describing the musical arrangements, being new. 

7. Delivered first, etc.] RV ' did . . first 
ordain to give thanks unto the Lord, by the 
hand of ' : i.e. the appointment of Asaph and 
his brethren to have charge of the singing dated 
from the day when the ark was brought to 
Jerusalem. The psalm that follows consists 
of PsslOS 1 - 1 * 96i- 13 106M7,48. The last 
section (v. 35) seems to reflect the conditions 
of the exile. 

22. Mine anointed] i.e. my chosen, the 
allusion being to the patriarchs : see Gnl2 17 
20 3 - 7 . 29. The beauty of holiness] RM 'in 
holy array' : i.e. in sacred vestments. 35. And 
say ye] a liturgical direction which does not 
occur in Psl06 47 . 

38. With their brethren] probably the name 
of ' Hosah ' has been lost after Obed-edom. 

Also] better, ' even Obed-edom.' 39. The 
high place . . Gibeon] This has been mentioned 
previously in 1 K 3 4 , but the presence there of 
the Tabernacle is here referred to for the first 
time. 

40. The altar} This was the altar at Gibeon ; 
there was another before the ark at Jerusalem. 

41. Jeduthun] perhaps the same as the 
' E than ' of 1 5 17 . Asaph seems to have attended 
upon the ark at Jerusalem (v. 37), whilst 
Heman and Jeduthun served at Gibeon. 

CHAPTER 17 
David's desire to build the Temple 

disallowed 
This c. is almost identical with. 2S7 1 - 29 . 
17. Hast regarded me .. degree] i.e. hast 
treated me with great distinction. 

CHAPTER 18 
David's Wars and Officers of State 
This c. is closely parallel to 2S8 1 " 18 , but 
with some variations in names and numbers. 

1. Gath] probably meant to explain the 
difficult phrase ' Metheg-ammah ' which occurs 
in 2S8 1 . Gath was independent in the time 



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1 CHRONICLES 



22. 



of Solomon: IK 2*9. 3. Hadarezer] 2S83 
has • Hadadezer,' which is more correct, ' Hadad ' 
being the name of a Syrian god and w Hadadezer ' 
being a formation parallel to ' Eliezer.' 4. An 
hundred chariots] R V l for an hundred chariots.' 
8. The pillars] i.e. the two columns in front 
of the porch of the Temple. 12. Abishai] In 
Ps60 (title) this success is attributed to Joab, 
and the number of the slain is stated at 12,000. 

16. Abimelech the son of Abiathar] This 
should be ' Abiathar the son of Abimelech ' : 
see on 1 S22*> 2S15 2 9 20 2 5. 

17. Chief about the king] 2S818 AY has 
' Chief rulers,' but the RV has ' Priests.' For 
the latter word the Chronicler substitutes a 
different expression, because the sons of David 
belonged not to the priestly tribe of Levi but 
to Judah. 

CHAPTER 19 

David's Wars with the Ammonites and 

the Syrians 

This c. is parallel to 2S10 1 " 19 with some 

differences in certain names, and a few 

additions. 

7. Thirty and two thousand chariots] The 

reading is probably corrupt: in 2S10 6 it is 

' thirty two thousand footmen,' with a thousand 

more from Maachah (whose forces are not here 

1 numbered), no mention being made of chariots. 

18. Seven thousand . . chariots . . forty thou- 
sand footmen] 2S10 18 has 'seven hundred 
chariots and forty thousand horsemen.' 

CHAPTER 20 

The Siege of Rabbah. The Slaughter 

of three Philistine Giants 

This c. corresponds, with some unimportant 

differences, to several distinct sections in 2 S, 

viz. Ill 1226-31 2118-22. 

2. David took, etc.] This implies David's 
1 presence at Rabbah, and as it stands here is 
inconsistent with the previous verse. In 2 S 12 
the discrepancy is explained by a passage which 
Chronicles omits, relating that Joab sum- 
moned David to Rabbah and that the king 
' went thither. 

5. Elhanan the son of Jair, etc.] Both this 
passage and the parallel in 2 S 21 i9 have under- 
gone corruption, and the true text probably 
had ' Elhanan the son of Jair, a Bethlehemite, 
; slew Goliath the Gittite.' As Goliath is said 
1 in 2S17 to have been killed by David, there 
seems to have been variant accounts of his death, 
unless there were two giants of the same name. 

CHAPTER 21 
David's numbering of the People and 
his Punishment 
This c. is parallel to 2 S 24, but includes a few 
additions : see vv. 6, 26. 

1. Satan] In 2S241 the Lord is said to 



have been angry with Israel, and to have 
moved David to number the people ; for the 
Hebrews in early times did not hesitate to de- 
scribe God as prompting to evil as well as to 
good, men being punished for one sin by being 
led to commit another. But in later ages the 
idea that God tempted men to wrong was felt 
to conflict with His absolute holiness ; and this 
created the belief that temptation was the 
work of a spirit of malevolent character, who, 
though subordinate to, and attendant upon, 
God, was yet an adversary (lit. the ' Satan ') 
of men, and sought to bring about their ruin 
(see on IK 22 21, 22 J bl6f. Zech3i). In Job 
and Zechariah the name is still only a title ; 
but in Chronicles it has become a proper name 
(being used without the article). 

5. A thousand thousand, etc.] 2 S 24 9 repre- 
sents Israel as 800,000 and Judah 500,000. 
According to 27 24 the numbers were not en- 
tered in the official records, and they have 
probably undergone corruption in the course 
of transmission. 

6. But Levi, etc.] This is not mentioned 
in 2S. If the numbering of the people was 
due to a presumptuous reliance upon material 
resources, or some specific command connected 
with the taking of a census (e.g. Ex30H-i 6 ) 
had been neglected, the non-inclusion of two 
tribes by Joab was perhaps a device to prevent 
the full completion of the king's purpose, in 
the hope of averting the evil consequences 
that were feared. 

12. Three years' famine] This harmonises 
better than the ' seven years ' of 2 S 24 1 3 with 
the three months and three days. 15. Oman] 
in 2 S 24 i6 'Araunah' or ' Ornah.' 18. The angel 
. . Gad] For divine communications made to 
prophets through angels cp. 1K131 8 19 5 > 7 
Zech 1 11, etc. 23. Meat offering] RV ' Meal 
offering ' : and so elsewhere. 25. Six hundred 
shekels of gold] in 2 S 24 24 'fifty shekels of 
silver.' 

26. Answered . . by fire] Other instances of 
sacrifices consumed by fire from heaven occur 
in Lv92* 1K1838 2Ch7i. This fact is not 
recorded by the writer of Samuel, but is spe- 
cially mentioned by the Chronicler because the 
acceptance of the sacrifice was taken by David 
to indicate where he was to build his in- 
tended Temple, the preparations for which 
are described in the next chapter. 

30. He was afraid] In his alarm David was 
loath to leave the spot where God's favour had 
just been renewed to him. 

CHAPTER 22 
David's Preparations tor the building 
of the Temple 
This c. is supplementary to the narrative in 
the earlier books, its contents coming chrono- 
logically between 2S24 and 1K1. 



255 



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1 CHRONICLES 



25. 11 






i. This is the house] This v. connects with 
2128 (2129,30 being parenthetical). 2. The 
strangers] i.e. the non-Israelite population, 
who were employed in forced labour upon his 
building projects : 2 Ch 2 17 . 

9. Solomon . . peace] Heb. Shelomoh . . Sha- 
lom. Peace was the ideal condition appropriate 
for the building of God's Temple as well as 
for the advent of Him who was greater than 
the Temple : Lk2 14 . 

14. In my trouble] Some render ' in spite 
of my trouble,' i.e. in spite of wars and other 
distractions. David, like other loyal servants 
of God, was content to pave the way for the 
accomplishment of a result which he himself 
would never witness. An hundred thousand, 
etc.] The weight of gold and silver is so 
enormous, amounting in intrinsic value to 
£1,025,000,000 sterling, that great exaggera- 
tion may be suspected. The gold that was 
received annually by Solomon was only 666 
talents: 1K10 14 . 

19. The holy vessels] e.g. the table of shew- 
bread, the candlesticks (or lampstands), with 
their lamps and snuffers, the cups, basons, and 
spoons, etc. 

CHAPTER 23 

David makes Solomon King. Particulars 

relating to the levites 

This and the following three chs. (supple- 
menting the earlier history) describe the 
arrangements made by David for the organisa- 
tion of the Temple service after Solomon had 
been appointed his successor. The incidents 
relating to this last event, which are recorded 
in 1 K 1, are omitted by the writer, who passes 
over all David's domestic troubles. 

3. From the age of thirty years] This limit 
is given in Nu 4 3 , but l twenty-five ' is fixed 
in Nu8 24 , possibly having in view different 
and lighter duties. By their polls] i.e. by 
heads. 9. Shimei] This was a fourth son 
of ' Laadan,' not the ' Shimei ' of vv. 7, 10, 
who was Laadan's brother. 11. Zizah] the 
'Zina' of v. 10. Jeush . . Beriah] These to- 
gether constituted a third l course ' belonging 
to the house of the elder Shimei, RV ' they 
became a fathers' house in one reckoning.' 

14. His sons . . Levi] i.e. the sons of Moses 
were reckoned as Levites, not (like the sons 
of Aaron) as priests. 

24. From the age of twenty years] David, 
at the end of his reign (v. 27). seems to have 
lowered the limit of age (see v. 3) above which 
the Levites entered on their duties, and his 
regulations were obw rved in subsequent times : 
2Ch31» B*r38. 27. By the last words] 
better, 'in bhe Last Acts,' i.e. a history of the 
closing pari of hia reign. 29. For all . . size] 

i.e. for dispensing the various quantities used 

for the ditl'ereiit nlVerings (as in Ex29 |u ). 



31. The set feasts] These were the festivals 
of the Passover, Unleavened Bread, Weeks, 
and Tabernacles ; for the number of victims 
appointed for each occasion see Nu28, 29. 

CHAPTER 24 
The Courses of the Sons of Aaron 
1. Divisions . . Aaron] i.e. courses of the 
priests, corresponding to the course of the 
Levites described in 23 6 . 3. Ahimelech] an 
error (through an accidental omission) for 
' Abiathar son of Ahimelech,' and so in v. 31. 

4. Chief men] i.e. heads of families or clans 
(the ' principal households ' of v. 6). 

6. Ahimelech the son of Abiathar] to be 
corrected into ' Abiathar son of Ahimelech.' 

19. These were the orderings, etc.] i.e. the 
order in which they succeeded one another in 
attendance at the Temple had been determined 
by Aaron. 

20. And the rest of the sons of Levi, etc.] 
The section vv. 20-30 gives the names of 
the representatives of the ' courses ' of Levites 
enumerated in 23 6f -, but with the omission of 
the 'courses' of the Gershonites : vv. 7-11. 

26. Beno] This is not a proper name, but 
means ' his son,' Jaaziah being a third son of 
Merari. 29. Kish] another son of Mahli : 
see 23 § 21 . 31. Over against] better, ' equally 
with.'' 

CHAPTER 25 
Particulars respecting the Singers 

I. Separated to the service] RV ' separated 
for the service certain of the sons,' etc. Jedu- 
thun] as in 16 41 , this name takes the place of 
'Ethan' in other lists: 6 44 15 17 . Prophesy] 
see on v. 5. And the number . . was] The 
sentence is interrupted, and continued in 
v. 7. 

3. Six] only five names are given, but the 
LXX adds a sixth, ' Shimei ' : cp. v. 17. 

5. The king's seer] Music and singing were 
often associated with prophecy (cp. 1S10 5 ), 
and conversely the Temple singers are here 
accounted seers : cp. ' prophesy,' v. 5. In the 
words of God] better. l in matters pertaining 
to God' : cp. 26 32 . To lift up the horn] i.e. 
the number of Heman's sons enhanced his 
dignity : cp. PS89 1 ?. 

8. They cast lots, etc.] The wards of Asaph 
alternated with an equal number of wards of 
Jeduthun until they were exhausted; then 
the rest of Jeduthun's wards alternated with 
an equal number of Heman's ; and finally the 
residue of Heman's followed in unbroken 
succession. 

II. Izri] Some of the names in vv. 9-31 
differ Blightly From those that occur in vv. 2-4. 
' Izri ' being the ' Zeri ' of v. 3, ' Jesharelah ' the 
' Asarelah ' of v. 2, and ' Azareel ' the l Uzziel ' 
of v. 4. 



256 






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28. 18 



CHAPTER 26 

Particulars respecting various Temple 
Officials 

i. The divisions of the porters] i.e. the 
courses of the gate-keepers or sentries who 
stood on guard at the entrances of the Temple. 
They were drawn from three families, Meshele- 
miah (the ' Shallum ' of 9 19 ), Obed-edom, and 
Hosah. Asaph] the 'Ebiasaph' of 9 19 . 5. For 
God blessed him] see 13 u . The blessing con- 
sisted in the number of his children : cp. 
O n 12S 94 m. 

13. For every gate] Though the Temple 
was not yet built, David is regarded as having 
settled the plan of it : see 28 llf . 14. Shele- 
miah] the v Meshelemiah ' of vv. 1,2. 15. The 
house of Asuppim] RY ' the storehouse,' and 
so in v. 17. 

16. To Shuppim and] the name Shuppim 
is an accidental repetition of the previous 
' Asuppim.' To each of the three families of 
porters were allotted the gates on one of the 
four sides of the house, the gates on the 
fourth side being assigned to the eldest son 
of Meshelemiah. The gate Shallecheth has 
not been identified. The causeway] some 
road leading up the Temple hill. 

18. Parbar] RM 'the Precinct,' possibly a 
colonnade or portico. 25. His brethren] i.e. 
his cousins. 27. Out of the spoils] So in 
Joshua's time, the spoils of Jericho were put 
into the treasury of the Lord : Josh 6 2i . 

30. On this side Jordan westward] RY 
I beyond Jordan westward ' : an expression 
which indicates that the writer did not live 
in Palestine. 31. Jazer of Gilead] a town in 
the territory of Gad : Josh 13 25 2139. 

CHAPTER 27 

Particulars respecting various 

Military Officers 

This c, as distinguished from the four 
preceding chapters which describe David's 
ecclesiastical officials, relates to his secular 
officers. 

1. Which came . . out] i.e. relieved each 
other in turn : cp. 2Ch23 8 . For particulars 
concerning several of the officers mentioned 
in the following vv. see c. 11. 3. Of the 
children, etc.] RY ' He was of the children of 
Perez, the chief of,' etc. 4. Dodai] The words 
'Eleazar son of ' have been lost : cp. II 12 . 

5. A chief priest] RY k of Jehoiada the priest, 
chief.' 

16. Over the tribes] In the following list 
Gad and Asher are omitted, and the Aaronites 
are distinguished from the Levites. 18. Elihu] 
the 'Eliab' of 2 13 1S16 6 . 23. From twenty 
years old and under] In Nu 1 3 it is laid down 
that those required for military service should 
be above this age. 



25. Over the king's treasures] The account 
implies that David had large private estates 
as well as considerable accumulations of 
treasure. Some of his possessions may have 
formed part of what the king could claim 
from the nation in virtue of his position (cp. 

1 S 8 14 > 15 ), or may have been given him freely 
by his subjects (cp. 1 S 10 27 ), but the bulk was 
doubtless derived from his successful wars 
(see 1S30 2 <> 2S86-S). The lands in the low 
plains (v. 28) were probably in part taken 
from the Philistines. Castles] better, ' towers ' 
to shelter the herdmen and serve as look-outs. 

27. Over the increase, etc.] better, ' over 
the wine-cellars which were in the vineyards.' 

28. The sycomore trees] not the English 
tree that goes by this name, but one that 
bears a fig-like fruit. The low plains] RY 
' Lowland ' : a name applied to the downs that 
extend from the central hills to the maritime 
plain. 

32. David's uncle] better, i David's nephew ' : 
see 20 7 . 34. Jehoiada the son of Benaiah] 
probably to be corrected to ' Benaiah the son 
of Jehoiada': cp. 18 17 . 

Some of the names mentioned in this c. 
belonged to periods much earlier than David's 
closing years, for Asahel (v. 7) was killed 
before David became king at Jerusalem 
(2 S 2 14f -), and Ahithophel killed himself in the 
course of Absalom's rebellion : 2S17 23 . 

CHAPTER 28 
David's last Directions 
2. The footstool of our God] i.e. the Mercy 
Seat: 2S6 2 Psl32 7 . 5. The throne of the 
kingdom of the LORD] cp. 17 14 29 23 . Israel's 
kings were the Lord's vicegerents and repre- 
sentatives : He was their true ruler. 7. If he 
be constant] The continuance of God's favour 
was conditional upon continued obedience, and 
the writer, living after the exile, knew how 
the condition had been violated. 

1 1 . The pattern] The pattern of the Taber- 
nacle is similarly stated to have been com- 
municated to Moses by God : Ex25 9 > 40 . The 
houses] the Holy Place and the Most Holy 
Place : see IK 6. Treasuries . . upper cham- 
bers] probably the side-chambers, described 
in lK6 5f -, of which there were three storeys. 

Inner parlours] perhaps the lowest of the 
side-chambers. 

12. By the spirit] i.e. by revelation. The 
chambers round about] perhaps detached build- 
ings constructed round the courts that enclosed 
the Temple. 15. Candlesticks] better ' lamp- 
stands,' and so elsewhere. Ten are mentioned 
in 1 K 7 49, but only one in 2 Ch 13 n . 16. The 
tables] Ten are alluded to again in 2 Ch 4 8 , 
but only a single table is mentioned in 1 K 7 48 

2 Ch 1 3 11 29 is. 18. The chariot of the cheru- 
bims] R Y ' the chariot, even the cherubim ' : 



17 



257 



1 CHRONICLES— 2 CHRONICLES 



2.3 



cp. Psl8 10 Ezkl, 10 8f . 20. He will not fail 
thee] A similar assurance of Grod's constant 
aid was given to Jacob and Joshua : Gn 28 15 
Josh 15. 

CHAPTER 29 

David's Offerings, Thanksgiving, 
and Death 

i. The palace] The word in the original is 
more strictly applicable to the fortress which 
was attached to the Second Temple (Neh2 8 ) 
and afterwards called the tower of Antonia, 
but here and in v. 19 is employed of Solomon's 
Temple. 

3. Of mine own proper good] RV ' a trea- 
sure of mine own.' 4. Three thousand, etc.] 
The weights here named, as in many other 
places in Chronicles, are incredibly large, 
amounting in value to £21,320,000 of our 
money. 

7. Drams] The dram (Gk. drachma) was 
\ shekel ; and the value (according to the 



early Hebrew weights) of all the gold men- 
tioned in this v. would be about £30,760,000, 
and of the silver about £4,100,000. 

10. And David said] David in his prayer 
recognised that it was not in his, or any man's, 
power to add to God's glory. The building 
of the Temple could only manifest his and his 
people's devotion and gratitude for the good- 
ness which had bestowed such wealth upon 
them. 15. None abiding] better, ' no hope of 
abiding.' 

20. Worshipped the .. king] cp. Ps45 n . 
The same kind of prostrations were made both 
in divine worship and in paying respect to the 
sovereign. 

22. The second time] The ' first time ' is 
only described at length in 1 K 1 39 , though the 
writer of Chronicles alludes to it in 23 l . 

Zadok to he priest] This seems to anticipate 
the promotion which Zadok received when 
Solomon, after David's death, deposed Abia- 
thar : 1 K 2 27 . 30. The times that went over 
him] i.e. the fortunes that befell him. 



2 CHRONICLES 



CHAPTER 1 

Solomon's Choice of Wisdom. His 
Wealth and Commerce 

This c, after the opening vv., repeats, with 
some modifications and additions, what is re- 
lated in 1K3 5 - 1 * and lO 26 * 29 . 

5. The brasen altar] This identification of 
the altar at Gibeon with the brazen altar of 
the Tabernacle is an addition made to 1 K 3 4 . 

CHAPTER 2 

Solomon's Negotiations with Hiram 

This c. substantially reproduces 1 K5, with 
some differences in numbers, names, and ex- 
pressions. 

1. An house for his kingdom] The descrip- 
tion of this, which is given at length in IK 7, 
is omitted by the Chronicler. 

5. /.s- great] i.e. in magnificence, but not in 
actual dimensions — the external length and 
breadth being only 120 x 45 ft., less than many 
perish churches. It was not intended to hold 
an assemblage of worshippers, but to be a 
sanctuary for the Deity, where He might re- 
ceive the offerings of His servants : v. 6. 

10. Beaten wheat] probably a corruption of 
1 wheal for food ' : cp. I K 5 11 . 

13. Of Huram my father's] RM ' even 
Buram my father': the term 'fattier' being a 
title of honour : op. Qn46 8 . But the whole 
expression may be a proper name, v 1 1 iir.nii 



Abi '; and so in 4 16 . 14. A woman . . of Dan] 
see on 1 K 7 14 , where she is termed a widow 
of Naphtali. 16. Joppa] The modern Jaffa, 
some 35 m. from Jerusalem. 

17. The strangers] Solomon in imposing 
forced labour upon his subjects did not, like his 
father, confine it to those who were of foreign 
origin, but extended it to native Israelites : 
1K5 13 . 18. In the mountain] probably the 
hill-country of Judah. 

CHAPTER 3 

Particulars relating to the Temple 
This and the following c. abbreviate what is 
recorded in 1 K 6, 7. 

1. Moriah] Here the designation of the 
Temple hill, but in Gn22 2 of the 'land' in 
which was situated the hill where Isaac was to 
be sacrificed. Where the Lord appeared unto] 
better ' which was shown unto,' i.e. by the 
acceptance of the king's sacrifice (1CIi21 2S 
22i). 

3. These are the things, etc.] RV ' these 
are the foundations which Solomon laid' : the 
v. going on to give the ground plan. After 
the first measure] This implies that the length 
of the cubit had changed between the time of 
Solomon and that of the writer of Chronicles. 
Ezekiel (40 5 ) speaks of a cubit measuring a 
cubit and a hand-breadth, which, if the smaller 
on bit was equal to 6 hand-breadths (about 
L8 in.), must have been equivalent to 7 (about 



25* 



2.4 



2 CHRONICLES 



8.16 



21 in.). In estimating the size of the Temple, 
the cubit, for the sake of convenience, has 
been reckoned at 18 in. ; if the cubit of 21 in. 
was the one really employed, the dimensions 
must be modified accordingly. 

4. An hundred and twenty] One MS of the 
LXX has ' twenty.' The figures given in the 
text are suitable only for a tower, not a 
porch. 

5. The greater house] i.e. the Holy Place. 
Cieled] The walls, as well as the. roof, were 

lined with wood. Chains] i.e. festoons of 
chain work, carved in relief. 6. Parvaim] 
unknown. 

10. Of image work] LXX has ' wrought- 
in wood ' : cp. 1 K 6 23 . II. Twenty cubits] This 
was the length of the four wings together. 

13. Inward] RV ' toward the house ' : i.e. 
the Holy Place. 14. The vail] This is not men- 
tioned in Kings. 15. Thirty and five] In 1 K 
7 15 ' eighteen' : see also 2 K 25 ir Jer52 21 . 

16. Chains, as in the oracle] The text is 
probably corrupt ; the chains must be ' the 
wreaths of chain work ' of 1 K 7 17 , which were 
carved on the capitals. 

CHAPTER 4 

The Contents of the Temple 
I. An altar] This was in the Temple court. 
Though its construction is not described in 
Kings, it is mentioned in IK86 4 2K16 14 . 

3. Oxen] rather, ' knops ' (i.e. gourds) : see 
1 K 7 2 ±. 7. According to their form] RV ' Ac- 
cording to the ordinance concerning them.' In 
the temple] i.e. in the Holy Place. 

9. The great court] The word here used 
differs from that employed for ' the court of 
the priests.' It was in the ' great court ' that 
the scaffold mentioned in 6 13 was placed : see 
on 1K7 9 . 10. The right side of the east end] 
i.e. at the SE. corner. 12. Pommels] RV 
' bowls,' i.e. the globes of the capitals ; and so 
in v. 13. 14. He made . . made he] probably 
an error for ' ten . . ten.' 16. Fleshhooks] 
probably an error for 'basons,' v. 11 : cp. 
1K745. 

20. After the manner] RV 'according to 
the ordinance.' In the Law (Ex 27 21 ) it was 
required that a light should burn always before 
the veil. 22. The entry] probably an error 
for 'the hinges,' 1K750. 

CHAPTER 5 

The removal of the Ark to the Temple 
This c. is a repetition of IK8 1 - 9 , with ad- 
ditional particulars respecting the descent of 
the glory of the Lord. 

4. The Levites . . the ark] The mention of 
' the Levites ' in this connexion is more in ac- 
cordance with the requirements of the Law 
than the statement of 1 K 8 3 that the ' priests ' 
took up the ark. 



9. From the ark] better (as in the LXX) 
' from the Holy Place ' : cp. 1 K8 8 . Unto this 
day] The Chronicler, like the compiler of 
Kings, retains the expression of the original 
writer, who lived before the destruction of the 
Temple. 

II. Did not . . course] On this occasion all 
the priests (and not a single course only) had 
sanctified themselves to officiate. 12. At the 
east end] i.e. facing westward, towards the 
Temple building. 

CHAPTER 6 
Solomon's Prayer 

The first 39 vv. of this c. repeat IK8 12 - 50 , 
the conclusion of the prayer, as given in 8 51-61 , 
being omitted and three additional vv. being 
substituted. 

5. Neither chose I any man] Saul, though 
chosen, was subsequently rejected : 1 S15 26 . 

13. For Solomon had made, etc.] This is 
not mentioned in IK 8. 

41. Now therefore arise, etc.] The same 
words occur in Ps 132 8 » 9 . Be clothed with . . 
goodness] i.e. enjoy victory and prosperity. 

42. Turn not away, etc.] i.e. do not reject 
his prayer and make him turn away in dis- 
appointment. For anointed cp. 1S12 3 24 6 . 

The mercies of David] i.e. the mercies pro- 
mised and shown to David : cp. Ps89 49 . 

CHAPTER 7 
Solomon's Sacrifices, and the Lord's 

Promises 
This c. reproduces with some additions por- 
tions of lKS^-eSandG 1 - 9 . 

1. The fire came down] This, which marked 
the acceptance of Solomon's sacrifice (cp. 1 Ch 
21 26 ), is not mentioned in 1 K8. 

21. Shall be an astonishment] i.e. a cause 
of astonishment. 

CHAPTER 8 
Solomon's Buildings. His Trade with 
Ophir 
This c. reproduces the substance of 1 K 9 10-28 
but describes some additional buildings. 

2. Had restored] If the reference is to the 
cities which Solomon gave to Hiram, it seems 
best to assume that they had been merely 
pledged as security for money which Solomon 
borrowed and afterwards repaid : 1 K 9 14 . 

3. Hamath-zobah] Perhaps a Hamath in 
Zobah (a country E. of the Sea of G-alilee, in 
the region of the modern Hauran). 

4. Tadmor] the later Palmyra, a city 150 
m. NE. of Damascus in the Syrian desert. 

8. Them did Solomon, etc.] RV ' of them did 
Solomon raise a levy of bondservants.'' 13. After 
a certain rate, etc.] RV ' as the duty of every 
day required' : cp. v. 14. 16. Unto the day] 
LXX has ' from the day.' 



259 



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2 CHRONICLES 



13.5 



1 8. In 1K9 26-28 it i s stated that Solomon 
' made ' a navy of ships at Eziongeber, and 
that Hiram sent him skilled mariners. 

CHAPTER 9 

The Yisit of the Queen of Sheba. 
Solomon's Splendour 

This c. is a close repetition of 1 K 10 i" 28 and 
ll 41 " 43 . 

8. On his throne] i.e. God's throne : see on 
lCh285. 

io, II. These vv. should follow v. 12. 

ii. Terraces] 1K10 12 has 'pillars' (or 
balustrades). 

12. That which she had brought] 1K10 13 
has ' beside that which Solomon gave her of 
his royal bounty.' 

2i. The king's ships went to Tarshish] If 
this is not a misunderstanding of the phrase 
' ships of Tarshish' (1K10 22 ), which describes 
a particular kind of vessel, it must be assumed 
that Solomon's ships sailed from a Phoenician 
port, Tarshish (whether Tartessus or Tarsus) 
being on the Mediterranean. 

29. In the book, etc.] The three works here 
referred to may possibly have been inserted in 
' the book of the kings of Israel and Judah ' 
(see 16 11 , etc.), as was the case with the ' book 
of Jehu the son of Hanani ' (20 34 RV). 

CHAPTER 10 
Reign of Rehoboam 
This c. is a repetition of 1K12 1 " 19 with 
slight differences. 

2. Returned out of Egypt] Preferable to 
1K12 2 , 'Jeroboam dwelt in Egypt.' 

4. Thy father made, etc.] The passages in 
1 K 5 13 > 14 11 28 , which throw light upon the 
oppressiveness of Solomon, are omitted by 
the Chronicler. 

CHAPTER 11 
Reign of Rehoboam (continued) 
This c. repeats the substance of 1K12 21 " 24 , 
and adds much information relating to Reho- 
boam's buildings, the withdrawal of the Levites 
from the kingdom of Jeroboam, and Rehoboam's 
marriages. 

5. Built cities] Of the towns named in the 
following vv. Beth-lehem, Tekoa, Beth-zur, 
Adoraim, Ziph, and Hebron, were in the hill- 
oountry of Judah ; Etam, Shoco, Adullam, 
Mareshah, Azekah, Zorah and Aijalon, were in 
the Lowlands, whilst Gath (a Philistine city, 
which in Solomon's reign was independent) and 
Lachish were in the maritime plain. The 
fortification <>f these places was intended to 
guard the JudsBan frontier on the side of 
Egypt, with which country Jeroboam had had 
friendly relations : IO 2 . 

14. Cast them off] When Jeroboam made 
priests from all the tribes indifferently, the 



Levites lost their privileged position as the 
only legitimate priestly tribe. 

15. Devils] lit. ' he-goats,' the deities that 
were worshipped being supposed to assume the 
forms of these animals, like the Greek Satyrs 
and the Roman Faunus. 

18. Jerimoth] not included in the list in 
1 Ch 3 x " 9 , so that he was probably the son of 
a concubine. And Abihail] RY ' and of Abi- 
hail ' : Abihail being the wife of Jerimoth and 
mother of Mahalath. 20. Daughter] probably 
'granddaughter' : see 2S14 27 and 13 1 . 

Abijah] The ' Abijam ' of 1 K 15 1. 

23. He dealt wisely] By acting as here de- 
scribed he sought to secure the tranquil suc- 
cession of the son whom he had chosen as his 
heir : cp. 21 3 . Desired] probably for his sons. 

CHAPTER 12 

Reign of Rehoboam (concluded) 

This c. is parallel to 1K14 21 ' 31 , but supplies 
additional particulars respecting Shishak's 
army and the prophet Shemaiah. 

3. The Lubims, the Sukkiims] The Lubims 
were probably Libyans ; the Sukkiims, who are 
not mentioned elsewhere, are called in LXX 
' Troglodytes,' i.e. ' cave-dwellers.' 

6. The princes of Israel] The term ' Israel ' 
is often applied in Chronicles to the people of 
Judah, as more nearly realising the ideal of 
the true Israel than the sister kingdom : cp. 
2034 212,4 232 245 2819,23. 

12. Things went well] RY ' there were good 
things found ' : cp. 19 3 1K14 13 . The king's 
repentance was accompanied by a moral refor- 
mation on the part of the people. 

15. The book of. . Iddo] The writings of 
Iddo are also mentioned in 9 29, 13 22 . 

CHAPTER 13 

Reign of Abijah 

This c. expands the account given of Abijah 

(Abijam) in 1K15 1 " 8 by giving details of his 

war with Jeroboam, which is there only briefly 

mentioned. 

2. Michaiah] In 11 21 and 1K15 2 she is 
called ' Maachah,' and was probably daughter 
of Uriel and granddaughter of Absalom. 

3. Four hundred thousand, etc.] These 
numbers (see also v. 17) are in keeping with 
the large figures that appear elsewhere in 
Chronicles : see 14 s . 9 17 14 ' 18 . 

4. Zemaraim] Possibly a hill near the place 
of the same name in Benjamin : Joshl8 22 . 

5. A covenant of salt] cp. Nul8 19 . The 
use of salt in connexion with sacrifice (see 
Lv 2 1:! ) probably arose from its association with 
a meal ; and ' there is salt between us ' is said 
to be a phrase still employed to denote the 
bond which secures, for any one who has par- 
taken of an Arab's hospitality, protection and 
(in case of need) assistance. 



2G0 



13.7 



2 CHRONICLES 



16.7 



7. Children of Belial] i.e. worthless persons. 
Young] That Rehoboam was young when 

the Ten Tribes revolted is implied in 10 8 , 
though in 12 13 his age is given as 41. 

8. The kingdom of the LORD] The high 
prerogative that once belonged to all Israel 
(1 Ch28 5 2Ch9 8 ) was now confined to Judah. 

9. After the manner, etc.] The LXX has 
1 out of the people of all the land,' which agrees 
with the true sense of 1 K 12 31 . 12. Sounding 
trumpets] cp. NulO 9 31 6 . 19. Jeshanah . . 
Ephrain] The first is not known, the second 
is identified by some with the ' Ephraim ' 
mentioned in Jnll 54 . 20. The mention of 
Jeroboam's death here is chronologically out of 
place, since he outlived Abijah. 

22. In the story] RY ' in the commentary.' 
The original term (' midrash ') meant the 
didactic treatment of a subject or narrative ; 
and in the ' midrash ' of Iddo the reign of 
Abijah was presumably related with a view to 
moral instruction rather than historic accuracy. 
Possibly the account of Abijah's speech in 
vv. 4-12 has been taken from it : contrast 
1K15 3 . 

CHAPTER 14 

Reign of Asa 

This c. adds to what is related of Asa in 
1 K 1 5 9 " 24 an account of the invasion of the 
Ethiopian Zerah. 

3. Took away . . the high places] In 15 ir 
( = 1 K 1 5 14 ) the opposite of this is stated ; if 
the two passages are to be reconciled, it must 
be supposed that Asa sought to effect a reform 
which was only imperfectly executed : cp. 
also 17 6 with 20 33 . 

7. The land is yet before us] i.e. free from 
the presence of an enemy. 

9. Zerah] Zerah, if an Ethiopian (Heb. 
Cushite) or Egyptian, is probably to be identified 
with Osorkon II, an Egyptian king of the 
22nd dynasty, who, on a monument recently 
found, declares that ' the upper and lower 
Rutennu' (i.e. the peoples of Palestine) had 
been thrown under his feet. But in v. 14 the 
cities spoiled by Asa after the defeat of the 
invaders are said to be near Gerar ; so that 
Zerah may have been the chief of an Arabian 
tribe, a view with which the description of the 
spoil taken by Asa (v. 15) agrees. Mareshah] 
in the lowland of Judah (Joshl5 44 ), where 
there are some ruins still called ' Mar 'ash.' 
To the N. there is a Wady called ' Wady es 
Sufieh,' which may be Zephathah. 

11. It is nothing, etc.] RV 'there is none 
beside thee to help, between the mighty and 
him that hath no strength ' : i.e. to help the 
weak under unequal condixions. Asa's prayer 
! breathes the true spirit of faith and trust in 
God.' 

13. Gerar] 6 m. S. of Gaza and 25 m. 



from Beersheba. 14. The fear of the LORD, 

etc.] They were so panic-stricken that they 
could offer no resistance : cp. 17 10 20 29 . 

15. The tents of cattle] i.e. the tents of 
nomadic tribes with large possessions of 
flocks and cattle. 

CHAPTER 15 

Reign of Asa (continued) 
An account of how Asa, moved by the prophet 

Azariah, made a covenant to seek the Lord. 
This c. is almost entirely supplementary to 

what is recorded of Asa in 1 K 15 . 

I. Azariah] not mentioned elsewhere. 

3. For a long season] The writer seems to 
have principally in view the times of the 
Judges : see Jg 2 12 3 M 7 6 2 1 25. A teaching 
priest] For this function of the priesthood 
cp. Lv 10 11 Mai 2 7. 

5. No peace . . came in] i.e. travelling was 
unsafe : cp. Jg5 6 6 2 . The countries] i.e. the 
different divisions of Israel : see Jgl2 4 
20, 21. 

8. The prophecy of Oded] The words ' Aza- 
riah son of ' have dropped out before Oded : 
the Vulgate has them. The cities . . taken] 
This seems to refer to the conquests of Abijah : 
13i 9 . 

9. The strangers] Those members of the 
Ten Tribes who removed to Judah on account 
of the calf - worship : ll 16 . Simeon] The 
territory of Simeon must have practically be- 
longed to Judah from the time of Jeroboam's 
revolt, but some Simeonites may have resided 
in the northern kingdom. 

II. The spoil] i.e. the spoil taken from the 
Ethiopians: 14i 3 -i5. 

19. Five and thirtieth] This is inconsistent 
with the chronology given in 1 K, for Baasha 
died in the 26th year of Asa (IK 16 8 ) ; but 
see on 16 1 . 

CHAPTER 16 

Reign of Asa (concluded) 
This c. reproduces with some verbal differ- 
ences lKlo 17 ' 24 , but adds an account of a 
rebuke received by Asa from the seer Hanani. 
1. Six and thirtieth] Since, according to 
1K16 8 , Baasha did not live until the 36th 
year of Asa. some have supposed that the six 
and thirtieth year is reckoned from the revolt 
of the Ten Tribes. 

4. The store cities of Naphtali] LXX 
suggests that the true reading is ' the surround- 
ing parts of Naphtali.' 

7. Hanani] Nothing is known of him beyond 
what is here related, and the fact that he was 
the father of the prophet Jehu ( 1 9 2 ). Because 
thou hast relied] cp. the similar protests of 
Isaiah against reliance upon foreign support 
instead of upon the Lord (^30* 31 1 ). The 
host of . . Syria] The prophet seems to imply 



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20.1 



that Asa might have beaten both Israel and 
Syria, if he had trusted in the Lord. 

8. Lubims] These were not amongst the 
forces of Zerah (149), but those of Shishak 
(123). 

12. Sought not to the LORD] Contrast the 
conduct of Hezekiah in his sickness : see 
2K20 2 . 

14. A very great burning] i.e. of the spices 
previously mentioned : cp. Jer 34 5 . The bodies 
of the dead were not ordinarily burnt but 
buried ; the burning of the bodies of Saul 
and Jonathan (1 S 31 12 ) was exceptional. 

CHAPTER 17 
Reign of Jehoshaphat 
An account of a mission of Levites to teach 
the Law, and of the king's army. 

The particulars of Jehoshaphat's reign here 
given are additional to those contained in 
IK 22 41-50. 

1. Strengthened himself against Israel] 
Jehoshaphat came to the throne in the fourth 
year of Ahab, and it is probable that some in- 
terval elapsed before he made peace with him, 
as recorded in 1K22 44 . 

2. Which Asa . . taken] see 15 8 , and note. 

3. His father David] LXX omits ; David,' 
so that his father means Asa, whose early actions 
(14 2 ) are here contrasted with the oppressive- 
ness and want of faith that he displayed in his 
later years ( 1 6 MO). Baalim] R V ' the Baalim ' 
(and so elsewhere), i.e. the various false gods 
to each of whom the title l Baal ' ( = Lord), was 
applied. 

4. The doings of Israel] an allusion either 
to the worship of the calves (13 8 ' 9 ) or to that 
of the Zidonian Baal, introduced into Israel by 
Jezebel, the wife of Jehoshaphat's contempo- 
rary, Ahab. 

7. He sent to his princes] The princes 
were to organise the teaching which was carried 
out by the Levites named in the next v. 

9. Went about] This is the only record in 
the historical books of the diffusion of a know- 
ledge of the Law by means of a mission. In 
the reign of Josiah (2 K 23 2 ) and after the 
return from the exile (Neh8 3 " 18 ) the Law was 
merely read before assemblies of the people at 
Jerusalem. 

13. Much business] i.e. was busily em- 
ployed on works of defence. And the men 
of war . . were] better, ' and he had men of war 
. . in Jerusalem.' 

14-18. It is generally agreed that there must 
be some error in these enormous numbers. 

CHAPTER 18 
Reign of Jehoshaphat (continued) 

This c. reproduces 1K22 1 " 86 with very slight 
differences. 

31. The LORD helped him] This, which is 



an addition to the narrative of Kings, seems to 
imply that the writer regarded Jehoshaphat's 
cry as a prayer for help, which God answered, 
as explained in the next v. 

CHAPTER 19 
Reign of Jehoshaphat (continued) 

The c. narrates how Jehoshaphat was re- 
proved by the seer Jehu for helping Ahab, and 
how he instituted judges in the cities of Judah. 

This c. is entirely supplementary to the ac- 
count of Jehoshaphat as given in 1 K. 

2. Jehu] previously only named in con- 
nexion with the northern kingdom in the reign 
of Baasha (1 K 16 7 ). Shouldest thou help the 
ungodly] The peace with Israel, ratified by a 
marriage (2 K 8 18 ), put an end to a war between 
two kindred peoples, yet brought evils in its 
train, since the Baal worship which polluted 
the northern kingdom was introduced into 
Judah by Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and 
the daughter-in-law of Jehoshaphat : 24 7 . 

5. He set judges] Local courts of justice 
may have existed before, but Jehoshaphat im- 
proved them, and likewise established a court 
in the capital, which seems also to have heard 
appeals : v. 10. 

6. The LORD . . judgment] Judges were ad- 
ministrators of the divine justice, so that even 
the term ' God ' could be used to describe them 
in their official capacity : see Ex 21 G RV. 

8. For the judgment of the LORD . . con- 
troversies] Perhaps the former means cases 
relating to religious obligations, and the latter 
ordinary civil and criminal trials. When 
they returned] RV ' and they returned,' the 
reference being to the king and his retinue. 

10. Between blood and blood] e.g. the de- 
termination of what was murder and what was 
merely manslaughter : cp. Ex 21. Between 
law and commandment] i.e. the decision, 
where laws seemed to conflict, which of them 
applied to a particular case. 

11. And, behold, etc.] The court at Jerusa- 
lem was divided into two sections, one (under 
Amariah) dealing with ecclesiastical causes, 
and the other (under Zebadiah) dealing with 
secular causes. 

CHAPTER 20 
Rbign of Jehoshaphat (concluded) 

An account of how a host of Moabites and 
others invaded Judah ; how Jehoshaphat prayed 
to the Loud, and was directed by Jahaziel not 
to fear ; and how the enemy was overthrown 
by God. 

The early part of this c. is additional to the 
narrative in IK: the latter part reproduces 
IK 22 4i -49. 

1. Olhoi beside the Ammonites] better (with 
LXX), 'some of the Meunim' (or Maonites): 
cp. 26 " and JglO 12 . They seem to have been 



2G2 



20. 2 



2 CHRONICLES 



23. 18 



the people from Mt. Seir mentioned in vv. 
10, 23. 

2. Beyond the sea] i.e. from the eastern 
side of the Dead Sea. On this side Syria] lit. 
' from Syria,' but Syria is probably a mistake 
for 'Edom.' The Moabites and Ammonites 
had marched round the S. end of the Dead Sea, 
and passing through Edom (the ' Mount Seir ' 
of v. 10) had been joined by some of the in- 
habitants. En-gedi] on the W. shore of the 
Dead Sea, the modern Ain-jidy. 

5. Before the new court] probably ' the 
court of the priests ' of 4 9 , which was distinct 
from the one in which Solomon prayed : 6 13 . 

10. Wouldest not let, etc.] The Moabites, 
Ammonites, and Edomites were all spared on 
the ground of their kinship with Israel through 
Lot and Esau: Dt 24,9,19. 

16. Ziz] The word perhaps survives in the 
name El Husasah which attaches to a district 
near Tekoa : v. 20. 

21. The beauty of holiness] Perhaps better, 
'in holy apparel' : cp. ICI1I6 29 . 

22. Ambushments] RV ' liers in wait.' Ap- 
parently the enemy fell out among themselves. 

25. Riches with the dead bodies] LXX 
points to another reading, ' riches and garments.' 

26. Berachah] i.e. ' Blessing.' The place 
has been identified with the Wady Bereikut 
near Tekoa. 

34. Who is mentioned] RV '(the book) 
which is inserted in.' 

36. To go to Tarshish] IK 22 48 has ' ships 
of Tarshish ' (i.e. large merchantmen) ' to go 
to Ophir ' (in Arabia, or E. Africa), for which 
Ezion-geber was the natural port of departure. 

CHAPTER 21 
REIGN OF Jehoram 
This c. in part reproduces 2 K 8 17 " 22 but adds 
several particulars respecting the judgments 
brought upon Jehoram. 

2. Azariah . . Azariah] One of the names is 
probably an error, perhaps for ' Ahaziah ' : cp. 
the mistake in 2 2 6 . 3. And their father] cp. 1 1 23 . 

10. So the Edomites revolted] The writer 
omits the final sentence in 2K8 21 which ac- 
counts for the successful revolt of the Edomites : 
see note there. 

11. Fornication] A figure for religious in- 
fidelity. 

12. A writing . . from Elijah] If this mention 
of Elijah as living in the reign of Jehoram is 
to be reconciled with 2K3 11 , which relates 
that Elisha (Elijah's successor) prophesied in 
the reign of Jehoshaphat, it must be supposed 
that Elisha entered upon his ministry before 
Elijah was translated ; and that 2K2 is out of 
its proper chronological order. The incident 
here described is the only instance of Elijah 
having concerned himself with the affairs of 
Judah. 



14. A great plague] i.e. the great blow in- 
flicted by the invasion described in v. 16. 

16. The LORD stirred up] The invaders, 
though pursuing designs of their own, were 
really agents of the divine judgment : cp. 1 Ch 
5 26 IsalO 5 -? 3724-29. The Arabians . . Ethio- 
pians] These Arabians came from the W. coast 
of Arabia, facing Ethiopia across the Red Sea. 

17. In the king's house] better, 'belonging 
to the king's house.' It is not meant that the 
invaders assaulted Jerusalem, but that they 
carried off the royal property in the country 
districts. Jehoahaz] called in 22 l ' Ahaziah.' 

19. Made no burning, etc.] i.e. they did not 
use the same quantity of spices as were burnt 
at the funeral rites of former kings. 20. De- 
parted . . desired] i.e. he died unregretted. But 
some (following LXX) render ' he walked 
(i.e. lived) in an undesirable way.' 

CHAPTER 22 
Reign of Ahaziah 

This c. reproduces with some differences 
2 K8 2 4-29 and 111-3 (the intervening chs. being 
omitted because they relate exclusively to 
Israel). 

2. Forty and two] This must be an error, 
for his father was only 40 when he died (21 20 ). 
2K826 has 'twenty-two.' 6. Azariah] An 
error for ' Ahaziah,' which LXX has. 7. Had 
anointed] see 2K9 1 " 10 . 

8. The sons of the brethren, etc.] i.e. of the 
elder sons of Jehoram who were killed by the 
Arabians (21 17 ). If Jehoram was only 40 at 
his death (21 2 0) 5 his grandsons at this time 
(v. 2) must have been quite young children. 

9. He was hid in Samaria] 2K9 27 states 
that he was mortally wounded in his chariot 
when escaping from Jehu, and died at Megiddo. 

They had slain . . they buried] The first verb 
refers to the emissaries of Jehu, the second to 
the servants of the murdered Ahaziah. To 
keep still] i.e. to retain. 

CHAPTER 23 
Reign of Joash 

This c. repeats 2Kll 4 - 2 5 but brings into 
prominence the ecclesiastical officials in place 
of the soldiers of the royal guard. 

4. This is the thing, etc.] The arrangements 
differ from those described in 2 K 1 1 (see note 
there). Here there are three divisions which 
are posted (a) at the doors of the Temple, (6) 
at the palace, (c) at the gate of the foundation 
(which in 2 K is called the ' gate Sur ' and con- 
nected with the palace). Here too only priests 
or Levites are allowed to enter the Temple, 
whilst the rest take up their position outside ; 
but in Kings the distinction is not observed. 

16. Between him, etc.] RV 'between him- 
self, and all the people, and the king.' 

18. Appointed the offices, etc.] better, 'put 



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26. 18 



the offices . . into the hand of.' The priests 
the Levites] LXX has (preferably) ' the priests 
and the Levites,' the priests alone being author- 
ised to offer sacrifice (according to Nul8 7 ). 

CHAPTER 24 
Reign of Joash (concluded) 

An account of the repair of the Temple, the 
idolatry of Joash after the death of Jehoiada, 
the murder of Jehoiada's son, and the king's 
violent death. 

The early part of this c. reproduces 2 K 
11 2i_i2 16 , with unimportant variations, but 
vv. 15-22 are entirely supplementary, and give 
a different account of the closing years of the 
reign of Joash from that contained in 2 K. 

6. According to . . Moses] This refers to 
the half-shekel required to be paid by every 
Israelite as an atonement for his soul : Ex 

3Q13-16. 

7. The sons of Athaliah] perhaps her ad- 
herents, rather than her children, who had 
been killed in the lifetime of their father 
Jehoram : 21 17 . 

15. An hundred and thirty] an age unpre- 
cedented since Joshua : Josh 24 29 . 

16. Among the kings] Jehoiada thus re- 
ceived an honour which was refused to Joash : 
v. 25. 

20. The son of Jehoiada] called in Mt 23 35 
' the son of Barachias ' by confusion with 
Zachariah the prophet. Which stood above the 
people] probably on a platform. 

23. The host of Syria] Hazael, the king of 
Syria, was engaged in attacking G-ath, and 
from thence made an incursion into Judah. 

Destroyed all the princes] These were the 
instigators of the king's impiety : v. 17. 

25. The sons of Jehoiada] better, as in LXX, 
1 the son of Jehoiada ' (vv. 20, 21). 

27. The burdens, etc.] better, ' the multitude 
of the oracles uttered against him ' : see v. 19, 
and cp. 2 K9 25 . The story] RY 'the com- 
mentary' : see on 13 22 . 

CHAPTER 25 
Reign of Amaziah 

This c. is derived in the main from 2 K 
14 1 " 20 , but with two insertions, vv. 5-10 and 
13-16. 

5. Made them captains, etc.] better, ' arranged 
them according to their fathers 1 houses under 
captains.' From twenty years old] Under this 
age military service was not required: Nul 3 
1 Ch 2 

7. With all . . Ephraim] added to explain 
the sense in which ' Israel ' is used, since 
ordinarily in Chronicles it is equivalent to 
Judah: see on 12*. For the protest against 
an alliance with the northern kingdom cp. 
19 2 20 87 . 

8. But if thou wilt go] LXX has ' if thon 



thinkest to prevail with these ' (i.e. the forces 
from Ephraim) ' God shall make thee fall.' 
11. The children of Seir] i.e. the Edomites. 

13. From Samaria] i.e. from the frontier of 
the kingdom (not from its capital). 

14. He brought the gods, etc.] Similarly 
the Philistines brought away the ark which 
the Israelites had carried with them into 
battle at Ebenezer : 1 S4 11 . 

17. Come, let us, etc.] In connexion with 
the preceding narrative Amaziah's challenge 
might be explained as due to a desire to have 
satisfaction for the conduct of the Israelite 
forces as described in v. 13, but see on 2K14 8 . 

23. Jehoahaz] i.e. Ahaziah : 21 17 . 

24. With Obed-edom] i.e. with the descend- 
ants of Obed-edom, who were porters of the 
Temple : 1 Ch264-s. 

28. The city of Judah] LXX has ' the city 
of David,' as in 2K14 2 <> and 2 Ch24i 1614 
21M0, etc. 

CHAPTER 26 

Reign of Uzziah 

This c. adds largely to the parallel account 

of Uzziah's reign in 2 K 1 5 1-7 , and furnishes 

information respecting his wars, his military 

defences, and the cause of his leprosy. 

1. Uzziah] This is the usual form in Chron- 
icles except in 1 Ch 3 12 ; in Kings it is generally 
' Azariah.' 

6. Jabneh] between Joppa and Ashdod : 
afterwards called Jamnia. 

7. TheMehunims] see on 20 1 . 

9. The valley gate] probably a gate leading 
into the valley of Hinnom, at the S. end of 
the W. hill. 

10. In the desert, etc.] Uzziah's cattle were 
pastured in three different districts, (a) the 
desert (or wilderness) in the S. and SE. of 
Judah, which has some fertile spots ; (b) the 
low country (or lowland), consisting of the 
slopes that extend from the Judaean hills to 
the Mediterranean ; (c) the plains, or table- 
land, E. of the Dead Sea and the Jordan, 
where Uzziah may have secured rights of 
pasturage from the Ammonites (v. 8). Carmel] 
RV ' the fruitful fields ' : or level garden- 
land, as distinct from the ' mountains ' or 
hilly districts. 

14. Habergeons] RV ' coats of mail.' 
Slings to cast stones] RV ' stones for sling- 
ing ' : which had to be supplied of a certain 
size and in sufficient quantity. 15. Engines] 
These were machines of the nature of cata- 
pults. 

16. To his destruction] RV ' so that he 
did corruptly.' Into the temple] The altar of 
incense was in the Holy Place. 18. To the 
priests, etc.] The restriction to the sons of 
Aaron of the duty of offering incense is 
enforced in the Law by the history of Korah : 



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29. 34 



Nul6 40 . 21. In a several house] i.e. in a 
lazar house. For the seclusion of leprous 
persons from the community cp. Lv 13 46 Nu 5 2 . 

22. Isaiah] The prophet received his pro- 
phetic call in the year that Uzziah died (Isa 6 1 ). 

23. In the field of the burial, etc.] i.e. in the 
royal burial ground, but not in the royal 
sepulchres. 

CHAPTER 27 

The Reign of Jotham 

This c. repeats the substance of 2K15 32 ' 38 , 

but expands the account of Jotham's buildings, 

and relates a war with Ammon about which 

Kings is silent. 

2. The people did . . corruptly] If Isa 2 is 
rightly assigned to this reign, it furnishes 
illustrations of the historian's statement, for 
it represents idolatry, sorcery, and arrogance, 
as prevalent amongst the people (Isa 2 6 - 8 > n f >). 

3. Ophel] the southern extremity of the 
Temple hill. 

5. Measures] lit. ' cors ' : a ' cor ' being rather 
more than 10 bushels, the whole quantity of 
each kind of grain was over 100,000 bushels. 
For such payments in kindcp. 17 n 2K3 4 . 

CHAPTER 28 
The Reign op Ahaz 

This c. recounts how the idolatry of Ahaz 
was punished by the attacks of Syria and 
Israel ; how the captives taken by the Israel- 
ites were restored ; and how Ahaz in his dis- 
tress appealed to Assyria. 

This c. corresponds to 2K16, but it omits 
many facts related there, whilst expanding the 
account of the war with Israel. 

5. The king of Syria] i.e. Rezin, who, with 
Pekah of Israel, wished to depose Ahaz : see 
Isa 7. 

7. Maaseiah, the king's son] perhaps a son 
of Jotham and brother of Ahaz, since Ahaz 
himself was only 20 at his accession and 36 at 
his death (v. 1). Next to the king] i.e. the 
principal counsellor of state : cp. EsthlO 3 . 

9. That reacheth, etc.] i.e. immoderate and 
excessive : cp. Ezr9 6 . 

16. The kings] The LXX, more appropri- 
ately, has ' the king,' the allusion being to 
Tiglath-pileser (v. 20). But Chronicles fre- 
quently uses the plural where the singular 
would be more accurate : see v. 23, also c. 
32 Mi 306. 

17. The Edomites] Rezin had previously 
captured Elath and returned it to the Edomites 
(2K16 6 ), and this doubtless encouraged them 
to retaliate upon the Judasans, who had with- 
held it from them for so long. 

18. The Philistines] These had suffered at 
the hands of Judah during the reign of Uzziah 
(26 6 >"), and now took the opportunity to seek 
revenge. 



19. Made Judah naked] RY ' dealt wantonly 
in Judah.' 

20. Distressed him, etc.] The intervention 
of Assyria not only imposed the burden of 
tribute upon Judah, but also awoke the 
jealousy of Egypt, with evil results to the 
small kingdom placed between the two em- 
pires ; yet for a time at least the Assyrians 
delivered Judah from Syria and Israel : 
2K169 1529. 

23. Because the gods, etc.] i.e. as shown 
by the successes of Rezin (v. 5). 

CHAPTER 29 
The Reign of Hezekiah 

This c. describes a cleansing of the Temple 
and a sacrifice for the sins of the people. 

This and the following chs. 30-32, cover the 
same period as 2 K 18-20, but, for the most part, 
have in view a different side of Hezekiah' s 
reign, Chronicles relating in great detail his 
religious reforms, whilst Kings is concerned 
mainly with the political events of the time. 

3. Opened the doors] The Temple had been 
closed by Ahaz : 28 24 . 4. The east street] 
RY 'the broad place on the east,' perhaps one 
of the courts in front of the Temple : cp. 
Ezrl0 9 RY. 

10. A covenant] The covenant between the 
nation and its God had been previously re- 
newed in the time of Asa (15 12 ). 

15. By the words of the LORD] The king 
was moved by a divine impulse, perhaps 
communicated through a prophet : cp. 30 12 . 

16. The inner part of the house] i.e. from the 
courts into the interior of the building. The 
Holy Place is meant (not the Holy of Holies, 
which the Levites might not enter). 17. The 
sixteenth day] In the first period of 8 days 
the Temple itself was cleansed, in the second 
period the Temple court (where the altar of 
burnt offering was : v. 18). 

21. Seven bullocks, etc.] It is possible that 
the bullocks, rams, and lambs constituted the 
burnt offerings mentioned in v. 27 (the victims 
for which are not otherwise named), and that 
the he-goats alone formed the sin offering (as 
v. 23 suggests). For the kingdom] i.e. for 
the king as distinguished from the people 
(Judah). 

25. By his prophets] i.e. David's arrange- 
ments, as described in 1 Ch 23 5 25 1 , were made 
under divine direction. 

30. Of Asaph the seer] Twelve of the 
Psalms bear the name of Asaph. 

31. Thank offerings] a form of peace offer- 
ing (Lv7 12 ), most of which was eaten by the 
worshipper. Burnt offerings] wholly con- 
sumed on the altar. Of a free heart] RY ' of 
a willing heart.' 

34. Were more upright . . than the priests] 
Many of the priests had perhaps taken part 



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2 CHRONICLES 



32. 18 



in Ahaz's impieties as Urijah the high priest 
had done: 2K16 1 <\ 

36. Prepared the people] The zeal of the 
people was so remarkable that it could only 
be attributed to divine influence : cp. 30 12 . 

CHAPTER 30 
Reign of Hezekiah (continued) 
This c. relates how a passover was kept on 
the second month for Israel and Judah. 

1. Should come .. at Jerusalem] This im- 
plies an endeavour to centralise the national 
worship by the abolition of the local sanctu- 
aries (as described in 2K18 4 ). 

2. In the second month] The Law allowed 
individuals to keep the Passover in the second 
month instead of the first, if they were pre- 
vented by some temporary hindrance (Nu 
9 10 > n ), and this permission Hezekiah thought 
might be extended to the whole community. 

3. At that time] i.e. at the proper season, 
viz. the 14th day of the first month. The 
cleansing of the Temple was not completed 
till the 16th day of that month : 29 17 . 

5. Done it of a long time] RY ' kept it in 
great numbers.' According to Exl2 6 the 
Passover was to be observed by ' the whole 
assembly of the congregation of Israel.' 

6. The posts] lit. ' the couriers,' who were 
probably some of the royal guards. You, 
that . . Assyria] Since what is here related 
took place (according to 29 3 ) in Hezekiah's 
first year, the reference must be to the in- 
vasion of Tiglath-pileser : 2K15 29 1 Ch5 2 <\ 

13. The feast of unleavened bread] This, 
though distinct from the Passover, was not 
separated from it by any interval, and the two 
came to be treated as one which could be 
described indifferently by either name : vv. 2, 
13, 15. 14. The altars] i.e. those erected by 
Ahaz : 28 24 . 15. Were ashamed] The zeal of 
the laity roused the priests, who had formerly 
been remiss (29 34 ), to a sense of their duty. 

17. The passovers] i.e. the paschal lambs, 
which (according to Exl2 6 > 7 ) ought to have 
been killed by the head of each household. 

18. Otherwise than it was written] As this 
Passover in the second month took the place 
of the one ordinarily held in the first month, 
there could be no supplementary passover for 
such as were unclean ; so Hezekiah preferred 
that the people should break the letter of the 
Law and eat without being sanctified than that 
they should be debarred from such an im- 
portant festival and so be unfaithful to the 
spirit of the divine Legislation. 

20. Healed] i.e. did not send upon them 
the punishment which they had incurred : cp. 
Lvl5 w . 

25. The strangers] i.e. proselytes of foreign 
descent, who either had come out of the 
northern kingdom or were settled in Judah. 



CHAPTER 31 

Reign of Hezekiah (continued) 

This c. gives an account of Hezekiah's re- 
organisation of the Temple service. 

2. Appointed the courses] The succession 
(see 1 Ch 23-26) had been suspended during 
the idolatry of the previous reigns, and re- 
quired to be rearranged. The tents of the 
LORD] The phrase is borrowed from the con- 
ditions that prevailed in the wilderness. 

3. The king's portion, etc.] The king set 
an example to his subjects by providing for 
the sacrifices named, for which see Nu28, 29, 
whilst the people were required to support the 
priests (according to Nul8). 

6. That dwelt in the cities of Judah] The 
provincial population, as distinguished from 
the inhabitants of the capital. The tithe of 
holy things] The words tithe of have been 
accidentally repeated from the preceding ; they 
are omitted in v. 12. 11. Chambers] i.e. some 
of the side chambers that surrounded the 
Temple. 14. Toward the east] RY ' at the 
east gate ' : cp. 1 Ch 26 17 . 

15. To give to their brethren] The general 
sense of vv. 15-18 is that the officers named 
in v. 15 distributed to all the priests who 
dwelt in the priestly cities a share of the 
people's offerings, those alone being excluded 
from sharing, who, whilst in their courses at 
Jerusalem, were supported at the Temple 
itself : these, including priests, Levites and 
their families, are referred to in vv. 16-18. 

16. Beside] i.e. excepting. Genealogy] i.e. 
list. 

19. Also of the sons of Aaron, etc.] The 
meaning is that the six persons named in v. 15 
furnished support to the priests and Levites 
who dwelt outside the cities, as well as to those 
who dwelt within them. 

CHAPTER 32 
Reign of Hezekiah (concluded) 

This c. abbreviates the account of Sen- 
nacherib's invasion as related in 2K18 13 -20 21 , 
but supplements it by various particulars re- 
specting Hezekiah's preparation to meet the 
attack. 

3. To stop the waters, etc.] The chief spring 
which was thus stopped (or ' hidden ') was the 
fountain of Gihon : see v. 30. 4. The brook] 
lit. ' torrent- valley.' The Gihon spring was in 
the ravine of the Kidron. 

6. The street of the gate] RV ' the broad 
place at the gate ' : where the people were 
wont to assemble. 

9. After this] The Chronicler omits all 
account of the surrender of Hezekiah related 
in 2K 18i 4-16. 

18. They cried] i.e. the 'servants' of v. 16. 

In the Jews' speech] see 2K18 26 . 



266 



L 22 



% CHRONICLES 



22. Guided them] LXX has ' gave them 
rest,' which suits the context better. 

24. In those days] In vv. 24-26 the writer 
summarises very briefly what is related at 
length in 2K20 Isa38. 

30. Brought it, etc.] better, ' stopped the 
upper spring of the waters of Gihon and 
brought them straight down' (or, 'under- 
ground ') ' westward to the city of David.' 
Gihon lay to the E. of Jerusalem, and Heze- 
kiah conveyed its waters by a subterranean 
aqueduct to the pool of Siloam at the foot of 
the Temple hill. 

31. The ambassadors] i.e. of Merodach- 
baladan, the king of Babylon: see 2K20 12f - 
Isa39. 

32. And in the book of the kings, etc.] The 
conjunction and should be omitted, the vision 
of Isaiah being incorporated in the book of 
the kings of Judah and Israel, like the ' book 
of Jehu the son of Hanani ': 20 34 . 

33. In the chiefest] RY ' in the ascent ' : i.e. 
on the road that led up to the sepulchres. 

CHAPTER 33 
The Reign of Manasseh 

This c. repeats, with certain omissions, 
2K 21 ; but the section v. 11-17, relating the 
captivity in Babylon, repentance, and release 
of Manasseh, is supplementary to the account 
in 2K. 

6. Observed times] R Y ' practised augury ' : 
perhaps, as the original suggests, by watching 
the motions of clouds. 

8. So that] RV ' if only ' : God's promises 
to Israel were conditional upon its obedience. 

11. Among the thorns] RM 'with hooks' : 
a monument still exists which shows the 
Assyrian king Esarhaddon leading two captives 
by hooks or rings put through their lips. 

To Babylon] This city was for the most 
part subject to Assyria until the overthrow of 
the Assyrian power in 607 B.C. Shortly before 
648 the brother of Asshurbanipal (who is pro- 
bably the king of Assyria alluded to in this v.) 
revolted, and received support from some of 
the Palestinian states ; but the insurrection was 
suppressed, and if Manasseh had been among 
those who aided the insurgents, he may well 
have been punished in consequence. The 
Assyrian inscriptions, though they mention 
that Manasseh was a vassal of Assyria, do not 
refer to the events here related. 

13. Brought him again, etc.] i.e. by prompt- 
ing the Assyrian king to restore him to his 
throne. Such leniency on the part of Asshur- 
banipal finds a parallel in his conduct towards 
Necho, an Egyptian feudatory prince, who was 
taken captive for intriguing against his suzerain, 
but was subsequently restored to his country. 

14. A wall without . . David] RY 'an outer 
wall to the city of David.' The fish gate] 



This was in the N. wall of the city ; through it 
fish is supposed to have entered from Tyre. 

16. Commanded . . to serve the Lord] In 
spite of Manasseh's reformation here related, 
Jeremiah subsequently declared that his sins 
had not been expiated, and that the nation was 
doomed to destruction in consequence : Jer 1 5 4 . 

18. His prayer] What purports to be Ma- 
nasseh's prayer is preserved in the Apocrypha, 
but is not considered genuine. 19. The say- 
ings of the seers] This fellows the LXX. The 
Heb. has ' the sayings of Hozai.' 20. In his 
own house] LXX has ' in the garden ' (or 
' park ') ' of his own house ' : cp. 2K21 18 . 

CHAPTER 34 
Reign of Josiah 

The c. narrates how Josiah suppressed idola- 
try and repaired the Temple ; how a book of 
the Law, found in the Temple, was read to 
the king and the people ; and how the nation's 
covenant with the Lord was renewed. 

This c. and the following are, in general, 
parallel to 2K22, 23 i' 30 , with some unim- 
portant variants ; but the Chronicler gives 
more prominence than the writer of 2 Kings 
to the passover celebrated by Josiah. 

3. In the twelfth year] In 2 K the abolition 
of the ' high places ' is described as subsequent 
to the repair of the Temple, and the latter is 
assigned to Josiah's ' eighteenth ' year : 2 K 
223 235,8. 

5. Burnt the bones] This was believed to 
afflict the souls of the dead priests, as well as 
to desecrate the shrines at which they had 
ministered. The condition of the spirit after 
death depended in a large measure upon the 
treatment sustained by the body. 6. With 
their mattocks] A slight alteration gives ' in 
their ruins ' (so RY), i.e. the desolate sites of 
the cities destroyed by the Assyrians. 

9. And they returned to Jerusalem] Another 
reading is ' and of the inhabitants of Jerusalem.' 

11. The houses] i.e. the Holy Place and 
the Holy of Holies : cp. 1 Ch 28 " 29 4 . 

22. In the college] RY ' in the second 
quarter ' (of the city). It has been suggested 
that this may have occupied the upper end of 
the Tyropcean valley, W. of the Temple. 

CHAPTER 35 
Reign of Josiah (concluded) 

This c. contains an account of how Josiah 
celebrates the Passover, and how he provoked 
Necho the king of Egypt, and was slain at 
Megiddo. 

1 . On the fourteenth day] Josiah's passover,un- 
like Hezekiah's, was kept at the prescribed time. 

3. Put the holy ark, etc.] The following 
words suggest that during the repair of the 
Temple, it had been removed and committed 
to the care of the Levites. 



267 



35. 4 



2 CHRONICLES 



4. According to the writing, etc.] The re- 
ference is to the arrangements described in 
ICh 23-26 2Ch8 14 . 5. According to the di- 
visions, etc.] The sense is 'let there be for 
each family of the people a portion of a 
Levitical family to minister.' 6. Prepare your 
brethren] EV ' prepare for,' etc. The killing 
of the passover victims by the Levites for the 
laity, which was exceptional in Hezekiah's 
time (30 17 ), had now become customary. 

12. Removed] Perhaps they separated 
those parts (the fat, etc.) of the victims which 
were to be burnt. If so, these sacrifices were 
not strictly ' burnt offerings,' for in such, the 
whole of the victim was consumed by fire. 

15. They might not depart] RV 'they 
needed not to depart.' 

18. There was no passover, etc.] Hezekiah's 
passover had surpassed all that had preceded 
it (30 26 ), but Josiah's exceeded even that. 

20. Against] better, ' at.' Necho's purpose 
was to share the spoils of the falling Assyrian 
empire. Nineveh was taken by the Babylo- 
nians about 607. 21. He sent ambassadors, 
etc.] Necho's remonstrance to Josiah against 
interfering in the war between himself and the 
Babylonians, the conquerors of Assyria, is not 
recorded in 2K. 

22. Disguised himself] The same is related 
of Ahab in 18 29, but LXX has 'strengthened 
himself.' From the mouth of God] The writer 
regards Necho's words as a divinely-sent warn- 
ing, which Josiah disregarded to his cost. 

24. All Judah . . mourned] It is possible 
that this is the ' mourning of Hadadrimmon 
in the valley of Megiddo,' alluded to in 
Zech 12ii. 

25. Made them] i.e. those in authority 
made such lamentations an ordinance. In the 
lamentations] probably not the book that 
bears this name, but a composition now lost. 

CHAPTER 36 
The Fall of Jerusalem 

This is a brief record of the reigns of Jehoa- 
haz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, and 
of the destruction of Jerusalem. 

The first twenty vv. of this c. are abbre- 
viated from 2 K 23 3 °-25 21 , with some variations 
of statement. 

6. Nebuchadnezzar] He was the son of 
Nabopolassar, the conqueror of Nineveh. 

Bound him in fetters] This is not recorded 



36.22 



in Kings. Perhaps this was the ' purpose ' of 
the invasion described in 2K242, but Jehoia- 
kim may have averted the threatened con- 
sequences by a timely surrender. The state- 
ment of Chronicles is followed in Dan 1 1» 2. 

8. That which was found in him] i.e. his 
offences : cp. 1 K 1 52 . 

9. Eight] 2K248 has 'eighteen,' which, as 
he was married (2 K 2415), is doubtless correct. 

10. His brother] In reality Zedekiah was 
brother to Jehoiachin's father Jehoiakim 
ICh 3 is. 

12. Jeremiah the prophet] For Zedekiah's 
disregard of Jeremiah's warnings see Jer 
34 8f. 37 2 38 W«. Contrast the attitude of Ahab 
towards Elijah, as described in lK21 2 ~-29. 

13. Made him swear] Ezekiel refers to this 
in 1713. 

14. Moreover, etc.] In vv. 14-16 the writer 
briefly explains the causes which led to the 
final destruction of Jerusalem and its in- 
habitants. For instances of the abominations 
of the heathen see 2 K 21 7, and what is implied 
in IK 15 1' 2 22 4 6. 

15. Rising up . . sending;] In the OT. such 
expressive anthropomorphisms are common ; 
thus it is related that the Lord ' walked ' in 
the garden of Eden (Gn3«), ' smelled ' Noah's 
sacrifice (Gn8 2 i), 'came down' to see Babel 
(G-n 1 1 5), etc. Yet nowhere is the infinite dis- 
tance separating God from human limitations 
and frailty more forcibly asserted ; see Nu 23 " 
Isa55 9 . 16. Mocked the messengers] In the 
reign of Jehoiakim the prophet Urijah was put 
to death ( Jer 26 20-23) 7 and in the reign of Zede _ 

kiah, Jeremiah underwent much persecution 
(Jer 37, 38). 

18. All the vessels, etc.] i.e. all that survived 
the spoliation described in v. 10. 

20. The reign . . Persia] i.e. until the over- 
throw of Babylon by Cyrus in 538. 21. To 
fulfil threescore and ten years] If the period of 
70 years is reckoned from the time when Jere- 
miah's prophecy was uttered (Jehoiakim's 4th 
year, 605 B.C.) till the return of the Jews to 
their own land in 536, the prediction (for which 
see Jer 25 11 29 1°) was almost exactly fulfilled. 
Between the final destruction of Jerusalem in 
586 and the Return just 50 years elapsed. 

22. Now in the first, etc.] vv. 22, 23 are 
identical with the opening words of Ezra (1 1- 3 ), 
and end in the middle of a sentence. (For the 
notes see the passage in Ezra.) 



268 



EZRA AND NEHEMIAH 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 



i. The period of the Exile. The contents of 
Ezra and Nehemiah are separated from the 
last events in the previous historical writings 
by an interval of 50 years. The books of 
Chronicles, like the books of Kings, virtually 
:lose with the capture of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
ihadrezzar and the deportation of a large 
lumber of its inhabitants into Babylonia. 
There they were probably gathered into 
colonies or settlements at various places, such 
is Tel-abib (Ezk3 15 ), Tel-melah, Tel-harsha 
(Ebt2 59 ), Casiphia (Ezr8 17 ), and others. So 
long as they remained quiet subjects they 
were not, as a rule, persecuted or enslaved. 
They were at liberty to cultivate the land 
ind to acquire servants (Jer29 5 Ezr2 65 ) ; 
md, to judge from the value of the con- 
tributions made for religious purposes (Ezr 
.265,69 Zech6 10 > n ), some must have accumu- 
lated considerable wealth. On the other 
nand, those who were disaffected and insubor- 
dinate brought upon themselves cruel punish- 
ments (Jer 29 22 ) ; and several passages in the 
prophets imply that many of the exiles were 
not unacquainted with harsh conditions of 
service (Isal4 3 47 6 ). 

Jewish religious life in the time of the Exile 
was distinguished from that of the pre-exilic 
period by the suspension of the sacrificial 
J system. Not only was the Temple at Jerusalem 
destroyed — the place which the Lord had 
shosen to put His name there — but the captive 
(Jews were withdrawn from the actual soil of 
Israel and were dwelling in an ' unclean land ' 
(cp. Am7 17 ), where acceptable sacrifices could 
not be offered. They maintained, however, 
■such religious ordinances as the sabbath and 
circumcision ; and the cessation of material 
oblations probably intensified rather than im- 
paired the practice of prayer. Reflection upon 
the calamities sustained by their race must 
have deepened their sense of national sin ; and 
,the lessons of experience at last bore fruit in 
the gradual eradication of their propensity 
towards idolatry. The hope of a future restor- 
ation to their own country led to an increasing 
study of the ceremonial law which circum- 
stances prevented them from carrying out in 
the present ; and the loss of national inde- 
pendence enhanced the interest attaching to 
the records of their past greatness, some of the 
| historical books (including the books of Kings) 
being completed during this period. 



The Exile was brought to a close when the 
Babylonian empire fell before Cyrus, prince of 
Anshan or Elam. Cyrus, though an Elamite, 
was connected by descent with the Persian 
house of AchaBmenes ; and he not only became 
master of Media (in 549 B.C., through the 
deposition of Astyages), but subsequently of 
Persia likewise. In character he was courage- 
ous, magnanimous, and pious ; and when he 
advanced to attack Babylon (then ruled by 
Nabunahid, or Nabonidus, a feeble prince), 
his career was watched with intense interest 
by the Jews, who regarded him as their des- 
tined deliverer. In 538 he took possession of 
Babylon, which surrendered peaceably ; and 
when Nabonidus, who had fled, was captured, 
the Jews passed under the rule of a new lord. 
The way in which their expectations respecting 
Cyrus were fulfilled forms the subject of the 
opening narrative of the book of Ezra. 

2. Political and Religious Conditions after 
the Return. When the Jewish people returned 
from exile their political condition was very 
unlike what it had been before the Fall of 
Jerusalem and the deportation of its inhabit- 
ants. With those events the national exist- 
ence which they had enjoyed for many centuries 
came to an end ; and though a number cf them 
were restored to their country by Cyrus they 
remained subjects of the Persian empire. 
Jerusalem and the surrounding districts were 
under the control of a governor (Pehah or 
Tirshatha), who, though he might be occasion- 
ally a Jew, must often have been an alien. 
And whilst the Persian rule was probably in 
general not oppressive, various circumstances 
must have made the position of the Jewish 
community rather a hard one. They were 
surrounded by a hostile population, who seized 
every opportunity of bringing them into dis- 
favour with the Persian authorities. They 
were for the most part poor (the richest men, 
according to Josephus, having remained in 
Babylon), and the land they cultivated, which 
was naturally not very fertile, had doubtless 
suffered from neglect ; and yet they not only 
had to pay tribute, custom, and toll to the 
royal exchequer (Neh5 4 Ezr7 24 ), but had to 
contribute to the support of the local governor. 
And the pressure of external hardship was 
aggravated by internal friction. The poorer 
classes, to meet the payments required of them, 
had to borrow of their more prosperous 



269 



INTRO. 



EZRA and NEHEMIAH— EZRA 



INTRO. 



neighbours at a high rate of interest, and the 
latter enforced to the full the rights which the 
Jewish laws conferred upon the creditor over 
an insolvent debtor. Many, to support them- 
selves, had not only to part with their fields, 
but with their families, who were sold into 
bondage. The bitter feelings created by this 
situation might have had serious results, had 
it not been for the prudence and self-sacrifice 
of Nehemiah. who from 445 to 433 was Tir- 
shatha. By his exhortation and example he 
succeeded in averting the social divisions that 
at one time threatened the people ; and though 
some of the measures he adopted to safeguard 
the religion of his countrymen did not conduce 
to friendly relations with their neighbours, 
his statesmanship ensured during the tenure 
of his authority not only the security but the 
contentment of the community 

In religion the Jews enjoyed a degree of 
freedom denied them in civil affairs. When 
they returned to Jerusalem they were author- 
ised by Cyrus to restore the Temple ; and 
though some years elapsed before the Temple 
was actually reconstructed, the altar of the 
Lord was set up as soon as they were once 
more settled in their own land, and the system 
of sacrificial worship, which had been sus- 
pended during the Exile, was re-organised. 
But though the religious life of the com- 
munity again flowed in its old channels, its 
general tenor was in some respects unlike what 
it had previously been. Three points of 
difference may be noticed here. (a) The 
proneness to adopt alien religious rites, or to 
worship the Lord by means of material sym- 
bols, which was so common before the Exile, 
disappeared after the Return. The severe 
national judgment which they had sustained, 
and the experience of polytheism which they 
had acquired in Babylon, seem to have con- 
firmed them finally in their allegiance to the 
God of their fathers and in the principles of 
spiritual religion ; and the protests against 
idolatry, so frequently required in earlier 
times, are henceforward seldom heard, (b) 
Prophecy, which in pre-exilic days had been 
so conspicuous a feature in their religious 



history, now declined in importance ; and 
though several prophets did arise in the course 
of this period, they were more circumscribed 
in the range of their thoughts and less 
vigorous and original in the expression of 
them. In some respects the diffusion of a 
knowledge of the Law among the people at 
large rendered the need of such exceptional 
teachers less urgent, their places as moral and 
religious instructors being, in a measure, filled 
by the scribes, (c) Ritual was regarded differ- 
ently by the leaders of religious thought be- 
fore and after the Exile, in consequence, no 
doubt, of a difference in the needs of the times. 
When Israel enjoyed national independence, 
there was less need to emphasise the external 
features distinctive of Jewish worship, the 
prophets being chiefly concerned to insist upon 
the moral conditions demanded by the Lord 
of His worshippers. But after the Exile, when 
the nation had lost its independence, it was 
only by its ecclesiastical organisation and 
observances that its separateness as a com- 
munity could be maintained, and therefore 
increased importance was attached to the 
ceremonial requirements of the Law. 

List of Kings of Babylon and Persia 

B.C. 

Babylon — Nebuchadnezzar . . 604 

Captures Jerusalem . 586 

Evil Merodach . .561 

Nergal Sharezer . . 560 

Labashi Merodach . . 556 

Nabunahid . . . 555 

Fall of Babylon . . 538 

Persia — Cyrus, king of Babylon . 538 

Cambyses . . . 529 

Pseudo-Smerdis . . 522 

Darius Hystaspis . .521 
Xerxes .... 485 

Artaxerxes Longimanus . 464 

Sogdianus . . . 424 

Darius Nothus . . 423 

Artaxerxes Mnemon . 405 

Artaxerxes Ochus . . 358 

Arses . . . .337 

Darius Codomannus . 335-330 



EZRA 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Character and Contents. The book of 
Ezra was combined by the Jews with the book 
of Nehemiah, tli<' two being regarded as con- 
stituting a Bingle work, of wliich Ezra himself 
was the reputed author. In the Hebrew Bible 



they both precede Chronicles ; but it is prob- 
able that with the latter they form a consecu- 
tive history of which Chronicles is the first 
half. The close connexion between these three 
books is shown, not only by the way in which 



270 



INTRO. 



EZRA 



1. 1 



the closing verses of Chronicles are practically 
repeated in the opening verses of Ezra, but by 
(a) a common interest in statistics and gene- 
alogies ; (b) a common sympathy for the ecclesi- 
astical side of Jewish life ; (c) a common use 
of certain phrases (e.g. ' father's house ') which 
are comparatively rare elsewhere. If the three 
are all portions of one single work the com- 
position of it cannot be earlier than the close 
of the 4th cent. ; for, as has been seen, Chroni- 
cles must be as late as 340 B.C., whilst Nehemiah 
contains a reference (12 n > 22 ) to the high priest 
Jaddua, who was contemporary with Alexander 
the Great (336-323). Consequently, since Ezra 
cannot have outlived the 5th cent. B.C., his 
authorship of the connected books is out of 
the question ; and the writer is really unknown. 
The book of Ezra relates the history of the 
Jewish people from their return under Zerub- 
babel from Babylon to their own country in 
536 to the arrival at Jerusalem of a second 
body of exiles under Ezra in 458, and includes 
an account of the building of the Second 
Temple. It thus covers a period of rather 
more than 78 years ; but of these the 15 years 
between 535 and 520 and the 58 years between 
516 and 458 are practically a blank ; so that 
it is less a continuous record than a description 
of selected incidents. 

2. Sources. The principal sources employed 
in the compilation of the book are (a) the 
actual memoirs of Ezra, distinguished by the 
use of the first person (7 27 -9 15 ) ; (b) genealogies 
and registers (2, 10 18 " 44 ) ; (c) extracts derived 
from documents written not in Hebrew but in 
Aramaic (4 7-6 !8 7 12 ' 2 6). 

3. Value. The historical importance of Ezra 
is very great, since it is the chief authority for 
the period of Jewish history with which it 
deals. Though the work of which it forms 
part is separated by a considerable interval 
from some of the events narrated, it makes 
use (as has been just shown) of earlier docu- 
ments, and, for some portion of the time covered 
by it, it draws upon records composed by one 
of the principal actors in the incidents de- 
scribed. Nor is its religious value inferior to 
its secular interest. As a record of the past 
it recounts the fulfilment of one of the most 
remarkable predictions of Hebrew prophecy, 
namely, the restoration to their own land of 
the exiles who 50 years before had been 
carried into captivity ; it relates the establish- 
ment at Jerusalem of the community to which 
the world owes the preservation, arrangement, 
and completion of the Hebrew Scriptures ; 
and it marks the beginning and development 
of that intense attachment to the Mosaic Law 
which became so conspicuous a feature of 
Jewish religious life in after times. And as 
a means of conveying practical instruction the 
book is animated with a spirit of fervid patriot- 



ism, of uncompromising adhesion to principle, 
and of loyal devotion to God. The character 
of Ezra in particular exhibits qualities deserv- 
ing much admiration — deeply-rooted personal 
piety conjoined with a high regard for ecclesi- 
astical order and the external rites of religion, 
and unwavering faith manifesting itself in, and 
through, active works. 

CHAPTER 1 
The Return of the Jews from Captivity 

The c. narrates how Cyrus, king of Persia, 
permitted the Jews in Babylon to return to 
Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple there, and 
restored the vessels taken from it. 

1. Now, etc.] The book of Ezra begins with 
the last words of 2Ch; vv. 1, 2 and the first 
half of v. 3 occurring in 2Ch36 22 . 23 . The 
three books, Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, 
were probably at first continuous, in this order ; 
but subsequently the arrangement in the He- 
brew Bible was altered to Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
Chronicles, Ezra being placed first in order to 
form a sequel to the history contained in 
Kings. 2 Chronicles was then made to con- 
clude with the same words that form the 
beginning of Ezra. 

In the first year of Cyrus] i.e. of Cyrus' rule 
over Babylon, 538 B.C. 

The word of the LORD . . Jeremiah] see Jer 
29 10 25 11 ' 13 ; cp. also Ezkll^ 37 * 2 . The 
period of the Captivity was described by Jere- 
miah as 70 years and by Ezekiel as 40 (4 6 ). 
Its actual duration, reckoned from the Fall of 
Jerusalem in 586, was about 50 years, but the 
interval between the destruction of the Temple 
and its restoration in 516 (Ezr6 15 ) was almost 
exactly 70. The accordance of the event with 
predictions uttered so long before witnesses to 
the remarkable faculty of prevision possessed 
by the Hebrew prophets, inasmuch as there 
was nothing (so far as can be judged) within 
the political horizon at the time when the 
predictions were made to create such an 
expectation. 

The LORD stirred up, etc.] Josephus states 
that the divine will respecting the Jews was 
made known to Cyrus by the prophecies of 
Isaiah (see Isa44 28 45 1_4 , where Cyrus is styled 
' the Lord's servant ' and ' the Lord's anointed '). 
Be this as it may, God's purposes were fulfilled, 
whatever may have been the motives by which 
the Persian king was consciously actuated. 
From the inscriptions it appears that Nabuna- 
hid (Nabonidus), the last king of Babylon, had 
caused great discontent by removing to his 
capital the gods of various cities, and that 
Cyrus sent them back to their respective sanctu- 
aries ; and the restoration of the sacred vessels 
(v. 7) of the Jews, whose God was not repre- 
sented by any image, was doubtless part of 
the same policy. The permission given to the 



271 



1. 2 



EZRA 



2.64 



Jews themselves to return to Jerusalem to re- 
construct the Temple there conciliated a number 
of people who might otherwise have been a 
source of danger to the empire. The old idea 
that Cyrus as a Zoroastrian had sympathy with 
the religion of the Jews is disproved by evidence 
from the monuments. 

2. The LORD God . . hath given me] Cyrus 
showed great regard for the religious senti- 
ments of his various subjects ; and just as in 
his inscriptions it is represented to the Baby- 
lonians that he had obtained his victories 
through Merodach their chief god, so here in 
a decree issued to the Jews his success is as- 
cribed to the Lord. But it is possible that the 
Hebrew colouring of the decree is due to a 
Hebrew scribe, commissioned to make it intel- 
ligible to his countrymen, rather than to its 
royal author. 

4. Whosoever remaineth] RV ' whosoever ' 
(of the captive people) ' is left ' (cp. Neh 1 2 ), 
there being an allusion to the remnant of Israel. 

The men of his place] i.e. his Babylonian 
neighbours (v. 6). 

5. Whose spirit, etc.] It was only a small 
proportion of the exiled Jews who were in- 
spired with such zeal for their land and the 
sanctuary of their God as to exchange the com- 
fort of Babylon for the desolation of Judaea. 
In this passage those who took advantage of 
Cyrus' decree are represented as belonging to 
Judah and Benjamin only, but there were also 
among them some from Ephraim andManasseh: 
lCh9 8 . 

7. Had brought forth] see 2 K 2413 2Ch36 7 . 

8. Sheshbazzar] It seems probable that this 
was the Persian or Babylonian name of Zerub- 
babel (2 2 ). In favour of the view that the 
same person is designated by the two names is 
the fact that the foundation of the Temple is 
ascribed to both (5 16 3 8 ), whilst the double 
name may be paralleled by the instances of 
Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah (Dan 1 6 > 7 ), 
E 1 iakim, and Mattaniah (2 K 23 34 24 H) But 
some distinguish between the two (as is done 
in 1 Esdr 6 18 ), and either regard Sheshbazzar 
as identical with Shenazzar the uncle of Zerub- 
babel (2Ch3i 8 .™), or take him to be a Persian 
commissioner accompanying Zerubbabel (for 
although he is here called the prince of Judah, 
i.e. the representative of Judah's royal line, 
the LXX in 5 14 styles him l the guardian over 
the treasure,' or ' treasury'). 

9. Chargers . . knives] The words probably 
mean different kinds of vessels. 

CHAPTER 2 
The Names and Number of those who 

RETURNED 

i. The province ] i.e. the Persian province 

of Judaja (f> s ). Had carried away] in 597 B.C. 
and 58G B.C. Every one unto his city] i.e. to 



the provincial towns. This process can only 
have taken place very gradually. 

2. Zerubbabel] for his relation to Shesh- 
bazzar see on I s ; for his ancestry see on 3 2 . 
The list of names that follows is repeated, with 
some variants, in Neh7 7 - 73 . Jeshua] the high 
priest, called by Haggai ' Joshua.' The names 
in this v. number 11, but in the corresponding 
passage in Neh (7 7 ) they amount to 12, and are 
probably intended to be symbolic of the 12 
tribes of Israel (cp. 6 17 ), the number of 
which was recalled at a later date by the 12 
he-goats offered as a sin-offering at the dedi- 
cation of the restored Temple (6 17 ), and by 
the sacrifices described in 8 35 : cp. also the ex- 
pression ' all Israel ' in 2 70 . Nehemiah] not 
the Nehemiah of Nehl 1 . 

3-9. The names in these w. are those of 
families. 16. Of Ater of Hezekiah] i.e. the 
descendants of Ater through Hezekiah, one of 
his sons. 

20-35. The names in these vv. are those of 
localities. 29. Nebo] not the Nebo in Reuben, 
E. of the Jordan (Nu323S), but situated in 
Judah, identified by some with Nob (IsalO 32 ), 
by others with the modern Nuba, S. of Jeru- 
salem. 31. The other Elam] in contrast to 
the Elam of v. 7. 

36-39. Of the four priestly houses here 
named, one, Pashur, is not among the 24 enu- 
merated in 1 Ch 24 7 " 18 , but is probably a branch 
of the house of Malchijah (1 Ch24») : see Neh 

1112. 

40. Seventy and four] The small number be- 
trays a backwardness on the part of the Levites 
similar to that which they manifested on a sub- 
sequent occasion : see 8 15 . 42. The porters] 
they kept the Temple gates (1 Ch 9 17 ). 43. The 
Nethinims] i.e. Temple servants : see Neh8 17 , 
and on 1 Ch9 2 . 55. The children of Solomon's 
servants] probably descendants of the native 
Canaanites employed by Solomon on his build- 
ings: see 1 K9 21 . 59. Tel-melah, etc.] localities 
in Babylonia. 

62. Sought their register, etc.] i.e. sought 
their entry among those who were enrolled as 
being Israelites of pure descent. As polluted] 
Only those were admitted to the priesthood 
who could prove their descent from Aaron, 
in accordance with Nu3 10 16 40 . 

63. The Tirshatha] i.e. Zerubbabel, the title 
meaning 'governor,' perhaps one subordinate 
to a ' satrap.' Eat of the most holy things] 
the privilege of the priesthood only (Nu 1 8 s '"). 
Till there stood up, etc.] In early limes the 
high priest used to enquire of the Lord by 
Urim and Thummim : see on Ex 28 30. 

64. Forty and two thousand, etc.] The total 
number hen- given disagrees with the sum of 
the items, which only amounts to 29,818 (in 
Neh? 68 , 31,089, the difference perhaps being 
due to textual errors). 



272 



2. 65 



EZRA 



4.2 



65. Singing men, etc.] These were minstrels 
employed on secular occasions (cp. Eccl2 7 > 8 ), 
distinct from the singers of v. 41, who were 
intended for the Temple. 

69. Drams] The dram (Gk. drachma), like 
the pound (ma?ieh), was a weight, equivalent to 
the Hebrew half-shekel. The pound contained 
100 drams. Some authorities render the word 
translated ' dram ' by daric, a gold coin worth 
a guinea. A pound of silver was worth 
about £4. 

70. Dwelt in their cities] i.e. occupied several 
of the provincial cities. Some scholars have 
held that only a few (if any) Jews returned to 
Jerusalem in the reign of Cyrus (whose decree 
in Ezr6 3 " 5 only directs the construction of 
the Temple, not the restoration of any exiles), 
and that the Temple was not begun as re- 
lated in c. 3, but built for the first time in 
the reign of Darius by the remnant of the 
people left in Judaea (Hag 1 12,1* Zech8Mi). 
There seems, however, no adequate reason to 
question the substantial truth of Ezr 1-3. 

CHAPTER 3 

The refounding of the Temple 

1. The seventh month] i.e. Sept.-Oct. of (pro- 
bably) 537 B.C. 

2. Jeshua] called in Hagl 1 'Joshua.' His 
father Jozadak had been carried into exile by 
Nebuchadnezzar (1 ChO 15 ). Son of Shealtiel] 
In 1 Ch3 19 Zerubbabel is called the son of 
Pedaiah, the brother of Shealtiel (Salathiel). 
The discrepancy may be explained by the 
suppositions (a) that he was the real son of 
Pedaiah and the legal son of Shealtiel (Pedaiah 
having married Shealtiel' s widow, according to 
the law of Dt25 5f -), (b) that he was grandson 
of Shealtiel and son of Pedaiah, (c) that he 
was grandson of both. But LXX of 1 Ch3 19 
makes him the son of Shealtiel (Salathiel), in 
agreement with the evidence of this passage 
and of Hag 1 1 . 

Builded the altar] Possibly an effort had 
for a time been made to continue the worship 
of the Lord on the site of the Temple after 
its destruction (see Jer41 5 ) ; but the altar 
erected had apparently been overthrown. The 
Jews now proceeded to restore it, in order to 
have the privilege of public worship whilst 
the Temple was in course of reconstruc- 
tion. As it is . . Moses] Special sacrifices were 
enjoined for the 1st day of the 7th month 
(Nu29i-6). 

3. Fear] i.e. of interruption from the 
enemy. 4. The feast of tabernacles] This be- 
gan on the loth day of the 7th month, and 
lasted 7 days, followed by a solemn assembly 
on the 8th day : Nu29 12f . 5. Both of] better, 
1 and the offerings of ' : see Xu 28, 29. 

7. And meat and drink, etc.] cp. 1 Ko 6 ' 11 
regarding Solomon's Temple. To the sea 



of Joppa] RV ' to the sea, unto Joppa ' : cp. 

2Ch2ie. 

8. In the second year] probably 536 B.C. The 
second month would correspond to April-May. 

9. Jeshua] not the ' Jeshua ' of v. 8 (who 
was high priest), but a Levite (2 40 ). 10. The 
ordinance of David] This is set forth in 1 Ch 
25 1 '• 1 6 4 -6. 1 1 . Together] R V « one to another ' : 
i.e. antiphonally. 

12. Wept] Though the younger among the 
people were filled with hope, now that the 
house of the Lord was once more established 
in their midst, the older, who could remember 
the earlier Temple, destroyed about 50 years 
before, wept at the contrast to it which was 
presented by the meanness of the new build- 
ing, and the inadequate resources available for 
its completion : cp. Hag2 3 Zech4 10 . 

Some scholars have questioned whether the 
foundations of the Temple were really laid by 
Zerubbabel in the second year after the Return, 
as related in vv. 8-10, on the ground thatHaggai 
and Zechariah seem to imply that it was not 
begun until the 2nd year of Darius Hystaspis 
(520 B.C.) : see Hag 2^ Zech8 9 . But the lan- 
guage of the prophets is sufficiently explained 
if it is assumed that only a commencement 
was made in 536, that the progress of the 
work was very soon suspended, and that the 
renewal of it in 520 was practically a fresh 
start, as indeed the book of Ezra itself declares 
it to have been (5 2 ). 

CHAPTER 4 
Feud between the Jews and Samaritans 
This c. describes the desire of the Samari- 
tans to take part in the rebuilding of the 
Temple, and their successful opposition to the 
Jews on their request being refused. 

1. The adversaries] The term is here anti- 
cipatory of the opposition subsequently dis- 
played. The people thus designated were the 
Samaritans, who, in the main, were the de- 
scendants of the immigrants who, to replace 
the Israelite population that had been deported 
after the fall of Samaria, had been introduced, 
first of all by Sargon, from Babylon, Cuthah, 
and other places (2K17 24 ), and also at a later 
date by Esarhaddon and Asshurbanipal (vv. 
2, 10). But there must likewise have been 
mingled with them a certain number of native 
Israelites, who had been left behind in the 
country by their Assyrian conquerors. 

2. We seek your God] A priest had been 
brought back from captivity to teach them how 
to fear the Lord (2K17 2 s,32,33). We do 
sacrifice unto Him] so one reading of the Heb., 
followed by the LXX, the clause expanding 
the plea of common worship. Another read- 
ing is ' yet we do no sacrifice,' the argument 
implying that they had hitherto had no oppor- 
tunity of offering acceptable sacrifices, but 



18 



273 



4.3 



EZRA 



5.1 



now desired to do so at Jerusalem, the only 
lawful sanctuary. Esar-haddon] the successor 
of Sennacherib (681-668 B.C.). Assur] i.e. 
Assyria. 

3. As king Cyrus, etc.] The fact that they 
were not authorised to extend to others the 
privileges conferred upon them by Cyrus was 
probably not the only motive that actuated 
the Jews. They no doubt felt that to admit 
to closer association such a hybrid community 
as the Samaritans, with their mixture of 
Hebrew and heathen rites of worship, would 
neutralise the impulse in the direction of 
purity of religion which they had derived 
from their experiences as exiles. 4. The 
people of the land] i.e. the Samaritans and the 
other hostile neighbours of the Jews ; the annoy- 
ances they caused are referred to in Zech 8 10 . 

5. The reign of Darius] i.e. Darius Hys- 
taspis, the third in succession to Cyrus, who 
was followed on the throne by Cambyses, 
Gomates (who personated Smerdis, and is con- 
sequently often styled Pseudo-Smerdis), and 
Darius, in the order named. Darius reigned 
from 521-485, so that the rebuilding of the 
Temple was interrupted for fifteen or sixteen 
years (536-520). 

6. Ahasuerus] i.e. Xerxes (485-464), the 
successor of Darius Hystaspis. 

7. Artaxerxes] i.e. Artaxerxes Longimanus 
(464-424), the successor of Xerxes. Since 
both Xerxes and Artaxerxes lived after Darius 
Hystaspis, to whom v. 24 probably refers, and 
to whose reign the contents of c. 5 belong, 
the section, vv. 6-23, departs from the chrono- 
logical succession of events either in conse- 
quence of some accidental misplacement, or 
because the writer has in view a comprehen- 
sive summary of the several occasions when 
opposition was offered to the Jews by their 
enemies. The charge made in this section 
against the Jews is not the building of the 
Temple (the subject of which is resumed in 
v. 24 and c. 5), but the fortification of Jeru- 
salem (v. 12), either by Nehemiah (as related 
in the book of Neh) or by a body of Jews who 
came from Babylon before him, perhaps those 
who accompanied Ezra (see c. 7). Some, who 
consider the chronological sequence in this c. 
to be unbroken, identify the ' Darius ' of v. 24 
with Darius Nothus (423-405) ; whilst others, 
who take vv. 6-23 to be a detailed explana- 
tion of the opposition summarised in v. 5, 
identify Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes with Cam- 
byses and Gomates, the two kings who came 
between Cyrus and Darius Bystaspis. 

7. In the Syrian tongue, etc.] RV ' written 
in the Syrian (Aramean) character, and set 
forth in the Syrian (Aramean) tongue? Ara- 
mean was the chief medium of communi- 
cation between the different peoples of the 
East : cp. 2K18 2 «. 



8. Rehum . . Shimshai] It is not clear 
whether vv. 7, 8 refer to more than one letter 
sent on different occasions by the enemies of 
the Jews, or to a single letter written by the 
persons named in v. 7 (who were presumably 
Samaritans) and communicated through the 
Persian officials named in v. 8. 

9. Dinaites] The identification of most of 
the peoples mentioned in this v. is uncertain. 
The Susanchites were the natives of Shushan, 
the capital of Elam. 10. On this side] RV 
'beyond' (and so in vv. 11, 16, 5 3 . 6 8 36 ), re- 
garded from the point of view of the Persian 
court. 11. At such a time] R V ' and so forth ' 
(and so in vv. 11 and 17). 12. Joined the 
foundations] RY ' repaired the foundations.' 

13. So thou shalt endamage] RY ' in the end 
it will endamage.' 14. We have . . palace] 
lit. ' we have salted the salt of the palace ' : cp. 
the term ' salary,' from solarium, ' money given 
to provide salt.' 

15. The book of the records] For such see 
6 2 . A rebellious city] This, so far as it was 
true, applied to Jerusalem only under Baby- 
lonian rule (see 2K24 1 . 20 ). But the circum- 
stances of the time rendered the walling of 
the city suspicious, since Egypt, which lay so 
near, had recently been in revolt. 

24. The second year . . Darius] 520 B.C., 
if, as is most probable, Darius Hystaspis is 
meant, as in v. 5 (the closing words of which 
are here repeated). But some suppose Darius 
Nothus (423-405) to be intended. 

CHAPTER 5 

The building of the Temple 

recommenced 

This c. gives an account of a renewed at- 
tempt to rebuild the Temple, and recites a 
letter from the Persian officials in Judaea to 
the Persian court to enquire whether the Jews 
had leave to proceed with the work. 

I. Then the prophets] The hostility of their 
neighbours (4 4 > 5 ), coupled with disastrous 
seasons (Hag 1 10 » n 2 17 ), had so discouraged 
the people that they said ' The time is not 
come for the Lord's house to be built ' (Hag 1 2 ). 
Out of this despondency they were roused by 
two prophets, whose presence amongst them 
must of itself have convinced them that the 
Spirit of the Lord was once more with 
them. 

Haggai] The prophecies of .Haggai were all 
delivered in the second year of Darius. In 
them he upbraided the people for building 
substantial houses for themselves whilst neg- 
lecting the House of God ; attributed to such 
neglect the prevalent scarcity, which was God's 
judgment upon them ; and when the work was 
once again taken in hand by Zerubbabel, pre- 
dicted that ihe glory of the second Temple 
would exceed that of the first. 



27 1 



5.2 



EZRA 



7.1 



Zechariah] The prophecies of Zechariah 
(who was really son of Berechiah and grandson 
of Iddo) were delivered at intervals between 
the second and fourth years of Darius. In 
them he consoled his countrymen for their 
afflictions, denounced God's wrath upon the 
nations who had oppressed Jerusalem, en- 
couraged with hopes of a great future both 
Zerubbabel and Joshua in their work of re- 
building the Temple, and exhorted the people 
to truth, justice, and mercy. 

In the name . . even unto them] EM ' in the 
name of the God of Israel which was upon 
them ' : cp. Jer 14 9 (which is lit. ' thy name is 
called upon us '). 

2. Began to build] It had really been begun 
sixteen years before (3 sf -), but the work having 
been suspended, it had to be recommenced. 

3. Tatnai] perhaps the satrap of all the 
Persian possessions W. of the Euphrates (the 
'river'). 4. Said we] better, with the LXX, 
) said they.' 

5. They could not cause them to cease] Tatnai 
could not venture to arrest a work which was 
alleged to have the sanction of Cyrus (v. 13), 
though he cautiously sent to Persia to have 
the statement verified. Till the matter came, 
etc.] RY ' till the matter should come to 
Darius, and then answer should be returned.' 

13. Cyrus the king of Babylon] The king 
of Persia included Babylon within his domi- 
nions : cp. Nehl3 6 . 14. Sheshbazzar] i.e. 
Zerubbabel : see on 1 8 . 

CHAPTER 6 

Completion and Dedication of the 
Temple 

This c. relates the authorisation of the con- 
struction of the Temple, and the completion 
of the work. 

2. Achmetha] i.e. Ecbatana in Media. 

3. Threescore cubits, etc.] The dimensions 
here given, which considerably exceed those of 
Solomon's Temple (1K6 2 ), perhaps marked 
the limits beyond which the builders were not 
to go. 4. With three rows, etc.] cp. 1K6 36 , 
which suggests that these materials were used 
in the construction of the Court, not of the 
edifice, of the Temple. Out of the king's 
house] i.e. from the king's resources : cp. 7 20 . 

6. Now therefore, etc.] At this v. the decree 
of Darius begins. 7. The governor of the 
Jews] i.e. Zerubbabel (Sheshbazzar), who was 
subordinate to Tatnai (5 3 ). 10. Sacrifices of 
sweet savours] cp. Gn8 21 Ex29 18 . r2. To 
alter] i.e. the decree. 14. Artaxerxes] The 
Temple was really completed in the reign of 
Darius (v. 15), but Artaxerxes (464-424 B.C.) 
bestowed treasure upon it (see c. 7). 

15. Adar] February-March. 
The sixth year] i.e. 51 6 B.C. The Temple, 
which was begun for the second time in the 



second year of Darius, 520 B.C. (Hagl 14 » 15 ), 
had taken more than four years to finish. No 
complete description of it is forthcoming, but 
some information respecting it can be derived 
from allusions. If the measurements given in 
the decree of Cyrus (6 3 ) were actually adopted, 
it must have been larger than that of Solomon 
(1 K6 2 ), but otherwise it was much inferior to 
it (3 12 Hag2 3 ). Like the earlier structure, it 
consisted of a Holy of Holies and a Holy 
Place, before each of which hung a vail 
(lMac4 51 ) ; whilst it had in front of it more 
than one court (lMac4 3 MS). The Holy of 
Holies was empty (the ark being lost) ; but 
the Holy Place contained the golden altar of 
incense, the candlestick, and the table of shew- 
bread, together with various vessels (1 Mac 1 22 ). 
In one of the courts was the altar of burnt- 
offering, constructed of ' whole stones ' (1 Mac 
4 4 ' r ) ; and round the Temple building there 
were chambers, for the use of the priests and 
the storage of provisions (Ezr 8 29 10 6 NehlO 34 
135 lMac4 3 8). 

17. Twelve he goats] The number (see 
Nu 7 87 ) was representative of the twelve tribes 
of Israel, though only a few of them had 
returned from their exile and were present at 
the festival. 20. For the priests, etc.] better, 
' for the priests had purified themselves, and 
the Levites, as one man, were all of them 
pure.' Killed the passover for all] i.e. the 
Levites, who in Hezekiah's time killed the 
passover lambs only for such as were not clean, 
now killed them for all alike, both priests and 
laity. 

21. All such as had separated, etc.] cp. 
1 n Neh 1 28 . The allusion is to the Israelites 
left in the country when the flower of the 
population was removed by Nebuchadnezzar 
to Babylon, who had become contaminated by 
the surrounding heathen, but now detached 
themselves from them. 22. The king of 
Assyria] i.e. Darius, whose predecessors had 
conquered Babylon, the mistress of Assyria. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Journey of Ezka to Jerusalem 
1. Now after .. Artaxerxes] The interval 
of time here implied amounted to more than 
fifty years, from the sixth year of Darius 
(516 B.C.) to the seventh year of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus (458 B.C.). Between the reign of 
Darius and" Artaxerxes there intervened the 
reign of Xerxes (485-464 B.C.), to which belong 
the incidents related in the book of Esther. 
In the early years of his successor Artaxerxes 
an effort was made to surround Jerusalem, 
with a wall (see 4 12 ), though with no success. 
Probably to the same period should be assigned 
the ministry of the prophet Malachi. From 
his writings it may be gathered that the religious 
and moral condition of the Jewish community 



275 



7.6 



EZRA 



8.18 



at Jerusalem was very unsatisfactory. The 
people were divided into two sections, the one 
scrupulous in their religious duties, the other 
sceptical and indifferent (Mai 3 13 ). The latter 
party had contracted marriages with heathen 
women (2 n ); oppression and immorality were 
prevalent (3 5 ) ; the Temple services were 
neglected (1 6 " 14 ) ; and the maintenance of the 
priesthood stinted (3 8 " 10 ). Against the con- 
tinuance of these evils the prophet raised a 
strong protest, denouncing divine judgment 
upon the offenders, but promising that God's 
blessing would attend them upon their refor- 
mation (3 10 4 1-3). 

Ezra . . Seraiah] Ezra was a descendant of 
the Seraiah who was chief priest in the reign 
of the last king of Judah (2K25 18 ). His 
genealogy as given in vv. 1-5 is abbreviated by 
the omission not only of all the generations 
separating him from Seraiah, but also of many 
of those between Seraiah and Aaron : cp. 
lCh63-is. 

6. This Ezra] Ezra, as his history shows, was 
a devout and zealous ecclesiastic, of passionate 
temperament, strong religious faith, and rigid 
principles, who, though he met with temporary 
failure, in the end permanently influenced the 
thoughts and habits of his countrymen. A 
ready scribe] Ezra belonged to the class of 
literary men, who, being acquainted with the 
art of writing, had, in the time when the nation 
was independent, furnished its statesmen with 
their secretaries (2 S 8 17 1 K 4 3 2 K 18 18 ), but 
now that its political life had ceased, were 
students of the Law, which they copied, and 
interpreted (cp. Neh8 7 ). All his request] 
The nature of this is implied in the letter of 
Artaxerxes (vv. 12-26). 

q. Began he to go up] better (by a slight 
correction), ' he fixed the going up.' The 
actual journey was not begun till the twelfth 
day (8 31 ). The first month] i.e Nisan. ( = Mar.- 
April). The fifth month] i.e. Ab ( = July- 
August). The journey, which lasted some 
three months and a half, was probably made 
by way of the Euphrates to Carchemish, then 
across to Hamath, and so southward along the 
Orontes. The distance was about 900 m. 

io. To teach in Israel] Ezra, though like 
Zerubbabel he led a body of settlers to Jerusa- 
lem, is never styled ' Tirshatha ' (as Zerubbabel 
is in 2 68 ), and his mission appears to have had 
purely religious ends in view. The* Jews who 
remained in I Jabylon, and who were surrounded 
by a population wholly heathen, were marked 
off from their neighbours by a much deeper 
Line of cleavage than were the Jews of Pales- 
tine and a higher Btandard of religions devotion 
prevailed amongst them : consequently when 
the religions laxity of the people of Jerusalem 
became known ;it Babylon, Ezra was sent to 
enquire into it (v. 14), to introduce reforms, 



and, by authority of the Persian king, to en- 
force the observance of the Law by means of 
penalties (v. 26). 

12. King of kings] The same title was used 
by the kings of Babylon (Ezk 26" Dan 2 37). Per- 
fect peace, and at such a time] better, ' the 
whole ' (of the usual heading) ' and so forth.' 

13. His priests] RV ' their (i.e. Israel's) 
priests.' 14. His seven counsellors] In Esth 
1 14 mention is made of seven princes 'who saw 
the king's face and sat the first in his kingdom.' 

16. Canst find] i.e. obtain from the native 
Babylonians and Persians : cp. 1 4 > 6 . 

22. Talents . . measures . . baths] The ' tal- 
ent ' used by the early Hebrews weighed 96 lb., 
the Persian talent was 66 lb. A ' measure ' 
(Heb. cor) contained 83 gallons, a ' bath ' a 
little more than 8 gallons. The wheat, wine, 
oil, and salt were required for the sacrificial 
offerings: see Ex29 40 Lv2 13 . 23. Why should 
there be wrath, etc.] The piety of the Persian 
kings led them to seek the favour of the 
deities worshipped by the different nationalities 
under their sway: cp. 6 10 . 26. Banishment] 
or exclusion from the congregation: cp. 10 s . 

27. Blessed be the LORD, etc.] This intro- 
duces Ezra's thanksgiving for the king's letter. 
His gratitude to God is conspicuous throughout 
the passages in this book which proceed directly 
from him (e.g. 8 18 > 22 >3i), and is reflected in the 
account of the historian (7 6 > 9 , etc.). 

CHAPTER 8 
Particulars of Ezra's Company 

1. Them that went up] The sum of the 
numbers given is 1,496. Only males are men- 
tioned, and if no women accompanied them, 
the absence of such doubtless increased the 
tendency that the people manifested to inter- 
marry with heathen families. 2. Hattush] 
This should be connected closely with the 
following clause, Hattush being grandson of 
Shecaniah: lCh3 22 . 3. Of the sons of Pha- 
rosh] Most of the families in this list also 
appear (with some variations) in c. 2 and Neh 7 
as having contributed members to the body of 
immigrants that accompanied Zerubbabel in 
the reign of Cyrus. 13. Of the last sons of 
Adonikam] perhaps those who belonged to 
the youngest branch of Adonikam's house. 

15. Ahava] This was the name both of a 
town and of a river (v. 21) in Babylonia, on 
the road to Palestine. None of the sons of 
Levi] Only a small number of Levites had 
previously accompanied Zerubbabel (2 36 ). 

17. Casiphia] unidentified, but presumahlv 
aear Babylon. And to his brethren the Nethi- 
nims] The text is defective, and should 
probably be corrected to 'and to his brethren 
(i.e. the Levites) and to the Nethinim.' 18. Of 
the sons of Mahli] Either the name of the 
' man of understanding ' has dropped out of 



276 



8. 22 



EZRA 



10.44 



the text, or else this expression itself represents 
a proper name, Ish-sechel : so EM. 

22. The enemy in the way] probably such 
marauders as were accustomed to attack 
defenceless travellers: cp. v. 31. 24. Shere- 
biah, Hashabiah] These were Levites, not 
priests (Nehl2 24 ), so that the individuals 
selected were twenty-four in all, twelve priests 
and twelve Levites : cp. v. 30. 26. Six hun- 
dred and fifty talents, etc.] The value of the 
offerings mentioned in this and the following 
v. is so great (approaching a million sterling), 
that exaggeration or textual corruption may 
be suspected. 

30. Took . . silver] i.e. took the silver 
weighed out to them (v. 26). 33. By the 
hand of] RY ' into the hand of ' : the persons 
named being those with whom the silver 
brought from Babylon was deposited. 34. By 
number . . of every one] RY ' the whole by 
number and by weight.' 36. The king's 
commissions] i.e. the directions intended for 
the royal treasurers (7 21 ). Lieutenants] lit. 
1 satraps.' 

CHAPTER 9 

Ezra's Indignation at Intermarriages 

with the Heathen 

I. The Canaanites, etc.] In the Law it was 
only with the various Canaanite nations that 
marriage was altogether forbidden (Ex34 12 " 16 
Dt7 1 - 3 ). David was descended from a union 
between an Israelite and a Moabitess (Ruth 1 4 
4 17 ), and Solomon had married an Egyptian 
princess without reproach (1K3 1 ). But the 
principle which excluded alliances with certain 
nations was doubtless felt to be applicable to 
others also, and Solomon's marriages with 
women of the Moabites and Ammonites had 
certainly been attended with calamitous results 
(1K11M). 

3. Plucked off the hair] Baldness artificially 
produced was a sign of mourning: Isal5 2 
2212 Jerl6^ Am8!0 Job 1 20. 8. A nail] a 
figure for security : cp. Isa22 23 . In his holy 
place] i.e. Jerusalem : cp. Ps 24 3 Isa 56 7 57 13 . 

9. We were bondmen] RY ' we are bond- 
men ' : i.e. subjects of the Persians : cp. Neh 
9 36 . A wall] i.e. protection (RM ' a fence '). 

II. The filthiness of the people] The iniquity 
of the Canaanite peoples, whose land Israel 
had taken in possession, is alluded to in G-n 15 16 
Dt9 5 : cp. also 1K21 2 <3. 

13. Such deliverance] RY ' such a remnant.' 
15. For we . . escaped] better, 'for we are 
left but a remnant that is escaped.' God's 
righteousness had been vindicated by the almost 
complete destruction of the guilty people ; but 
His mercy had been manifested in the survival 
of a few who were now imperilling themselves 
by fresh offences. 



CHAPTER 10 
The Foreign Wives are divorced 

3. According to the law] see Dt24 1 ~ 2 , which 
required a bill of divorcement. 5. The chief 
priests] RY ' the chiefs of the priests ' : see 
2Ch30H 

6. Johanan] If the Eliashib meant is the 
contemporary of Nehemiah (13 4 > 7 ) and Jo- 
hanan was really his grandson (not his son, see 
Nehl2 22 ), he must have lived a long while 
after Ezra, and consequently the description 
of the chamber, here alluded to, as the chamber 
of Johanan applies not to the time of Ezra, 
but to that of the compiler of the book. But 
it is possible that another Johanan is intended. 

8. Forfeited] lit. 'placed under the ban.' 
Goods that were ' banned ' were brought into 
the treasury of the Lord (Josh 6 19 ). For the 
authority under which these proceedings were 
undertaken see 7 26 . 9. The ninth month] i.e. 
Chisleu ( = Nov. -Dec). In Palestine rain falls 
regularly in December, and on this occasion 
was perhaps heavier than usual. 13. We are 
many, etc.] better, ' we have greatly trans- 
gressed.' 14. Let now our rulers . . stand] i.e. 
as a committee to see into the question of 
the divorces. 15. Were employed about] RY 
' stood up against.' The opposition was not 
really strong. 16, 17. The tenth month . . the 
first] i.e. Tebeth (= Dec. -Jan.) and Nisan 
(= Mar.- Apr.). 

18. Of the guilty there were 17 priests, 10 
Levites, singers and porters, and 86 laymen, 
making a total of 113. 25. Of Israel] i.e. of 
the laity, as contrasted with the priests and 
Levites. 44. Some of them, etc.] The text is 
obscure and perhaps corrupt : the LXX renders 
' and had begotten children by them ' ; whilst 
1 Esdr 9 36 has ' and they put them away with 
their children.' 

The harsh measures here described were 
adopted by Ezra and his supporters owing to 
the necessity of preserving the distinctive faith 
of their race from being contaminated by, and 
finally lost in, the heathendom that surrounded 
it. A small and feeble community, deprived 
of national independence, was peculiarly ex- 
posed to external influences ; and Ezra might 
well fear that the proneness to idolatry from 
which his countrymen had been purified by 
the exile might revive, if marriage alliances 
were permitted with the neighbouring peoples, 
whose women, in the words of Malachi (2 n ), 
were ' the daughters of a strange god.' 

Nothing further is related of Ezra himself 
after this attempt to prevent mixed marriages 
until his reappearance in company with Nehe- 
miah in 444 (Neh 8 x ) ; and nothing is known 
for certain respecting the condition of affairs 
in Judaea between the last events here recorded 
and the arrival of Nehemiah at Jerusalem, as 



277 



10. 44 



EZRA— NEHEMIAH 



narrated in Neh 2. But one section of this 
book (4 6 - 23 ) shows that in the reign of Arta- 
xerxes an endeavour was made to rebuild the 
fortifications of the city by a body of Jews 
who had recently arrived there (v. 12), and it 
is natural to connect this body with those who 
accompanied Ezra. The offence given to the 
peoples with whom intermarriage had lately 
been prohibited would render it desirable to 
secure the safety of the reforming party and 



it may well have been to them that the scheme 
for surrounding the place with a wall was due. 
As has been seen, it was frustrated through 
information being sent respecting it to the 
Persian authorities ; and if Ezra was in any 
way thought to be responsible for it, it is 
easily intelligible that his influence was in 
consequence impaired, and he himself forced 
into the obscurity in which the history leaves 
him. 



NEHEMIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Character and Contents. The book of 
Nehemiah, as has been already noted, probably 
forms part of a single work embracing Ezra, 
Nehemiah, and 1, 2 Chronicles, and its date, 
therefore, is that of the larger whole (perhaps 
about 330-320 B.C.). Its contents are separ- 
ated from those of Ezra by an interval of thir- 
teen years, so that the rule which the writer 
has previously observed of confining his history 
to an account of a few critical periods is again 
followed here. The record comprises Nehe- 
miah's visit to Jerusalem in 445, his repair of 
the city walls, and the measures taken by him 
to secure obedience to the Law. The latest 
date in his life mentioned in the narrative is 
the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes, 433 B.C. 

(5 14 )- 

2. Sources. The chief sources referred to, 
or implied, in the book are (a) the memoirs of 
Nehemiah (11-7$ 1227-43 134-31). (j) geneal- 
ogies and registers, partly incorporated in the 
memoirs just described, and partly reproduced 
by the compiler (3, 76-73 i()i-27 121-26). 

3. Value. The book of Nehemiah carries 
the history of the Jewish people down to a 
later date than any other of the avowedly his- 
torical works in the canon of the OT. Its 
interest is manifold, since it describes not only 
the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, but 
the reconstruction of the Jewish ecclesiastical 
organisation ; and as an authority for the events 
it relates, is first-rate, since it is largely based 
upon contemporary materials. And its value is 
augment » il by its vivid portrayal of the noble 
character of Nehemiah himself. His career 
presents an exceptional combination of strong 
self-reliance with humble trust in God, of pene- 
trating shrewdness with perfect simplicity of 
purpose, of persistent prayerfulness with the 
most energetic activity ; and for religious faith 
and practical sagacity he stands conspicuous 
among the illustrious personages of the Bible. 



CHAPTER 1 

III News from Jerusalem. Nehemiah's 
Prayer 

1. The words] better, ' the history.' Some 
thirteen or fourteen years separate the visit of 
Nehemiah to Jerusalem, recorded in this book, 
from that of Ezra which is related in Ezr7. 

Nehemiah] Nehemiah, as stated in v. 11, 
occupied an important position at the Persian 
court, seems to have been a favourite with the 
king, and probably possessed considerable 
wealth (5 14f -)- Unlike Ezra (who was of 
priestly family and a student), he was a lay- 
man and a man of action. His career shows 
that he was self-reliant (2 12 ), energetic (chs. 
3, 4), shrewd (c. 6), and masterful (c. 13) ; but 
his vigour and determination were directed not 
to the promotion of his own interests, but to 
the service of his countrymen, for whom he 
made great sacrifices. His religious faith was 
strong, and his prayerfulness is repeatedly illus- 
trated in the narrative : see l 4 2 4 4 4 > 9 , etc. 

The month Chisleu] i.e. November-Decem- 
ber. In the twentieth year] i.e. of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, to whom reference is made in 
Ezr4 7 7 1 . The year intended is probably 
reckoned to begin with the month of his acces- 
sion, not with the first calendar month Nisan. 
since the events that happened in Chisleu, the 
ninth month, are related before those that 
occurred in Nisan, 2 1 . The date is 4-lf>. But 
some scholars regard twentieth in this c. as an 
error for 'nineteenth' (44G B.C.). Shushan] i.e. 
Susa, in Elam. The term palace is strictly 
fortress,'' or 'castle.' 2. Which were left 
etc.] i.e. the Jews dwelling at Jerusalem. 

3. The province] Judaea was now a province 
of the Persian empire (Ezr5 8 ). The wall. . 
broken down] This is most naturally explained 
by the supposition that some recent attempt 
had been made to fortify Jerusalem, which 



278 



1.4 



NEHEMIAH 



3. 22 



had been forcibly stopped ; and such an attempt 
seems described in Ezr 4 "-' 23 . But some autho- 
rities suppose the allusion to be to the destruc- 
tion of the walls by the Babylonians in 586, 
some 140 years before. 

4. Prayed] Neheniiah's prayer consists of 
a confession of sin, an appeal to God's promises, 
and an entreaty for help in the undertaking he 
contemplated. 

CHAPTER 2 

Nehemiah's Resolve to rebuild 

Jerusalem 

This c. gives an account of Nehemiah's 

request for leave to rebuild Jerusalem, his 

arrival there, and his survey of the ruined 

walls, which it was decided to restore. 

1. Wine was before him] LXX has ' wine 
was before me,' implying that it was Nehe- 
miah's turn to act as cup-bearer (the king 
having several). This would explain why 
Artaxerxes had not observed his servant's sad- 
ness during the four months that had elapsed 
since the arrival of the news from Jerusalem. 

2. Sore afraid] i.e. for the success of his in- 
. tended request. 6. I set him a time] Nehe- 
miah's absence seems to have lasted twelve 
years (5 14 ). 7. Convey me over] R Y ' let me 
pass through,' i.e. the Persian provinces be- 
tween Shushan and Judaea. 8. The king's 

' forest] RM ' park,' identified by some with 
certain gardens at Etham, some 6 m. from 
Jerusalem, in which (according to Josephus) 
j Solomon used to drive. The palace] RY ' the 
castle ' : and so in 7 2 . This was situated on 
the N. of the Temple (the house), and sub- 
sequently called (by Herod) ' Antonia.' 

9. Captains of the army] Nehemiah as Tir- 

shatha or governor (8 9 10 *) was invested with 

civil and not, like Ezra, ecclesiastical authority 

j only ; and consequently was attended by a 

1 body-guard : contrast Ezr 8 22 . 10. The Horon- 

' ite] so named either from Beth-horon or 

Horonaim. Nothing is known of Sanballat 

beyond what is related in this book. Heard 

of it] Nehemiah on his way to Jerusalem had 

probably passed through the Samaritan colony 

of which Sanballat was leader (4 x - 3 ). 

12. At Jerusalem] RY ' for Jerusalem.' 

13. Viewed the walls of Jerusalem] The 
topography of ancient Jerusalem is too obscure 

I to admit of the various parts of its walls being 
1 identified with certainty, but ' the valley gate ' 
from which Nehemiah issued on his survey 
was at the SW. corner of the SW. hill, and 
opened into the valley of Hinnom. From it 
f he pursued his course first along the south 
wall, and next along the eastern wall, up the 
side of the 'brook' (v. 15), i.e. the Kidron. 

14. There was noplace] The ground was so 
rough and encumbered with fallen masonry 
that he could not follow the line of wall 

279 



closely. 15. Turned back] presumably along 
the N. wall, so as to make the circuit of the 
city. 

19. Geshem] called ' Gashmu ' in 6 6 ; he 
was doubtless an Arab sheikh. Will ye rebel ?] 
The same construction had been put upon the 
Jews' proceedings on a previous occasion : 
Ezr4 13 . 20. Ye have no portion] Nehemiah's 
words had reference to the desire which the 
Samaritans once had to unite with the Jews 
(Ezr 4 1-5). 

CHAPTER 3 
Particulars respecting the Rebuilding 

1. Then, etc.] For the purposes of repair the 
wall was parcelled out between a number of 
working parties consisting of various important 
families, the inhabitants of certain towns, and 
different professional and trading bodies. The 
description of the several sections of the wall 
begins near the Temple at the sheep-gate, 
through which the flocks used to be driven for 
sacrifice. The writer's purpose in enumerat- 
ing all who undertook to rebuild these sections 
is to put on record the names of those who 
devoted their labour and their substance to 
restoring the city which protected Jehovah's 
sanctuary, and to challenge the emulation of 
later generations. 

5. Their Lord] better, ' their lord,' i.e. 
Nehemiah. 7. Unto the, etc.] RY ' which 
appertained to the,' etc. Part of Mizpah was 
under the direct control of the Persian officer 
who governed the region W. of the Euphrates, 
whilst part was under Jewish rule (v. 15). 

8. The son of one of the apothecaries] better, 
'one of the perfumers.' They fortified] RM 
' they left,' meaning that the builders at this 
point left the fortifications untouched because 
they were in good repair, or that they de- 
parted in their reconstruction from the exist- 
ing ground-plan. 

9. Of the half part] RY ' of half the district,' 
the ruler of the other half being the Shallum 
of v. 12. 11. The other piece] RY 'another 
portion ' : and so in vv. 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 30. 

14. Part of] RY 'the district of ': and so in 
w. 15, 16, 17, 18. 15. The pool of Siloah] 
i.e. the pool of Siloam. The stairs] These 
were steps leading to the pool, perhaps from 
the Temple hill : cp. 1237. 

16. The sepulchres of David] i.e. the tombs 
of David's descendants and successors : cp. 2 Ch 
32 33. These were near the Temple (Ezk 43 7 > 8 ), 
probably NW. of the city. The pool that 
was made] perhaps the pool alluded to in 2 K 
20 30. The house of the mighty] perhaps the 
barracks of the soldiery. 17. In his part] RY 
' for (i.e. representing) his district ' (of Keilah). 

19. The armoury] the site of ' the house of 
the forest of Lebanon' (IK 10 ^,21 Isa228). 

22. The plain] better, 'The Plain,' the 



3. 23 



NEHEMIAH 



5. 11 



specific name of part of the Jordan valley 
(Gnl3i0). 

23. After him . . After him] EY ' After 
them . . After them.' 

26. Moreover] RY ' now,' the v. being par- 
enthetical. Ophel] the southern extremity of 
the Temple hill. The water gate] leading 
to the spring of Gihon in the gorge of the 
Kidron. 28. The horse gate] This, like the 
'water gate,' faced eastward (Jer31 40 ). 

31. The goldsmith's son] better, ' a member 
of the body of goldsmiths.' And of the mer- 
chants] better, ' and (after him repaired) the 
merchants.' 32. The sheep gate] The cir- 
cuit of the walls ended with the original 
starting-point (v. 11). 

CHAPTER 4 

The Machinations of the Enemies of 
the Jews 

1. Sanballat] His irritation at Nehemiah's 
arrival (2 10 ) was increased by the work accom- 
plished by the latter. 2. Fortify themselves] 
The same word as that used in 3 8 , with a like 
uncertainty of meaning. Some render ' will 
they (the Persian authorities) let them alone ? ' 
Will they sacrifice ?] i.e. in the hope of obtain- 
ing supernatural assistance. 4. In the land of 
captivity] Nehemiah's desire for the confusion 
of his enemies not unnaturally took the form 
of a wish that they might experience the fate 
which he and his countrymen had under- 
gone. 6. Was joined . . thereof] The circuit 
of the wall was completed and raised to half 
the intended height. 

7. The walls . . made up] RY ' the repair- 
ing of the walls . . went forward.' 9. We made 
our prayer . . a watch] Nehemiah and his fol- 
lowers, whilst commending themselves in 
prayer to God, took every precaution within 
their power. 10. Judah] i.e. the Jews. 

12. From all places, etc.] perhaps, ' from all 
places, Ye must return to us,' this being an 
appeal from the Jews of the neighbouring 
towns to their fellow-citizens who had gone 
to work at Jerusalem, summoning them to 
return for their protection. But LXX has 
1 From all places they come up against us.' 

13. On the higher places] RY ' in the open 
(i.e. exposed) places ' : where they could be 
seen to be on guard. 15. We returned] This 
implies that the enemy for a time abandoned 
the design described in v. 11. 16. Haber- 
geons] RV 'coats of mail.' 17. With those 
that laded] RY ' laded themselves ' : i.e. 
Laboured vigorously. Every one .. weapon] 
This clause probably refers to the second of 
the two classes named iii the beginning of the 
v., via, those that bare burdens. These with 
one hand carried materials and with the other 
held a missile. The ' builders ' (v. 18), on the 



contrary, who had to use both hands for their 
work, only wore swords. 

21. Half of them] This refers back to the 
servants mentioned in v. 16. 23. Men of the 
guard] i.e. the Persian guard attached to 
Nehemiah as governor : cp. 2 9 . Savi?ig that 
. . washing] RY renders, ' every one went icith 
his weapon to the water ' : whilst others sug- 
gest, ' every one sent for water ' ; but the text 
is too defective to be translated with certainty : 
the LXX omits the clause. 

CHAPTER 5 

Nehemiah's Measures in alleviation 
of Poverty 

I. The people] i.e. the commons (as con- 
trasted with the nobles and rulers, v. 7). 
These had neglected their own interests to 
labour gratuitously on the fortifications, and 
now in the time of dearth were feeling the 
pinch of want. 2. Therefore we take up corn] 
better, ' we must get corn.' The language is 
that of desperate men, compelled by necessity 
to accept the harsh conditions imposed by 
those to whom they had recourse for the corn 
they required. 

4. The king's tribute] The common people 
were not exempted from paying taxes to the 
Persian king, like the priests and other 
ministers of the Temple (Ezr7 24 Neh9 3r ). 

5. Our flesh, etc.] i.e. we are as much Jews 
as the creditors to whom we have sold our 
children. Bondage] The sale of children to 
defray a debt was recognised in the Mosaic 
Law : see Ex212-7 Dtl5 12f - ; cp. also 2K4*. 

7. Ye exact usury] Usury was prohibited 
by the Law in connexion with loans made to 
fellow-Israelites (Ex 22 25 Dt23 1 ») ; but the 
Jews doubtless interpreted the prohibition 
with the same latitude as Christians have done 
the similar command in the Gospel (Lk6 35 ). 
The Law probably had in view cases where 
money was borrowed under the pressure of 
misfortune, not as a help in commercial 
ventures ; and the like considerateness towards 
the necessitous is incumbent upon Christians. 

8. Have redeemed . . heathen] probably dur- 
ing Nehemiah's residence in Persia. 9. The 
reproach] the humiliation they had under- 
gone in consequence of their failure to walk 
in the fear of God. 

10. Might exact] RY ' do lend . . on usury.' 
Nehemiah, to conciliate those whom he wished 
to persuade, admitted that he (probably in the 
pet sons of his relatives and dependents) had 
been guilty of the same conduct against which 
he was protesting. II. Their lands, etc.] 
Thi se had been given in pledge, and, if unre- 
deemed, were retained by the creditor. The 
hundredth part] usually regarded as one per 
cent, a month, and so equivalent to twelve 
per cent, a year. The expression restore, in 



280 



5. 12. 



NEHEMIAH 



8. 11 



connexion with the interest, probably means 
'cease to require': cp. v. 12. Corn, wine, 
oil] i.e. interest paid in kind. 12. Took an 
oath of them] i.e. took of the money-lenders 
an oath which the priests administered to 
them. 13. Shook my lap] For similar sym- 
bolic acts cp. IK 22 11 Jer27 2 28 w. 

14. From the twentieth . . unto the two and 
thirtieth] i.e. from 445-433 B.C. The fact 
that Artaxerxes seems to have been unwilling 
to part with his cup-bearer for a long period, 
and stipulated for a date by which he was to 
return (2 6 ), makes it rather surprising that he 
should have thus been absent from court for 
twelve years ; but it is to be assumed that his 
leave of absence was extended by the king. 

The bread of the governor] i.e. the supplies 
due to the Persian governor from the people. 

16. Neither bought we] better, 'neither got 
we ' (by foreclosing mortgages). All my 
servants] He did not retain them to attend 
to himself or to his own interests. The whole 
conduct of Nehemiah was that of a warm- 
hearted, generous man. 

CHAPTER 6 

Attempts of Sanballat to hinder the 
completion of the walls 

2. Ono] near Lod (Ezr2 33 ), now Kefr 
Ana, some 25 m. from Jerusalem. 5. An 
open letter] in order that its contents might 
reach and intimidate others. 6. According to 
these words] better, ' and so forth ' (and so in 
v. 7), the quotation from the letter in v. 6 
ending with king. 

10. Who was shut up] perhaps meaning 
'ceremonially unclean': cp. Jer36 5 . She- 
maiah probably hoped that Nehemiah would 
conclude that only for the most urgent reasons 
would he under such circumstances make the 
proposal described. Within the temple] i.e. 
to seek asylum there (as Joab fled to the tent 
of the Lord, 1K2 28 ). n. Belugas I am] 
Only the priests might enter the Temple 
buildings. 15. Elul] The 6th month (August- 
September) of 445 B.C. 18. Arah . . Meshul- 
lam] see Ezr2 5 Neh3 4 . 

CHAPTER 7 
A List of those who returned from 

Babylon with Zerubbabel 
2. Hanani] after carrying information to 
Nehemiah respecting the condition of Jeru- 
salem (1 2 ), he must have returned with him to 
Judaea. 3. Until the sun be hot] By this time 
the mass of the citizens would be astir. While 
they stand by] RV ' while they (i.e. the sentries) 
stand on guard.' 4. The houses were not 
builded] i.e. the area of the city was not yet 
fully occupied with buildings. 

5. Reckoned by genealogy] It was proposed 
to take a census of all the persons of Jewish 



descent, with a view to transferring part of 
the country population to the capital. Par- 
ticulars derived from such a census appear in 
ll 4f . Here, however, the subject is for a 
time dropped, and the register that follows 
relates to the period of Zerubbabel (v. 7). 

7-73. The names here enumerated are re- 
peated, with certain small differences, from the 
list contained in Ezr2. 70. Basons] used in 
connexion with the sacrifices. Five hundred 
and thirty priests' garments] For this should 
perhaps be substituted ' five hundred pounds 
of silver and thirty priests' garments,' a change 
which would make the quantities named in 
vv. 70-72 approximate closely to those given 
in Ezr2 69 . 73. And when the seventh month 
came] These words in RV are connected with 
the subject of c. 8, the seventh month (Tishri) 
being probably the one immediately following 
the sixth (Elul) mentioned in 6 15 . 

CHAPTER 8 
The Reading of the Law by Ezra 

1. The street] RY 'the broad place' : and 
so in vv. 3, 16. The water gate] This prob- 
ably led to the spring of Gihon (the Yirgin's 
spring). 

2. Ezra] It has been argued in the note on 
EzrlO 44 that the effort to fortify Jerusalem 
described in Ezr4 6-23 was made whilst Ezra 
was present there, and that the failure of it 
destroyed for a time his influence among his 
countrymen. The interval that elapsed be- 
tween the destruction of the newly-built walls 
and Nehemiah' s arrival was probably not 
long, and during it Ezra may have remained in 
retirement at Jerusalem. Some, however, 
have supposed that after effecting the reforms 
described in Ezr9 and 10, he returned at once 
to Babylon, and only revisited Palestine after 
Nehemiah's arrival there. The absence of his 
name amongst those who helped to build the 
walls of Jerusalem (c. 3) has been urged in 
favour of this view ; but there would be little 
reason to distinguish his co-operation from 
that of the other priests (3 2 ). To bring . . of 
Moses] The teaching of the Law was the 
purpose of Ezra's journey to Jerusalem some 
fourteen years before. 

2. The first day of the seventh month] This 
was one of the festivals (cp. v. 9) of the New 
Moon, termed in the Law the Feast of Trum- 
pets, and kept with special rites : Lv23 24 > 25 
NU29 1 " 6 . 7. And the Levites] omit and. 

8. Gave the sense] i.e. with such additional 
explanation as was required for the people to 
understand what was read. 

9. The Tirshatha] i.e. governor. The same 
title was borne by Zerubbabel (Ezr2 63 ). All 
the people wept] from a consciousness of their 
transgressions which the reading of the Law 
had awakened. 11. Hold your peace] in order 



281 



8. 14 



NEHEMIAH 



10. 38 



to guard against uttering words ill-suited to a 
holy day. 

14. Should dwell in booths] This command 
in connexion with the Feast of Tabernacles 
(kept on the fifteenth day of the seventh month) 
occurs only in Lv23 42 . 15. The mount] 
better, 'the hill-country.' Pine branches] 
RY ' branches of wild olives ' (or oleaster). 

16. The roof of his house] This was flat, 
and available for walking or sleeping : cp. 
Dt228 1S9 25 2S112 16 22 . The gate of 
Ephraim] in the N. wall, facing the former 
kingdom of Ephraim. 

17. Since the days of Jeshua] i.e. of Joshua. 
The exceptional feature in this observance of 
the ancient Feast of Tabernacles seems to 
have been the dwelling in ' booths,' though the 
dwelling in ' tents ' had been previously prac- 
tised (cp. Hosl2 9 ). Either the command of 
Lv 23 42 had been disregarded, or it was a modi- 
fication of the older usage which had only 
recently been incorporated in the Law. 

CHAPTER 9 

The renewal of the Covenant 

4. Stairs] lit. ' ascent ' : probably the pulpit 

of wood mentioned in 8 4 . Bani . . Bani] One 

of the two names is probably an error for 

'Binnui' : cp. 12 8 . 

6. Thou, etc.] Before this LXX inserts 
' And Ezra said.' The prayer that follows 
first recalls God's early mercies to the nation, 
the unworthy return made for such, the divine 
forbearance, the people's renewed offences, 
and their consequent punishment ; it next 
acknowledges the justice of the chastisement 
undergone ; and it concludes with a solemn 
promise of future amendment. But though it 
is a confession of national sins and ends with 
a national covenant, the sequence of thought 
it presents might well be followed in private 
devotions. All their host] i.e. the stars : cp. 
Gnl 2 Isa40 26 . The host of heaven] i.e. the 
angels: cp. IK 2219. 

7. Didst choose] The religious privileges 
enjoyed by Israel could only be ascribed to 
the free grace of God, and such privileges 
carried with them corresponding responsibili- 
ties. The same is true of the advantages, 
material or intellectual, possessed by other 
peoples. 8. Righteous] i.e. faithful to Thy 
promises: cp. Ps40 10 . 16. They and our 
fathers] better, ' they, even our fathers.' 

22. Didst divide . . corners] RV 'which thou 
didst allot after their portions ' : i.e. according 
to their several boundaries. 26. Slewthypro- 
phets] see, for instance, lK18 4 19 10 2Ch2420-22 
Jer26 20 - 88 . 29. Withdrew the shoulder] like 
a restive <>x that refuses the yoke. 

32. The kings of Assyria] The kings of 
Assyria that distressed Israel were Shal- 
maneser II (to whom Jehu paid tribute), Tig- 



lath-pileser (2K15 29 ), Shalmeneser III and 
Sargon (2K17M), Sennacherib (2K18, 19), 
and perhaps Asshurbanipal (2Ch33 n ). Unto 
this day] The rule over Israel exercised by 
Assyria had been succeeded by that of Babylon 
and Persia. 33. Done right] RY 'dealt 
truly ' : i.e. faithfully : cp. v. 8. 

38. And because of all this] RY ' and yet 
for all this.' We make a sure covenant] The 
original covenant between Israel and the Lord 
made at Sinai (Ex 24) had been renewed by 
Hezekiah (2 Ch 15 12 ) and Josiah (2 Ch 3430-33). 
cp. also EzrlO 3 . Seal unto it] lit. (and the 
names of) ' our princes, etc., are on the sealed 
writing.' 

CHAPTER 10 

List of those who participated in 
the Covenant 

1. Now those that sealed icere] The names 
that follow Zidkijah's are those of families 
whose living representatives sealed on behalf 
of their houses. Several of these family names 
occur in the list of those who accompanied 
Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (c. 12). Zidkijah] 
The fact that his name is coupled with Nehe- 
miah's suggests that he was a person of import- 
ance, but nothing is known of him. 

29. To walk in God's law, etc.] The enact- 
ments of the Law which they more particularly 
undertook to carry out were those directing 
(a) abstention from marriage with aliens, (b) 
the observance of the sabbath and sabbatical 
year, (c) the provision of supplies for the 
Temple and its ministers. These enactments 
gained in importance from the circumstances 
of the times, for there was a persistent tend- 
ency on the part of many of the people both 
to form alliances with their heathen neighbours 
and to be indifferent to the external ordinances 
of religion (see Ezr 9 Neh 13). It was to coun- 
teract these evils that prominence was given to 
those regulations which were calculated to 
preserve the separateness of the Jewish race, 
and to accentuate the sacredness of their re- 
ligious institutions. The stress thus laid upon 
the ceremonial law was not due to any relapse 
from the spiritual faith of the prophets to the 
more material and mechanical ideas of primitive 
times, but was intended to impress upon the 
people a sense of the transcendent sanctity 
of the God with whom they enjoyed such 
privileged relations. 

31. Leave the seventh year] i.e. forego the 
produce of the land in that year. 32. The 
third part of a shekel] In Ex30 n - 16 the amount 
named is 'a half shekel' (cp. Mtl7 24 ), the 
change being perhaps dm' to an alteration in 
the weight of the shekel. 34. The wood 
offering] This is not specifically prescribed in 
the Pentateuch. Josephus speaks of it as a 
festival (the Xylophory). 38. The priest] i.e. 



282 



10. 39 



NEHEMIAH 



12. 38 



some priest was to attend when the Levites 
took their tithes. 39. Forsake] i.e. fail to 
provide for. 

CHAPTER 11 

Measures to supplement the Population 
of Jerusalem 
1. This v. resumes the subject of the paucity 
of population in Jerusalem: see 7 4 . The rulers 
were already residing in the capital, and means 
were now taken to transport thither a propor- 
tion of the commons that had made their homes 
in the country towns (v. 3). The city had 
received fortifications ; but these were useless 
unless they were manned. 

3. The province] i.e. Judaea : Ezr5 8 . 

4. At Jerusalem, etc.] The list that follows 
apparently enumerates the provincial families 
that removed to Jerusalem. It likewise occurs, 
with some variations in the names and figures, 
in 1 Ch 9 3 f . 9. Second over the city] presum- 
ably second to Joel : cp. v. 17. But some 
render, ' over the second quarter of the city ' : 
cp. 2K22 14 Zephl 10 . 14. The sen of one of 
the great men] RY ' the son of Haggedolim.' 

16. The outward business of] Perhaps the 
judicial administration described in 2Ch 
19 8 - 10 lCh26 29 . 17. Was the principal, etc.] 
i.e. led the praises of the Temple singers 
after prayer had been made. The second] 
i.e. to Mattaniah : cp. v. 9. 

20. This v. interrupts the account of the 
residents at Jerusalem : it should precede 
v. 25. 

22. The overseer, etc.] RY ' The over- 
seer . . the son of Micha, of the sons of Asaph, 
the singers, over the business,' etc. The words 
over the business are connected with overseer. 
The business meant is the conduct of the 
Temple services. 23. For it was, etc.] RM 
' for there was a commandment . . and a sure 
ordinance concerning the singers ' : The king] 
Artaxerxes: cp. Ezr 7 24 . 24. Was at the king's 
hand] Possibly Pethahiah was a royal officer, 
subordinate to Nehemiah, having charge of 
civil, as distinct from ecclesiastical, matters. 

25. The villages, with their fields] better, 
[ the villages in their fields,' i.e. the unwalled 
towns (Lv25 81 ). Most of the names that 
follow occur in Joshl5 13f . 31. From Geba 
dwelt] RY ' dwelt from Geba onward" 35. The 
valley of craftsmen] RM ' Gehaharashim,' 
another locality. 36. And of the Levites, etc.] 
RY ' and of the Levites, certain courses in 
Judah ' (i.e. formerly reckoned to Judah) ' were 
joined to Benjamin.' 

CHAPTER 12 
The Dedication of the Wall of 
Jerusalem 
1. The priests] The names in vv. 1-7 like- 
wise appear with some variations in lO 3-8 ; 



see also Ezr 2 30-39. 3. The Levites] cp. 10 9 ' 14 
Ezr 40 42 . Over the thanksgiving] RM 'over 
the choirs.' 

10. Jeshua] The high priest who returned 
with Zerubbabel. The succession of high 
priests is carried down to Jaddua, who was 
contemporary with Alexander the Great, so 
that the six generations cover the period from 
536 to about 340. Eliashib the grandson of 
Jeshua was contemporary with Nehemiah. 

12-21. The names that are repeated in these 
vv. from vv. 1-7 present certain variations. 

22. Johanan] probably the same as the 
'Jonathan' of v. 11. Darius] Since Jaddua 
was contemporary with Alexander the Great, 
the Darius here meant is probably Darius 
Codomannus, who was successively defeated 
by Alexander at the battles of the Granicus, 
Issus, and Arbela. 23. The book of the chroni- 
cles] some official record, not the ' Chronicles ' 
of the OT. 24. Jeshua the son of Kadmiel] 
to be corrected to ' Jeshua, Binnui, Kadmiel ' : 
see v. 8, 10 9 . Over against them] i.e. in the 
choir, where the singing was antiphonal. 

25. The thresholds] RY ' the storehouses.' 

26. In the days of Nehemiah] a date subse- 
quent to the days of Joiakim, for the high 
priest in Nehemiah's time was Eliashib, son of 
Joiakim. 

27. The dedication of the wall] It is reason- 
able to suppose that the dedication of the wall 
followed closely upon its completion (related 
in 6 15 ), so that the events described in chs. 8-10 
may be later than those narrated in this c, 
which from the use of the first person (vv. 31, 
38, 40) seems to be derived from Nehemiah's 
memoirs. 28. The plain country] better, ' The 
Plain ' (lit. ' circle '), i.e. the S. end of the 
Jordan valley : cp. 3 22 . Others suppose the 
word to be used here in a general sense of the 
circuit of country round Jerusalem. Netoph- 
athi] RY ' the Netophathites.' 29. The house 
of Gilgal] RY ' Beth-gilgal.' 

31. Two great companies, etc.] RY 'two 
great companies that gave thanks and went in 
procession.' Went on the right hand] The 
two companies probably mustered on the W. 
side of the city, facing eastward : the company 
on the right under Ezra then moved southward, 
whilst the company on the left under Nehemiah 
moved northward ; and the two eventually re- 
united on the E. of the city near the Temple. 

35. Zechariah] the overseer of the right- 
hand company, corresponding to Jezrahiah 
(v. 42) in the other. His descent from Asaph 
suggests that he was a Levite, not a priest, so 
that for ' namely, Zechariah ' should be substi- 
tuted 'also Zechariah.' 37. And at the fountain 
gate, etc.] better, ' and by the fountain gate 
and straight on.' 

38. Went over against therri] The words 
over against them should probably be altered, 



283 



12. 39 



NEHEMIAH— ESTHER 



INTRO. 



by an easy correction, to ' on the left hand ' 
(cp. v. 31), and the whole should run, ' and the 
other company . . which went on the left hand, 
and I and half of the people after it (went) 
upon the wall above the tower of the furnaces 
. . and above the gate of Ephraim and by the 
old gate and by the fish gate,' etc. 39. The 
prison gate] RV ' the gate of the guard.' 
40. In the house] better, ' at the house.' 
44. Out of the fields] RV l according to the 
fields ' : alluding to certain arrangements for 
storing. Portions of the law] RY ' portions 
appointed by the law.' 45. The ward] better, 
'the charge': cp. 2Chl3 11 . 46. In the days, 
etc.] LXX has ' in the days of David Asaph 
was of old chief.' 47. Every day his portion] 
RY ' as every day required.' Sanctified them 
unto] RY ' sanctified for ' : i.e. Israel set apart 
as holy certain portions for the Levites, and 
the latter for the priests. 

CHAPTER 13 

The Reform of Abuses 
The reforms embraced the separation of 
Israel from the mixed multitude and the 
abolition of certain abuses that had arisen in 
connexion with the chambers of the Temple, 
the provision for the Levites, the observance 
of the sabbath, and mixed marriages. 

1. On that day] the particular time intended 
is uncertain. Was found written] see Dt 23 3_6 . 

3. Separated] see Ezr9, 10. All the mixed 
multitude] cp. Ex 12 38 Nu ll 4 . The term may 
be illustrated by Ezr 9 2 , where ' mingled them- 
selves with the peoples of those lands ' is a 
kindred expression. 

4. Eliashib] previously mentioned in 3 1 12 10 . 
Chamber] RY ' chambers.' 6. The two and 

thirtieth year] i.e. 433 B.C. Obtained I leave] 
i.e. to return to Palestine. 7. Understood of] 



better, ' perceived.' 10. For] RY ' so that.' 
The Levites not receiving the support due to 
them had to work to maintain themselves. 

11. Forsaken] i.e. unprovided for. 

Gathered them] i.e. the Levites. 

17. What evil . . the sabbath] The protests 
made by the prophets and others against the 
profanation of the sabbath (see Ezk20 12 » 2 
4424Isa56 4 > 6 58 13 ) eventually brought the 
Jews to observe it so strictly that they even 
allowed themselves to be massacred rather 
than desecrate it by defending themselves 
(1 Mac 2 32-38). 

23. That had married wives, etc.] The same 
practice was condemned by Ezra (chs. 9, 10). 

24. Their children spake half] better, ' of 
their children half spake,' etc. 26. Out- 
landish] i.e. foreign. 

28. Chased him from me] i.e. expelled him 
from the Jewish community. According to 
Josephus (who, however, places the incident 
at a much later date) Joiada's son was named 
Manasseh, and when expelled by Nehemiah, 
was induced by his father-in-law Sanballat to 
join him at Samaria by the promise of being 
appointed high priest of a temple that was to 
be built on Mt. Gerizim. 29. Defiled the 
priesthood] The actual high priest was pro- 
hibited from taking as his wife any but a 
virgin of his own people (Lv21 14 ). 30. The 
wards of] better, ' charges for.' 

At this point the OT. record of Nehemiah 
closes ; but in 2 Mac 2 13 it is added that he 
collected together ' the books about the kings 
and prophets, and the books of David, and 
letters of kings about sacred gifts ' — a state- 
ment the precise meaning of which it is un- 
necessary to discuss here. In Ecclus49 13 he is 
eulogised for having ' raised up the walls that 
were fallen, and set up the gates and bars.' 



ESTHER 

INTRODUCTION 



1. Character and Contents. The book of 
Esther is one of a group of writings known as 
the Five Rolls (the other four being the Song 
of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, and Ecclesi- 
astcs). Its contents fall within the period em- 
braced by the book of Ezra, namely, the reign 
of Xerxes (485-46 I B.C. ). when the Jews were 
under Persian rule, and when, though a large 
body had returned t<> Jerusalem under Zerub- 
babel, yet numbers <>r them were still scattered 
over the Persian empire. The events recounted 



are put forward as those which led to the institu- 
tion of the Jewish feast of 'Purim,' held on the 
fourteenth and fifteenth days of Adar ( = Feb- 
ruary-March), and preceded by a fast on the 
thirteenth (called the Fast of Esther). The 
author is quite unknown, but his familiarity 
with Persian customs and Persian words makes 
it probable that he lived in Persia itself. He 
was not, however, contemporaneous with the 
events lie relates, for Xerxes is described in 
language which implies that his reign was past ; 



284 



INTRO. 



ESTHER 



1. 18 



and his work is perhaps to be placed in the 
fourth century B.C. The book came to be held 
in very high esteem by the Jews ; it was called 
pa r excellence l the Roll ' ; it was read annually 
at the Feast of Purim ; and Maimonides is 
reported to have said that in the days of the 
Messiah the only Scriptures left would be the 
Law and the Roll. In the Apocrypha there 
are certain additions to the book, called the 
'Rest of Esther,' which are probably later in 
date than the original work, and are certainly 
different in style and spirit. 

2. Sources. In the course of the narrative 
allusion is made to Persian state-records (2 23 
6 1 10 ~), as well as to documents written by 
Mordecai. upon which some of the facts related 
may be based. 

3. Value. That the account contained in 
the book has some historical foundation is 
probable for several reasons. It offers an ex- 
planation of a well-established Jewish festival ; 
reference is made in 2Macl5 36 to the four- 
teenth day of Adar as being ' the day of Mor- 
decai ' ; and acquaintance is shown throughout 
with Persian customs (see 1 19 3 13 ). A certain 
parallel to the destruction inflicted by the Jews 
upon their enemies, an.d the institution of a 
feast to commemorate it, is afforded by the 
slaughter of the Magi by the Persians and the 
festival by which it was celebrated. The extra- 
ordinary conduct of Xerxes in countenancing 
a general massacre of his subjects is in keeping 
with his irrational behaviour on more than one 
occasion, as described by Herodotus. And 
finally, the interval of time between the dis- 
grace of Vashti in Xerxes' third year (1 3 ), and 
the elevation of Esther in his seventh year 
(2 16 ), agrees with his absence from Persia on 
his expedition against the Greeks, the battle 
of Salamis taking place in 480 B.C., after which 
engagement the king returned to Asia. On 
the other hand, certain features in the narra- 
tive suggest that the writer has sought to 
enhance the effectiveness of his recital by 
striking contrasts, embellished descriptions, and 
large figures. It is not likely that either 
Yashti or Esther was Xerxes' queen ; accord- 
ing to Herodotus it was Amestris who held 
that position, and Yashti and Esther were 
probably nothing more than favourite concu- 
bines. The six months' feast (l 4 ), the ten 
thousand talents of silver (3 9 ), the gallows (or 
stake) 50 cubits high (5 14 ), and the 75,000 
(LXX 15,000) slain (9 16 ), are probably all ex- 
aggerations. And there is some lack of plausi- 
bility in the statements that orders were issued 
for the slaughter of the Jews and of their 
enemies eleven and nine months respectively 
before the massacres were to be carried out 

(312,13 89). 

4. The moral instructiveness of the book 
centres in the character of Esther, who, as de- 



picted in the narrative, appears as virtuous as 
she was fair, being dutiful to her foster-father, 
faithful to the king, loyal to her people, and 
pious towards her God. Her story breathes 
the spirit of truest patriotism, for she is repre- 
sented as willing to face death to save her 
countrymen. It also illustrates the working 
of Divine Providence, for though the name of 
God does not appear in the book (at least in 
the original Hebrew, in the LXX it is intro- 
duced freely), the whole history implies the 
belief that it was as an instrument in His hand 
that Esther wrought her people's deliverance. 
And whilst prayer is likewise not actually 
mentioned in the book, yet the fast of Esther 
and her countrymen (described in 4 16 ) pre- 
sumes the practice, and the sequel of the 
narrative is meant to attest its efficacy. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Disobedience and Disgrace of 
Queen Yashti 

1. Ahasuerus] LXX has ' Artaxerxes,' but 
probably 'Xerxes.' the son of Darius Hystaspis, 
is meant, who succeeded his father in 485 B.C. 

India . . Ethiopia] India here means not the 
peninsula of Hindostan, but the region near 
the Indus : Ethiopia is the modern Nubia. 

2. Shushan] i.e. Susa in Elam, the country 
lying to the E. of the Persian Gulf. The 
palace] lit. 'the fortress,' as in Nehl 1 . 3. In 
the third year] i.e. 483 B.C. Thy power] better, 
' the forces ' : and so in 8 n . 

6. White, green, and blue] Some take the 
second term to designate the ' material,' and 
render ' of white cotton and blue,' white and 
blue (or violet) being the Persian royal colours 
(8 15 ). The beds] R Y ' the couches,' upon 
which the feasters reclined. 7. Royal wine] 
LXX has ' wine which the king himself used 
to drink.' The state] RY ' the bounty.' 

8. According; to the law] i.e. according to 
the king's express command on this occasion ; 
for it is implied that in general the drinking 
was regulated by the court officials, and the 
guests had to drink just as much or as little as 
they were bidden, not as they pleased. 

9. Vashti] According to Herodotus, Xerxes' 
queen was called Amestris. 

13. The wise men, which knew the times] 
probably experienced counsellors (cp. 1 Ch 
12 32 ) ; but according to others, astrologers 
and diviners : cp. Isa 44 25 Dan 5 15 . For so 
icas the king's manner toward all] better, ' for 
so was the king's business brought before all,' 
etc. The king was expected to consult ' those 
who knew law and judgment ' in all matters 
before coming to a decision. 14. The next 
unto him] i.e. nearest to the king in rank and 
importance. 

18. Likewise shall the ladies, etc.] RY 'And 
this day shall the princesses of Persia and 



285 



1. 19 



ESTHER 



3.9 



Media which have heard of the deed of the 
queen say the like unto all the king's princes.' 

19. That it be not altered] cp. Dan6 8 . Any 
command written in the king's name and sealed 
with his ring was similarly irrevocable. 

20. For it is great] i.e. the decree is weighty 
and important. 

22. According to the writing thereof] i.e. the 
letters sent to the several provinces were 
written in the characters and language that 
prevailed in each. Many of the extant in- 
scriptions of the Persian kings are tri-lingual. 

And that it should be published, etc.] better 
(by a slight correction), k and that he should 
speak all that seemed good to him,' i.e. should 
speak his mind freely, without regard to the 
feelings of his women-folk. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Choice of Esther to be Queen. 
Mordecai's Service 

I. He remembered, etc.] LXX has 'he 
thought no more of Yashti. remembering 
what,' etc. 3. The house of the women] This 
was the house of the virgins, as contrasted 
with the house of the concubines (v. 14). 

Their things for purification] Various per- 
fumed oils and ointments (v. 12). 

5. Mordecai] The name, though used by 
Jews (cp. Ezr2 2 Xeh7 7 ), was derived from 
the Babylonian deity Merodach (Marduk). 

Shimei . . Kish] probably Mordecai's grand- 
father and great grandfather (v. 6 applying to 
Kish). Others regard the genealogy as abbre- 
viated, and take Shimei and Kish to be remoter 
ancestors, identifying them with the Shimei 
and Kish of 2S16 5 1 S9 1 (in which case v. 6 
must refer to Mordecai's family two or three 
generations back). 

7. Hadassah] a Hebrew name meaning 
' Myrtle.' Esther] connected by some with 
the Persian word for ' star ' ; according to 
others, the same as the Babylonian ' Ishtar.' 
the Canaanite ' Ashtoreth.' 9. Such things as 
belonged to her] lit. c her portions' ; perhaps 
richer viands than ordinary : cp. Dan 1 5 . 

II. And Mordecai walked, etc.] He appar- 
ently occupied a position in the king's house- 
hold (cp. 3 2 ), and in the apocryphal 'Rest of 
Esther' (ll 3 ) he is expressly styled a servitor 
in the king's court. He would thus have 
opportunities of communicating with Esther. 

12. After that she had been, etc.] RV % after 
that it had been done to her according to the 
law for the women, twelve months. 1 13. What- 
soever she desired] i.e. for the adornment of 
her person. 14. Into the second house of the 
women] so LXX. Some render, * returned a 
second time '(i.e. back again) 'into the house 
of the women,' but at any rate into a different 
quarter of it. where they were under the 
charge of Shaasghaz. not of Hegai. 



15. She required nothing, etc.] i.e. instead of 
selecting her articles of attire for herself like 
other maidens (v. 13), she left everything to 
the choice of Hegai. 16. Tebeth] i.e. Dec- 
ember-January. The seventh year] i.e. 479 
B.C. Thus four years elapsed between the 
degradation of Yashti and the promotion of 
Esther (see 1 3 ). In the interval between 483 
and 479 Xerxes' expedition into Greece took 
place, the battle of Salamis being fought in 
480 B.C. 18. Made a release] Either from 
taxation or military service. Some would 
render ' granted a holiday.' According to the 
state] RY ' according to the bounty of ' : i.e. 
with regal generosity. 

19. And when the virgins, etc.] Some con- 
nect this with v. 14, and take ' the virgins ' to 
mean ' the young women.' Others render, 
' now when virgins were gathered together a 
second time ' (as on the earlier occasion de- 
scribed in v. 8). Sat in the king's gate] per- 
haps as the official who received applicants 
that desired to have audience with the king. 

23. Hanged] or, ' impaled,' a form of punish- 
ment frequently inflicted by Persian sovereigns. 
The book of the chronicles] Herodotus relates 
instances of Xerxes' similarly recording the 
names of certain men who distinguished them- 
selves in the war against Greece. 

CHAPTER 3 

Haman's revengeful Design against 
the Jews 

1. The Agagite] It has been suggested that 
the name is an epithet meant to recall the 
Amalekite Agag hewn in pieces by Samuel 
(1S15 33 ), and intended to indicate contempt 
and abhorrence. 

2. Mordecai bowed not, etc.] In the apo- 
cryphal 'Rest of Esther' Mordecai explains in 
a prayer to the Almighty that he refused to 
bow down to Haman, k that he might not pre- 
fer the glory of man above the glory of God.' 
Amongst many heathen peoples divine honours 
were paid to human beings. 

7. Nisan] i.e. March-April. The twelfth 
year of Xerxes would be 474 B.C. They cast 
Pur, etc.] i.e. early in the first month the\ 
cast lots for every day of the year to find out 
which day would be the most favourable for 
the success of Haman's design. In the 
rian calendars there are lucky and unlucky 
days ; and the Persians doubtless entertained 
a like belief. To the twelfth month] The Heb. 
is probably defective, and the LXX gives a 
completer sense by adding. k and the lot fell 
on the fourteenth '(an error for the ' thirteenth. 
v. 13) 'day of the month, which is Adar.' Adar 
corresponded to February-March. 

9. Ten thousand talents] The Persian talent 
weighed 66 lb. That have the charge of the 



286 



3. 10 



ESTHER 



7.8 



business] i.e. those whose business it is to re- 
ceive money paid into the king's treasury. 

io. Took his ring - ] For the significance of 
this see 8 s . II. The silver] The money which 
Hainan had pledged himself to pay into the 
treasury the king confers upon him for his 
services in pointing out a serious danger to 
the kingdom (v. 8). 

12. The thirteenth day of the first month] 
Eleven months were thus to elapse between 
the issue of the decree and its execution. 

Lieutenants] lit. ' satraps,' of whom, according 
to Herodotus, there were twenty. 13. Posts] 
Horsemen (cp. 8 10 ) were posted at regular 
intervals of a day's journey along the main 
roads to transmit in succession the messages 
they received until they reached their des- 
tination. 15. Was perplexed] i.e. at the 
magnitude and arbitrary character of the 
contemplated massacre. 

CHAPTER 4 

Mordecai's Appeal to Esther to save 
her Countrymen 

I. When Mordecai perceived] His position 
at the door of the palace (2 21 ) would enable 
him to obtain early -intelligence. 2. Even 
before] better, ' as far as before.' The LXX 
adds, ' and stopped.' 6. The street] RY ' the 
broad place ' : and so in 6 9 > n . 11. One law 
of his] RY ' one law for him ' : i.e. who 
approached the king without leave given. 

14. Then shall there enlargement, etc.] RY 
' Then shall relief,' etc. Mordecai's speech, 
though no mention is made in it of God, 
nevertheless breathes a spirit of trust in His 
Providence, and expresses a conviction that 
help will come from some unperceived quarter. 

But thou . . destroyed] Divine judgment would 
overtake her if she neglected her duty to her 
countrymen. Whether . . as this] i.e. who 
knows whether thou hast not been raised to 
the throne by God for the express purpose of 
averting the dangers threatening at the present 
crisis ? 

16. Fast ye for me] Fasting was an accom- 
paniment of prayer (cp. Ezr8 23 Nehl 4 ), and 
Esther's request was for united prayer on her 
behalf. If I perish, I perish] Esther pro- 
ceeded on her dangerous venture in a spirit of 
resignation. 

CHAPTER 5 
Esther's Petition to the Kino 

An account of how Esther, being favourably 
received by the king, invited him, together with 
Haman, to a banquet whereat she promised 
to make known her petition, and how Haman 
prepared for the execution of Mordecai. 

1. On the third day] This indicates that the 
fast of 4 16 is not to be regarded as extending 
over three whole days. 6. The banquet of 



wine] This presumably followed the dinner. 
Herodotus states that the Persians, though 
moderate at their meals, were much addicted 
to wine. 8. I will do . . hath said] i.e. to 
make known to him her request. Esther 
hoped that by preparing a second banquet for 
the king before presenting her petition, she 
would render him more disposed to grant it. 

9. In the king's gate] Since his hopes had 
been raised by Esther's undertaking to suppli- 
cate the king, he had laid aside his garb of 
mourning (4 2 ), and resumed his previous 
station (2 21 ). 11. The multitude of his chil- 
dren] A Jew regarded a large family as a 
blessing (Gn 30 20 ), and, according to Herodotus, 
a Persian's strongest motive for pride, next to 
his personal bravery, was the number of his 
children. Haman had ten sons (9 10 ). 14. A 
gallows] lit. ' a tree ' (or ' stake '). 

CHAPTER 6 
Mordecai is honoured 

An account of how the king being reminded 
of Mordecai's services, and wishing to reward 
him, consulted Haman, and how Haman, think- 
ing himself the object of the king's interest, 
counselled him, and was directed to render to 
Mordecai the honours he had advised. 

1. The book . . chronicles] in which the 
chief occurrences of the king's reign, including 
any signal services done by his subjects (2 23 ), 
were recorded. 

8. The royal apparel . . useth to wear] Not 
apparel similar to that which was worn by the 
king, but apparel which the king had actually 
used, just as the horse upon which the person 
to be honoured was mounted was that which 
the king had actually ridden (cp. 1 K 1 23 ). The 
crown royal . . head] RY ' and on the head of 
which ' (i.e. of the horse) ' a crown royal is 
set.' - The royal charger bore on its head a 
crown or coronet. 12. Having his head 
covered] as a sign of humiliation and woe : 
cp. 2S15 30 19 4 Jerl44. 13. If Mordecai.. 
fall before him] LXX adds, 'for the Living 
God is with him.' 

CHAPTER 7 
The Execution of Haman 

4. We are sold] an allusion to Hainan's 
tender of 10,000 talents (3 9 ). Although the 
enemy, etc.] The rendering is uncertain ; RY 
' although the adversary could not have com- 
pensated for the king's damage ' (which would 
have resulted from the loss of so many of his 
subjects) ; RM ' for our affliction is not to be 
compared with the king's damage ' (or ' annoy- 
ance ' occasioned by Esther's complaint). 
Perhaps, ' although no enemy is comparable 
(to Haman) in doing damage to the king.' 

8. The bed] RY 'the couch,' on which 
Esther was reclining at the table. They 



287 



7.9 



ESTHER 



10.3 



covered Hainan's face] preparatory to his 
execution. 9. One of the chamberlains . . the 
king] better, c one of the chamberlains that 
were before the king said.' Harbonah is 
mentioned in l 10 . Who had spoken good] 
i.e. by the disclosure of the conspiracy 
described in 2 21 > 22 . Hang him thereon] 
Haman suffered the retribution declared by the 
Psalmist to await the wicked : see Ps 7 15 > 16 . 

CHAPTER 8 
The Jews are saved 

1. Did . . of Haman] The property of 
Haman, after his execution, was confiscated 
to the use of the king, to be disposed of as 
he thought fit. 2. Took off his ring, etc.] 
The bestowal of the ring implied that Mordecai 
was appointed to be a minister of State, 
since the ring was used for giving authority 
to royal decrees (see v. 8) : cp. Gn41 42 . 

4. Then the king held out] This seems to 
imply that Esther had approached the king 
unbidden : see 4 11 . 

7. Behold, I have given, etc.] The king 
mentions this to show that his denial of her 
request to reverse the letters of Haman (v. 5) 
was due not to lack of desire, but lack of 
ability to meet her wishes. 8. Write ye also] 
The letters written by Haman and sealed with 
the king's ring could not be reversed as Esther 
had requested (v. 5), but she and Mordecai 
could be empowered, as Haman had previously 
been (3 n > 12 ), to write such letters as they 
might think expedient to enable the Jews to 
stand on their defence. 9. The third month] 
i.e. May-June. Rather more than two months 
had elapsed since Haman' s letters had been 
despatched (3 12 ). 10. Riders on mules, etc.] 
RY ' riding on swift steeds that were used in 
the king's service, bred of the stud.' 

15. In royal apparel] not the same as that 
described in 6 8 , but a dress befitting the high 
office to which he had been appointed. His 
present magnificence was in striking contrast 
to his previous distress and humiliation (4 1 ). 

A great crown of gold] i.e. a circlet, indica- 
tive of high, though not royal, rank. In the 
Heb. a different word is used to describe the 
royal crown worn by the king and queen 
(l 11 2 17 ). 17. Became Jews] i.e. proselytes. 

CHAPTER 9 
The Jews slay their Enemies. Insti- 
tution OF PURIM 
3. All the rulers, etc.] The great massacre 
described in v. L6 is thus represented as being 
in part the work of the Persian authorities 
with the forces at their disposal. 10. On the 
spoil, etc.] In this respect they did not carry 
out the ting's decree (8 11 ); their vengeance 
was not sullied by sordid motives. 

12. What have they done, etc.] An excla- 



mation, not a question. What is thy petition ? 
etc.] The king was willing to gratify Esther 
further, perhaps to make amends for having 
been unable to grant her earlier request (8 5-8 ). 

13. Be hanged] i.e. let their dead bodies be 
exposed, such exposure being a mark of infamy. 

16. Had rest] This anticipates what took 
place on the 'fourteenth' of Adar (v. 17). 

Seventy and five thousand] LXX has ' fifteen 
thousand.' 19. The Jews of the villages] 
better, ' the Jews of the country districts.' 

Sending portions] i.e. to the poor among 
them: cp. Neh8 10 . 

20. Mordecai wrote these things] This refers 
not to the existing book of Esther, but to an 
account contained in the letters sent to effect 
the purpose indicated in vv. 21, 22. This was 
the establishment as yearly festivals for all 
Jews throughout the empire both the four- 
teenth and fifteenth days of Adar ; and con- 
sequently involved a modification of the usage 
described in vv. 17, 18, according to which 
only a single day (in Susa the fifteenth, in 
the country districts the fourteenth) was so 
observed. 

23. As they had begun . . written unto them] 
i.e. they undertook to celebrate both the day 
observed at first (vv. 17, 18) and also the addi- 
tional day suggested by Mordecai. 25. When 
Esther came] The name ' Esther ' does not 
occur in the Heb., so that the correct render- 
ing may be ' when it ' (i.e. Haman's device) 
' came before the king.' 26. For all] RV ' be- 
cause of all.' This letter] the k letters ' of v. 20. 

27. Such as joined themselves unto them] 
i.e. religious proselytes : cp. 8 1T . 29. This 
second letter] ' second ' in relation to the letter 
mentioned in v. 20. 

31. The matters of the fastings and their 
cry] Seemingly it was directed that there 
should be a commemoration not only of the 
deliverance granted to the Jews, but also of 
the distress that preceded it: see 4 3 . No 
account is here given of the day thus appointed 
for fasting and lamentation ; but in later times 
the thirteenth day of Adar, as being that which 
Haman had fixed for the destruction of the 
Jews (3 12 ), was observed as a day of humilia- 
tion. 32. In the book] probably a book, not 
now extant, dealing with the Purim festival : 
but some authorities think that ' the book of 
the chronicles of the kings of Media and 
Persia' (10 2 ) is meant. 

CHAPTER 10 
The Greatness of Mordecai 
1. The isles of the sea] or, ' coast lands,' i.e. 
the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. 
The description of the king's dominion serves 
to enhance the glory of Mordecai, who was his 
minister. 3. Seeking the wealth] i.e. seeking 
to promote their welfare : cp. Ezr9 12 . 



288 



JOB 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Theme and Contents. The book of Job, 
it may safely be said, is not known- and read 
as it deserves to be. It is a fascinating book, 
and one of the most valuable in the OT. It 
deals with a theme which is as old as man 
and as wide as the world, viz. the reason of 
human suffering, the why and wherefore of 
those afflictions that fasten not merely upon 

. the guilty, but, as it often appears, upon the 
righteous and the innocent. This imme- 
morial problem, the crux of theology and the 
darkest mystery of human life, is the subject 

S of this book, where it is treated in a most 
brilliant manner. In style the book of Job is 

• a masterpiece of literature. It contains some 
of the deepest thought and the sublimest 

i poetry that have come down from antiquity. 

The difficulties that beset the ordinary 
reader are due not merely to the nature of the 
subject, but also to the fact that it is written 
in poetry, which is always more difficult than 
prose, and also to the too common practice of 
reading only short extracts. The work, being 
a discussion carried on at considerable length, 
1 must, if it is to be rightly understood, be read 

: as a whole. It must, moreover, be read in the 

. Revised Version, the meaning and sequence of 
thought being often much obscured in the 
Authorised Version. 

The book is artistically constructed, and 

: consists of three parts — a Prologue, the Poem, 
and an Epilogue. The Prologue is contained 
' in the first two chapters, and the Epilogue in 
the last. These are written in prose, and form 
the setting of the Poem, which extends from 

16. 3-42 6 . The Prologue introduces the char- 
acters, and tells how they come together. The 
Poem contains the debate between Job and 
| his three friends, followed by a speech from 
a bystander called Elihu, and concludes with 
an address by the Almighty and a penitent 
confession by Job. The Epilogue relates the 
! further fortunes of Job, his restoration to 
i prosperity, and his death. 

The Prologue (chs. 1, 2) presents to us an 
Eastern chieftain called Job, who lives in the 
land of Uz, probably near Edom. He is a 

7 very pious man, ' perfect and upright, one 
that fears God and eschews evil,' and a very 
prosperous man. He is surrounded with what 
j are commonly regarded as unmistakable tokens 
of the divine favour. He has a large family, 
possesses immense herds of camels, oxen, 



asses, and sheep, and is described as ' the 
greatest of the children of the east.' He is as 
good as he is great. 

In these circumstances a scene is opened in 
heaven. One of God's angels, called ' The 
Satan,' i.e. The Adversary, whose office seems 
to be to test the sincerity of men's characters, 
suggests that Job's piety is dependent upon his 
prosperity, that he does not ' serve God for 
nought,' that his religion is mere selfishness, 
and that if God were to withhold His bless- 
ings Job would withhold his worship and 
' curse God to His face.' Satan obtains permis- 
sion to put Job to the proof. From the height 
of his prosperity and happiness Job is suddenly 
plunged into the depths of misery. He loses 
all his property, and his children are cut off 
by violent death. Job is profoundly grieved, 
but he submits reverently to the will of 
God. So far he stands the test. In a second 
heavenly council Satan asserts that the test 
has not been severe enough, and receives per- 
mission to afflict Job's person. He smites 
him with a severe and loathsome disease, 
which makes him an outcast and an object of 
abhorrence to all. Still he is resigned. His 
faith remains unshaken. ' What ? ' he says, 
' shall we receive good at the hand of God, 
and shall we not receive evil ? ' He makes no 
complaint against the Almighty. 

Three friends now appear upon the scene : 
Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and 
Zophar the Naamathite, who having heard of 
his great calamities come to condole with the 
ruined and childless man. They are appalled 
at the sight of his misery. Job is hardly re- 
cognisable. The words of consolation fail 
upon their lips, and they sit down beside him 
for seven days and seven nights, uttering never 
a word. Hitherto Job has been able to re- 
strain himself, but now in the presence of his 
speechless friends a change comes over him. 
He is unmanned, and breaks down. He opens 
his mouth, and, in a passage of marvellous 
pathos and power, he curses the day that he was 
born and calls for death to come and put an 
end to his sufferings (c. 3). 

With Job's first words begins the main por- 
tion of the book, which is continued for 39 
chapters, and is written in poetry. It com- 
prises a debate between Job and his three 
friends as to the reason of his sufferings. The 
debate is conducted in an orderly manner. 



19 



289 



JOB 



INTRO. 

All three speak in turn, and Job answers each 
after he has spoken. This is repeated three 
times, except that according to the present 
arrangement of the book Zophar, who speaks 
last, fails in the third round of the debate 
to come forward. Perhaps this is due to 
some dislocation : see the introductory re- 
marks to the third series of speeches. The 
theory with which all three begin is that suf- 
fering is a certain proof of previous trans- 
gression, and accordingly they all adopt a tone of 
rebuke towards Job on account of his supposed 
shortcomings, and urge him to repent of his 
sin, whatever it may be, saying that if he does 
so God will restore to him his prosperity. 
No doubt sympathy is more in place than 
argument in times of trouble, but the object 
of the book is not to show how to comfort 
sufferers, but how to account for the sufferings. 
The Argument of the three friends is 
simple. God, they say, is always just. If a 
man suffers it must be because he deserves it. 
The righteous never suffer. Job, they con- 
clude, must have been a great sinner to be 
afflicted thus. And they strive to get Job 
into a proper frame of mind. To this Job 
replies that the moral government of the world 
is not such a simple, uncomplicated thing as his 
friends suppose. Their theory may be true as 
a general rule, but there are exceptions. His 
own case is one. He protests that he is not 
conscious of any such great sin as they assume 
to be the cause of his present misery. His 
sufferings must have some other explanation. 
They are meanwhile a mystery to him. Nor 
is he the only exception to the rule of 'Be 
good and you will be prosperous.' It is a 
matter of universal experience that the innocent 
suffer as well as the guilty, and the wicked are 
frequently allowed to end their days in peace. 
In the debate this difficulty is put with great 
boldness, and Job is tempted occasionally to 
think and say hard things of God. With ex- 
quisite pathos he describes his bodily sufferings 
and mental perplexity, and his last speech 
concludes with a pathetic contrast between the 
former days, when the candle of the Lord 
shined upon his head, when the Almighty was 
witli him and his children were about him, and 
he was honoured and respected by all, and his 
present state, when days of evil have laid hold 
upon him and wearisome nights and days are 
appointed unto him, when he is poor, and 
childless, and friendless, an abhorrence and a 
byword to young and old. To the end he pro- 
his innocence and demands to be shown 
wherein he has transgressed. His great desire 
\e to come face to face with his Maker. If he 
only knew where he might find Him, he is 
sine all would be explained. Meanwhile all is 
dark, a mystery he cannot fathom, a riddle he 
cannot explain, 'I go forward, but He is not 



INTRO. 



there ; and backward, but I cannot perceive 
Him ; on the left hand, where He doth work, 
but I cannot behold Him ; and on the right 
hand, but I cannot see Him ; but He knoweth 
the way that I take. His way have I kept, 
and not declined. Neither have I gone back 
from the commandment of his lips. When 
He hath tried me, I shall come forth as gold.' 
In a dim way he feels that though he is des- 
tined to die without learning the reason of his 
affliction, yet after death in another world the 
mystery will be solved. God will show Himself 
his friend and vindicate his innocence. 

When the discussion between Job and his 
three friends is ended, and their explanation of 
his afflictions put aside as inadequate, a new 
speaker is suddenly introduced. A young man, 
called Elihu, has been listening to the debate, 
and he now comes forward as a critic of both 
sides. He is not satisfied with Job's assertions 
of self -righteousness, and he is disappointed 
with the three friends for bringing forward 
such poor arguments and allowing themselves 
to be silenced by Job. He hopes to set them 
all right, but one has a difficulty in discovering 
wherein he differs from the other three re- 
provers of Job. In great measure he repeats 
their arguments that God is just and deals out 
to every man exactly what he deserves. In 
two particulars, however, he seems to go beyond 
them, and so far approaches the right view of 
the question in the more explicit statements, 
(a) that chastisement may be the expression 
not of the divine indignation but of the divine 
goodness, and (b) that it may be designed as 
a warning, a restraint to keep men from falling 
into further sin ; in other words, that chastise- 
ment is discipline, a prevention as well as a 
cure, having a reference to the future as well 
as to the past. 

This brings us to the last section of the 
Poem. Job had expressed an earnest desire 
to meet God face to face. In answer to this. 
1 the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind ' 
(chs. 38-41). The striking thing about God's 
answer is that it is not at all what Job expected. 
He hoped that God, when He appeared, would 
give an explanation of His servant's sufferings. j 
But this God does not do. He never alludes 
to Job's sufferings. What He does is simply 
to bid Job look around and observe the wonder 
and mystery of the world in which he is placed. 
In a series of splendid pictures God causes the 
panorama of nature to pass before the eyes of 
His human creature, and asks him if he could 
make any of these things, or even understand 
how they were created — the earth, the sea, the 
stars, the light, the rain, the snow and frost, 
the lightning, the variety of marvellous instincts 
and powers possessed by the animals. Could 
Job rule the world or even subdue any of its 
wonderful creatures ? If not, why should he' 



200 



INTRO. 



JOB 



INTRO. 



presume to cavil at the ways of the Almighty 
or criticise His government of the world ? 
From first to last the answer of God is simply 

,a revelation of His omnipotence. It seems, 

I therefore, to be irrelevant to the subject. It 
is no explanation of the mystery of human 
suffering. And yet Job is satisfied. It brings 
him face to face with God. He feels how 
presumptuous he has been in questioning the 
way of God to men, how ignorant and weak 
and vile he is in the presence of God's omni- 
science and omnipotence and perfect holiness. 
1 Behold, I am vile,' he says ; ' I will lay mine 
hand upon my mouth. I have uttered what I 
understood not. Mine eye seeth thee ; where- 
fore I abhor myself and repent in dust and 
ashes.' He has regained the old trust in God, 
but it is a deeper trust. Before his trial he 
had walked with God in the glad, unquestioning 
confidence of a child ; now he has sounded the 
abyss of misery, but in the fullest knowledge 
of the world's pain, he is wholly assured of the 

I righteousness of God. In the vision of God, 
which has replaced the old knowledge of God 
at second hand, even more than in the exhi- 
bition of God's omnipotence, he enters into 
peace. The answer to his problems is not 

, simply the manifestation of God's power, it is 
God Himself. He does not understand, he is 
content to be humble and to trust. And with 
this attitude of humility and trust God is 

, represented as well pleased. 

In the Epilogue (c. 42 ?- 17 ) Job is restored 
to double his former prosperity and dies ' old 
and full of days.' 

It is not easy to sum up the distinctive 
teaching of the book of Job. As a matter of 
fact, the problem which it states is insoluble. 
The book itself does not offer a solution. 
What it does is to show the true spirit in which 
the calamities of life should be met. a spirit 

3 of submission to the omnipotence and of trust 
in the wisdom of the Almighty. Incidentally, 
however, the following truths emerge in the 
book of Job, and have been noted by various 
commentators. 

(a) Even a righteous man may suffer in this 
world from severe afflictions, (b) It is wrong, 
therefore, to make a man's sufferings a reproach 
to him, as though he were ' a sinner above all 
other men.' They may be permitted by God 
as a trial of his righteousness, (c) True re- 

I ligion is always disinterested. A truly right- 
eous man will serve God and trust in Him in 
spite of all temptations to renounce Him arising 
from his sufferings, (d) It is presumption to 

f accuse God of injustice on account of the 
sufferings that the good endure or the pros- 
perity that the wicked are permitted to enjoy ; 
man is unable fully to understand God's 
moral government of the world. («) The true 
solution of all such moral perplexities is to be 



sought in a fuller and larger sense of God's 
presence and power and wisdom. 

It only remains to consider briefly how far 
we as Christians, living in the clearer light of 
Christ's life and teaching, have advanced in the 
knowledge of the purpose and meaning of 
suffering. Again, this may be summed up under 
a few separate heads : 

(a) Christ Himself is the most conspicuous 
instance of innocent suffering. ' Though He 
were a Son yet learned He obedience by the 
things which He suffered.' ' He was made 
perfect through sufferings.' His words and 
example show that suffering may be innocently 
endured for the sake of others, or for the 
sake of righteousness, or in self-denial, or for 
the glory of God. (b) Christ has taught us 
that freedom from outward ills is not the 
greatest good. The highest' good lies in the 
sphere of character and spirit. Jesus con- 
gratulated, not the rich and prosperous and 
those who never know what pain and sor- 
row are, but the poor, the meek, the mourn- 
ing, the persecuted. In spite of all affliction a 
man may be truly blessed. In this Jesus 
reversed the common judgment of the world. 
As Bacon paradoxically puts it, 'Prosperity 
is the blessing of the Old Testament, adversity 
that of the New.' (c) Christ has taught us to 
call God our Father. He is not, therefore, a 
mere Judge dispensing abstract justice with 
indifference to the result upon the individual. 
God seeks to train and discipline His children 
so that they may be ' partakers of His holiness.' 
For their own sakes, therefore, it may be better, 
considering the end, that in some cases the 
innocent should ' endure grief ' and the guilty 
be treated with long-suffering and leniency. 
Under a paternal government the treatment in 
each case will he accommodated to serve the 
best result. It will not always follow the rule 
of abstract justice, (d) Christ has revealed a 
future life. This Job and his friends, with 
the OT. saints in general, only dimly perceived 
or faintly hoped for. Having no certainty of 
the future life they naturally demanded that 
justice should be meted out in the present. 
Perceiving that this was not always done they 
were beset with many perplexities and doubts 
as to the justice of the divine government of 
the world. With the Christian revelation of 
a future life many of the embarrassments and 
anomalies of the present disappear. The end 
is not yet. The time of the final settlement 
of accounts is still future. There need be no 
fear that justice will not be done. Meanwhile 
the wicked flourish and the righteous suffer. 
But they may suffer in patience and hope. 
The afflictions of the present are ' light ' and 
' but for a moment.' ' They are not to be 
compared with the glory to be revealed.' 
' Wherefore let them that suffer according to 



291 



INTRO. 



JOB 



1.1 



the will of God commit the keeping of their 
souls to Him in well-doing, as unto a faithful 
creator.' 

2. Occasion, Authorship, and Date. It has 
always been a question whether the book of 
Job is to be regarded as history or parable. 
Among the Jews themselves the prevailing 
opinion was that it was strictly historical, 
though some of their Rabbis were inclined to 
think that the person of Job was created by 
the writer of this book in order to set forth 
his teaching on the problem that was vexing 
human thought. Rabbi Lakish, e.g., said ' Job 
existed not, nor was he created ; he is a parable.' 
The opinion of Luther is probably the correct 
one, viz. that a person called Job did really 
exist, but that his history has been treated 
poetically. The allusion to Job as a real 
person in Ezkl4 14 seems to show that there 
was a tradition connected with his name, and 
that he was famed for his piety. There may 
also have been a tradition that he suffered from 
a grievous reversal of fortune. On this his- 
torical foundation a later writer built up this 
dramatic poem, adopting Job as his hero and 
freely utilising his history to discuss a problem 
which was probably pressing with special 
weight upon men's minds at the time. It 
would not have served the writer's purpose so 
well to have created an altogether fictitious 
hero. But many things indicate that the 
traditional history of Job has been freely 
adapted, as, e.g., the elaborately constructed 
dialogues, the employment of symbolic numbers 
in the Prologue and Epilogue, the dramatic 
way in which the scene in the council chamber 
of heaven is depicted and in which the messen- 
gers bring to Job the tidings of his successive 
calamities, and, moreover, the very fact that the 
book is a 'poem' in which four men are repre- 
sented as doing what men never do in real 
life, conversing with each other in measured 
strains of lofty and impassioned poetry. 

To what writer we owe this poem, which 
Victor Hugo called ' perhaps the greatest 
masterpiece of the human mind,' and which 
has captivated the minds of men by no means 
prejudiced in favour of the literature of sacred 
Scripture, we shall never know with certainty. 
It belongs to the great class of anonymous 
masterpieces of which the literatures of all 
languages contain examples. Job himself, 
Moses, Solomon, Isaiah, Hezekiah, Baruoh, 
have each been credited with its composition. 
Whoever be was. lie was a poetic genius, an 
earnest philosopher, and a truly religious soul. 
II. probably lived after the downfall of the 
kingdom of Judah, in any case not earlier than 
the time of Jeremiah. At thai period the per- 
plexing problems connected with the divine 
governnu at seem t<> have pressed heavily on 
men's minds ; « p.e.g.Jer 12 1 :'>l ■"■' Ezk \*. Pro 



f essor Davidson thinks that behind the author's 
time there probably lay some great public 
calamity which forced upon men's minds the 
questions of evil and the righteousness of G-od, 
and that such a calamity could be nothing 
short of deportation or exile. ' We may infer,' 
he says, ' that it was the design of the author 
to teach Israel, amidst its sorrows and the per- 
plexities caused by them, that sufferings may 
be a trial of the righteous which if reverently 
borne will lift them up into fuller knowledge 
of God and therefore into more assured peace 
and felicity.' In view of the fact that national 
disaster would occupy men's thoughts before 
they felt the problem of individual suffering, 
there is much to be said for the view, held by 
many scholars, that the book of Job, which is 
concerned with the individual, not with the 
nation, and represents an advanced stage in 
the discussion of the problem, belongs to the 
period after the Return, perhaps about 400 B.C. 
This is also suggested by several other features 
in the book. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Prologue 

Chs. 1 and 2, which form the Prologue to 
the book, describe (a) the prosperity and piety 
of Job ; (b) a scene in heaven in which the 
Satan questions the motives of his piety ; and 
(c) his subsequent trials, which are permitted 
by G-od in order to test and confirm His serv- 
ant's righteousness, and to show to angels and 
men that a man may serve God for His own 
sake and not from self-interest. So far from 
being dependent on outside conditions the true 
servant of God will endure the severest trials 
which can befall human nature, and yet retain 
his faith and uprightness. It should be ob- 
served that whilst the author reveals to his 
readers the source and purpose of Job's trials 
these are unknown to Job and his friends. It 
is the mystery of his suffering which forms the 
problem of the book. 

Chs. 1, 2 are in prose. The rest of the 
book, except 32 1 ' 5 and 42 "- 17 , is in poetry. See 
on c. 3. 

1-5. The prosperity and piety of Job. 

1. The land of Uz] a district to the E. of 
Palestine, and near Arabia and Edom : cp. 
Jer25 ao Lam4 21 . The word Uz occurs (a) as 
the name of a son of Aram (GnlO 23 ); (b) as 
a descendant of Seir (Gn36 28 ); (c) as a son 
of Nahor (Gn22 21 ). The names ' Aram ' and 
' Seir ' seem to point to the lands of Syria and 
Edom, but the exact position of Uz cannot be 
exactly defined. From various allusions in 
the book we must probably think of ' the red 
sandstones of Edom ' (the ' red ' land), ' and of 
the remote desert city in the hollow of the 
hills — Sela, afterwards Petra ; of the broad 
grey plain of the Arabah to the west ; of the 



2'J2 



1.2 



JOB 



1. 15 



dark rugged peaks rising high to the east, their 
summits white with snow in winter, and beyond 
this the high desert plateau with its great pil- 
grim and trading road to Arabia ' (see on 6 15 -' J0 ) ; 
1 a region with few springs, where the white 
broom grows ' (see on 30 4 ) ; ' and where the 
ostrich still runs and the wild ass scours the 
plain seeking the scanty green patches in spring ' 
(39 5-s, 13-18). (Conder.) 

Job] Meaning uncertain ; either ' persecuted ' 
or l pious.' Perfect] Not sinless ; rather, 
' single-hearted,' blameless : cp. Noah (Gn6 9 ). 

2. Seven . . three] sacred numbers indicat- 
ing perfection. We are dealing with ideal 
history, as the rest of the numbers and other 
features here and in the Epilogue show. 

3. Job was a prince of the desert. He pos- 
sessed herds of camels yielding milk and food 
and hair for making tents ; asses for riding, 
and fetching water ; cattle and sheep. He 
even possessed fields (31 3S ). The description 
corresponds in each respect to the life of a 
free Arab chief E. of Jordan to-day. The 
term men of the east is applied to the tribes 
dwelling on the borders of Palestine, e.g. Syria 

. and Arabia (cp. Gn29 x Jg6 3 ). 

4. RV ' And his sons went and held a feast 
in the house of each one upon his day.' They 
took it in turns to entertain each other at 

, their respective homes. 5. When the days . . 
were gone about] i.e. when all seven sons had 
given their feast. It appears that it was Job's 
pious custom to gather together his children 

1 at stated intervals that atonement might be 
made for any neglect of God at their feasts. 
He sanctified them, i.e. prepared them by ablu- 

: tions, etc., for taking part in the sacrifices he 
afterwards offered (cp. Gn35 2 Exl9 1( > Lv9? 
1 S 1 6 5 ). Here we have an instance of the piety 
alluded to in v. 1. Burnt offerings] Observe 
that it was not the sin offering of the Mosaic 

I Law which Job offered, but a burnt offering 

1 wholly given to God, which was common to 
many peoples (cp. Nu23 Mic6 5 " 8 ). As head 
of the family Job acted as priest : cp. Jethro 
(Ex 2 16 3 1). Cursed] RV ' renounced ' ; ' blas- 
phemed ' or ' blamed ' may be better. 

6-12. The first interview between God and 
Satan. The scene in heaven is based on the 
conceptions of the spirit world prevailing in 
the author's time (cp. IK 22 19-22 Zech3i>2), 
and introduced by him to explain the origin 

I and purpose of Job's trials. See last section 
of Intro. 

6. Now there was a day] better, ' Now it 
was the day,' as if at a special season. The 
sons of God] i.e. the angels : cp. 38 7 . They 
come before God to give account of their 
ministry : cp. 1K22 19 . 

Satan] rather, ' the Satan,' lit. ' the adver- 
sary.' The word is in common use to-day 
among Orientals. The presence of the definite 



article shows that it is not used in this book 
as a proper name. The Satan is again spoken 
of in 1 Ch21! and in Zech3!»2 (see note). In 
the Adversary we have presented to us a spirit 
whose mission it is to try and test the lives of 
men and the motives of their acts : cp. 2 3 . He 
sees the bad side of life and therefore opposes 
man's standing with God. Naturally the con- 
stant discovery of evil motives underlying 
good actions has destroyed his faith in human 
nature. He is not represented as opposed to 
God, he is rather His loyal servant, who will 
not see His kindness abused, and zealously 
fulfils his duties by leaving no part of the 
earth unvisited. Malignant motives are, how- 
ever, already attributed to him ; he seems to 
delight in opposing men, and tortures Job 
without compunction to justify his own 
cynicism. But he is not yet regarded as a 
fallen and evil being, opposed to God. The 
personality and character of the Devil had not 
yet been fully revealed. 

9-12. In answer to God's challenge the 
Satan makes the slanderous suggestion that 
Job's religion is based on selfishness. He 
serves God for reward. The Satan obtains 
leave to put Job to the test. 

9. The principles of Job's conduct are 
questioned. Perhaps his integrity is only 
skin deep. Will he continue his righteous 
life if he is called on to suffer ? 10. An 
hedge] i.e. God's protecting care. 11. Curse 
thee to thy face] see on v. 5. 

12. God permits the Adversary to try Job 
in order to test his integrity and manifest his 
piety. Observe that Job's person is exempt 
from attack in this first trial. In view of the 
Satan's eagerness to prove his judgment of 
Job correct, God knows that this limitation of 
his power is necessary. 

'Between vv. 12 and 13 there is an in- 
terval, an ominous stillness like that which 
precedes the storm. The poet has drawn 
aside the curtain to us, and we know what is 
impending. Job knows nothing ' (Davidson). 

13-22. The first trial of Job's integrity 
arising from the loss of his property and 
children. The way in which the messengers 
are introduced, and the similarity of their 
message, shows that we are not reading actual 
history, but a drama. The poet represents 
the catastrophe as falling on the day when 
the feast was at the eldest brother's house, 
because on the morning of that day the 
sacrifices had been offered for Job's children 
after the feast in the youngest brother's house 
on the day before. The death of the children 
cannot therefore be explained as due to their 
sin, for this had just been atoned for. Each 
catastrophe is worse than the previous one. 

15. Sabeans] Arab tribes. Saba is the 
great S. Arabian kingdom of which inscrip- 



293 



1. 16 



JOB 



tions going back to an early date are pre- 
served. The Bedouin Arabs still make raids 
on tribes at a distance, and also, when strong 
enough, on the settled population. 16. The 
fire of God] i.e. lightning. 17. Chaldeans] 
Heb. Kasdim, from the neighbourhood of the 
Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. 

20. Rent his mantle] Tearing the robe has 
always been an Eastern sign of mourning, as 
was also shaving the head or pulling out the 
hair (see Jer7 29 Micl 16 ). Worshipped] lit. 
1 prostrated himself ' : cp. Gn 18 ' 2 Mt8 2 . The 
first act of worship is submission, humility. 

21. Thither] i.e. to the womb of mother 
earth. This v. (but somewhat differently 
rendered, cp. 1 Tim 6 7 ) is used in the Burial 
Service. All is from God, and He has the 
right to do what He will with His own. 

The LORD] It will be noticed as a rule the 
Hebrew author only uses in the dialogues 
such names for the Deity as were common to 
other peoples besides the Hebrews, e.g. ' God,' 
1 the Almighty.' The occurrence of the Heb. 
title 'Jehovah' here and in 12 9 is commonly 
explained on the supposition that it was a slip 
on his part. It is keenly disputed whether 
the name may not have been much older than 
the time of Moses, and known in Babylonia 
and Assyria. The evidence must at present 
be regarded as indecisive, though such a wide 
diffusion is not antecedently unlikely : see 
on Gn 2 4 Ex 3 13. 

22. Charged God foolishly] lit. 'and did 
not offer (or, attribute) folly to God.' Thus 
Job successfully withstands the first test of 
the Adversary and remains loyal to God. 

CHAPTER 2 
The Prologue (continued) 
Job's second trial. He refuses to renounce 
God when afflicted with an excruciating disease. 
Three friends come to comfort him. 

3. Although thou movedst, etc.] or, 'so 
thai it was in vain thou movedst me against 
him to destroy him. 1 

4, 5. Skin for skin, etc.] The precise mean- 
ing of the proverb is uncertain, but the general 
meaning seems to be that as long us a man 
docs not suffer in his own person he will gladly 
bear the sacrifice of everything else (• skin for 
skin'). "But it is a differenl matter when his 
life is endangered. Lei Job Buffer this last 
and greatesl trial, then his integrity will Pail 

him (so the Adversary insinuates) and he will 

renounce G-od. His life the Satan isnoi per- 
mitted to touch, short of that he has full 
liberty, and uses it. 

7. Sore boils] lit. 'an evil inflammation. 1 
The disease with which Job was afflicted is 
commonly taken t<> be elephantiasis, a terrible 
form of leprosy. It has also been identified 
with the 'Oriental sore, 1 also with ecthyma, 



for which a plausible case has been made 
out. 

8. A potsherd] A piece of earthenware to 
remove the scurf skin. He sat down among 
the ashes] Perhaps those of his camp fires. 
This was a sign of mourning. Tradition 
places him on a dunghill, like the ' Mizbeleh ' 
or mound of refuse found outside an Eastern 
town or village where lepers and other outcasts 
sit, and men sometimes meet to talk. 

9. Job's wife would have had him act as the 
Adversary expected him to do. ' You may as 
well renounce God's service since you benefit 
so little by it, and meet your fate at once 
instead of lingering in intolerable pain.' 

10. Both good and evil are from God's 
hand, and must be taken in the same spirit. 
The words of Job are in notable contrast to 
those of his wife. With his lips] The reader 
must not be misled into thinking that the author 
means to suggest that Job nursed in his heart 
a rebellion he would not utter with his lips. 

11. The three friends of Job now come 
upon the scene. They are represented as 
persons of importance like himself. Temanite] 
connected with Edom (Jer49' r ). Shuhite] 
Shuah was a son of Abraham by Keturah, who 
was sent 'to the East' (Gn25 2 > 6 ). Naama- 
thite] unknown. The friends, like Job, were 
probably descendants of Abraham, but not of 
Israel (Jacob). 12. Knew him not] so dis- 
figured was he by his sickness and misery. 

Sprinkled dust upon their heads] This was 
generally done when lying prostrate on the 
ground (cp. Lam2 10 ), but the words 'toward 
heaven ' suggest that they were standing. 
They throw dust in the air, which falls on 
their heads. 13. Seven days] the time of 
mourning for the dead : cp. 1 S31 13 Ezk3 15 . 

CHAPTER 3 

Job curses his Day 

Job curses the day of his birth. He asks 
why he did not die at birth : why should his 
wretched life be prolonged ? 

We are now confronted with a striking 
change in Job's frame of mind from that 
presented in 2 10 . Probably a considerable 
interval had elapsed before his friends arrived. 
He complains ra the speeches which follow of 
the emaciated state into which he had fallen, 
and that from being the honoured of all he 
had become a byword to his neighbours : cp. 
L8 198-22 301-15. K i s evident from this c. 
thai he has been brooding over the miseries 
of his condition and the hopelessness of the 
future, and complaint has taken the place of 
resignation. The presence of his friends only 
provokes him to give vent to his anguish. In 
their silml amazement he sees as in a mirror 
the extent of his own misery. He casts 
himself confidently on their sympathetic 



294 



3. 1 



JOB 



k 



comprehension, and freely utters the dark 
thoughts he has hitherto restrained. He 
knows that if left to himself he may lose the 
fear of the Almighty, and trusts that they will 
deliver him from this temptation. But an 
obsolete theology froze their power to help. 

Chs. 3-42 6 are poetical in form, not in exact 
metre as if for song, but rhythmical for read- 
ing. The parts of which the couplet or trip- 
let forming the verse are composed show a 
marked parallelism, the thought in one half cor- 
responding to or completing the thought in the 
other. C. 3 is a good example. 

There is much similarity between this c. 
and Jer20 14-18 , but the thoughts are those 
natural to the Hebrew mind, and we need not 
necessarily suppose them to be borrowed in 
either case. 

3-10. Job curses the day of his birth. 

1. His day] the day of his birth. It was 
thought that the days of the year had an exist- 
ence of their own, so that any given day would 
come round again in its turn. Hence Job is 
not cursing a day which long ago ceased to be, 
but one which year by year comes back to 
blight the happiness of others as it blighted 
his : see on v. 5. 3. Observe the piled-up 
malediction. The power and pathos of the c. 
are remarkable. 5. Stain it] R Y ' claim it for 
their own.' Blackness of, etc.] RY ' all that 
maketh black the day ' ; e.g. eclipses and un- 
usual darknesses. 6. Let it not be joined, etc.] 
let it be blotted out of the calendar. The 
ancients believed in lucky and unlucky days. 
Let this day ruin no more lives, it has ruined 
enough. 7. Solitary] BY ' barren.' No joy- 
ful voice] as on the occasion of a birth. 

8. Let them curse it that curse the day] A 
reference to magicians who professed to be 
able to cast spells on a day and make it un- 
lucky, apparently causing eclipses, as the next 
line suggests. Who are ready to raise up their 
mourning] BY ' Who are ready to raise up 
leviathan ' (a mythical dragon). It was an 
ancient superstition that when an eclipse hap- 
pened it was caused by a dragon which swal- 
lowed the sun or moon, or enfolded them in 
its coils, and so created darkness. A curious 
present-day confirmation of this idea occurs 
in the daily papers of Nov. 11, 1901. In a 
telegram from Peking it was reported that for 
the first time in history a few foreigners were 
invited to be present at the Chinese Board of 
Rites to witness 'the rescuing of the sun, which 
was suffering from the attacks of a dragon. 
The rescue was accomplished by means of 
prostrations, the burning of incense, and beat- 
ing of drums and gongs.' 9. Dawning of the 
day] lit. ' eyelids of the morning.' 

11-19. Job asks why he did not die at 
birth ; a very fine passage expressive of great 
bitterness of soul. 



12. Prevent me] RY ' receive me.' It was 
usual for the newborn child to be laid on its 
father's knees in token of ownership. If he 
suffered it to remain he pledged himself to 
bring it up. 14. Desolate places] RM ' soli- 
tary piles ' : cp. the pyramids of Egypt, which 
were the royal burying-places. 

15-19. In reading these verses, in spite of 
their great beauty, we cannot help contrasting 
the vague and cheerless ideas about the future 
state in these early days with the clearer know- 
ledge and glorious hope of the Christian. 
Although believing that the soul retained its 
consciousness, men do not appear to have re- 
garded death as but the beginning of a higher 
form of existence, in looking forward to which 
man learns to bear the trials of life with 
patience. They thought of Sheol as the dim 
and cheerless underworld, where the pale 
shades of the departed dragged on a colourless 
existence, dark and monotonous. Yet the 
gloom of Sheol is to Job a welcome refuge, 
where he would be at peace. How terrible 
must be the pain from which he would gladly 
escape to so wretched a home. 

15. Perhaps an allusion to the valuables 
buried in ancient tombs. 18. Oppressor] 
rather, ' taskmaster.' 

20-26. Job asks why his wretched life 
should be prolonged. 

22. There may be a connexion of thought 
here with the 'hid treasures' of v. 21. The 
idea is perhaps that of violating an ancient 
tomb. The entrance was usually hidden care- 
fully. 23. Whose way is hid] in perplexity 
and doubt. 24. Translate, ' For my sighings 
are instead of my eating, and my groans are 
poured out like drink ' : cp. Ps42 3 . 

25, 26. The verbs should all be in the 
present tense in these vv. Job's grief and 
sickness make him full of gloomy forebodings, 
which are constantly being realised. 

The passionate complaints and longings for 
death in this c. testify to the agitation of Job's 
soul. There are signs of impatience and re- 
sentment at God's dealings, which shock his 
friends and evidently influence the tone of 
their language towards him in the debate 
which follows. 

The First Series of Speeches (Chs. 4-14) 

CHAPTER 4 

The First Speech of Eliphaz (Chs. 4, 5) 
Eliphaz is the principal and probably the 
oldest of the three friends : cp. 32 6f . He is 
also the most considerate. But the complain- 
ings of Job in c. 3 had evidently deepened in 
him the bad impression which must have been 
created by Job's sufferings, and being ignorant 
of the true cause of his trials he draws false 
conclusions from them. Whilst admitting 



295 



4. 1 



JOB 



6.2 



that Job is fundamentally a pious man, Eli- 
phaz infers that his sufferings must be the 
punishment of some sin, and that therefore 
the correction which God is sending should be 
received with humility and the sin repented 
of. These premises, which are held by all 
the friends, are throughout denied and 
combated by Job. 

I— II. Eliphaz gently rebukes Job for yield- 
ing to despair, since the godly do not perish 
under their affliction, but it is the wicked who 
reap the evil they have sown. 

2. Note the courtesy of Eliphaz. He loses 
his temper in later speeches. 

2-5. Eliphaz is greatly struck with the re- 
verse in Job's fortunes. He who had been 
the great comforter of those in distress is now 
overcome by his own troubles. Observe that 
Eliphaz quite underrates their severity, and 
ignores the wonderful resignation Job has 
displayed. 4. Cp. 29 12 ' 17 . 5. It is come] i.e. 
calamity. 

6. RY ' Is not thy fear (of God) thy con- 
fidence, and thy hope the integrity of thy 
ways ? ' Surely Job may reckon on the up- 
rightness of his past life as a pledge of speedy 
deliverance ! He must not despair. The v. 
is important as proving that the friends recog- 
nised Job's fundamental goodness, into what- 
ever sins he may have suffered himself to be 
betrayed. 

7-9. Whereas gross sinners are sure to be 
cut off, the righteous man, though he may 
have to suffer for his faults, has reason to 
hope that he will not perish. 10, II. The 
wicked, who are compared to lions, will cer- 
tainly be destroyed : cp. Ps22 13 . 

12-21. By way of awakening in Job a 
sense of sin Eliphaz describes a vision in which 
was revealed to him the perfect purity of God, 
and the imperfection in His sight of men and 
even of angels. We have here one of the 
most wonderful passages in literature. The 
secrecy, the hush, the sudden panic, the breath 
that passes over the face, the hair erect with 
horror, the shadowy figure whose form he 
cannot discern, the silence broken by the 
voice, all combine to produce the impression 
of terror, and terror not of the definitely 
known, but of the vague and mysterious, leav- 
ing the imagination full play to heighten it. 

15. A spirit] rather, • a breath.' 17. RM 
'Shall mortal man be just before' (i.e. in 
tin eyes of) 'God? Shall a man be pure 
before his Maker?' 18. He put no trust] 
because of their imperfections. Servants] 
attendant angels. 19. Houses of clay] perish- 
ing bodies: cp. 2 Cor.") 1 . If spiritual beings 
like ilit- angels were imperfect, how much 
more men with material bodies. Before] RM 
' like.' 20. From morning to evening] i.e. in 
a day. 



21. Doth not, etc.] rather, 'Is not their 
tent-cord (or tent-peg) pulled up in them ? ' 
The falling tent is a figure of collapse and 
death. Even without wisdom] i.e. without 
having learnt the great lessons of life. 

CHAPTER 5 
The First Speech of Eliphaz (concluded) 
1-5. Eliphaz warns Job that to show a re- 
sentful temper at God's dispensations is folly, 
and that fools never prosper. 

1. Call, etc.] i.e. ' make your complaint 
against God to the angels ' ; ' do you think they 
will help you ? ' Saints] RV ' holy ones,' i.e. 
the angels. 2. Wrath] RY ' vexation.' Envy] 
RY ' jealousy.' Such rash conduct brings 
destruction. 

3. Cursed] i.e. rejected as an accursed 
thing. At first Eliphaz was inclined to envy 
the prosperity of the wicked ; but in a 
moment he sees there is no room for envy. 
He would not accept their position at any price, 
so sudden and sure was their downfall. 

4. Crushed in the gate] the gate of the 
city, where justice was administered : cp. Ps 
127 5 . There are none to support their cause 
or to influence the judge. 5. The thorns] the 
protecting thorn hedge. 

6, 7. Affliction is not accidental, but is due 
to man's sinful nature. Although] RY ' for.' 

8. I] RY l As for me, I.' Eliphaz, instead of 
murmuring, would leave his case in the hands 
of One who is both great and wise. II. To 
set] RY ' so that he setteth,' i.e setteth men 
up by raising them from despair. 13. He 
taketh the wise in their own craftiness] quoted 
by St. Paul in 1 Cor3 19 , the only quotation 
from Job in the NT. Is carried headlong] 
i.e. furthered to their hurt. 14. The bewil- 
dered, haunted state into which the crooked 
devices of the wicked bring them. 15. From 
their mouth] RY k of their mouth.' 

17-27. The blessedness of affliction if re- 
garded as correction. 

21. Scourge of the tongue] of false accusers 
and slanderers : cp. v. 15. 23. In league with 
the stones of the field] His land will be free 
from stones ; a part of the general thought 
of being at peace with all creation : cp. Prov 
16 7 . For the idea of a sympathy between 
man and nature cp. Ro8 19f . 24. Taber 
nacle] RY 'tent.' Shalt not sin] RY 'shall 
miss nothing.' 

CHAPTER 6 

The First Speech of Joi? (Chs. 6, 7) 
1-13. Job, smarting under the remarks of 
Eliphaz, which he feels are not appropriate to 
his case, renews and justifies his complaints. 
He bemoans the heaviness of God's hand, and 
wishes that He would slay him outright. 

2, 3. Job admits that he was rash in his 



296 



6.3 



JOB 



7. 12 



remarks (in c. 3), but declares that his language 
was justified by his miserable condition. 

3. Are swallowed up] RY 'have been 
rash.' 4. It is because he feels that his 
troubles are due to God that he is almost 
beside himself, since he cannot understand 
their motive. In c. 3 he had not charged 
God with being the author of his sorrows. 

5-7. Job continues to assert that he would 
not complain without good cause. 5. The 
animals cease their cries when their wants are 
satisfied. 6. Unsavoury] without flavour. 

The white of an egg] Some prefer EM 
'the juice of purslain.' 7. RY fc My soul 
refuseth to touch them; They are as loath- 
some meat to me.' Yv. 6, 7 may mean that 
Job's afflictions are as intolerable to him as 
loathsome food. 

8-10. Job longs for the stroke of death to 
descend and release him from his pain. 

10. Yea, I would, etc.] RY 'Yea, I would 
exult in pain that spareth not : for I have not 
denied,' etc. Job fears not death, for he is 
unconscious of sin towards God. The passage 
is difficult, since Job does not expect retribu- 
tion after death. The original text may not 
be correctly preserved. 

11. Prolong my life] RY 'be patient.' 
Since there is nothing but death before him, 
how can he help being impatient for its 
arrival ? 12. He is not made of stone or 
brass that he can bear such troubles. 13. RY 
' Is it not that I have no help in me, and 
sound wisdom is driven quite from me ? ' He 
is exhausted and without resource. 

14-30. Job complains of the lack of sym- 
pathy and false conclusions of the friends. 
They have bitterly disappointed the hopes he 
had set on them. 

14. But he forsaketh] RY 'even to him 
that forsaketh.' Kind words from his friends 
might have helped Job to retain his trust in 
God, which he feared to lose. 

15-20. Job likens the treatment of the 
friends to sudden torrents which fill the deep 
ravines or wadies of his land after storms. 
These flow abundantly in the winter, when 
they are least needed. In the parching heats 
of summer they dry up, and are sought in 
vain by wandering caravans which perish from 
thirst. So his friends fail him when most 
wanted. 

16. In the winter the torrents are black 
and turbid with melting snow. There is 
plenty of ice in winter in the upper parts of 
Edom. 18. RY ' The caravans that travel 
by the way of them turn aside ' (in search of 
water). They go up into the waste, and perish. 

19,20. Troops] RY 'caravans.' Tema . . 
Sheba] in Arabia. The vv. describe the dis- 
appointment (ashamed) of the Arab caravans. 

21. Ye are nothing] RM ' ye are like 



thereto,' i.e. to the deceptive brooks. But it 
would be better to read ' so have ye been to 
me.' And are afraid] perhaps of showing 
sympathy, since they thought him guilty of 
sin. 22, 23. All that Job looked for from 
them was sympathy. 25. Forcible] perhaps 
' irritating ' would be better, a bitter sarcasm. 

What doth your arguing reprove ?] At 
what sin are they aiming ? 26. ' Are you 
finding fault with desperate words uttered in 
distress ? ' 27. Render, ' Would you sadden 
the bereaved and wound your friend ? ' 

28. Look upon me] i.e. in the face. For 
it is evident, etc.] RY ' For surely I shall not 
lie to your face.' 29. Render, ' Reconsider 
my case ; do not do me such injustice.' Yes, 
reconsider it ; my cause is a righteous one ! 

Iniquity] RY 'injustice.' 30. Is there 
iniquity, etc.] rather, ' Is my tongue per- 
verted ? ' Cannot my taste, etc.] ' Cannot I 
distinguish between right and wrong as well 



as you can 



CHAPTER 7 



Job's First Speech (concluded) 

1 -10. Job laments the hardship and misery 
of his destiny. 

1 . Man's life is a lot of hardship. Appointed 
time] RM 'time of service.' 2, 3. As the 
labourer longs for the weary day to end and 
to receive his wages, so Job bemoans the 
length of his sufferings and sighs for death to 
end them. 3. Months of vanity] so called 
because they were unsatisfactory, hopeless. 
' Months ' imply that Job's sufferings had 
lasted a considerable time. 5. Worms] from 
the diseased flesh. Clods of dust] the crust 
of his sores. These symptoms are found in 
leprosy, though they are not peculiar to it. 

6. Weaver's shuttle] the implement which 
carries the thread swiftly backwards and 
forwards in weaving. Job has just been 
longing for death, but yet he feels that 
length of days is desirable in itself if freed 
from so much misery. Without hope] of 
recovery. 7. Good] i.e. happiness. 8. Thine 
eyes, etc.] render, ' Thine (God's) eyes shall 
look for me, but I shall be no more.' 

9. Grave] better, as RY, ' Sheol,' the place 
of the departed : see on 3 15-19 . Note how 
hopeless is the outlook here and elsewhere 
towards the future. 

1 1 -2 1. He appeals to God, complaining of 
the undeserved severity of his treatment. He 
demands why God concerns Himself to inter- 
fere with so insignificant a being as man. 

12. 'Am I so dangerous a character that I 
need such persistent persecution ? ' Whale] 
rather, k sea monster,' perhaps the personifica- 
tion of the sea, the mythical dragon of the 
ancients. The Babylonians told the myth of 
the dragon Tiamat, who waged war against 



297 



7. 14 



JOB 



heaven and was slain by the God Marduk. 
(See art. ' Genesis and the Babylonian Inscrip- 
tions.') This myth is referred to here, but in 
a form which represented the monster, not as 
slain, but imprisoned and kept under strict ob- 
servation. The sea needs to be held down lest 
it flood the earth or smite the sky (cp. 38 8 ' 11 ), 
the dragon must be watched lest it bursts its 
bonds. Is Job as formidable as they that God 
should watch him as closely ? 

14. Dreams] the bad dreams of the sick. 

15. Strangling] or, suffocation. Job longs 
for the arrival of this sign of approaching 
death. My life] RV ' these my bones.' He 
was reduced to a skeleton. Possibly we should 
read ' my pains.' 16. RV ' I loathe my life : I 
would not live alway.' Vanity] RM ' as a 
breath.' 

17. Magnify] i.e. consider of such import- 
ance. Set thine heart] or ' fix thy thoughts.' 
The thought of vv. 17 f. is ' Surely man is too 
insignificant for such constant persecution. 
Even his sins are hardly worth heeding.' Cp. 
Ps8 4 ' 5 , of which these vv. seem to be a bitter 
parody. 19. Till I swallow, etc.] i.e. for a 
moment. 

20. RV ' If I have sinned, what do I unto 
thee, O thou watcher of men ? ' : i.e. granting 
that I have sinned (which Job does not), how 
can it affect Thee who art so great ? Against 
thee] RV 'for thee.' 21. In the morning] RV 
' diligently.' Job believes that one day God 
will turn to him once more in love, but then 
it will be too late. The faint hope expressed 
here gradually becomes a conviction : cp. 

13 15-18 1413-15 1619-21 1923-27. 

The speech of Eliphaz, while considerate in 
tone, yet took Job's guilt for granted. This 
shows the sufferer that he can expect no sym- 
pathetic insight from the friends, and the shock 
of the disappointment drives him not simply 
to scornful attack on them, but to bitter accusa- 
tion of God, whom he regards as the direct 
author of his troubles. He thinks of Him as 
petty and spiteful, yet he cannot forget the 
blessed communion of happier days, and ends 
with the thought that when His present anger 
is passed, He will desire a renewal of that 
fellowship. 

CHAPTER 8 
The First Speech of Bildad 

Holding the same doctrine about sin and 
Buffering as Eliphaz, Bildad supports the views 
of his friend by an appeal to the teaching of 
antiquity. He shows less sympathy and more 
narrowness of mind than Eliphaz. 

1-7. Bildad maintains the justice of God's 
actions, Since Job's children have perished it 
must have been for their sins. As for Job, if 
he would but repent he would be restored to 
prosperity. 



2. Like a strong wind] violent, headstrong. 

3. Can there be injustice with God as Job 
seems to think is possible ? Bildad thinks the 
All-powerful must in the nature of things be 
righteous. Job does not deny the omnipotence, 
but he questions the righteousness. 4. And 
he have cast, etc.] RV ' he delivered them into 
the hand of their transgression,' i.e. abandoned 
them to the consequences of their sins. This 
conclusion about the death of Job's sons was 
quite unjustifiable (cp. Lkl3 4 Jn9 2 > 3 ), but is 
in accordance with the general views about re- 
tribution. The catastrophe had fallen on the 
very day on which their father had offered the 
sacrifice : see on 1 13 . 6. Awake for thee] 
LXX reads ' hearken unto thee.' 

8-22. Bildad appeals to the experience of 
antiquity to show that God uproots the wicked, 
though they seem firmly established, and does 
not cast away the upright. 

8. To the search of their fathers] RV ' to 
that which their fathers have searched out.' 

9. We] the men of his own day. 

11-15. As surely as a water-plant perishes 
without water so surely will the sinner perish 
when God turns from him. n. The rush] 
EM ' the papyrus,' a reed from which the 
Egyptians made paper, light boats, etc. 

13. Hope] of prosperity. 15. Hold it fast] 
RV ' hold fast thereby.' 

16-18. The sinner is compared to a fast- 
growing weed which flourishes under the 
heat of the sun, and whose roots plant them- 
selves firmly in the earth (seeth the place of 
stones), but when destroyed it passes at once 
into oblivion. A slight correction of the Heb. 
would give for 17 b , 'It lives in a house of 
stones.' 17. Heap] The Heb. also means 
' fountain,' and possibly the sense may be that 
the plant lives in the stone erection over the 
fountain in the garden. 19. The joy of his 
way] the short-lived prosperity of the sinner. 
Others grow] who fill his place. 

21. Till he] RV 'He will yet.' Bildad, 
sharing the view of Eliphaz that while Job 
must have fallen into some heinous sin he was 
nevertheless a pious and upright man at heart, 
bases on this his prophecy that God will restore 
him. He must be chastened, but he cannot be 
cast away. 

CHAPTER 9 

Job's Second Speech (Chs. 9, 10) 
Chs. 9, 10 are, perhaps, in their religious and 
moral aspects the most difficult in the book. 

Driver in his l Introduction to the Literature 
of the OT.' analyses them as follows : — ' Job 
as well as his friends believes suffering to be 
a mark of God's displeasure for some grave 
sin. Job, however, is conscious that he has 
not so sinned. Hence the terrible dilemma in 
which he finds himself and which forces him 



298 



9.2 



JOB 



9. 28 



to the conclusion that God, though He knows 
him to be innocent (10 7 ), is determined to 
treat him as guilty, and that it is hopeless for 
him to attempt to clear himself.' Davidson 
characterises the leading features of the speech 
as ' awe before an Omnipotent Power, and 
moral terror and indignation, mixed with pite- 
ous despair at the indiscriminate severity with 
which it crushes men ! ' 

The strange blending of conflicting emotions 
is one of the most striking features in this and 
some other of Job's speeches. With great 
skill and psychological insight the poet has 
shown us the rebellion which, springing from 
God's apparent cruelty, gives place for the 
moment to a softened mood as the sufferer 
recalls his former life in God's favour. Then 
this, in turn, is brushed aside to make way for 
a darker accusation than ever ; God had de- 
liberately led him on to believe in His love 
that He might make all the bitterer the reve- 
lation of His hate. Then the mood changes 
once more and he appeals to the pity of that 
God, whose pitilessness he has just asserted. 

2-13. Job admits that it is impossible for 
him to maintain his righteousness before God. 
But this he implies is not due to his conscious- 
ness of guilt, but to the hopelessness of at- 
tempting to defend himself against God's irre- 
sistible power which is manifested throughout 
creation. 

3. If he will] EM ' If one should desire to.' 

Contend] argue his cause. One of a thousand] 
viz. charges against him, or questions with 
which he might be entrapped. 5. And they 
know not : which overturneth] RY ' And they 
know it not when he overturneth.' The 
catastrophe is so sudden. 6. The v. describes 
an earthquake. The roots of the mountains 
were thought of as pillars supporting the earth : 
cp. 26 n Ps75 3 . 7. It riseth not] because of 
darkness or eclipse. Sealeth up] i.e. in the 
abode where the stars were thought to dwell, 
and where they were brought forth by night 
to shine in the sky (Isa40 2 6). 8. Cp. Isa40 22 . 
The points of resemblance between the book 
of Job and the latter part of Isaiah are striking 
and frequent. 

9. Arcturus] RY 'the Bear.' The Heb. 
names in this v. are supposed to refer to three 
well-known constellations, the Bear, the Plei- 
ades, and Orion. Chambers of the south] the 
southern heavens. So the Babylonians divided 
the sky into 'lunar mansions.' 11. Job is 
baffled by the suddenness and mystery of God's 
actions. There is no escaping Him. 

13. BY ' God will not withdraw his anger ; 
the helpers of Rahab do stoop under him.' 
The word k Rahab, ' which means 'pride,' occurs 
again in 26 12 RY, and is there evidently ap- 
plied to the raging sea. ' This stormy sea, 
assaulting heaven with its waves, was personi- 



fied in ancient myth as a monster leading his 
helpers on to wage war with heaven ' (David- 
son). Rahab is the same as Tiamat (see on 
7 12 ). The myth relates that she brought forth 
a brood of monsters to help her in her battle. 
To this the term ' helpers of Rahab ' alludes. 
See also Isa51 9 . 

14-21. God, Job feels, is resolved to regard 
him as guilty. It is therefore vain to assert 
his innocence, yet while he can assert it he will. 

15. Would I not] i.e. ' would I not dare to.' 

I would make supplication] rather, ' I must 
ask mercy.' It would be useless to attempt 
to establish his innocence. Judge] rather, 
' adversary-at-law.' 16. 'If God allowed me 
to plead my cause, I cannot believe He would 
condescend to attend to me.' Job feels that 
God is indifferent to his cry for justice. 

17, 18. Breaketh . . multiplieth . . will not 
suffer . . filleth] rather, ' would break . . would 
multiply . . would not suffer . . would fill.' 

19. God is represented as speaking. ' If it 
be a question of strength, it is I who am 
strong ; if of judgment, who would dare ap- 
point me a day ? ' ' The words imply the 
irresponsibility and superiority to all law of 
the speaker ' (Davidson). 20. Job speaks. 
Render, ' Though I am innocent, a word may 
put me in the wrong ; though I am upright, 
He can pervert me.' It is therefore useless 
to plead. 21. RY ' I am perfect ; I regard not 
myself ; I despise my life.' Job now boldly 
asserts that he is innocent, even though it may 
cost him his life. 

22-24. J° D boldly arraigns the morality of 
the divine government of the world. 

22. This is one thing'] RY ' It is all one.' 
Apparently he means, ' It makes no difference 
whether I live or die.' God destroys indis- 
criminately both innocent and guilty. This 
directly controverts the friends' view (8 20 ). 
There is no such thing as a moral government 
of the world. 23. Scourge] e.g. famine, etc. 

Trial] RM ' calamity.' 24. He covereth the 
faces, etc.] so that they are blind to justice. 

If not, where, etc.] RY ' If it he not he, who 
then is it ? ' To whom but God can this state 
of things be ascribed ? 

25-31. Job's life speeds away; God will 
make him out to be guilty however pure he 
may be. 

25, 26. Cp. Wisd5 9 - 10 , where two of the 
same metaphors are similarly used. 25. A post] 
RM a ' runner ' with messages. 26. Swift 
ships] Heb. ' ships of reed,' light boats made 
from the papyrus reed, and very swift. 

28. Since God is determined to hold Job 
guilty, it is useless for him to try and establish 
his innocence. I am afraid of all my sorrows] 
because they seem to be evidences of God's 
anger. Apparently there were times when 
the pain was less acute, but the cheerfulness 



299 



9.29 



JOB 



11.6 



he might have felt was checked by the know- 
ledge that it would come back again. 29. If 
I be wicked] RV ' I shall be condemned.' 

30. And make, etc.] RM 'And cleanse my 
hands with lye,' or potash. He means that he 
is really righteous, but God is determined to 
make him seem wicked. 

32-35. Job is conscious that he cannot 
meet God on his own level and plead his cause 
on equal terms, nor is there any one to act 
as mediator. 

33. Daysman] an Old English word mean- 
ing ' umpire,' or ' arbitrator ' ; one who mediates 
between two parties. 

33-35. Translate (with Cox) : ' There is no 
arbiter between us to lay his hand upon us 
both, who would remove His (God's) rod from 
me so that the dread of Him should not over- 
awe me. If there were, I would speak and 
not fear Him.' Job laments that there is no 
being, having power with God and man, who 
would interpose and arbitrate between him and 
God, and make both parties yield to his decision. 

This passage is the first occurrence of the 
idea of intervention on his behalf, which takes 
more definite shape in 16 19 and 19 25 " 27 . But 
in those passages Job advances to the thought 
that, since he has no umpire to vindicate him, 
God Himself will be his umpire, and vindicate 
Job even against Himself. This longing of 
pious men of old for some mediator who would 
bring about peace between them and God has 
been satisfied in the person of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, both God and man. 

34. His fear] i.e. the fear He causes, as in 
Ex 2H 27 . 35. But it is not so with me] RV 
' For I am not so in myself,' i.e. In my own 
soul I am not guilty. 

CHAPTER 10 
Job's Second Speech (concluded) 

1-7. Job seeks the reason of his trial, and 
protests against God's treatment as inconsistent 
with the natural relations between Creator 
and created, and with God's knowledge of his 
innocence and inability to escape Him. 

1. I will leave, etc.] RV 'I will give free 
course to my complaint.' 3. The work of 
thine hands] i.e. man, God's creatine 

4-6. ' Is God's judgment liable to mistakes 
like thai of frail man' (eyes of flesh), 'or is 
His time so short that He is in a hurry to find 
Job guilty and to punish him ?' Observe that 
Job cannol altogether give up his conviction 
that God must be really just, although the 

nason of liis Buffering causes him the greatest 

perplexity. 7. Thou] RV' although thou.' 
8-17. Job dwells on G-od's past goodness. 

Does he not owe to Him liis existence ami 

his preservation up bo the present ? Yet He 

had apparently purposed all along to destroy 
him in the end. 



10. 11. The conception and growth of the 
infant. Curdled me] made him take solid 
form. 

11. Fenced me] RV 'knit me together.' 

12. Visitation] RM ' care.' 

13. And these, etc.] RV 'Yet thou didst 
hide these things,' etc. I know that this is 
with thee] rather, ' I know that these things 
were with thee.' Job concludes that even from 
his childhood God had purposed to afflict him, 
making him happy so that his misery might be 
deeper by contrast. 

14. 15. Whether guilty or innocent he 
would be condemned. 15. If I be righteous, 
etc.] ' "Were I righteous I must not lift up 
my head as an innocent man.' / ant full, etc.] 
RV ' being filled with ignominy, and looking 
upon my affliction.' But a slight correction 
gives the very much better sense, ' drunken 
with affliction.' 16. Marvellous] in his per- 
secutions ; a sorry sequel to the marvel of 
creation (chs. 38, 39). 17. Thy witnesses] 
Job's afflictions, which seem to witness to his 
guilt. Changes and war, etc.] RM ' Host 
after host is against me.' 

18-22. Job begs for a little respite before 
his death : cp. Ps39 13 . Observe how appeal 
follows hard on accusation. 21, 22. Note the 
dreary, hopeless conception of the dim shadow- 
land of death. 

It should be observed that in spite of the 
rash and despairing utterances to which Job in 
his misery gives vent in chs. 9, 10, his position 
is one of religious perplexity, rather than of 
reasoned doubt. Calmer and more hopeful 
views soon appear, and the conviction that 
God will restore him to His favour and justify 
him comes out more and more clearly as we 
read on: cp. 1413 1619 1925 271-6. 'Job 
never entirely gave up his faith in God, though, 
like Jacob, he wrestled with Him. And, as in 
that case, the issue shows that God was not 
displeased with such an unburdening of the 
soul that still kept close to the strict line of 
truth ' (Bradley). ' Much of the interest of 
this drama of the soul lies in the growth of a 
consciousness in Job that God's present anger 
does not represent His inmost self. It is a 
mood that will pass, a dark cloud eclipsing 
His truest character. This thought does not, 
however, emerge as yet ' (Peake). 

CHAPTER 11 
Tin. First Speech of Zophar 

The speech is short and unsympathetic. 

1-6. Zophar rebukes Job for daring to 
assert his innocence. 

3. Thy lies] RV ' thy boastings,' viz. Job's 
assertions of innoeenee (v. 4). 6. That they 
are double, etc.] RV ' That it is manifold in 
effectual working.' God exacteth, etc.] RM 
' God rcmittcth unto thee of thine iniquity ' ; 



300 



11.7 



JOB 



13.8 



He does not bring up all Job's guilt, which is 
greater than he is aware of. So far from the 
penalty being excessive, Job has not received 
all that he deserved. 

7-12. God knows Job's sinfulness if he 
does not himself. 

7. RM ' Canst thou find out the deep things 
of God ? ' 8. It] God's wisdom. 10. If he 
cut off, etc.] rather, ' Should he pass by, im- 
prison, arraign before an assembly ? ' If 
God, with perfect knowledge of sinful man, 
visits him in various ways, who shall gainsay 
His actions ? 12. Perhaps we may render, 
' Thus vain man gets understanding, and a 
wild ass's colt is born a man.' The descrip- 
tion of affliction brings wisdom to the foolish 
and transforms the most unpromising natures. 

13-20. Repentance the way to restored 
prosperity. 

14. Tabernacles] RV ' tents.' 15. Without 
spot] of guilt. 16. Waters] rather, ' floods.' 

17. Thine age] RY ' thy life.' Thou shalt 
shine] RY ' Though there be darkness, it shall 
be as the morning.' 18. Dig] RY ' search,' 
viz. for danger, but find none. 20. As] RY 
omits. There is nothing before the wicked 
but death. The statement is general, but 
Zophar, unlike the other friends, hints that 
Job may belong to the wicked. 

CHAPTER 12 
Job's Third Speech (Chs. 12-14) 

The friends have said God is wise and 
mighty. Job replies, ' I know that as well as 
you. You infer that He is also righteous, but 
experience shows that His power and wisdom 
are directed to unrighteous ends.' But it is 
with God rather than with them that he wishes 
to argue, and come what may he will utter all 
he feels. He challenges God to name his sins, 
presses man's hopeless destiny as a reason for 
God's pity, longs that God might shelter him 
out of reach of His anger, till it has passed 
away, and then renew His communion with 
him, but closes again on the note of man's 
hopeless fate. The thought that God might 
take Job's part against Himself here comes to 
expression. 

1 -1 2. Job sarcastically praises the wisdom 
of the friends, which, however, is not greater 
than his own, or indeed than any one may 
learn from God's creation and government of 
the world. It is easy to mock one who is down : 
yet the prosperity of the wicked is a fact as 
patent as the wisdom and power of God. 

2. A sarcastic allusion to the omniscience 
of the friends : Ye are the people ; the only 
wise ones. 4. Who calleth] RY ' A man that 
called.' Job complains that he, a servant of 
God, has become the subject of mockery. 

5. RY ' In the thought of him that is at ease 
there is contempt for misfortune ; it is ready 



for them whose foot slippeth.' An allusion to 
the way his friends treat him now that he is 
in trouble. How easy to despise the man who 
is down ! 6. The wicked, on the other hand, 
seem to fare better than the good. Into 
whose hand, etc.] Another rendering is, 'Who 
bears (his) god in his hand' ; i.e. who regards 
his sword as his god : cp. Hab 1 n " 16 . 

7. Even the animals know the commonplaces 
that constitute the friends' stock of wisdom. 

9. In all these] among all these creatures. 
The LORD] see on 1 21 . Hath wrought this] 
i.e. orders all things, n, 12. 'I test your 
arguments as the palate tests its food ; the 
aged are not necessarily wise.' 11. And the 
mouth, etc.] RY ' Even as the palate tasteth 
its meat.' 12. RM ' With aged men, ye say, is 
wisdom.' Job is not stating his own views. 

13-25. With God are wisdom and might, no 
one can reverse His actions. The mightiest 
are overthrown by Him, and He takes away 
the understanding of the wise. 

13. With him] viz. God. Absolute power 
and wisdom are inherent in God, not acquired 
by pains and years as man acquires such power 
and wisdom as he possesses. 14. The impo- 
tence of man in the hands of the Almighty. 

Shutteth up a man] e.g. in prison. 16. Are 
his] exist by His permission. 

17. Perhaps the original text meant 'He 
sends mad counsellors.' 18. God sets kings 
free, or imprisons them according to His will. 

19. Princes] RY ' priests.' Perhaps, ' He 
sends mad priests and perverts the mighty.' 

22. ' The v. means that God through His 
wisdom sees into the profoundest and darkest 
deeps, and brings what is hidden to light ' 
(Davidson). 23. Straiteneth them again] RM 
' leadeth them away into captivity.' 24. Wil- 
derness] The Heb. is used of the primeval 
chaos of Gn 1 2 . 

CHAPTER 13 

Job's Third Speech (continued) 
1-12. Job claims to understand as much 
about God as the friends. -He rejects their 
opinion as to the cause of his troubles, and 
regards it as an attempt to curry favour with 
God. 

1. The v. is in close connexion with c. 12. 
Eye refers to 12 M, ear to 1213 f- : cp. 12 11. 

3. Surely] rather, ' but.' Job seeks an 
explanation from God, not from man. 4. For- 
gers] better, ' plasterers,' i.e. they plaster 
their lies over God's misgovernment and hide 
its evils. 7, 8. ' Does God require His actions 
to be defended by their untruths and servile 
flattery ? ' The friends condemned Job un 
justly in order to uphold God's justice. They 
were special pleaders for God, because they 
wanted to curry favour with Him. 

8, 10. Accept] RY 'respect.' The phrase 



301 



13.9 



JOB 



14.20 



is used of a judge who shows partiality. Con- 
siderations of self-interest lead them to give 
God their verdict and not Job. 9. ' Do they 
think they can deceive God with their parti- 
ality ? He penetrates their cowardly motives.' 

10. Job believes that God will not approve 
of those who lie for Him, an assertion of God's 
righteousness in remarkable contrast to the 
assertions of His unrighteousness. 12. RY 
k Your memorable sayings are proverbs of 
ashes, your defences are defences of clay.' 
Job regards their view as worthless, and their 
arguments such as any one could refute. 

13-22. He turns from man, and boldly 
pleads his cause with God. 

14, 15. Render, with a slight alteration, 'I 
will take my flesh in my teeth and I will put 
my life in my hand (be daring). Lo, he will 
slay me : I have no hope, but I will maintain 
my words before him.' The meaning of the 
phrase ' to take the flesh in the teeth ' is 
uncertain. Probably it signifies just the same 
as to ' put the life in the hand,' which means 
to dare the uttermost peril. Job is resolved 
to speak out, though he feels that God will 
kill him for doing it. 

16. He] RV 'This.' The v. may mean 
that God would pardon his boldness but not a 
false confession of sin : see 42 7 . 18. Ordered 
my cause] i.e. prepared his defence. 

19. Plead with] RY ' contend with ' : to 
prove him a sinner. For now, etc.] RY ' For 
now shall I hold my peace and give up the 
ghost ' : i.e. if his innocence were disputed. 
Note how in prospect of his case coming into 
court Job's spirits rise. He is so certain of 
his innocence that he cannot believe that it 
can help being established. The axiom on 
which this rests is his conviction of God's 
righteousness, once more a strange contrast to 
his charges against Him. 20, 21. Job begs 
that God will free him from the sense of 
terror which he naturally feels. Thy dread] 
i.e. dread of Thee. 

23-28. He seeks to know his sins, and the 
reasons of God's* treatment. 

26. Possess] RY ' inherit.' Job thinks he 
must be suffering for his early follies. 

27. Stocks] rather, ' clog,' to prevent slaves 
escaping. Thou settest, etc.] lit. ' Thou dost 
make a mark upon the roots of my feet,' 
perhaps, i.e. make them sore with the clog 
upon them. 28. And he, etc.] RY • Though 
I am like a rotten thing that consumeth ' ; an 
allusion to his miserable state. 

CHAPTER 14 
Job's Third Speech (concluded) 

1-6. .I«)l) pleads lot God's forbearance on 
the grounds of man's shortness of life and 

sinful nature. 

1, 2. The well-known Sentence in the 



Burial Service. 3. Open thine eyes] i.e. watch 
so vigilantly : cp. vv. 16, 17. 4. Job pleads 
the innate sinfulness of man. 5, 6. Let man 
spend his days in peace, seeing that his time is 
but short : cp. c. 7. 

7-12. A tree has a chance of a second 
growth after it is cut down. Not so man. 
With him death is final. Job here reaches 
the depth of despair. 

13-22. Despairing of any return to God's 
favour before death, Job is seized with a 
longing to remain in the place of the departed 
(Sheol) until God's wrath is past, when he 
should be forgiven and restored to His favour. 
Notice how Job assumes that God's hostility 
to him will not be permanent. He pictures 
God as conscious of this and as, in view of the 
future love He would feel for him, sheltering 
him in Sheol from His present anger. Yet 
though he dwells upon a possible return from 
Sheol to life in fellowship with God, he does 
not dream that it is more than an enchanting 
thought. If only a man might die and live 
again ! No, that is impossible. 14. Will I 
wait] RY 'would I wait,' Come] RY 'should 
come.' 15. RY ' Thou shouldest call and I 
would answer thee : Thou wouldest have a 
desire to the work of thine hands.' 

16, 17. These vv. probably are not, as AY 
and RY take them, the present contrast to the 
glowing picture of the future that he has been 
wishing might be true, but a continuation of 
that picture. Render, ' For then Thou wouldest 
number my steps ; Thou wouldest not watch 
over my sin ; my transgression would be sealed 
up in a bag, and Thou wouldest cover over my 
iniquity.' God would number his steps in 
kindly care (cp. ' the very hairs of your head 
are all numbered '). He would no longer 
treasure up his sin against him, but hide it 
away out of sight. 18, 19. And] render, 
' But,' Under God's visitation the hopes of 
men come to nought, like undermined moun- 
tains or water-worn rocks. 

20-22. A description of what happens after 
the death change passes over the face and the 
spirit goes away to Sheol. The dead have 
lost all knowledge, all interest in the things 
of earth, even in the fortunes of their own 
children (cp. EcclO 5 ' 15 ). In the grave the 
body passes through the painful process of 
decomposition, the pain of which is also felt 
by its shade in Sheol. 

The Second Series of Speeches 
(Chs. 15-21) 
The rejection by Job of the opinions and 
advice of the friends, his sturdy maintenance 
Of his innocence, and the fearlessness with 
wliicli in his anguish he has arraigned the 
divine government of the world, have all 
alike deepened their conviction of his guilt. 



302 



15. 



JOB 



16.17 



Without actually charging Job with definite 
sin, for which indeed they have no ground, 
they now administer stern rebukes, and draw 
terrible pictures of the certain misery which 
awaits the godless, and this evidently with an 
eye to the sufferer. They no longer encourage 
him to repentance, or predict consequent 
prosperity. 

Job, for his part, laments their harshness, 
and rejects anew their doctrine of retribution 
as contrary to experience, and as not applic- 
able to his case. He feels himself to be 
abandoned by God and man ; he cries out for 
pity ; he reasserts his innocence, and is still 
troubled by the problem of evil. Yet in the 
very midst of his trouble he makes some 
advance towards the solution of the mystery. 
Already he has had dim visions of a mediator 
between himself and God (9 32f -), and of the 
possibility of a restoration to the divine 
favour (14 13 " 15 ). These were only momentary 
glimpses of a brighter day amidst the gloom, 
but now they develop into a stronger convic- 
tion that God must in the end restore the 
light of His countenance to His servant, and 
vindicate his innocence to the world, though 
it can only be after his death : see 16 19 19 25 " 27 . 
It is, however, no longer an umpire between 
himself and God that he desires. The convic- 
i tion has come to him that since there is no 
umpire who can force his decision on God, 
God Himself will be the umpire to vindicate 
the righteousness of Job against the stigma of 
unrighteousness which He had Himself seemed 
to fasten upon him by his affliction. 

CHAPTER 15 
The Second Speech of Eliphaz 
i-i6. Eliphaz accuses Job of impiety and 
arrogance. 

2. And fill, etc.] utter idle, empty remarks. 
7. It was a popular idea that there was a 
primeval man endowed with perfect wisdom, 
corresponding to the figure of the Divine 
Wisdom in Prov 8. 8. Render, ' Didst thou 
hearken in the council of God ? ' i.e. before 
the creation of the world. 10. Eliphaz, 
perhaps, refers here to himself. 

11. RV 'Are the consolations of God too 
small for thee, and the word that dealeth 
gently with thee ? ' The ' consolations of God ' 
are the comforting views about God's govern - 
1 ment and purposes which Eliphaz would have 
Job accept : cp. 5 8-27 . 12. What do thy eyes 
wink at ?] render, ' why do thy eyes flash (in 
, anger)?' 14. Eliphaz uses Job's own words 
(14 4 ) to convict him of his sinfulness. 

15. He] i.e. God. Saints] RY 'holy 
1 ones' : the angels, cp. 4 18 . Heavens] i.e. 
1 probably, 'heavenly beings.' 16. Drinketh] 
thirsts after, is greedy for. 

17-35. Eliphaz describes, doubtless as a 



warning to Job, the troubled conscience and 
inevitable doom of the wicked. 

18, 19. Eliphaz refers to a time when his 
ancestors had not mingled with other people, 
who would corrupt the purity of their wise 
sayings. His countrymen the Edomites, who 
were descended from Abraham, would have the 
same pride of race as their Hebrew cousins. 

20-23. The haunting fears of the wicked 
oppressor. 20. And the number, etc.] RV 
' even the number of years that are laid up for 
the oppressor.' 22. He loses hope of deliver- 
ance from misfortune. 23 a . He imagines he 
is always coming to poverty. 24. Ready] 
fully prepared. 25. For] RY ' Because.' 

26. Render, ' It (trouble) leaps at his throat, 
past the thickest boss of his shield.' The boss 
is the central knob of the buckler. 27. A 
picture of sensual luxury : cp. Ps 73 7 . 

28. Illustrative of his daring impiety : he 
ventured to dwell in cities that lie under the 
curse : cp. Josh 6 26 . 29. Neither shall he 
prolong - , etc.] RY ' neither shall their produce 
bend to the earth ' ; a figure of f ruitf ulness. 

30. By the breath, etc.] God's wrath will 
destroy him like a withering sirocco. 31. RY 
' Let him not trust in vanity, deceiving him- 
self.' Accomplished] RM ' paid in full.' His 
time] the natural time of his death. 

32, 33. The speedy end of the wicked. ' His 
branch prematurely withers ; he puts forth 
grapes, and cannot ripen them ; he flowers, but 
he fails of fruit ' (Davidson). 

CHAPTER 16 
Job's Fourth Speech (Chs. 16, 17) 

See introductory remarks on chs. 15-21. 

1-5. Job retorts scornfully that he too could 
offer such empty ' comfort ' if he were in the 
friends' place. 

2. The friends can do nothing but repeat 
their exasperating commonplaces. 3. Shall 
vain words, etc.] i.e. ' will you never stop ? ' 

5. Job would have acted very differently 
(4 3 > 4 29), giving no mere lip-comfort. 

6-17. Job enlarges on the wrath of God 
and the enmity of man. Neither speech nor 
silence brings him relief. 

7-9. These vv. seem to refer to the hostility 
of God, v. 10 to that of man. In vv. 7-9 
Job varies between complaint of God in the 
third person and direct address to Him. 

7 b . Perhaps a reference to the loss of his 
family (1 18 > 19 ). 13. Archers] RM 'arrows.' 

Reins] i.e. kidneys. 14. With breach upon 
breach] with one blow after another, as a 
battering-ram makes breaches in a wall. 

15. Sackcloth] the sign of mourning. 

Horn] the emblem of pride and strength. 

17. Not for any injustice] RY ' although 
there is no violence.' Cp. the suffering Servant 
of Jehovah in Isa 53 9 . 



303 



16. 18 



JOB 



18.4 



1 8. Conscious of his innocence and yet of 
his impending death, which seems a token that 
he is condemned as guilty, Job invokes the 
earth not to conceal his blood, but to let it 
cry aloud for justice. The idea that the earth 
would not absorb innocent blood occurs also 
in Gn4!0 Ezk24?> 8 . No place] RY ' no rest- 
ing place.' Let it be heard everywhere ! 

19-21. Rejected by men who count him 
guilty, Job is for a moment cheered with a 
bright vision of a ' witness in heaven,' one 
who will vouch for and testify to his innocence 
(v. 19). From vv. 20, 21 RY it is supposed 
that Job has an intuition that the God who 
now seems to be his enemy is after all the 
God of love, in communion with whom his past 
life has been spent, and to Him he turns : 

' But thou giv'st leave, dear Lord, that we 
Take shelter from Thyself in Thee ; 
And with the wings of Thine own Dove 
Fly to the sceptre of soft love.' 

(Crashaw, quoted by Cheyne.) 

We see here a development of the idea of a 
' daysman ' or mediator first mentioned in 
9 33 . There it appears as a longing impossible 
to be realised. In this c. it turns into a 
definite hope, and in 19 25 ' 27 it rises to a cer- 
tainty. It is evident from 16 22 17 1 " 3 . 13 ' 16 that 
Job does not expect this vindication before his 
death, which seems at hand. 

19. Also now] RY ' Even now.' My re- 
cord] RY ' he that voucheth for me.' 21. RY 
' that he (God) would maintain the right 
of man with God, and of a son of man with his 
neighbour.' Some render the second half of 
the sentence, ' as a mortal man does for his 
neighbour.' 22. Connected in subject with 
17 J ' 2 . Some by a slight correction read in 
the first line, ' For the mourning-women shall 
come.' 

CHAPTER 17 
Job's Fourth Speech (concluded) 

1-9. Job prays God to pledge Himself to 
vindicate his innocence in the future, for his 
friends have failed him, and he rejects their 
promises of restoration in the present life. 

1. RY ' My spirit is consumed, my days are 
extinct, the grave is ready for me.' The v. is 
connected with 16 22 . 2. Job rejects the de- 
lusive hopes of restoration held out by the 
friends. 

3. RY ' Give now a pledge, be surety for 
me with thyself ; who is there that will strike 
hands with me?' Job begs that God will 
promise to testify to his innocence after he is 
dead. There is no one else who will do this. 
To ' strike hands ' was the Hebrew sign of 
becoming surety for another. 

4. The friends are too prejudiced against 
Job to speak on his behalf. Not exalt them] 
i.e. not let their views triumph. 5. RY k He 



that denounceth his friends for a prey, even 
the eyes of his children shall fail.' 6. He 
hath made me] Render, ' I am made.' And 
aforetime, etc.] RY l And I am become an 
open abhorring.' 

8, 9. The upright, astonished at Job's 
calamities, will rise against the ungodly, while 
the righteous holds on his way with increasing 
strength. This does not fit in well with Job's 
attitude, so that there is plausibility in the 
view of some scholars that the vv. are a 
misplaced fragment of Bildad's speech. 

10. Job invites the friends to renew their 
arguments, although he expects nothing worth 
hearing from them. 11, 12. The thoughts, 
etc.] Render, perhaps, ' The thoughts of my 
heart put night for day. Darkness is nearer 
than light.' 

13-16. Job declares that it is vain to look 
for any restoration or justification (my hope) 
in this life. His hope will go to the grave 
with him. 13. RM ' If I hope, Sheol is mine 
house.' 16. They] RY 'it' (i.e. his hope). 
Bars of the pit] the gates of the world of the 
dead: cp. Isa38 10 . When, etc.] RY l when once 
there is rest in the dust.' 

Job moves forward in this speech to the 
great thought that after he is dead, God will 
clear his reputation of the stain placed upon 
it by his disasters, which seemed to the world 
to prove his guilt. He does not expect the 
old relations between God and himself to be 
renewed, but since he cannot bear the thought 
that he will be permanently branded as an 
evil-doer, he wins the conviction that he will 
ultimately be righted. And since God alone 
can or will clear his honour (for man cannot 
and will not) he is assured that God, who is 
now slaying him by slow torture, will at last 
vindicate him. God's present mood is not an 
index to His permanent character. 

CHAPTER 18 
Bildad's Second Speech 

Bildad replies with a rebuke to Job and a 
reassertion of the miserable lot of the wicked 
already asserted by Eliphaz ; not so much, 
however, with covert reference to Job, to 
whose case the description is largely unsuit- 
able, as in answer to his impeachment of God's 
moral government. 

1-4. Bildad protests against Job's violent 
language. 

2. RY ' How long will ye lay snares for 
words'; i.e. hunt for arguments. Mark] RY 
' consider (the matter).' 3. Cp. 17 2 - 4 A 10 . 

4 \ RY ' Thou that tearest thyself in thine 
anger,' a rebuke to Job's rash utterance in 
16*. Shall the earth, etc.] Did Job imagine 
that (iod's universal law that sin must be 
followed by suffering would be reversed in his 
case, because of his expressions of indignation ? 



304 



18. 5 



JOB 



19. 23 



5-21. He insists on the misery in the present 
life and the dishonour after death, which are 
the portion of sinners. 

5, 6. The sinner's house shall be desolate. 

Tabernacle] RV w tent.' 7 b . His crafty plans 
shall be his ruin. 9. Gin] i.e. trap. The 
word was originally ' grinne.' 9 b . RV ' a snare 
shall lay hold on him.' 11. Drive him to his 
feet] RV ' chase him at his heels.' 

12. Hunger-bitten] exhausted by hunger. 

13. Strength of his skin] RV 'members of 
his body.' Firstborn of death] i.e. a deadly 
disease. I4 a . Render, ' He shall be rooted out 
of the tent he trusted was his own.' King of 
terrors] death. 

I5 a . RV ' There shall dwell in his tent that 
which is none of his,' i.e. his possessions will 
pass into the hands of strangers. Some read, 
' Lilith shall dwell in his tent.' Lilith is a 
nocturnal demon, that plays the part of a 
vampire. Brimstone shall be scattered] a sign 
of God's wrath (cp. Gnl9 24 Pslie Isa34 9 ). 

17. No name in the street] he is quite for- 
gotten. 19. Nephew] RV ' son's son.' 

20. Render, ' They of the west shall be 
astonished at his day (i.e. fate), and horror 
shall seize those on the east.' His name will 
be a byword throughout the world. 

CHAPTER 19 
Job's Fifth Speech 

In this speech Job repeats his bitter com- 
plaints of God's injustice, and man's con- 
temptuous abandonment of one formerly so 
loved and honoured. He appeals in broken 
utterances to his friends to pity him ; then 
from them he would fain appeal to posterity, 
wishing that he might engrave in the rock a 
declaration of his innocence, sure that those 
who read it in the after-time would feel the 
ring of sincerity and exonerate him of guilt. 
But, baffled by the callous unbelief of his friends 
and the impossibility of an appeal to genera- 
tions unborn, he is driven, as he had been 
driven before, from man to God. Already he 
had uttered the conviction that God would 
vindicate him to the world. Now he reiterates 
the conviction and rises to a still loftier height 
in the assurance that he will be permitted to 
know of his vindication. He does not expect 
to be restored to life, nor yet to escape from 
Sheol, nor to renew the old fellowship with 
God. His deepest anxiety is that his honour 
should be cleared from stain, and the thought 
that this will be accomplished, and that he 
shall be allowed to see God reversing the 
verdict against him, fills him with overwhelming 
emotion. 

1-22. After reproaching the friends for 
unfeeling conduct. Job again rejects their in- 
sinuations as to the reason of his calamities. 
He declares that God is treating him with 



unjustifiable severity, and that he has become 
estranged from all. 

3. Ten times] i.e. continually : cp. Gn31 7 
Nu 14 22 . 4. Mine error remaineth with myself] 
i.e. ' is my own affair,' or, perhaps, - injures 
myself alone.' 

6. Job maintains, rightly, that his calamities 
were not due to his sins, but, wrongly, that 
they were the result of God's unjust action. 
As the reader knows from the Prologue, God 
permitted these trials in order to test and make 
manifest Job's uprightness. Job's ignorance of 
this explains and excuses much that otherwise 
might be deemed unpardonable. 

7. Render, 'Behold, I shriek "Violence," 
and am not answered. I clamour, and there is 
no justice.' 8. Job's bewildered state : his mind 
sees no clear course. 9. Glory . . crown] prob- 
ably Job's righteousness, on which his suffer- 
ings seemed to throw doubt. 10. Mine hope] 
viz. of recovery, or perhaps of happiness. 

12. Troops] of afflictions: cp. 'battalions 
of sorrows ' (' Hamlet,' IV, 5). Raise up their 
way] The figure is that of casting up a mound 
by which to attack a city. 15. They that 
dwell in mine house] the servants or guests. 

17. Render, 'My breath is offensive to my 
wife, and I am loathsome to the children of 
my (mother's) womb ' ; owing to his complaint. 

18. I arose, etc.] RV ' If I arise, they speak,' 
etc. ; i.e. the children mock him. 19. Inward] 
i.e. intimate. 20 a . The words describe his 
leanness. I am escaped, etc.] Some would 
substitute, ' And I am escaped with my flesh 
in my teeth' (cp. 13 14 ). 22 b . 'You cannot 
tear me to pieces enough ! ' An ' eater of 
flesh ' is an Eastern expression for a slanderer. 

23-27. Job had frequently expressed a hope 
that his righteousness would be proclaimed, as 
a reply to the insinuation of the friends that 
he was suffering for his sins (cp. 13 15 " 19 ). We 
have also noted his longings, more or less defi- 
nitely expressed, that he might find a mediator 
or vindicator who would do this office for him 
(cp. 9 32_35 17 3 ). In this c. these longings, 
already turned into conviction in 16 19 " 21 , re- 
ceive an even higher expression. He utters 
his belief (vv. 23-27) that God Himself will 
once more manifest Himself as his friend, and 
vindicate his character after his death, and that 
he shall be suffered to see God proclaiming 
his righteousness over his grave. It is unfortu- 
nate that the rendering ' Redeemer ' and the 
traditional reference of the vindicator to 
Christ, together with the supposition that Job 
expects a resurrection of the body, have com- 
pletely disguised the true meaning from most 
readers. The vindicator is God Himself, who 
is now his persecutor, and Job anticipates 
neither deliverance from death nor a resurrec- 
tion of the body after death, nor even a deliver- 
ance from Sheol and renewed fellowship with 



20 



305 



19. 23 



JOB 



21. 13 



God, only the experience of one thrilling 
moment, when his shade will wake from its 
semi-conscious stupor to see God standing over 
his grave and declaring his innocence to the 
universe. 

23, 24. Job longs to write down or, better 
still, to engrave upon a rock (a durable material 
to last into the future) his protestation of 
innocence. Lead] This may refer to the pour- 
ing of molten lead into the carved-out letters, 
though we have no other mention of such a 
practice. 

23. Printed in a book] EV ' inscribed in a 
book ' ; but since a book quickly perishes, he 
substitutes the wish that his words might be 
graven in the imperishable rock. 

25-27. Render, ' But as for me I know that 
my vindicator is alive (i.e. exists), and hereafter 
He will stand above the dust (either of Job 
or of his grave, as his vindicator). And after 
(the loss of) my skin, which has been destroyed 
(i.e. after my death) this shall be, I shall have 
vision of God, whom I shall gaze on as for me 
(i.e. as my friend), and mine eyes shall behold 
and not as a stranger.' 

25. Redeemer] Heb. 6ro'eZ, from ga'al, ' to 
make a claim.' The Go'el was the next of kin 
whose duty it was to prevent land being sold 
out of the clan (Lv25 25 ), and to avenge 
murder. See also Ruth 3, 4 and notes. Driver 
points out that the word means here the oppo- 
site to the Christian idea, viz. a deliverer, not 
from sin, but from affliction and wrong not due 
to sin. The best rendering here is ' Vindicator.' 

26. In my flesh] rather, ' without ' or ' apart 
from my flesh,' i.e. after death. 

27. For myself] RM ' on my side.' Not 
another] or, ' not as another,' i.e. no longer 
estranged. 

27 b . RV 'my reins are consumed within 
me.' He faints with emotion at the thought 
of this vindication. 

28. Probably with ' many ancient authorities ' 
(RM) we should read ' him ' instead of ' me ' 
in the second line, and translate, ' If ye say, 
How we will persecute him, and find the root 
of the matter in him,' i.e. probe relentlessly 
till they find the secret sin which has led to 
Job's afflictions. Job proceeds in v. 29 to 
warn them of the vengeance that will overtake 
them. 

CHAPTER 20 
Zophar's Second Speech 
Zophar ignores Job's conviction that God 
will one day establish his innocence, and pro- 
ceeds to describe fche short triumph of the 
wicked and his certain downfall and punish- 
mriit at God's hand. Perhaps he wishes Job 
to apply the description to himself and take 
warning therefrom ; though quite apari from 
that the speecli is relevant to his argument 



that the moral order of the world is not, as 
Job maintains, unrighteous. 

3. The check of my reproach] RV 'the 
reproof which putteth me to shame.' He 
refers to Job's reproaches in c. 19. 10. Seek 
to please the poor] i.e. seek in distress the 
favour of the humblest. For his hands Budde 
reads ' his offspring. ' Restore their goods] 
which he had extorted from them in his pros- 
perity. 11. RV 'His bones are full of ' (the 
vigour of) ' his youth, but it shall lie down with 
him in the dust.' 12, 13. Like a sweetmeat 
which is retained in the mouth as long as 
possible, so the sinner revels in his sin. 

14-16. The consequences of sin figuratively 
described : cp. Prov 23 ™-w. His meat] better, 
' this food of his,' i.e. sin. Asps] a species of 
serpent. 17. The floods, etc.] RV ' the flow- 
ing streams of honey,' etc. : a figure of pros- 
perity. Surely he shall not feel quietness] RM 
'Because he knew no quietness in his greed.' 
His greed was never satisfied. 21. RV k There 
was nothing left that he devoured not ; there- 
fore his prosperity shall not endure.' 

22 b . RV ' The hand of every one that is in 
misery shall come upon him ' ; i.e. all who 
have suffered at his hands. 

23-29. The terrible death of the wicked. 

24. Steel] better, 'bronze.' 25*. RV ' He 
draweth it forth, and it cometh,' etc. 26/ RV 
' All darkness is laid up for his treasures : a 
fire not blown by man shall devour him ; it 
shall consume that which is left in his tent.' 

27. The v. seems to be Zophar's harsh retort 
(a) to Job's conviction of a vindicator from 
heaven of his innocence (1G 19 19 25 ), and (b) to 
his appeal to the earth (see 16 18 ). 

CHAPTER 21 
Job's Sixth Speech 

Zophar, like the other friends, had insisted 
on the certain retribution for sin which befalls 
the wicked in this life. Now at length these 
views draw from Job a direct contradiction. 
It is his manner to wait till the three friends 
have spoken before he demolishes their case. 

1 -2 1. Job declares that as a matter of 
common observation bad men often go prosper- 
ously through life without any sign of God's 
displeasure. 

4. To man] RM ' of man.' It is of God 
that Job complains. And if, etc.] RV ' And 
why should I not be impatient ? ' 6. Job 
trembles at the thought of the bold arraign- 
ment of God's government which he is about 
to make, or possibly at the remembrance 
of how unrighteous that government seems to 
him. 

8. Unlike Job, who had lost all his children 
:it a stroke;. 12. Timbrel] a small drum still 
used in Palestine. Organ] RV ' pipe.' 

13. In a moment] without prolonged ill- 



30G 



21. 14 



JOB 



22. 3 



ness or pain, such as that from which he him- 
self suffers. 14. Therefore] better, ' though ' 
hot 'yet.' 

16. Lo, their good, etc.] It may mean, They 
:annot control their fortunes : it must be God 
who has prospered them. Is far] rather, ' be 
far.' Job repudiates the devices of sinners. 
Possibly the whole v. is an objection uttered 
by the friends. 17, 18. The vv. should be 
read as questions, the words ' How oft ' being 
prefixed to each sentence. The answer implied 
is ' very seldom.' 

19. RV l Ye say, God layeth up his iniquity 
for his children. Let him recompense it unto 
himself that he may know it.' The friends 
may argue that retribution may, at all events, 
fall upon the wicked man's children. To which 
Job replies that the sinner ought to suffer 
personally. Possibly, however, we should read 
/in the first line, ' Let him not lay up iniquity 
for his children.' 21. Pleasure] better, 
1 interest.' 

22-26. It is presumptuous for the friends 
to settle what are the rules by which God 
decides the fate of men, God who judges even 
the angels. 24. Breasts] mg. ' milk-pails.' 

And his bones, etc.] RY 'And the marrow of 
his bones is moistened' : he is strengthened 
and refreshed. 

27-34. Job says he knows that the friends' 
remarks are aimed at him. He is to take warn- 
ing from the sure doom of the sinner. But 
experience does not justify their conclusions. 

28. Prince] here probably means ' tyrant.' 

29, 30. The meaning is : Have you not 
asked the traveller who has seen the world 
what are his conclusions on the subject ? Are 
you not familiar with the examples he quotes ? 
He would tell you that the wicked is spared 
in the day of destruction, and led away 

' (safely) in the day of wrath. 31. Who boldly 
'rebukes or punishes the tyrant ? 32. RM 
' He is borne to the grave and keepeth watch 
over the tomb' ; i.e. he is buried with honours. 
^Perhaps we should read, ' they keep watch. ' 

33. After his life of happiness he rests in 
'the sweet-smelling earth. His career of suc- 
cessful wickedness draws many to imitate him, 
ias indeed he had himself many to anticipate 
him. 

34. Job concludes that the arguments of the 
1 friends are worthless, since he has shown that 
ithe wicked do not get their deserts. 

So ends the second cycle of debate, the 
main theme of which is the assertion denied 
by Job, that trouble overtakes the evildoer. 

/Job does not deal with this in his first and 
second speeches, which centre about his own 
calamities, and rise to the conviction that after 

1 his death God will reverse the verdict upon 
him, and that in Sheol he shall himself know 
of this vindication. In his third speech he 



asserts against the friends the prosperity of 
the wicked. 

The Third Series of Speeches 
(Chs. 22-31) 
Having failed to convince Job by the argu- 
ment derived from God's greatness and wisdom, 
and to make good their assertion that it fared 
ill with the wicked, the friends have only one 
new line of argument left. This is a downright 
accusation of Job as a high-handed tyrant. 
Eliphaz adopts this, though he softens its 
severity by a fervent exhortation to Job, and 
a description of the felicity that awaits him if 
he will but make peace with God. The rest 
of the debate on his side is difficult to appre- 
ciate, owing to the uncertainty attaching to 
the distribution of the speeches. According 
to the present arrangement Bildad utters only 
a few sentences reasserting the greatness of 
God, and the impossibility that man should be 
pure in His sight. Zophar does not come for- 
ward at all. Several scholars infer from this 
that the poet means to suggest that the friends 
have exhausted their case. But since in other 
instances Bildad and Zophar substantially re- 
peat what Eliphaz has said, the poet could 
very well have made them follow on the same 
lines here. Moreover, the symmetry is spoiled 
if Zophar does not speak. Since we have in 
2713-23 a description of the fate of the wicked 
exactly repeating the sentiments of the friends, 
it is a probable conjecture that this is part of 
Zophar's missing speech. In that case, how- 
ever, there is plausibility in the view that 
Bildad' s speech was originally longer than the 
few verses at present assigned to him. Several 
attempts at reconstruction have been made, 
the most recent (that in the Century Bible) 
assigns 25 2 > 3 265-14 to Bildad, 262-4 27 ™> n,H 
to Job, 27 13 " 23 (with possibly 27 MO) to Zophar. 
25 4 " 6 is regarded as a gloss based on 15 14 " 16 , 
and it is supposed that the greater part of 
Job's reply to Bildad, which stood between 
27 n and 27 12 , has been struck out on account 
of its boldness. If this or a similar view is 
correct, Bildad repeats the theme of the friends 
in the first cycle of debate, Zophar that in the 
second. 

CHAPTER 22 

The Last Speech of Eliphaz 
i-ii. Eliphaz ignoring Job's last speech, 
perhaps because he could not answer it, argues 
that God's treatment of man must be impartial, 
since He has nothing to gain or lose at his 
hands. Job can therefore only be suffering 
for his sins, and Eliphaz suggests those of 
which he has been guilty. 

2 b . RY ' Surely he that is wise is profitable 
to himself ' : i.e. benefits himself only. 

3. Pleasure] rather, ' advantage.' 4. RY 



307 



22. 5 



JOB 



24. 5 



' Is it for thy fear of him that he reproveth 
thee, that he entereth with thee into judg- 
ment ? ' Is it likely you are suffering as you 
do for your goodness ? 

5-9. The sins with which Eliphaz now 
definitely charges Job were the usual faults of 
Eastern rulers, such as oppression and injustice. 
There is no reason to suppose that there was 
any justification for these accusations, which 
indeed Job repudiates in chs. 29, 31. 6. Cp. 
Ex 22 26 Dt 24 !0- 13 > V. 8. The honourable man] 
RM ' Heb. he whose person is accepted.' 

n a . LXX ' Thy light has become darkness.' 

12-20. The distance of God's abode and 

His majesty do not prevent Him from seeing 

men's deeds, as sinners thought in the days of 

the Flood. Let not Job follow in their steps. 

14. In the circuit] RM ' on the vault.' 

15. Hast thou marked] RY l wilt thou 
keep.' 16. Out of time] RY 'before their 
time.' 

17. Do for them] RM 'do to us.' This 
and v. 18 are largely a repetition of parts of 
21 14-16 , and are regarded by some scholars as 
an insertion. 19. It] the sinner's downfall. 

20. RV ' Saying, Surely they that did rise 
up against us are cut off.' The remnant of 
them] RM ' that which remained to them.' 

21-30. Eliphaz advises Job to make his 
peace with God, assuring him of restoration 
and prosperity. 

22. The law] RM ' instruction.' 23. Thou 
shalt put away] R V ' if thou put away. ' 

24. RV ' and lay thou thy treasure in the 
dust, and the gold of Ophir among the stones.' 
Fling thy earthly treasure away ! 25. Render, 
' Yea, the Almighty shall be thy treasure and 
precious silver unto thee ! ' 27. Thou shalt 
pay thy vows] Job should carry out the pro- 
mises made to God in times of distress : cp. 
Ps50i4. 

28. When he has repented, all his desires 
will be granted. 29. RM ' When they are 
made low,' i.e. Job's ways. If he should 
decline in prosperity he will assert with con- 
fidence that his ways will soon take an upward 
turn. 

30. Render, ' He (God) shall even deliver 
him that is not innocent, (through Job's inter- 
cession). 'Yea, he shall be delivered through 
the cleanness of thy hands ' (i.e. on account of 
Job's piety). This actually happens at the 
close of the book (428,9). 

CHAPTER 23 

Job's Seventh Speech (Chs. 23, 24) 
Job makes but slight reference to the 
remarks of Eliphaz, but continues to brood 
over the mysteries of God's dealings with 
himself (c. 23), and with mankind (c. 24). 
All seems to betoken a God that hideth 
Himself. Yet he is evidently calmer and 



more trustful in God's justice than in earlier 
speeches. 

1-7. Job longs that he may find God and 
plead his cause before Him, confident that He 
will acquit him of guilt. 

2 b . RM ' My hand is heavy upon my groan- 
ing,' i.e. I suppress it as much as I can. 

6. Render, ' Would He contend with me 
with great force ? Nay, He would hear me ! ' 
A truer conception of God's character than 
e.g. in c. 9. 7 a . Lit. ' Then a righteous man 
would be pleading with him,' i.e. then it would 
appear that the man who pleads with Him is 
righteous (Davidson). 

8, 9. The bright vision fades. God ever 
escapes his search. 8. Forward . . backward] 
better, ' east ' . . ' west.' 9. Left . . right] bet- 
ter, ' north ' . . ' south.' In ancient times the 
cardinal points were described by facing the 
east. io a . RM ' For he knoweth the way 
that is with me '; i.e. my innocence. 11. De- 
clined] RV ' turned aside.' I2 b . LXX better. 
' In my breast I have stored up his words.' 

13-17. Job returns to the old tormenting 
idea that God must be resolved to hold him 
guilty, since he suffers so much in spite of his 
innocence. 

I4 b . Job is not the only victim of the 
inscrutable actions of Providence. 16. Soft] 
RY ' faint.' 17. RM ' For I am not dismayed 
because of the darkness, not because thick 
darkness covereth my face.' Job means that 
his sufferings do not distress him so much as 
the fact that it is God who so mysteriously 
sends them without just cause. 

CHAPTER 24 

Job's Seventh Speech (concluded) 
1-25. Job continues to express his per- 
plexity at the ways of Providence in the 
ordering of the world. The poor and the weak 
suffer ; violence and wrong go unpunished. 

1. Render, ' Why are times not laid up ' (i.e. 
set apart for doing justice) ' by the Almighty, 
and why do not those who know Him see His 
days ? ' The last clause means, Why do not 
the godly see signs of divine retribution ? 

2-12. Those who commit open violenl 
crimes are left unpunished. 2. Remove the 



landmarks] cp. Dtl9" 2 



Feed thereof] 



RY ' feed them ' : as if they were their own. 

3. Pledge] i.e. security for debt : cp. 22' 
IS 128 

5-12. This passage depicts the misery of 
the homeless outcasts from society, driven into 
the rocks and mountains, unsheltered from 
the pitiless storms and hard put to it to save 
themselves and their children from starvation. 
The outcasts, lean with hunger like the wild 
ass in the desert, have to search diligent]} 
for the poor bits of food on which they keep 
body and soul together. 5°. Render, ' The 



308 



24, 6 



JOB 



26.7 



Arabah' (the plain W. of Edom near Job's 
home) l gives food to their young men.' 

6. Merx reads, ' They reap by night in the 
field.' They are driven to theft to get food. 
1 Wicked ' should perhaps be l rich.' 7. RY 
1 They lie all night naked without clothing, and 
have no covering in the cold.' 

9 a . RV ' There are that pluck the fatherless 
from the breast.' The v. appears to introduce 
a new description. Since, however, vv. 10,11 
seem to continue v. 8, this v. is apparently 
out of place. o b . Perhaps we should read, 
' And take the suckling of the poor in pledge.' 

10. RV ; So that they go about naked with- 
out clothing, And being an-hungered they 
carry the sheaves.' Probably the outcasts are 
described as stealing the corn, and making oil 
and wine at the expense of the farmer. 

12. Layeth not folly to them] render, ' re- 
gardeth not the wrong.' 

13-17. Criminals who work at night. They 
hate (rebel against) the light of day, pre- 
ferring darkness for their crimes. 

1 3. They are of those] R V ' These are of 
them.' 14. With the light] i.e. while it is 
still twilight. But with a very slight emenda- 
tion we might read, ' when there is no light.' 

16. Dig through houses] Walls of Eastern 
houses are often made of clay or sun-burnt 
bricks, which crumble easily : cp. Mt 6 20 RM. 
The robbers do not break in by the door since 
the threshold is sacred. 17. If one know, 
etc.] RY ' For they know (are familiar with) the 
terrors.' The shadow of death] i.e. midnight. 
Light they shrink from, but midnight is their day. 

18-21. These vv. cannot express the senti- 
ments of Job, and we must either, with RM, 
prefix ' Ye say,' to indicate that Job is giving 
the views of the friends, or remove it from 
this speech either as an insertion or as part of 
a speech by one of the friends which has 
been displaced, or possibly as an interruption 
by one of them. RY renders v. 18, ' He is 
swift upon the face of the waters ; Their 
portion is cursed in the earth : He turneth 
not by the way of the vineyards.' The mean- 
ing is apparently that the doom of the wicked 
comes rapidly ; there is a curse upon his 
property ; he goes no more to gaze upon its 
prosperity. Yv. 19, 20 then describe the 
complete destruction of sinners. Y. 21 
render, ' Even he that evil entreated,' etc. 

22-24. In these vv. we have Job's own 
view, viz. that (22) God continues the wicked 
in power, (23) His eyes watch over their wel- 
fare, and (24) when they die, it is in the 
maturity of old age like ripe ears of corn. 

24. Tops of the ears of corn] Egyptian 
wall-paintings show that the ripe corn was cut 
just below the ears instead of near the ground 
as with us. The straw was ploughed in. 

25. ' Who can dispute my contention ? ' 



CHAPTER 25 
Bildad's Last Speech 

He ignores Job's questionings respecting 
the justice of God's rule, but declares His per- 
fection and majesty, and the imperfection of 
all created things, repeating the theme of the 
first cycle. 

2. With him] i.e. with God. He maketh 
peace, etc.] He keeps in order the hosts of 
heaven: cp. Isa24 21 Dan 10 13 . 3. Armies] 
e.g. the angels and the elements. 4. Justified 
with God] RM ' just before God ' ; a rebuke 
to Job's presumption : cp. 4 17 15 14 . 5 a . RY 
' Behold, even the moon hath no brightness ' ; 
i.e. in the presence of God's glory. 

With this c. the speeches of the three 
friends, according to their present allocation, 
come to an end, for it will be observed that 
Zophar, the third speaker, offers no reply. It 
is probable, however, that, as already pointed 
out, 27 7 ' 23 are his concluding words. If the 
present arrangement is correct, we may perhaps 
infer that they came to the conclusion that 
they and Job regarded the whole question 
from different and irreconcilable standpoints, 
and that further argument was useless. Or 
the poet may intend to suggest by Bildad's 
brief speech and Zophar's silence that they 
felt their case to be exhausted. Indeed, (in 
32 !) Elihu regards the friends as practically 
acknowledging themselves worsted in the 
debate. 

CHAPTER 26 
Job's Eighth Speech (Chs. 26, 27) 

1-4. Job taunts Bildad with the worthless- 
ness of his remarks as a solution of the 
problem. 

2, 3, 4 are spoken ironically. 2. Him that 
is without power] i.e. Job himself. 4. To 
whom hast thou uttered words ?] i.e. surely 
not to Job who knows it already. 

5-14. The manifestations of God's power 
and work in the world below, in earth and in 
heaven. Some scholars think these vv., which 
are quite in the tone of 25 2 > 3 , should be inserted 
after 25 3 as a misplaced portion of Bildad's 
last speech, and that Job's remarks (26 1A ) are 
continued at 27 2 . 

5. The inhabitants] probably sea-monsters. 
The Babylonians believed in a judgment in 
Sheol under the ocean. 6. RY ' Sheol ' (the 
place of the departed) ' is naked before him, 
and Abaddon ' (i.e. destruction, another name 
for Sheol, cp. Rev9 n ) 'hath no covering,' 
viz. from God. 7. The empty place] RY 
' empty space.' The writer seems to speak here 
of God stretching the vault of the northern 
heavens with their bright constellations above 
the atmosphere, and of the earth hanging 
unsupported, as instances of His power. 



309 



26. 8 



JOB 



28.1 



8. The retention of rain in the clouds as in 
a skin or bag : cp. 38 37 . 9. He holdeth back] 
RV ' He closeth in.' God veils His throne 
from men. 10. Davidson renders, ' He hath 
drawn as a circle a bound upon the face of 
the waters (of the sea) at the confines of light 
and darkness ' : i.e. God has marked out the 
horizon which forms to us the limit of vision. 

11. The mountains (see on 9 6 ) tremble in 
the earthquake. 12. Divideth] EM ' stilleth.' 
The sea is a power hostile to God, that tosses 
its waves in impotent fury towards heaven. 

Pride] RV ' Rahab,' i.e. the dragon of 
chaos, Tiamat : cp. 7 12 9 13 . 13. Render, 
' By His breath the heavens are bright (through 
the scattering of the storm clouds), and His 
hand pierce th the flying serpent,' or dragon, 
which was supposed to cause darkness or 
eclipse by swallowing the heavenly bodies : 
see on 3 8 . 14. Job (or Bildad), after thus 
depicting the marvels of God's working, 
declares that what he has said is but a faint 
whisper of His power. 

CHAPTER 27 
Job's Eighth Speech (concluded) 

1-6. Job protests that he is innocent. 

Vv. 1-6 are an enlargement of what Job 
had previously said (13 16 ) of his determina- 
tion not to admit that he was being punished 
for his sins, since he felt that he was innocent 
of any great offence. This much is plain, but 
the rest of the c. (vv. 7-23) is puzzling ; inas- 
much as the sentiments expressed regarding 
the fate of the wicked seem opposed to Job's 
views in the rest of the book when he enlarges 
on the prosperity of sinners in this life : see 
e.g. c. 21 and notes. It is therefore commonly 
considered that vv. 7-23 are really a mis- 
placed speech of Zophar's corresponding with 
the final speeches of Eliphaz and Bildad (chs. 
22, 25), and this view is strongly confirmed 
by the subject-matter. Yv. 11, 12 are Job's 
(see intro. to chs. 22-31). 

1. Parable] i.e. discourse : cp. Nu23 7 . 

2. My judgment] RV ' my right.' God 
has not yet vindicated Job's uprightness, on 
which his sufferings throw doubt. 3 a . RV 
' For my life is yet whole in me.' The v. is 
a parenthesis, explaining that Job is in full 
possession of all his faculties, when he makes 
this deliberate utterance. Spirit of God] cp. 
Gn2 7 . 4. He will not acknowledge guilt of 
which he is unconscious. 5. I should justify 
you] i.e. by admitting their contention that 
lie was suffering for his sins. 6 b . RM 'My 
heart doth not reproach me for any of my 
days.' 

7-23. The fate of the wicked. Here it 
would seem that Zophar speaks. 

7. Hypocrite] RV ' godless.' 8. Though 
he hath gained] RM 'when God cutteth him 



off.' 15. Buried in death] rather, 'buried 
by death.' ' Death ' should here be rendered, 
'pestilence': cp. Jerlo 2 18 21 . In such a 
case there would be only maimed funeral 
rites. 18. As a moth] like the frail chrysalis 
or cocoon. As a booth] like the temporary 
shelter of the vineyard watchman. 

19-23. The passage refers to the final fall 
of the wicked. In the Persian sacred books 
we read that the dead pious man is led by an 
angel created by his own good life to the 
' bridge of the gatherer ' leading to heaven, 
whilst a storm sweeps the wicked man to hell. 
The same idea seems to occur here. The 
sinner is not ' gathered,' but blown away into 
darkness. 

CHAPTER 28 
The Mystery of Divine Wisdom 

In this famous chapter Job declares that 
Wisdom — that is, the principle of the divine 
government of the world — is a mystery not to 
be solved by man. Man's wisdom lies in fear- 
ing God, and in departing from evil. But this 
conclusion is quite at variance with the position 
taken by Job in the chs. before and after 
it. ' It might no doubt be supposed that Job 
has reached a calmer mood ; and abandoning 
the attempt to discover a speculative solution 
of the difficulties which distress him, finds 
man's wisdom to consist in the practical fulfil- 
ment of life (v. 28). But if Job has risen to 
this tranquil temper, how comes it that he 
falls back into complainings (30 20-23) an( j dj s _ 
satisfaction at not having been justified by 
God (31 35 ) ? And, further, if he has reached 
by the unaided force of his own meditations 
this devout and submissive frame of mind, 
how is the ironical tone of the Divine speeches 
(chs. 38f.) to be accounted for ? If he is 
already resigned to the inscrutability of the 
divine ways, how does it need to be again 
pointed out to him ? ' (Driver). These con- 
siderations have induced many scholars to 
regard the c. as a later insertion. Some have 
regarded it as a part of Zophar's third speech, 
but its quiet beauty and detachment in temper 
forbid this view. The c. constitutes an inde- 
pendent poem, which a reader may have in- 
serted here to indicate that the discussion 
which has just closed deals with subjects too 
lofty for human understanding. 

I— II. Man can discover precious metals by 
mining processes, but where can Wisdom be 
found ? 

1. Surely] RM 'For.' Perhaps the ques- 
tion in vv. 12 and 20, 'Where shall Wisdom 
be found ? ', ' Whence then comcth Wisdom?' 
may be understood at the beginning of this 
verse. It has even been suggested that it 
once stood at the beginning and has been 
omitted by accident. 



310 



JOB 



29. 20 



i. Vein] RY 'mine.' Remains of mines 
have been found in Edom a little N. of Petra, 
and it is well known that copper and turquoise 
mines were worked by the Egyptians in the 
Sinaitic Peninsula at least as early as the 
reign of Sa-nekht, the founder of the third 
Egyptian dynasty, i.e. according to Prof. 
Flinders Petrie about 4950 B.C. (see his 
1 Researches in Sinai '). Where they fine /7] RV 
'which they refine.' 2. Brass] rather, k cop- 
per.' 3. Render, ' Man setteth an end to 
darkness, and searcheth out to the furthest 
bound the stones,' etc., a reference to mining 
operations. 

4. RY ' He (the miner) breaketh open a 
shaft away from where men sojourn ; They 
(miners) are forgotten of the foot that passeth 
by (overhead) ; They hang afar from men, they 
swing to and fro (i.e. by ropes).' The word 
rendered ' shaft ' should be ' channel.' Ancient 
mines were often not vertical shafts, but sloping 
tunnels. A slight change would give ' He 
breaketh open a shaft away from light.' 

5. As it were fire] RY ' as it were by fire,' 
a reference to mining operations. 7. A path] 
the miner's tunnel. 9. The miner's excava- 
tions. 10. Rivers] RM ' passages.' n a . RY 
' He bindeth (with clay) the streams that they 
trickle not,' i.e. he prevents water from 
entering the mine. 

12-28. Man can discover some things by 
his cleverness, but Wisdom, the mystery of 
the universe and its ordering, is beyond his 
ken. It is the secret of God who ordained its 
existence. 

13. The price thereof] LXX reads, 'the way 
thereof.' 14. The depth] the primeval abyss 
supposed to lie under the earth : cp. Gn 1 2 . 
I5f. Cp. Prov3 14 > 15 8 10 ' n . 17. Crystal] RY 
' glass ' : known to the ancients, but extremely 
costly. 18. No mention] because there is no 

1 comparison. Rubies] RM ' pearls.' 22. De- 
struction] Heb. Abaddon, the realm of the 
dead. The fame of Wisdom, but not the 
knowledge of it, has reached these gloomy 
regions. 

23. See on 12-28. Since God is the creator 
of the universe, and knows even its most secret 
recesses, He must know where Wisdom is to 
be found. Not only so, but the very work of 
creation and the adjustment of natural pheno- 

, mena are indications of Wisdom, and prove 

, not merely God's knowledge of Wisdom's 
abode, but his possession of Wisdom itself. 

25. RM k When he maketh a weight for the 
wind : yea, he meteth out the waters by 

) measure,' i.e. the regulation by God of the 
forces of nature. 26. A decree for the rain] 
i.e. for its regulation. 27. ' When God ordered 
creation, Wisdom was present to Him ; He 
declared it, gave it existence, and contemplated 
it in all its fulness with divine approval ' 



(Gibson). 28. Man's wisdom is a distinct 
thing from the Divine Wisdom. It is that 
right conduct which accompanies reverence for 
a holy God. 

The description of Wisdom in this c. 
closely connects the book of Job in this re- 
spect with the other Wisdom literature of the 
OT., viz. Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The 
personification is, however, less distinct in 
Job. Wisdom here is only God's attribute. 
Prov 8 22_31 should be carefully compared with 
this c. 

CHAPTERS 29-31 

These chs. form a section by themselves, in 
which Job reviews his life. He first of all 
draws a picture of his past prosperous career, 
when he was happy and respected (c. 29). 
With this he contrasts his present condition, 
when men he once despised now hold him in 
contempt, and he is in pain and sorrow and 
disgrace (c. 30). Finally, he reasserts his in- 
nocence of wickedness in any form (c. 31). 

CHAPTER 29 
Job's past Greatness and Happiness 
Job mournfully recalls the days of God's 
favour, and the prosperity and honour he once 
enjoyed. In this c. we have the picture of a 
great and worthy chieftain looked up to and 
respected by all. It confirms the description 
of Job's importance in c. 1. 

3. Candle] RY ' lamp ' ; a figure of God's 
favour. 4. Days of my youth] R Y ' ripeness 
of my days.' Secret] RM 'friendship.' Taber- 
nacle] RY ' tent.' 6. A figure of prosperity : 
cp. Dt332i. 

7. Through the city] RY 'unto the city.' 
Job went with other elders to administer 
justice at the city gate. Observe that Job did 
not live in the city ; his usual abode was in his 
camp. But he was influential in the city, just 
as a great Arab prince is sometimes in our own 
times. 

8. Hid themselves] because of the awe which 
Job inspired. 11. Gave witness to me] i.e. to 
my goodness, which it saw. 14. Lit. ' Justice 
clothed itself in me.' He was the very per- 
sonification of justice. Diadem] RM 'turban.' 

16. The cause which I knew not] RY 'the 
cause of him that I knew not.' 

18. As the sand] RM 'as the phoenix.' 
This was a fabulous bird alluded to in Egyptian, 
Hebrew, and Arabian tradition. It was sup- 
posed to be immortal, burning itself in its nest 
every thousand years and renewing its life in 
the flames. 

19, 20. The verbs should be read in the 
future tense. 19. By] RY ' to ' : cp. Psl 3 . 

Dew] cp. Provl9 12 Dt32 2 . The dew was 
an emblem of prosperity in a land where rain was 
infrequent. 20 a . The respect paid him would 
311 



29.21 



JOB 



31.23 



not fail him. 20 b . His physical powers should 
endure : cp. Gn 49 24 , ' His bow abode in 
strength.' 

21-25. These vv. would more naturally 
follow v. 10, and some think this was their 
original position. 22. Dropped upon them] as 
refreshing rain : cp. Dt32 2 . 23. The latter 
rain] the spring rains as contrasted with those 
of the autumn. 24. If I laughed, etc.] EM ' I 
smiled on them when they had no confidence,' 
i.e. to encourage them. 24 b . They failed to 
remove his cheerfulness. 25. Job speaks as if 
he used to be the natural guide and comfort of 
his fellow-men. 

CHAPTER 30 

Job's Present Misery 

Job bitterly contrasts his present with his 
past condition, as described in c. 29. It must 
be borne in mind that Job was now outcast 
and beggared. 

1-8. Job complains that he is insulted by 
abject outcasts, the class of broken men who 
are expelled from respectable tribes and live 
by thieving. They are common E. of Jordan 
in the nomadic regions. 

2 b . RY ' Men in whom ripe age ' (or vigour) 
' is perished.' 3. Solitary] RY ' gaunt.' 

Flying - , etc.] render, 'Fugitives in the desert 
on the eve of want and ruin.' 4. Render, 
' They pluck salt-wort ' (a plant sometimes eaten 
by the abjectly poor) ' among the bushes, and 
the roots of the white broom to warm them.' 
This broom is a distinctive shrub of the 
southern desert hills : cp. 1K19 4 RM. 

7. Render, ' They snore under bushes and 
huddle under thorny shrubs.' 8 b . RY ' They 
were scourged out of the land.' 

9-14. A description of a poor old man 
mobbed and worried by the rabble. Or pos- 
sibly 11-15 refers to God as assailing him 
with troops of afflictions. The Heb. is very 
obscure. 

11. RY renders, 'For he hath loosed his 
cord, and afflicted me, and they have cast off 
the bridle before me.' RM gives another 
reading, ' my cord (or bowstring).' Perhaps 
' loosed my bowstring ' is the best of these 
alternatives : cp. 29 20 . Conder suggests, ' For 
they spy the (tent) door and insult me, and 
stretch out a headstall before my face.' This 
was an insult and one which is still customary. 
The headstall means that the man is regarded 
as an ass. 

12. Conder suggests, 'The brood (of boys) 
stand upon my right hand (an insult, for the 
place of honour was on the right hand). They 
trip up my feel and jostle me on the dangerous 
paths.' They no longer make room for him. 
The last clause is more usually regarded as a 
metaphor from a siege ; so RY ' And they cast 
up against me their ways of destruction.' 



13. They have no helper] Perhaps we should 
read, ' There is none to check them.' 15. My 
soul] RY ' my honour.' 

16-31. Job laments his misery of mind and 
body, and the severity of God. 

17. Are pierced] by acute pain. Sinews] 
render, 'gnawing pains.' 18. Changed] lit. 
' disfigured.' His complaint causes painful 
changes in his appearance. 20. Regardest me 
not] rather, ' lookest at me,' with indifference 
to his sufferings. 22. Figurative of the storm 
of God's anger. Dissolvest my substance] 
RY'dissolvest me in the tempest.' 23. House 
appointed] RM ' house of meeting.' Job is 
convinced that his sufferings can only end 
in death. 24. Render, k Doth not a sinking 
man stretch out his hand, and cry out in his 
calamity ? ' 

27 a . Figurative of his agitated condition. 

27 b . Prevented me] RY 'are come upon 
me.' 28 a . RM ' I go blackened, but not by 
the sun ' ; the result perhaps of his disease : 
see v. 30. 28 b . RY ' I stand up in the assembly 
and cry for help.' 29. Dragons] RY ' jackals.' 

Owls] lit. 'daughters of screeching.' These 
are animals associated with desolate places : 
cp. Isal32i,22. 3 o\ RY 'My skin is black, 
an&falleth from me.' 31. Organ] RY ' pipe.' 
Job's happiness is turned to sorrow. 

CHAPTER 31 

Job protests the Innocence of his 
past Life 

Job's virtues are those of a great Arab 
prince, such as are admired still : namely, 
blameless family life, consideration for the 
poor and weak, charity, modesty, and gener- 
osity concerning wealth, pure religion (accord- 
ing to his creed), the absence of vindictive 
feelings, hospitality to strangers, fearless 
honesty and just dealings. 

1-12. Sensual sins. 

1. I made a covenant with mine eyes] 
Job resolved to keep a guard over them that 
they should not transgress. Why then should 
I think ?] RY ' How then should I look ? ' 

2 a . RM 'What portion should I hare of 
God ? ' i.e. How would God visit such sin ? 

3. Is not] RY l Is it not.' 

6. Even balance] i.e. balances of justice. 
In the Egyptian Book of the Dead the soul 
is represented as being weighed in the balance 
before Osiris at the judgment. 10. To grind 
at the mill is a menial task, the work of slaves. 

12. The evil results of lust : cp. Prov (> - 1 -' i ~ l . 

13-23. Sins of oppression. 

14. Riseth up] i.e. to judge. 18. He] the 
fatherless. Her] the widow. 21. When I 
saw my help in the gate] Job could have 
counted on the judges supporting his side of 
the question. Gate] see on 29 7 . 22. Bone] 
i.e. collar-bone. 23. The thought of God's 



312 



31.26 



JOB 



displeasure checked him, and a sense of His 
majesty kept him from sinning. 

26-28. A reference to the worship of 
the heavenly bodies (cp. 2K21 3 " 5 Jer44 17f - 
Ezk8 16 . 27. My mouth hath kissed my hand] 
a form of idolatrous worship : cp. 1K19 18 . 

29f. The high moral tone is very significant: 
cp. Mt5 44 Eo 12 19-21. 31. Render, ' If the 
men in my tent have not said, Who can find 
one that hath not been satisfied with his 
flesh ? ' : i.e. Job had more than satisfied his 
servants. 33 a . Render, ' If I hid my fault like 
a common man ' : i.e. as men usually do. 

34. Did I fear] RV ' Because I feared.' 
Job declares that he had nothing to hide in 
his conduct and did not fear enquiry. 

35-37. Job breaks off and does not com- 
plete the sentence begun in v. 33. For his 
whole soul is moved by the words he has just 
uttered, and with the proud assertion of his 
innocence he challenges God to answer him, 
to give him the writing which contained the 
charges against him. Proudly, even with 
God's stigma upon him, he would enter God's 
presence, the certainty of his rectitude chang- 
ing the disgrace into distinction. Most 
scholars feel that the addition of vv. 38-40 
spoils the effect of this splendid conclusion. 

35. RY ' Oh that I had one to hear me ! 
(Lo, here is my signature, let the Almighty 
answer me ! ) And that I had the indictment 
which mine adversary hath written ! ' Job 
puts his signature to the declaration of his 
innocence. The adversary is God. 37. Con- 
scious of his integrity, Job would lay bare 
every act of his life to God. 

38-40. The grand challenge thrown down by 
Job in vv. 35-37 seems to form such a suitable 
conclusion to his speeches that most scholars 
hold that vv. 38-40 stood originally in an 
earlier part of the c, e.g. after vv. 8 or 25. 
40. Cockles] RM i noisome weeds.' 
Job for the last time has maintained the 
integrity of his past life, and expressed his 
readiness to answer all charges of guilt brought 
against him. The third and final series of his 
speeches comes to an end. It cannot be said 
that any explanation of the ways of Providence 
has been put forward so far, but the popular 
theories that suffering must always imply pre- 
vious sin, and that compensation according to 
conduct is invariably meted out to both good 
and bad in this world, have been refuted. 
Moreover, we see the noble spectacle of a good 
man in adversity clinging in spite of all his 
trials to his uprightness. Job has been able 
to find no foothold in the thought that God 
would revive him, or that the life beyond the 
grave will restore him to blessed fellowship 
with God. Nor has he gained any hope that 
the government of the world will become more 
righteous. But he has reached the assurance 



that God will vindicate his innocence, and 
that he shall be permitted to know of this 
vindication. 

CHAPTERS 32-37 
The Speeches of Elihu 
It is the view of almost all scholars that the 
speeches of Elihu are a later addition. The 
grounds for this view are the following. His 
presence comes upon the reader with surprise, 
he is not mentioned with the other friends in 
the Prologue, and we have had no intimation 
that he has all the while been listening to the 
debate. It is still more remarkable that he is 
not mentioned at the close. Here God passes 
judgment on Job and the friends, and it is 
strange that Elihu is ignored. If the author 
intended Elihu to represent the true view, why 
did he not represent God as praising him, if 
not, why is he not condemned with the friends ? 
This silence is the more surprising in view of 
the contents of the speeches. Elihu blames 
the friends for the ineffectiveness of their 
attack, yet he adopts somewhat the same atti- 
tude and repeats their arguments, though 
passing, to some extent, beyond them. He 
elaborates the thought that suffering is dis- 
cipline, and may actually be an expression of 
the goodness of God. He works out this vein 
of argument more fully than the three friends. 
Still it is difficult to think that, after the debate 
between Job and the friends had been ex- 
hausted, the poet should have introduced a new 
speaker unless he had something better to say, 
unless, in fact, he could sum up the case and 
decide between the disputants. Job could have 
met the arguments of Elihu as easily as those 
of the friends. We may be well assured that 
the author who made him triumph over them 
would never have let him be silenced by the 
similar contentions of Elihu. It is also note- 
worthy that Elihu in his description of celestial 
marvels to some extent anticipates the speech 
of God which is to follow, and thus robs it of 
some of its effect. The style of the speeches is 
throughout on a much lower level, they are 
prolix and hard to understand, and the language 
is more coloured by Aramaic influences. It is 
also noteworthy that the opening words in Je- 
hovah's speech, 'Who is this that darkeneth 
counsel by words without knowledge ? ', which 
refer to Job, do not well admit the view 
that another speaker has made a lengthy 
speech since Job finished speaking. There are 
minor arguments that need not be mentioned 
here. 

A few scholars, however, still regard the 
speeches as part of the original poem. It is 
argued that the function of Elihu is to exhibit 
and correct the spiritual pride of Job, which 
he had himself failed to detect and overcome. 
Elihu brings home his fault to him, and shows 



313 



32. 2 



JOB 



i. 29 



how the discipline through which God has 
brought him was designed to purify him of 
his unsuspected sin and raise him to a loftier 
spiritual eminence. In spite of the subtle 
arguments urged in favour of this view it must 
be dismissed as very unlikely. The main lesson 
of the book on this theory nowhere finds clear 
expression, while the debate is largely irrele- 
vant. The representation of the design of 
God does not harmonise with that in the Pro- 
logue, and the Divine speeches lose much of 
their significance. Moreover, according to the 
Prologue, which represents the author's view, 
Job is a truly blameless man, acknowledged 
as such by God Himself. With this Elihu 
does not agree, hence it was not the original 
author who introduced him into the book. Nor 
is it the fact that Elihu convicts Job, it is the 
vision of God that brings him to contrition. 

The reasons for the insertion of these 
speeches lie on the surface. The author wished 
to reassert the doctrine held by the friends, 
but also to develop aspects of it which had not 
received due weight. He dwells on the value 
of affliction for discipline, and lays much stress 
on the goodness of God. He also wished to 
rebuke Job for his unbecoming words about 
God. And he seems to have dissented from 
the poet, to whom we owe the rest of the 
book, in his representation of Job's character 
before his trial, while he also thought it an 
impropriety to represent God as condescending 
to debate with Job. 

CHAPTER 32 

The Speeches of Elihu 

Elihu explains his reasons for intervening 
in the debate. 

2. Elihu] Heb. ' He is my God.' Buzite] 
In Gn22 21 Buz is closely connected with Uz 
(RY), which was Job's country. To the As- 
syrians Huz and Buz (' Haza ' and ' Baza ') 
were known as places not far from Edom. 

Ram] uncertain. It occurs again in Ruth 
4 lo 1 Ch 2 9. io. He justified himself rather than 
God] Job, in asserting his own innocence so 
warmly, had charged God with injustice in 
treating him, as he thought, as if he were 
guilty. 3. The friends had not succeeded in 
refuting Job's arguments, and they only as- 
sorted that he was wicked without proving it. 

8. A spirit] a divine impulse which moved 
him to speak. 

13. RV ' Beware lest ye say, We have found 
wisdom ; God may vanquish him, not man.' 
The friends must not excuse themselves for 
their failure on the score that Job was too 
clever for man to debate with. Job had not 
yet contended with Elihu, and the latter in- 
tended to use differeni arguments. The author 
criticises the poet for letting God intervene in 
the debate. 



15. Elihu describes the discomfiture of the 
friends. 19. Belly] We use 'heart' in the 
same way, of the emotions. New bottles] i.e. 
new wine-skins. If wine was put into new 
skins before it had finished fermenting it might 
cause them to burst : cp. Mt9 1 7 . 21, 22. Elihu 
will show no partiality to either side in the 
remarks he is about to make. 22 b . RY ' Else 
would my Maker soon take me away.' 

CHAPTER 33 

The Speeches of Elihu (continued) 

1-13. Elihu blames Job for regarding him- 
self as sinless, and complaining that God is 
his enemy and will not answer him. 

4. Elihu feels that God is inspiring his mind 
to speak aright. 6. RY ' Behold, I am toward 
God even as thou art.' Job need have no fear 
in facing a man like himself, such as he had 
felt about God : cp. 932 1321. 0< Cp. 921 RY 
10 7 16 17 27 4 - 6 . But Elihu exaggerates Job's 
protestation of innocence : cp. 7 21 13 26. 

10, 11. Cp. 1324,27 1911 3021. I2 b # God is 
too great to have His actions questioned by 
mortals : to do so is presumptuous. 13. For] 
i.e. ' because.' Why does Job complain because 
God does not explain His treatment of him ? 
God does answer man, as he proceeds to point 
out in two ways. 

14-30. Elihu especially insists that the pur- 
poses of God's visitations are often to teach 
and to discipline ; vv. 15-18 represent one 
method of God's training, vv. 19-24 another. 
' In the first Elihu probably had Eliphaz in 
his eyes, in the second it is all but certain he 
had Job ' (Cox). 

15. Cp. the vision of Eliphaz in c. 4. 

16. Sealeth] Impresses on the mind like a 
seal. 18. He keepeth back] RM 'That he 
may keep back.' 22. The destroyers] or, ' the 
slain.' 

23, 24. An angel messenger, interpreting 
God's will, comes to the sufferer and shows 
him what right conduct is. Thereupon God 
declares that He has found a means of recon- 
ciliation (ransom), perhaps the man's repent- 
ance, and pardons him. Some regard the 
angel as a mediator who comes between man 
and God and pleads his cause. ' Jewish prayers 
show that the " interpreter " of this verse was 
always identified in their minds with the ex- 
pected Redeemer of Israel ' : thus, ' Raise up 
for us the righteous Interpreter, say, I have 
found a ransom ' (Cook). 

26. He will render, etc.] God restores to the 
penitent liis righteousness, i.e. a position of 
acceptance with Him. 27. Render, ' He (the 
penitent) singeth before men and saith, 1 have 
sinned and . . it was not requited to me.' 

29, 30. Elihu has now shown Job the loving 
purposes of God in chastening man. Job 
himself had only advanced to the idea of his 



314 



33. 32 



JOB 



35. 16 



own vindication after death. Elihu teaches 
the use of evil in this present life. 32. I desire 
to justify thee] I am ready to admit you are 
right if you can prove it. 

CHAPTER 34 
The Speeches of Elihu (continued) 

1-9. Elihu appeals to his hearers to judge 
the matter. He protests against the complaints 
of Job that he was treated unjustly by God, 
and that it was no profit to be righteous. 

3. Cp. 12 11. 4. Judgment] RY ' that which 
is right.' 5. My judgment] i.e. my right. 

6. RY ' Notwithstanding my right I am 
accounted a liar : My wound is incurable, though 
I am without transgression.' Right = inno- 
cence. 7, 8. Elihu implies that, in indulging 
in such reckless remarks. Job was linking 
himself with sinners. 7 b . Cp. 15 16 . 9. Cp. 
e.g. chs. 9 and 21. 

10-37. Elihu meets Job's doubts. The 
omnipotent God cannot commit injustice : the 
idea is inconsistent with the conception of One 
who creates and sustains and governs all man- 
kind. Instances are given of His judgments. 

13. God has not been entrusted with His 
rule by a higher Power. 

I4 a . EM ' If he cause his heart to return to 
himself,' i.e. if God ceased to concern Him- 
self with the affairs of man, and only selfishly 
regarded Himself. If He acted thus He 
might withdraw from man the breath of life 
He had given him (14 b ), and then he would 
perish (15). 

17. Render, ' Doth one hating right rule ? ' 
The thought is the same as Abraham's, ' Shall 
not the Judge of all the earth do right ? ' (Gn 
18 25 ) : cp. also Ro3 5 . Of course this begs 
the very question in dispute. 19. Accepteth 
not] RY ' respecteth not,' shows no undue 
partiality to. 20. The impartiality of God's 
judgments. Without hand] i.e. without human 
agency. 

23. RY ' For he needeth not further to 
consider a man, that he should go before God 
in judgment.' God at the same time sees and 
judges every act : there is no need to set apart 
a special time for trying man. 24. Without 
number] RM ' without inquisition.' 25. He 
knoweth] RY ' he taketh knowledge of.' 

28. Oppression causes God's intervention. 

29. Make trouble] RY ' condemn.' 

30. RY l That the godless man reign not, 
that there be none to ensnare the people.' 

31. Render, ' For hath any said unto God, I 
have borne chastisement though I offend not ? ' 

32. ' Show me my sin, and I will give it up.' 
In vv. 31-33 Job is rebuked for presumption 
in criticising God's treatment of him. 

33. RY ' Shall his recompence be as thou 
wilt, that thou refusest it ? For thou must 
choose and not I : Therefore speak what thou 



knowest.' Elihu asks Job ironically if he is 
to lay down the law to God. 

34. RY 'Men of understanding will say 
unto me, yea, every wise man that heareth me.' 
36. Answers for] RY ' answering like.' 
Elihu does not really advance on the position 
of the friends. Omnipotence cannot go wrong, 
the supreme tribunal cannot be unjust. This 
is just the point to be proved, and the proof 
derived from the fact that God gives and 
sustains man's life, while sound as far as it 
goes, does not go far enough. God may have 
His own ends to serve in this, rather than be 
prompted by benevolence, and the hard facts 
of human misery are left to suggest the darker 
interpretations of God. 

CHAPTER 35 

The Speeches of Elihu (continued) 
1-8. Elihu (349) had charged Job with 
saying that there was no advantage in being 
righteous. He now deals with this assertion. 

2. Right] RY ' thy right,' thy just cause. 

3. If I be cleansed from my sin] RY ' more 
than if I had sinned.' 4. Thy companions] 
those who held the same views. 

5-8. Elihu points to the infinite distance 
between God and man, and shows that He can- 
not be injured by the evil or benefited by the 
good which we do. But a man's conduct is 
most important both to himself and to his 
fellows. 

9-16. Coming to the problem why the cry 
of the oppressed seems often unanswered, 
Elihu replies it is because there is a lack 
of real prayer and trust in God. Hence Job 
must not expect to be heard so long as he 
murmurs at the way God treats him. 

9. They make the oppressed, to cry] rather, 
' men cry out.' 10. Who giveth songs in the 
night] i.e. who delivers in the night of trouble, 
and causes men to sing with joy. 12. Render, 
' They cry because of the pride of evil men, 
but none giveth answer ' ; i.e. because there is 
no humble, trustful appeal to God. 

13. Vanity] or, unreality. 14. Shalt] rather, 
' dost.' Although Job thinks God is indifferent 
to his cause, it is not forgotten, only he must 
wait patiently. 15. RY ' But now, because 
he hath not visited in his anger, neither doth 
he greatly regard arrogance ' ; i.e. because God 
does not seem to punish sin at once. 16. In 
vain] i.e. with foolish views. 

In this c. Elihu follows Eliphaz in explaining 
that righteousness is profitable to the upright, 
since God is too exalted to have any interest of 
His own to serve in perversion of justice. He 
urges further that the reason for God's silence 
when the wretched appeal to Him is that their 
cry is prompted by their selfishness. Both 
arguments are quite irrelevant to the case of 
Job. 



315 



36.1 



JOB 



37.24 



CHAPTER 36 



The Speeches of Elihu (continued) 

1-15. Elihu maintains the wisdom and 
impartial justice of the rule of God. His pur- 
pose is to discipline and improve men, even 
by their afflictions. 

3.* From afar] from a review of the whole 
universe. 4. He] RY ' one ' ; i.e. Elihu. 

7 b . RV ' But with kings upon the throne 
he setteth them for ever.' 9. Their work] 
i.e. their faults. Exceeded] RY ' behaved 
themselves proudly.' 12. Without know- 
ledge] without learning God's lessons. 

13. Hypocrites] RY 'godless.' Heap up 
wrath] RY ' lay up anger ' ; they cherish 
rebellious feelings. They cry not] in sub- 
mission. The way the godless take God's 
chastening is contrasted with that of the 
righteous, vv. 7f. 14. Is among] render, 
' perish eth like.' 

15. EM ' He delivereth the afflicted by their 
afflictions, and openeth their ears by adver- 
sity.' Such are the effects of God's discipline 
when taken in the right spirit. 

16-21. Elihu applies these remarks to Job, 
urging him to humble himself instead of re- 
maining rebellious. 

17. Hast fulfilled] RY 'art full of.' Job 
acts like the wicked under affliction : cp. v. 13. 

18. Render, 'For beware lest wrath lead 
thee away into mockery : neither let the 
greatness of the ransom (Job's sufferings) 
turn thee aside,' i.e. into rebellion. 

19. Nothing but affliction can save him. 

20. The night] probably, of judgment. 
People] rather, 'nations.' 21. Iniquity] 

i.e. rebelliousness. 

22-37 24 . The wonders of the heavens 
testify to the majesty and unsearchableness 
of God. Let Job refrain from judging Him. 

22. Exalteth by] RY ' doeth loftily in.' 
Who teacheth like him] This is Elihu's great 
point, that afflictions are intended to teach, to 
discipline, and to purify even the good. 

23. Iniquity] RY ' unrighteousness.' 
26-37 13 . Elihu illustrates the marvellous 

workings of God by a vivid description of a 
rising storm. 

27. The formation of rain. RY ' He 
draweth up the drops of water which distil 
in rain from his vapour.' 29 b . RY ' The 
thundorings of his pavilion ' ; i.e. of the 
clouds. 30. Render, 'Behold, He spreadeth 
His light around Him, and covereth it with 
the deeps ' (lit. ' roots ') ' of the sea ' : see on 26 5 
and cp. Psl04 2 > 3 . Modern scholars generally 
correct the text ; some read with Duhm, 
'Behold. He spreadeth His mist about Him, 
And He covereth the tops of the mountains.' 

31. The people] rather, ' the peoples.' The 
purpose of storms may be either punishmenl 



31 



or a bountiful provision. 32. RY ' He 
covereth his hands with the lightning' (to 
conceal them) : ' and giveth it a charge that 
it strike the mark.' 

33. The present text is difficult. The 
vowel-points should probably be somewhat 
altered, and the v. should run, ' The noise 
thereof telleth concerning Him as one that 
kindles His wrath against wickedness.' 

CHAPTER 37 

The Speeches of Elihu (concluded) 
2. The thunder is frequently called the 
voice of God : cp. Ps29. Sound] RM 'mut- 
tering.' 4. Them] the flashes and thunder- 
claps. 6 C . RY 'And to the showers of his 
mighty rain.' 7 b . RY ' That all men whom 
he hath made may know it. 1 The suspension 
of work by storms shows men that they are 
subject to a higher Power. 

9. Render, ' The whirlwind comes from its 
chamber, and cold from the scatterers,' i.e. 
from the winds (so RM), which scatter the 
clouds. But we should probably read, ' from 
its storehouses,' with a trifling change. 

10. Straitened] RM 'congealed.' 11. RY 
' Yea, he ladeth the thick cloud with moisture : 
he spreadeth abroad the cloud of his light- 
ning.' 12. The lightning flashes and falls in 
obedience to the behest of God. 13. Pro- 
bably the first line should run, ' Whether it 
be for correction for his land.' The word 
translated ' or ' has been repeated by mistake. 
' 14-24. A series of questions to Job, 
intended to produce submission and belief in 
God's providence. 

15. Dost thou know ?] can you explain ? 

16. The balancing of the clouds] the way 
in which they are poised. 17. Render, 'When 
thy clothes are hot, and the earth still by 
reason of the south wind.' Yv. 17, 18 refer 
to the sultry weather and sky of brass before 
the storm breaks. 18. Looking glass] RY 
'mirror' (of metal). 19-20. Elihu shrinks 
from the presumptuous thought of contending 
with the Almighty, such as Job had uttered. 

2o b . RY ' Or should a man wish that he were 
swallowed up.' 

21. RM ' And now men cannot look on the 
light when it is bright in the skies, when the 
wind hath passed and chased them.' 

22. Fair weather is literally 'gold.' The 
author probably intended ' brightness,' for 
which he may have used a different word. 
The reference may be to the Northern Lights. 

23. 24. Elihu concludes by summing up the 
character of God as He manifests Himself to 
man. Though His dealings may be beyond 
man's comprehension, yet He is just as well as 
mighty, and will not afflict unjustly. But He 
expects humility, not presumption from His 
creatures. 24. Respecteth] RY ' regardeth.' 
6 



JOB 



38.21 



Wise of heart] i.e. confident in their own 
wisdom, as Job was in Elihu's opinion. 

CHAPTERS 38-41 
The Speeches of the Almighty 

When the human debate was over, and Job 
had proudly asserted his readiness to confront 
G-od, conscious of his innocence (3 1 35 " 37 ), there 
was nothing left, if the contest was to be 
decided, except a direct intervention of God. 
This Job had himself again and again de- 
manded. He had challenged God to meet 
him and justify the treatment He accorded to 
him. He complains bitterly that G-od evades 
him, and lets him suffer, though He knows 
that he is innocent. Now at last God speaks. 
But not at all as Job had demanded. For he 
had implored God to remove His hand from 
him, in other words, to release him from pain 
that he might not be distracted by it, and not 
to make him afraid with His terror, since 
otherwise he might be driven, though innocent, 
to confess to guilt. God does not heal him, 
and He speaks out of the storm. Nor does 
the matter of His utterance conform to what 
Job had demanded, any more than the manner 
of it. For He does not deal with the question 
of Job's sin, or tell him the reason of his 
affliction. He puts question after question to 
him, challenging him to explain the mysteries 
of the universe. These he cannot comprehend ; 
with what right then does he criticise God's 
government of the world ? 

It is a surprise to some that G-od should be 
represented by the poet as taking this line. 
Why should He speak with such irony, and 
why not offer the man who had suffered so 
deeply some explanation and comfort ? Partly 
because Job had brought deserved rebuke 
on himself for his attack on G-od's rule of the 
world. Partly because he needed to rise to a 
higher point of view from which he could 
see the complexity of the problem. More- 
ever, God does not explain to Job the cause of 
his suffering, since the supreme lesson of the 
book is that he becomes so sure of God that 
he knows his affliction to be in harmony with 
God's righteousness, though he is wholly 
incapable of reconciling the two intellectually. 
But after he has reached this position God 
restores him to health and prosperity. 

The vital element in his experience is not 
the speech of God, but the vision of God. It 
is in a true relation to God, which is possible 
only to him to whom the divine vision is 
vouchsafed, that Job learns to trust God 
utterly. And as he looks back on the charges 
he has brought against Him, whom in this deep, 
mystical manner he has just come to know, he 
loathes the words he has uttered, and repents in 
dust and ashes. ' I had heard of thee by the hear- 
ing of the ear, but now mine eye seeth thee.' 



CHAPTER 38 

The First Speech of the Almighty 
(Chs. 38, 39) 

The marvels of creation, which witness to 
the infinite wisdom, power, and watchful care 
of the Creator, are presented to Job in such a 
way as to force from him a confession of 
ignorance and weakness, and of presumption 
in venturing to contend with God. 

1-38. The wonders of earth and heaven. 
What does Job know of their nature and 
origin and ordering ? 

1. Whirlwind] rather, 'storm.' Theoph- 
anies, or manifestations of God to man, are 
usually represented in OT. as accompanied 
by convulsions of nature : cp. Exl9 16 - 20 . 
There is no necessary reference to the storm in 
c. 37. 

2. The question evidently refers to Job. 
' God condemns Job for making dark the 
divine plan of the world. He had spoken as 
though it was all a tangled riddle. Really 
there is in it a beautiful luminous order ' 
(Peake). But this makes Job the last speaker, 
not Elihu, and supports the view that the 
latter's speeches are an interpolation. 

3. Job had expressed too boldly his desire 
to contend with God concerning his righteous- 
ness. But he has still to learn that he must 
trust where he cannot understand. 

4-7. The creation of the earth. 

5. Who hath laid] RV ' Who determined.' 

7. Sons of God] the angels. 
8-1 1. The sea. 

8. When it brake forth] The ancients 
thought that the sea issued from the subter- 
ranean abyss, with which it was connected by 
springs in the bed of the ocean : cp. v. 16 and 
Gn7 n . io a . Render, 'and prescribed for it 
its boundary.' 

12-15. The dawn. 

12. Since thy days] RY adds ' began.' 

13. Deeds of darkness are checked by the 
coming of light: cp. Jn3 20 . 14. RM 'It is 
changed as clay under the seal, and all things 
stand forth as in a garment.' Objects which 
have hitherto been obscure and shapeless take 
form and colour, as if wrapped in a clinging 
garment, when daylight comes. 15. Darkness, 
which is the light of the wicked, disappears, 
and with it their power to harm is gone. 

16, 17. The deep and the under- world. The 
deep lies beneath the bed of the sea. 

16. Search of the depth] RY ' recesses of 
the deep.' 17. Opened] RY 'revealed.' Death] 
Sheol, the place of the dead. 

19-21. The abode of light and darkness. 

19. Where] rather, ' whither.' 20. Take it 
to the bound thereof] i.e. track it. 21. Knowest 
thou it] RY ' Doubtless thou knowest ' : spoken 
ironically. 



317 



38. 22 



JOB 



40. 



22-30. The secrets of snow and hail, rain 
and frost. 

22. Treasures] RV ' treasuries ' ; store- 
houses. 22, 23. Cp. passages such as Josh 
10 n Psl8, where God is represented as inter- 
vening in the affairs of men through the ele- 
ments of nature. 24 15 . RV ' Or the east wind 
scattered upon the earth.' 

25. ' Who has made a channel for the tropi- 
cal rain to pour down from the heavens through 
the skies ? ' 26, 27. God's providence neg- 
lects no part of His creation. Job had at the 
most thought of man, but mainly of himself. 
God reminds him of the vast animate and 
inanimate creation. 28 a . ' Does man beget 
the rain ? ' 30. Render, ' The waters are 
congealed like stone.' 

3i a . Render, ' Canst thou group together 
the Pleiades ? ' Sweet influences] RV ' cluster.' 

Pleiades] see on 9 9 . 32. Render, ' Canst 
thou lead forth the signs of the zodiac in the 
season ? ' i.e. Can you influence their appear- 
ing ? The zodiacal signs were known 3,000 
years B.C. (The zodiac is that part of the 
sky which includes the apparent paths of the 
sun, moon, and planets. The ' signs ' are the 
divisions of 30 degrees into which, for astro- 
nomical and other purposes, it is divided.) Arc- 
turus with his sons] or, ' the Bear over her 
sons,' i.e. the revolution of the Bear round the 
Pole and Little Bear. 

33. The laws of the seasons and their influ- 
ence on the earth. 36. Inward parts] KM 
' dark clouds.' Heart] RM ' meteor.' 37. In] 
RV ' by.' Stay] RV ' pour out.' Bottles of 
heaven] i.e. rain-clouds. 

37-41. These vv. are connected in subject 
with c. 39. 41. They wander] RV '•and 
wander.' 

CHAPTER 39 

The First Speech of the Almighty 
(concluded) 

Chs. 38 3 9 " 41 and 39 depict the wonders of 
animate creation, and the instincts with which 
animals are gifted by the providence of God. 
In view of His works Job must learn to trust 
Him and to believe in His goodness. 

1-4. The wild goat or ibex. 

1. Knowest thou ?] i.e. do you control ? 

3. Their sorrows] their young, whose birth 
causes pain. 4. With corn] rather, ' in the 
desert.' 

5-8. The wild aas, which is still found in 
the deserts of N. Arabia :tnd Syria. 

6. Barren lawl] RV 'salt land,' districts 
coaled with 1 his mineral, which is much sought 
after by cattle. 7. Note the contrast between 
the lif<- of the wild and the domestic ass. 

Regardeth he the crying] RV ' heareth he 
the shoutings." 

9-12. The wild ox. 



9. Unicorn] RV 'wild-ox.' The word 
' unicorn ' is based on the LXX translation, 
and is incorrect. The nearest extant repre- 
sentative of the wild ox is the bison, which 
still lingers in the forests of Lithuania, the 
Caucasus and N. America. Its bones are 
found in Lebanon bone-caves. 10-12. The 
untameable nature of the wild ox. 12. Be- 
lieve] i.e. confide in, trust. Gather it into thy 
barn] RV ' gather the corn of thy threshing 
floor.' 

13-18. The ostrich. 

13. There is nothing about peacocks in the 
Hebrew. Perhaps the sense is, ' The wing of 
ostriches is goodly. Is it a stork's wing for 
flight ? ' The ostrich cannot fly like a stork, 
which comes to Palestine in the spring on its 
way from Africa to Europe. 14. In the earth] 
RV ' on the earth.' Dr. Tristram says : ' The 
ostrich is polygamous, and several hens deposit 
their eggs in one place, a hole in the sand. 
The eggs are then covered over and left during 
the heat of the day ; but in the cold regions 
at any rate, as in the Sahara, the birds sit 
regularly during the night, and until the sun 
has full power.' 16. She is hardened against] 
RM ' She deals hardly with.' If her nest is 
discovered the ostrich often destroys her 
young : cp. Lam4 3 . i6 b . RV ' Though her 
labour ' (of laying the eggs) ' be in vain, she is 
without fear,' i.e. acts still without due caution. 

17. ' More stupid than an ostrich ' is an Arab 
proverb. 18. Lifteth up herself on high] RM 
'rouseth herself up to flight.' Scorneth the 
horse] by outrunning him. Tristram puts the 
stride of an ostrich at full speed at from 22 
to 28 ft. 

19-25. The war-horse. 

I9 b . RV 'Hast thou clothed his neck with 
the quivering mane ? ' (lit. ' with shaking '). 

20. Afraid as a grasshopper] RV ' to leap 
as a locust.' Nostrils] RV ' snorting.' 

23. Against] rather, ' over.' Shield] RV 
'javelin.' The horse probably is not being 
ridden here, but driven in a chariot, on which 
quiver, spear, and shield (or dort) are hung. 
He is not afraid of the noise they make, or, 
perhaps, of the enemy. 24. He swalloweth] 
render, ' he digs ' or ' paws.' Neither be- 
lieveth, etc.] RM 'Neither standeth he still 
at.' 25 a . Render, ' at each trumpet he saith, 
Ha ! ' 25 b . The sense of smell in horses is 
very acute, and they are much discomposed by 
the odour of carrion. 

26-30. The hawk and the eagle. 

26. The migratory hawk is intended, which 
leaves Palestine for the S. in winter. 

27. ' Eagle ' is masculine throughout. 30. Cp. 
Mt24 28. 

CHAPTER 401-5 
A short dialogue between the Almighty and 



318 



40. 2 



JOB 



41.34 



Job, ending in the latter's confession and 
submission. 

2. Cox renders, ' Is he who contended with 
the Almighty corrected ? Let him who dis- 
puted with God reply.' 4. Vile] RY 'of 
small account.' Job confesses that in view of 
these marvellous works of God, it was pre- 
sumption to think of criticising His actions. 

CHAPTERS 406-413-i 
The Second Speech of the Almighty 

Job, we know, in his anxiety to prove his 
integrity had been led into casting doubts 
on the justice of God's government of the 
world. He is here ironically invited to take 
God's place as ruler of the universe, and to 
display a wisdom as great as that of God. If 
he proved himself competent to do this, then, 
and not till then, he may consider himself in- 
dependent of God and criticise His actions. 

8. Disannul my judgment] deny my 
righteousness. 13. In secret] RY ' in the 
hidden place ' ; Sheol, the abode of the dead. 

15-41 34 . In this passage the mightiest beast 
of the earth and the one most dreaded in 
the water are portrayed to Job, and he 
is asked if he can subdue them. Many 
scholars regard these descriptions as a later 
insertion. 

15-24. The Elephant or Hippopotamus. 

15. Behemoth] the word means ' a large 
beast.' Most scholars consider that the hippo- 
potamus is meant, but some regard the de- 
scription as more applicable to the elephant. 
Buxtorf, the great Hebraist, renders ' elephas.' 
He has a ' nose,' i.e. a trunk, and swings a tail 
' like a cedar.' Elephants were known on the 
Euphrates about 1550 B.C. Thothmes III of 
Egypt is represented as receiving one from 
Syria. Which I made with thee] i.e. it and 
Job are alike God's creatures. Or render, 
' which is with thee,' i.e. you can see him. 

16. Navel] RY 'muscles.' 17. Like a 
cedar] it is so firm and strong. I7 b . RY 
' The sinews of his thighs are knit together.' 

I9 b . RM ' He that made him hath furnished 
him with his sword ' ; i.e. his tusks or teeth. 

20. Mountains] Unlike the hippopotamus, 
the elephant is found in hill forests. 

23. RY ' Behold, if a river overflow, he 
trembleth not : He is confident though Jordan 
swell even to his mouth.' Jordan] means a 
river as swift and strong as Jordan. 24. RY 
I Shall any take him when he is on the watch, 
or pierce through his nose (or, his trunk) with 
a snare ? ' 

CHAPTER 41 

The Second Speech of the Almighty 

(concluded) 

The second great creature, the Crocodile 

(with which the ' leviathan ' is generally iden- 



tified) is now described. If Job cannot con- 
trol the crocodile, dare he contend with Him 
who made it ? The crocodile is found in the 
Crocodile River under Carmel as well as in 
Egypt. 

I. Hook] RY 'fishhook.' i b . RY'Or press 
down his tongue with a cord.' This may be 
an allusion to the method of treating a re- 
fractory camel or mule by tying down its 
tongue with the head-rope. 2. Hook] RM 
' rope of rushes.' Thorn] RY ' hook.' 

4. Wilt thou take] RY ' That thou should- 
est take.' 6 a . RY' Shall the bands of fisher- 
men make traffic of him ? ' Merchants] lit. 
' Canaanites ' or ' lowlanders ' on the trading 
route from Syria to Egypt, who were great 
merchants. Their name is sometimes used for 
merchants generally: cp. Prov31 24 Isa23 8 
Zechl4 21 . 8. Lay thine hand upon him] i.e. 
if you dare. Do no more] or, ' do not repeat 
it.' 9. The hope of him] i.e. of overcoming 
him. 

10, 11. If the creature is so great, who can 
withstand the Creator ? 11. Prevented me] 
RY ' first given unto me.' 12. His parts] 
i.e. the crocodile's. 13. RY ' Who can strip 
off his outer garment ? Who shall come 
within his double bridle ? ' 14. Doors of his 
face] his mouth. I4 b . RY ' Round about his 
teeth is terror.' 

i8 a . RY ' His neesings (i.e. sneezings or 
snor tings) flash forth light.' This and the 
following vv. poetically describe the snorting 
and heated breath and spray thrown from 
the crocodile's mouth. i8 b . In the Egyptian 
hieroglyphs the dawn is expressed by croco- 
dile's eyes. 20. Caldron] The crocodile's 
breath is likened to vapour that rises from 
a steaming pot. 22 b . RY ' And terror danceth 
before him.' 

25 b . RY ' By reason of consternation they 
are beside themselves.' But the v. may per- 
haps, with a slight alteration of the text, be 
rendered : ' When he raiseth himself up the 
deer are afraid who slip (or stray) among the 
broken places on the banks of the river.' 
It is not the usual term for ' the mighty ' that 
is used here. Shebarim, ' broken places,' in 
Josh 7 5 , refers to the slope of a ravine. 

26. Habergeon] RY ' pointed shaft.' An 
ordinary bullet will not pierce a crocodile's 
scales. 

30. RY ' His underparts are like sharp 
potsherds : He spreadeth as it were a threshing 
wain upon the mire.' 31. He lashes the water 
into foam. Like a pot of ointment] perhaps a 
reference to the strong musky smell of the 
crocodile. 

34. The meaning is probably, ' Everything 
that is high feareth him : He is king over all 
the sons of pride,' i.e. the other great beasts 
(288). 



319 



42. 



JOB 



42. 17 



CHAPTER 421-6 

Job's Final Withdrawal 

Job at last has learned his lesson. The 
convincing evidences of wisdom, power, and 
love which God has offered him, have led him 
to lay aside his pride of intellect and pride of 
innocence. He feels that he may safely trust, 
even though he may never fully understand, 
and with Abraham he may rest convinced that 
the Judge of all the earth must do right. 

The difficulties of Job were the difficulties 
of the author and of the thoughtful men of 
his day. ' He had pondered the ethical and 
religious problem presented by the moral order 
of the world. With a flaming hatred of 
wrong and tender pity for the oppressed, he 
saw the triumph of the wicked and the misery 
of the just. He was familiar with the current 
doctrines, and knew how they ignored the 
most patent facts. A truly religious man, he 
had found his heart drawn to God by the 
irrepressible instinct for fellowship with Him, 
driven from Him by the apparent immorality 
of His government. He had known what it 
was to be baffled in his search for- God and to 
feel himself slipping from the fear of the 
Almighty. An intellectual solution he had 
not been able to reach. But in humble sub- 
mission to God's inscrutable wisdom, and in a 
profounder sense of fellowship with Him, he 
had escaped into the region of unclouded 
trust ' (Prof. A. S. Peake's ' Job'). 

2 b . RV ' And that no purpose of thine can 
be restrained.' 3. Job soliloquises. ' Well 
might God say to him (38 2 ) : Who is this that 
hideth counsel without knowledge ? ' i.e. that 
misreads in his ignorance the real facts of 
divine providence. The point is that Job 
now agrees in God's estimate of himself. 

4. Again he repeats God's words in 38 3 
and 40 7 . 

5, 6. Job declares that he now understands 
God's relations towards man in a far deeper 
and truer sense than he had hitherto. At once 
he retracts and repents of all that he had 
said amiss. The sight of God, i.e. a clearer 
apprehension of His majesty and righteous- 
ness, humbles Job to the dust. 6. Abhor 
myself] RM ' loathe my words.' 

The Epilogue (42 - 1 ') 

7-17. These vv. describe the happy ending 
to Job's trials and his restoration to pros- 
perity. It is a sequel in full accord with the 
religious ideas of the Hebrews. With no clear 
idea of a future state, where compensation will 



be found for the ills of this world, long life and 
earthly happiness were regarded as the only 
evidence of God's favour and approval. The 
feeling that the happy ending spoils the effect 
is modern, but incorrect. For it would have 
made a very bad impression on the reader, if 
God had been represented as callously leaving 
Job to suffer, when the occasion for trial had 
passed away. 

7-9. The friends receive the divine con- 
demnation. ' The three friends had really 
inculpated the providence of God by their 
professed defence of it. By disingenuously 
covering up and ignoring its enigmas they had 
cast more discredit on it than Job, who honestly 
held them up to the light. Their denial of its 
apparent inequalities was more untrue and 
dishonouring to the divine administration as it 
is in fact conducted than Job's bold affirmation 
of them ' (W. H. Green's ' Argument of the Book 
of Job unfolded '). At the same time there is 
a strange contrast between the judgment on 
Job expressed here and that expressed in the 
speech out of the storm, which supports the 
view that the prose portions were borrowed 
by the writer from an older book. 

11. A piece of money] Heb. Kesitah, a very 
early word occurring only in Gn33 19 and 
Josh 24 32 . It was probably an uncoined piece 
of silver representing the value of a lamb as 
the LXX and Vulgate translate it. This, with 
the rings, ' constituted, I suppose, the ntr:zur. 
or present, such as Orientals still make on pay- 
ing a visit of ceremony ' (Cox). 

12. Note that the numbers are double those 
mentioned in l 3 , an indication of the ideal 
nature of this history of Job : see on 1 2 . The 
prophets often allude to the double compen- 
sation in store for their afflicted people : Isa 
61' JerlQ^-^ Zechd 1 ' 2 . 

14. These names contain allusions to feminine 
charms. Jemima means ' dove ' : cp. Song 1 1) . 
Keziah probably means 'cassia ' or 'cinnamon.' 
a fragrant spice : cp. Ps45 8 . Keren-happuch 
means k a horn of eye paint.' It was a dye 
made of antimony with which the eyelashes 
were tinged, and was considered by Orientals 
to enhance the beauty of the eye : cp. 2K ( J ;i " 
Jer4 30 Ezk23 40 . 15. Inheritance among their 
brethren] this was an unusual privilege to 
women : cp. Nu27 1-11 . 

17. In LXX a postscript is added, 'It is 
written that he will rise again with those 
whom the Lord raises up.' This is probably 
an addition made by some reader, who felt the 
inadequacy of any material compensation or 
reward. 



320 



PSALMS 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Name. The book of the Psalms is the 
name given in our versions to the first of the 
books of the third division of the Hebrew 
Bible called Kethubhim or Hagiographa. It 
is followed in that division by Proverbs, Job, 
Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesi- 
astes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
Chronicles. The name of the book in Hebrew 
is Tehillim, i.e. k Praises.' Our name, Psalms, 
is a transliteration of the Greek title of the 
book, and signifies ' songs accompanied by- 
stringed instruments.' The title Psalter is 
from the Greek psalterion, ' a harp,' and is 
applied to the book of Psalms just as ' Lyre ' 
or ' Harp ' is sometimes used for a collection 
of hymns. 

2. Hebrew Poetry. The history of Hebrew 
poetry, as evidenced in extant sacred litera- 
ture, can only be sketched in briefest outline. 
It is predominantly lyric in character, i.e. it 
expresses, or refers to, the poet's own thoughts 
or emotions. Epic poetry, i.e. poetry narrat- 
ing the achievements of heroes, is not repre- 
sented. Some of the poetry is of a dramatic 
nature, as Job, and especially the Song of 
Songs, but there is no drama properly so called. 
Fragments of early songs of various kinds have 
been preserved, and are embedded in the litera- 
ture of the OT. Examples of these are the 
'Song of the Sword,' uttered by Lamech in 
Gn423,24 ; the 'Song of the Well,' recorded 
in Nu21 17 » 18 ; and the burden of the thanks- 
giving for the deliverance from Egypt in Ex 
15 1 > 21 , the whole fine composition contained 
in w. 2-18 being probably of later date. 

One of the very oldest portions of Hebrew 
literature is the Song of Deborah in Jg5. 
Most critics consider the Song of Moses, re- 
corded in Dt32, to be of comparatively late 
date, and Hannah's Song in 1S2 can hardly 
be of contemporary authorship. Many of the 
poetic strains that have come down to us are 
laments in memory of the departed, one of the 
most notable examples being David's elegy on 
the death of Saul and Jonathan (2 SI), and 
another the lament for Abner in 2 S 3 33 . The 
'last words of David,' recorded in 2S23, are 
cheerful in strain, forming a marked contrast 
to the dirge of Hezekiah in view of his ap- 
proaching death (Isa38). Traces of harvest 
and vintage songs, and songs for banquets, are 
discernible : see Am6 5 . Wedding songs are, 
perhaps, preserved in the book of Canticles. 



Interspersed among the prophetic writings a 
few beautiful lyrics are to be found : see Isa 
12, Jon 2, and Hab3. A sublime and powerful 
Mashal, or Taunting Song, is preserved in 
Isa 14 4 - 27 . It is notable for its bold symbolism, 
and its daring and bitter irony, rather than for 
its beauty. 

Careful readers of the OT. will not fail to 
notice scattered references to collections of 
poems that have not been preserved. One of 
these is called in Nu21 14 'The book of the 
Wars of Jehovah,' containing, presumably, 
martial songs ; and another, l The book of 
Jashar,' i.e. the Upright, may well have con- 
sisted of verses in pious memory of departed 
saints and heroes. The titles of the Psalms, 
when closely examined, render their own evi- 
dence to the existence of other collections of 
Hebrew lyrics which have perished, as well as 
to some that have been taken up into that 
larger collection, which now forms one of the 
most precious possessions of the world. 

The book of Lamentations may stand as an 
illustration of the elaborate versification of 
later days. Short as the book is, it consists of 
several parts distinguishable from one another 
by their various metres, one being styled the 
Kinah or Elegiac metre, and all displaying 
considerable artistic skill. The acrostics which 
have been preserved in the book of Psalms 
and in Lamentations are probably the product 
of a comparatively late period. 

It remains only to mention the Gnomic 
verse (i.e. didactic poetry, dealing in maxims), 
of which the book of Proverbs furnishes such 
abundant illustration. Some of the Psalms, 
and parts of the book of Job, may perhaps 
be included under this heading, but the attempt 
accurately to classify under modern sub- 
divisions the many-voiced poetry of the 
OT. is more than futile. It is clear that 
one marked type of poetical composition 
is recognisable in the sententious, regular, 
evenly-balanced clauses, such as constitute the 
main portion of Proverbs. In the Hebrew, 
however, there is no monotony. There is 
variety enough in the rhythm of the lines, in 
the kind of parallelism adopted, and in the 
various building up of lines and couplets into 
stanzas, to remove the feeling of sameness 
which an English reader experiences in reading 
Proverbs or the 1 1 9th Psalm. Hebrew poetry 
in all its parts pulsates with the spontaneity, 



21 



321 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



the freedom, and the sparkling variety of full 
and vigorous life. 

3. Hebrew Poetical Construction. The dis- 
tinction between poetry and prose in Hebrew 
does not depend upon the presence or absence 
of rhyme. Nor is metre — that is, arrangement 
in lines of a measured length, consisting of a 
definite number of syllables or ' feet ' — char- 
acteristic of Hebrew poetry, though some 
approach to this is occasionally found. Poetical 
construction depends upon rhythm of thought 
and balance of sentences. Each psalm is made 
up of lines, arranged so as to produce a ' paral- 
lelism of members,' so that in two or more 
lines words and matter correspond to one 
another with a carefully-studied equality. In 
the simplest form, two such lines match one 
another in a couplet, e.g. — 

' The heavens declare the glory of God 
And the firmament sheweth his handy work.' 

' Enter into his gates with thanksgiving 
And into his courts with praise.' 

In these examples, the second line repeats 
the general sense of the first and strengthens 
its emphasis. This is called synonymous 
parallelism. Sometimes the second line affirms 
the opposite of the former, in antithesis or 
contrast, e.g. — 

' The wicked borroweth and payeth not again, 
But the righteous sheweth mercy and giveth.' 

' The Lord knoweth the way of the righteous, 
But the way of the ungodly shall perish.' 

Sometimes a triplet is found, as — 
' I call to remembrance my song in the night, 
I commune with my own heart, 
And my spirit made diligent search.' 

Four lines may be included in the scheme, and 
then the first and third may be called parallel, 
and the second and fourth ; or three of the 
lines may preserve a close parallelism, while 
one of them, either the first or the last, stands 
independent ; or two ordinary couplets may 
constitute a verse of four lines, e.g. — 

1 In my distress I called upon the Lord, 
And cried unto my God : 
He heard my voice out of his temple, 

And my cry before him came into his ears.' 

Close examination will show that these dis- 
tichs, tristichs, and tetrastichs, as they are 
called — i.e. verses of 2, 3 and 4 lines respect- 
ively — assume a great variety of forms in the 
Psalms, thus avoiding the sameness and mono- 
tony characteristic of the poetry of the Pro- 
verbs. Order can be discerned, but, like the 
symmetry in the life of nature, it manifests 
itself amidst endless variety, so that the charm 
of freshness and unexpectedness is never lost. 
(For examples, see the arrangement of the 
verses in RV.) 

As two, three, or four lines make a verse, 
so a number of verses constitute a stanza, or 



strophe, corresponding to a paragraph in prose. 
The end of such a stanza is sometimes marked 
by a refrain, such as 'The Lord of hosts is 
with us, the God of Jacob is our refuge ' in 
the 46th Psalm, and ' Oh that men would 
praise the Lord for his goodness and for his 
wonderful works to the children of men,' 
which is found four times in the 107th Psalm. 
But the stanzas do not recur with strict 
regularity, and the writers of these marvellous 
sacred lyrics never allow themselves to be 
chained by any mechanical rules. 

There is, however, one apparent exception 
to this rule. Though rhyme is not found in 
Hebrew poetry, alliteration and assonance — 
the repetition of a letter or of similar sound- 
endings — is not infrequent, and the alliteration 
sometimes takes the form of an acrostic. That 
is to say, a psalm may be composed so that 
each verse shall begin with a letter of the 
Hebrew alphabet, arranged in order from the 
first to the last— as we should say, from A 
to Z. This is practically the case in Pss 25. 
34, 145. Or every other verse may thus follow 
on with consecutive letters, as in Ps 37 ; or 
every single line may begin with a fresh letter, 
as in Pss 111, 112. In the 119th Psalm, as is 
well knowm, there are tw T enty-two stanzas, each 
consisting of eight verses, and each verse in 
the stanza begins with the same letter, the 
letters of the whole alphabet being taken in 
regular succession. It is difficult to imitate 
this in English, and if it were done, an appear- 
ance of stiffness and artificiality would be 
produced. But, excepting perhaps in the 
elaborate scheme of the 119th Psalm, the 
mechanical arrangement does not seriously 
fetter the Hebrew poet, and the English 
reader would hardly guess how completely the 
alphabetical system is carried out. This is very 
marked in the 3rd chapter of Lamentations, 
a striking example of acrostic composition. 

4. Hebrew Music. Tradition places the in- 
troduction of musical instruments at a very 
early date. In Gn4 21 Jubal is described as 
' the father of all such as handle the harp and 
pipe.' Amos (5 23 ) speaks of 'the melody of 
viols ' as being heard in the services, and 
Isaiah (30 29 > 32 ) similarly mentions pipe and 
tabret and harp. The nature of the music is 
more a matter of speculation than of know- 
ledge : it was probably what we would consider 
harsh and discordant. The singing at the 
Temple services seems, from notices in the 
Psalms, to have been antiphonal, sometimes 
by the two divisions of the choir, sometimes by 
the choir and the people, the latter joining at 
intervals in a refrain (e.g. 136). The singing 
in later times, at any rate, was accompanied, in 
some cases if not always, by instrumental 
music. Pss 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, 76 are headed ' On 
Neginoth ' (RV k upon stringed instruments '); 



322 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



and Ps 5 has the direction ' Upon Nehiloth ' 
(RM ' with the wind instruments '). Two 
stringed instruments are mentioned in the Bible, 
the humor (harp) and the nebel (psaltery). The 
former seems to have been a lyre, an instru- 
ment of a light and simple nature upon which 
the performer could play while walking ; the 
latter was probably more like our harp. The 
chief wind instruments are the halil (flute), 
shophar (horn), and hazozerah (trumpet). The 
flute was played in religious processions (IS 
10 5 1 K 1 40 Isa 30 29 ). The horn (made at first 
of a ram's horn, sometimes later of metal) was 
used to summon the people to worship, or as 
a signal, or for special purposes, as e.g. to 
proclaim the year of Jubilee. The trumpet 
was a long instrument of silver, blown on 
ceremonial occasions by the priests (Nu 10 2 ' 10 ). 
It is the instrument portrayed on the Arch of 
Titus at Rome. There were also percussion 
instruments used, the chief of which were the 
toph (a small hand drum, Gn31 27 ' tabret,') 
and cymbals both flat and conical (Psl50 5 
ZechU20). 

5. The Titles of the Psalms. The titles, 
or short inscriptions, found at the beginning 
of many psalms, are not to be regarded as 
forming a part of the sacred text, but they 
were prefixed at a very early date, and are very 
instructive. The exact meaning of each will 
be explained where it occurs, but a few general 
remarks may here be made. Titles occur 
chiefly in the first three books, and only thirty- 
four psalms are without any. These the Jews 
called ' orphans.' 

Some of the titles are musical directions, 
some suggest a historical setting for the psalm, 
and others indicate the authorship or the 
source from which it was taken. (The names 
Alamoth (46), Sheminith (6, 12), Neginoth (4), 
and Nehiloth (5), refer to the music ; the first 
two probably indicating pitch, and the last two 
enjoining the particular instrumental accom- 
paniments.) Several psalms, e.g. 9, 22, 45, 
etc., have some words prefixed which seem to 
indicate the tune of some well-known song to 

i which the psalm was set. Prefixed to thirteen 
psalms are notes suggesting a suitable historical 
occasion for the psalm. All of them refer to 
the history of David, the majority being placed 
in the period of his flight from the jealousy of 

I Saul. Many of them, however, are irrecon- 

' cilable with the words of the psalms themselves, 
and are therefore unreliable as sources of in- 
formation. At the same time, they often 
provide apt historical illustrations of thoughts 

I and principles dwelt upon by the psalmists. 
Many of the titles give hints of authorship 
or source. Seventy-three psalms are headed 
k Le David,' which is translated ' Of David' in 
our versions. It is more correct to translate 
the preposition ' Belonging to ' ; and while 



many of the psalms bearing this title may be 
the productions of the shepherd king, all that 
is indicated by the title ' of David ' is that the 
psalm to which it is prefixed was taken from 
an early collection called the Psalms of David 
or the Prayers of David (72 20 ). Similarly 
other psalms are distinguished as ' belonging 
to Asaph,' ' belonging to the Sons of Korah,' 
' belonging to the Chief Musician,' these names 
being those of collections of sacred pieces 
which had been made at different times. The 
same preposition being used in all the cases, 
it is evident that it must be interpreted in the 
same sense of David and Asaph as of the Chief 
Musician and the Sons of Korah ; and if in 
the latter cases it does not refer to authorship 
in the strict sense of the word, it can scarcely 
do so in the former. The view is now generally 
accepted that the titles for the most part refer 
to collections which had come to be known by 
certain familiar names, without its being im- 
plied that every psalm in a collection was 
written by the person whose name it bears. 
In the case of David, it is easy to understand 
how his honoured name came to be given to 
all the psalms in a particular collection, though 
he only wrote some of them. The 72nd Psalm 
is entitled 'of Solomon,' yet it is included 
among those that are styled ' prayers of David, 
the son of Jesse.' It was a rule among the 
Jews that a psalm without an author's name 
attached to it was to be ascribed to the author 
of the one immediately preceding. This shows 
how the name ' David ' came to be given to 
the whole Psalter, as in Heb 4 7 . 

6. Date and Authorship. What then may 
we infer as to the date and authorship of the 
several psalms ? The belief that David wrote 
all the psalms to which his name is attached 
cannot now be maintained. Modern scholars 
differ widely in their estimate of the number 
of psalms which may safely be ascribed to 
him, some including over forty in the list, 
while others allow no more than three, and 
one or two admit none at all. While, however, 
it cannot be demonstrated that David wrote 
any of the psalms, the probability is that he 
wrote a number. The 18th Psalm is given at 
length in 2S22 as well as in the Psalter, and 
in both cases a note is prefixed, setting forth 
that the psalm was written by David to cele- 
brate his deliverance from his enemies, and 
especially from Saul. If we might build upon 
this statement it would give us firm ground on 
which to rest arguments concerning David's 
style and mode of composition. Considerable 
weight, too, is due to tradition, which is too 
strong and too persistent to be lightly set 
aside. The very fact that so many psalms were 
handed down to the compilers of the Psalter 
under David's name, is a very strong argument 
in favour of his authorship of a considerable 



323 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



number. It may be, indeed, that many psalms 
composed by him were modified and altered in 
some respects by later editors, in order to fit 
them for use in public worship and apply them 
to the circumstances of a later age ; but tra- 
dition gives strong ground for believing that 
the c sweet singer of Israel ' was the author of 
songs of praise which are included in our book 
of Psalms. Critics of the moderate school 
ascribe to David Pss 3, 4, 7, 8, 15, 18, 23, 24, 
32, as well as 19 1_6 , with perhaps 101 and 110, 
and some others. It is possible, however, that 
most of those in the first book are Davidic in 
their original form. It is difficult on any 
other supposition to account for the facts that 
the earliest collection was called by his name, 
and that so many psalms were ascribed to him. 
It is as impossible to fix the dates at which 
the various psalms were composed, as to settle 
the questions of authorship. Incidental allu- 
sions to place or circumstance will sometimes 
show the date earlier than which a particular 
psalm cannot have been written. References 
to the Temple (5 7 27 4 28 2 65 4 , etc.) imply the 
existence of that centre of national worship ; 
and the mention of ' the hill of God ' (15 1 24 3 , 
etc.) seems to indicate that the worship on 
Zion had been established for some time. It 
is evident again that some psalms must be 
dated as late as the exile (e.g. 137), and that 
others (e.g. 126) are post-exilic. Some scholars 
hold that many of the psalms must be dated 
as late as the Maccabean age. But while it is 
possible that some psalms belong to that period 
(e.g. 44, 74, 79, 83), it is not likely that the 
number is very great. 

Readers may be reminded that the spiritual 
benefit of these inspired lyrics is not lessened 
by their detachment from a particular name 
and occasion. The Psalms should be studied 
in the light of eternal truth, and the local 
significance should be lost in the universal. 
Pre-eminently among the books of the OT. 
they are intended not for one age but for all 
time. 

7. The Compilation of the Psalter. The 
book of Psalms, as we know it, was not made 
— it grew. A long history, partly obscure, 
partly traceable, and directed throughout by 
the guidance of the Divine Spirit, lies behind 
the final collection of these hundred and fifty 
sacred lyrics into one Psalter, for the use of 
Israel and the spiritual benefit of the world. 
The RV follows a very ancient Jewish tradi- 
tion in dividing the whole into five books — 
p HS 1-41, 42-72, 73-89,90-106, 1 07-150. This 
division is supposed to have been made in 
imitation of the live books of the Pentateuch. 
Each book < loses with a doxology. But this 
arrangement of the Psalms, though dating 
from the 2nd cent. i'..c. does not represent the 
earliest grouping. Closer examination shows 



that smaller collections existed in earlier times, 
and that these were gradually brought together 
and re -arranged on principles which we can 
only partially and with difficulty trace out. 
The note which closes the second book (72 *} 
shows that the psalms included in this col- 
lection were in some sense ' of David,' and 
that the writer of the note knew of no 
other Davidic psalms. We observe also that 
the same psalm occurs more than once in 
slightly differing forms : cp. Psl4 with 53, 
4013-17 w ith 70, and 108 with 57*-u and 60 s- 1 *. 
It will be seen that one feature of difference, 
in verses which are almost identical otherwise, 
is that different names of God are used. The 
sacred name Jehovah, the covenant name of 
Israel's God, is used in Book 1 272 times, 
while Elohim, a more general name for the 
Deity, occurs only 15 times. In Book 2 the 
proportion is reversed ; in it Jehovah is found 
only 30 times, while Elohim is employed 164 
times. This cannot have happened by chance, 
and the names Jehovistic and Elohistic have 
been given to indicate the prevalence of the 
two names respectively. The reason of this 
peculiarity is not perfectly clear. It is prob- 
ably due to different editions, and perhaps 
shows that the respective names were preva- 
lent at different periods. 

The Psalter seems to have been formed very 
much as modern hymn-books are formed. The 
earliest collection would be the Davidic, of 
which a large part is preserved in Book 1 ; 
later collections would be those of Asaph and 
the sons of Korah. The psalms described in 
their titles as Mizmor (A V k A Psalm ') may 
have formed a collection by themselves 
selected from the earlier Psalters with addi- 
tions. Later still would come the collection 
made by the Chief Musician, probably for the 
Temple worship after the exile ; this again 
being selected from the earlier collections. 
Perhaps about the same time the Elohistic 
collection was made ; that it was formed from 
earlier sources is shown by the fact that 
Ps53 = Psl4, and Ps70 = Ps40i3-n ; Jehovah, 
in the earlier version, being changed into 
Elohim in the later. Prof. Briggs thinks 
that the Psalter of the Chief Musician was 
formed in Palestine in the middle Greek 
period (3rd cent. B.C.), and that the Elohistic 
collection (partly preserved in Books 2 and 3) 
was made about the same time in Babylonia. 
Other groups of psalms of late date are the 
Songs of Ascents (Pss 120-134), a title which 
probably refers either to the 'going up' from 
Babylon to Jerusalem after the exile, or to 
the annual pilgrimage to the Temple to cele- 
brate the feasts ; and the Hallelujah Psalms, 
104-107, 111-117, 135-136, 146-150. The 
editor of our Psalter, taking the principal col 
lections as his basis, and adding to them such 



324 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



other psalms as were suitable for the Temple 
service of praise, formed them into a complete 
Book of Praises probably in the Maccabean 
age — the 2nd cent. B.C. 

It is sometimes argued that the Psalms ex- 
press not personal but national feelings and 
aspirations ; that the ' I ' of the Psalms re- 
presents not the writer but the Jewish nation. 
But while this may be the case in some psalms 
(e.g. 44, 76), especially those written in later 
times, it can scarcely be so in the great ma- 
jority. These certainly express the desires 
and hopes of the faithful community, but it is 
because they first expressed the desires and 
hopes of individuals. They are natural and 
spontaneous, especially the Davidic Psalms. 
It is only later that the composition becomes 
more artificial, as in the case of the acrostic 
or alphabetical Psalms (e.g. 119, 145). 

Allowing, then, for the measure of un- 
certainty surrounding the date and authorship 
of the Psalms, we may summarise the follow- 
ing conclusions : (1) The earliest date admis- 
sible for the composition of any psalm is the 
time of David, and in all probability some now 
extant may be ascribed to that king. (2) Ad- 
ditions to Hebrew psalmody were made during 
the period of the monarchy, several specimens 
of which are to be found in the Psalter : see 
Pss 2, 20, 21, 46, 48, etc. (3) A considerable 
part of the book of Psalms dates from the 
period immediately after the captivity, and 
about that time the process of collecting and 
arranging the Psalms was probably begun. 
(4) This process continued till the early part 
of the 2nd cent. B.C., when the Canon of the 
OT. was virtually complete. 

8. Religious Ideas. The Psalms are the out- 
pouring of the spirit of devotion to God. It 
is to God that the Psalmist's thoughts and 
hopes are directed, to whom he looks for de- 
liverance, or whom he blesses for personal or 
national mercies. The Psalms are full of ex- 
pressions of trust in God at all times, and they 
contain glowing testimonies to the perfection 
of God, to His love, His power, His faithful- 
ness, His righteousness. They are specially 
valuable to us as a mirror and mould of devo- 
tion. They show us the human heart laid 
before God in all its moods and emotions ; in 
penitence, in desire for holiness, in doubt and 
perplexity, in danger, in desolation, or, again, 
in deliverance and triumph. The reader will 
always find something in the Psalms in sym- 
pathy with his own spiritual state. They are 
k as comprehensive as the human soul and 
varied as human life ; . . they treat not life 
after the fashion of an age or people, but life 
in its rudiments.' 

A problem frequently touched upon in the 
Psalms is the difficulty of reconciling the 
sufferings of the righteous and the prosper- 



ity of the wicked with God's moral govern- 
ment of the world: cp. Intro, to Job. This 
problem is handled at length in Pss 37 and 73. 
In the former psalm the solution reached is 
the somewhat superficial one that the success 
of the wicked is but temporary, and that the 
righteous will soon come to his own. In the 
latter the writer goes deeper. His faith had 
been severely tried by his experiences, but 
when he cast his burden on the Lord, as he 
worshipped in the sanctuary, he received new 
light in his darkness, and was enabled to leave 
the issues of the future with God. The one un- 
failing truth which comforted the Psalmists 
was ' The Lord reigneth.' Evil may endure 
for a time, and the wicked may oppress the 
just, but ' He that sitteth in the heavens will 
laugh ' at them, and wait His opportunity to 
deliver His servants. There is nothing more 
noticeable in the Psalms than this triumphant 
faith in God's overruling power — a faith which 
neither personal nor national misfortune was 
able to destroy. 

This is one aspect of the Psalmists' doctrine 
of God: another aspect of it is found in 
the divine relation to nature. Everything in 
nature speaks of God's power and glory. ' The 
heavens declare the glory of God and the firma- 
ment sheweth His handiwork.' The Hebrew 
poets have no pleasure in nature for her own 
sake ; they value her only as she speaks of the 
invisible presence of God. If they regard the 
earth, they view it as the footstool of the 
Lord ; if they see the clouds gathering, they 
speak of them as the curtains for Jehovah's 
pavilion ; if they listen to the thunder rolling, 
they hear in it ' the voice of the Lord upon the 
waters ' ; if they watch the lightning flashing, 
they think of it as ' the arrows of the most 
High.' It is, however, the transcendence 
rather than the immanence of God that is the 
thought of the Psalmists' minds: while He 
uses nature to make known His presence and 
power, He is high above it (cp. Pss 18, 19, 
29, 93). 

Another point that may be noticed is the 
attitude of the Psalmists to ritual and sacrifice. 
There are frequent references in the Psalms 
to the Temple worship and sacrifices. The 
Psalmists declare their intention of offering 
burnt offerings and paying their vows in 
the presence of all the people (e.g. 66 13-15 
11614,17). The spiritual aspect of the ritual 
is, however, the most prominent in the Psalm- 
ists' thoughts. They know that offerings are 
insufficient of themselves, and that they are 
only valuable in so far as they typify the 
1 living sacrifice ' of self, which every true 
worshipper must offer. Indeed, if that sacri- 
fice be offered, the material offering is un- 
necessary (cp. Ps40 6 " 8 50 7 " 15 ). In Ps51 the 
writer at one moment declares that sacrifice 



325 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



and burnt offering are not desired by God ; 
' the sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ' 
(5116, 17). and immediately afterwards declares 
that only when the walls of Jerusalem are re- 
built can sacrifice be acceptable to Jehovah 
(5118, 19). it is probable that the latter vv. 
are a later liturgical addition ; but, even so, 
the whole psalm was used without any sense 
of incongruity. 

Another feature of the Psalms is their 
intense patriotism. Patriotism and religion 
were inseparably associated by the Hebrews. 
That God was good to Israel was the first 
article of their creed. The historical Psalms 
developed this idea, and illustrate it from the 
national history (e.g. Pssl04, 105, 106). His 
blessings were destined to teach them His 
ways, and make His mighty power known to 
them (106 8 ). Even His punishment was for 
their good, to renew them to repentance and 
bring them to realise the greatness of their 
privilege (106 43 > u , etc.). The purpose of God in 
choosing Israel was that they might extend His 
Kingdom. Sometimes, indeed, ? the heathen ' 
or ' the nations ' are regarded as God's enemies 
(2 1 , etc.) ; but at other times they are looked 
upon as the witnesses of the Psalmists' praise 
(57 9 ), and even as God's people (47 9 ). God's 
mercy is given to Israel that they make His way 
known upon the earth, and His saving health 
among all nations (67 1 ' 7 ). But, above all, 
Israel is His peculiar people (73 1 ); their ene- 
mies are His enemies ; misfortunes to them 
are hindrances to His cause ; their success is 
His triumph. 

In this lies the explanation of two features 
of this book which call for comment — the 
self-righteousness of the Psalmists, and their 
vindictive resentment against their enemies. 
Let us remember at the outset the distinction 
between the OT. and NT. standards in this 
matter. We must not expect to find in the 
OT. the humility arising from the deep sense 
of sin, or the meek, forgiving spirit, inculcated 
by the Lord Jesus Christ. To judge the 
Psalmists by these standards is unfair, and 
the attempt to explain away the plain mean- 
ing of their words, in order to palliate a 
moral fault, is unsound exegesis. None the 
Less it is possible, 'within limits, to defend the 
position taken up in what are called the im- 
precatory Psalms (e.g. 58, 68, 69, 109) without 
doing violence to sound ethical standards. 
The Psalmist claimed to be ' holy ' and ' per- 
li < t.' without implying all that we mean by 
those lofty words. He meant that he was 
striving to be upright, a man of integrity, 
mindful of the claims of God upon him ac- 
cording to the law, and to the best of his 
ability endeavouring to be faithful to duty. 
He was placed, however, in the midst of men 
animated by entirely different motives ; some 



of them openly and violently opposed to the 
God of Israel and His worship, others nomin- 
ally acknowledging Him, but in reality idol- 
aters, or disloyal to Jehovah. The contrast 
between the faithful and the unfaithful was 
sharp and strong ; the former were always in 
a minority, they usually suffered cruel persecu- 
tion, and were often in extremest peril. Under 
these circumstances it is easy to understand 
that the Psalmist felt entitled to identify him- 
self with the cause of righteousness. He 
pleads for his own personal triumph, and the 
utter overthrow of his enemies, with a pas- 
sionate earnestness, which is only warrantable 
in the light of the words, ' Do not I hate 
them, Lord, that hate Thee ? and am not I 
grieved with those that rise up against Thee ? 
I hate them with perfect hatred, I count them 
mine enemies.' Not to hate the enemies of 
Jehovah is to be a traitor to His holy covenant. 

The distinction familiar to us between hating 
the sin and being angry with the sinner, and 
the possibility of loving the offender with a 
desire to save him, were not present to the 
mind of the Psalmist. Evil and evil-doer were 
for him identical, and in this respect he stands 
upon a lower ethical plane than the Christian. 
Further, the forms of imprecation common in 
the Psalms belong to an earlier, a sterner, and 
more violent age than ours. Such horrible 
curses as are invoked in Psl09 6 " 15 are, rightly, 
shocking in our ears. But this moral infe- 
riority of the earlier dispensation once granted. 
no true Christian can afford in a Pharisaical 
spirit to look down upon these faithful men 
to whom the light of the gospel had not been 
granted. Rather should we ask ourselves 
what is to be learned from denunciations in 
which Christians are forbidden to indulge. 
Personal resentment is always unlawful to the 
man who takes the Sermon on the Mount as 
his guide ; but there is a stern hatred of evil 
manifest in the Psalms which is only too rare 
in later and more indulgent days. The Puri- 
tan strain in our national character is to some 
extent a reflexion of the spirit of whole-hearted 
and indignant righteousness which breathes in 
the denunciatory Psalms ; and, despite the 
hardness and narrowness too often associated 
with it, that spirit has proved of the utmost 
value in its uncompromising protest against 
prevalent evils in social and national life. 

Another fact must be borne in mind, if we 
would fully understand the reasons for the 
strong denunciatory element found in the 
Psalms. To the Jew no clear revelation had 
been granted of a future life ; his horizon was, 
for the most part, limited b} r the present. The 
true Israelite did, in a sense, look to the 
future. He hoped for a numerous posterity 
as a mark of God's favour, he anticipated a 
better state of things for his nation and the 



326 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



world in the coming of the Messiah, and he 
certainly did not regard death as virtual anni- 
hilation. But he had no clear hope of immor- 
tality, no vision of a heaven as a state of future 
blessedness ; neither the law nor the prophets 
warranted any such outlook beyond the grave. 
It followed that the cause of truth and right 
must be vindicated here and now, or it could 
not, properly speaking, be vindicated at all. 
This at least was the attitude for the most 
part taken up by the orthodox Jew, and there 
was much to be said in its favour. It is easy 
for religious men of to-day, living in a land of 
freedom and amidst all the blessings of peace, 
and taught to expect a Day of Judgment in the 
future, when all earth's wrongs shall be com- 
pletely redressed, to possess their souls in 
patience, and wait for the coming of the Day 
of God and the new earth wherein dwelleth 
righteousness. But the problems of life pressed 
much more grievously upon the saint of old 
time, crushed by brute force, oppressed under 
a cruel and relentless Oriental despotism, with 
no earthly hope of redress, and no clear pros- 
pect of a better life to come. No wonder if 
such men prayed with a certain fierce indigna- 
tion of soul, ' Up, Lord, and let not man have 
the upper hand ; let the heathen be judged in 
thy sight, that the nations may know themselves 
to be but men.' 

But, it will be asked, had the Jew then no 
hope of immortality for himself, and is not 
the 1 6th Psalm a prophecy of the resurrection 
of Christ, as it is more than once declared to 
be in the NT. ? The subject thus opened up 
cannot be adequately dealt with in a few sen- 
tences, and scholars have differed in their 
judgment upon it. The view taken by the 
present writer may be thus briefly expressed. 
No explicit revelation of a future life was 
given to the Jew, and no definite expectation 
of a future state of rewards and punishments 
entered into his ordinary view of life. But 
the truly devout Israelite possessed so clear 
and strong a sense of religion, so firm a hold 
by faith upon the living God, that he was en- 
abled sometimes to transcend the conditions 
of his ordinary religious creed and reach a 
state of joyful personal confidence of a very 
lofty kind. These moments of insight and 
foresight were, however, comparatively few ; 
the glimpses thus gained were transient, they 
belonged to the individual only, and could not 
furnish a basis for definite dogmatic teaching. 
Thus Job believed that his Redeemer would 
at the last appear and vindicate his cause upon 
the earth, though he had no light upon the 
time and manner of such manifestation, and 
the confidence expressed in Job 19 25 " 27 is 
the expression of an exalted mood which 
subsequent chapters prove not to have been 
permanent. 



Similarly it will be found that some pas- 
sages in the Psalms, such as 6 5 30 ^ 88 10 " 12 
are full of gloomy foreboding concerning the 
future state. They describe it as a condition 
of helplessness and f orgetfulness, which hardly 
deserves the name of life at all. There are 
other passages, however, of which 16 9 " 11 17 15 
4915 7324,25 are examples, in which the 
Psalmist's assurance of the care and favour 
of God is such that he appears to triumph 
not only over the dangers and vicissitudes 
of the present life, but over the fear of 
death itself. It is quite true that these hopes 
are not very clearly expressed, and that some 
commentators have questioned whether they 
contain an assured belief in immortality. But 
St. Peter's quotation from the 16th Psalm on 
the day of Pentecost shows that the words 
suggested a hope of immortality which was 
fully realised in the Resurrection of Christ. 
We may well find in the 16th and 73rd Psalms 
another illustration of the argument which 
the Lord Jesus Christ drew from the phrase 
' The God of Abraham, of Isaac and of Jacob.' 
He is not the God of the dead, but of the 
living ; and the Psalmists, who had God for 
their portion in this life, entertained a trust 
and confidence in God which at intervals 
blossomed into incipient hope that He who 
was not ashamed to be called their God 
would preserve them in life, in death and for 
ever. 

The Messianic hope has been spoken of, 
and certain Psalms— 2, 8, 16, 22, 45, 72, 1 10, and 
others — have been specifically styled Messianic 
Psalms. But here a distinction must be made. 
The word Messianic may be used either in the 
narrower sense of prophecies which contain a 
distinct reference to a personal Deliverer called 
the Messiah, or in a wider sense of predictions 
of great and glorious blessings to be enjoyed 
by the nation in a brighter and better age 
to come. Often without any reference to a 
personal Messiah, prophets and psalmists are 
found confidently anticipating a Day of God, 
when He shall appear in righteous judgment 
and shall manifest His glory among men. A 
little group of Psalms, of which 96-98 form 
the nucleus, may be described as Messianic, 
because they anticipate a theophany, a mani- 
festation of God in the earth. They con- 
template a period when in some sense God 
shall ' come and not keep silence,' when ' He 
cometh to judge the world with righteousness 
and the peoples with equity.' The mode in 
which this is to be carried out is left indefinite, 
but the hope is invincible and inextinguish- 
able. In the 2nd and 72nd Psalms a righteous 
earthly ruler of the house and dynasty of 
David is celebrated ; in Ps 110 the advent of 
a Priest-King is heralded, and the author of 
the Psalm looks to the Anointed One who 



327 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



is to rule in Zion, not as his son, but as his 
Lord. It would be a mistake, however, to 
restrict the conception of the Messianic hope 
to passages in which a personal Messiah is 
foretold. The 22nd Psalm, for example, is in 
its earlier portion clearly descriptive of the 
sufferings of the persecuted but faithful ser- 
vant of God, and its language is frequently 
quoted in NT. in reference to Christ. But it 
contains no reference to the personal triumph 
of the sufferer, whilst the latter part of the 
Psalm points unquestionably to a great victory 
over unrighteousness, which is to be gained after 
and by means of his patient fidelity. The promise 
is here repeated which elsewhere is given in 
noble and more explicit words, ' He shall see of 
the travail of his soul and shall be satisfied.' 

The subject of the relation of the Psalms 
to Christ, and the fulfilment in the New Tes- 
tament of hints and prophecies contained in 
the Old, is too large to be entered on here. 
It may suffice, however, to say that one simple 
key will open many otherwise difficult locks. 
Christ claimed in Lk24 44 that many things 
were written l in the psalms ' concerning Him. 



St. Peter, in Ac 2, shows how this saying is to 
be understood. Words, which were true only 
in a secondary and imperfect sense of David 
as the writer of the 16th Psalm, received their 
complete and perfect illustration in the resur- 
rection from the dead of David's greater Son. 
The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of pro- 
phecy. The writers of the Psalms, like their 
brethren who are specifically called prophets, 
were inspired to write words true, indeed, of 
themselves and their contemporaries, but per- 
fectly fulfilled only in Him of whom Moses in 
the Law, and the prophets, did write, Jesus of 
Nazareth, Son of Man and Son of G-od, the hope 
of the Psalmists and the Saviour of the world. 
The Prayer-Book version of the Psalms was 
taken in 1549 from the English version of the 
Bible called the ' great Bible,' which was 
issued in 1540, and set up to be read in 
churches. In 1661, when the Prayer Book 
was revised, other portions of Scripture in the 
Prayer Book were changed for the AY of 1611. 
But the Psalter was not altered. People were 
accustomed to its wording, and it was thought 
to be more suitable for singing. 



BOOK 1 (Psalms 1-41) 



The Pss. in this book are probably among 
the earliest in the Psalter, and include most of 
those generally regarded as Davidic. They 
seem to have existed separately as an early 
hymn-book, which, with some slight additions 
from the final editor, was used as the nucleus 
of the entire collection. They have two well- 
marked characteristics : (1) the constant use 
of the name Jehovah (rendered the Lord), and 
the comparative absence of the name God 
(Heb. Elohim) ; the former occurring 272 times, 
the latter only 15 times : and (2) the descrip- 
tion of them all, with the exception of Pss 1, 
2, 10, and 33, as ' of David ' (Heb. Le David), 
a fact which has been taken to indicate their 
derivation from a still earlier collection which 
bore David's name. The first two Pss. seem 
to have been prefixed to the others when the 
present Psalter was formed. Historical notices 
are attached to some of them, connecting them 
with the life of David, but these are of doubt- 
ful importance. Most of the Pss. contained in 
the book are spontaneous and unaffected in 
bheir style, but a few of them are of artificial 
const ruction, Pss 9, 10, 25, 34, and 37 being 
acrostics. 

The contents are exceedingly varied, and 
the same Ps. sometimes expresses such di- 
verse feelings as joy and sorrow, bitter dis- 
appointment and lofty aspiration. Usually, 
however, there is some great thought more or 
less prominent, which enables us to make the 
following rough classification of their sub- 
jects : — (a) the contrast between the righteous 



and the wicked, 1, 5, 10, 37 ; (b) the cry of 
the righteous in presence of trouble, 3, 4, 6, 7, 
12, 13, 22, 31, 38, 39, 40 ; (c) the glory of 
God in nature, 8, 19, 29 ; (d) the law, 1, 19 ; 
(e) the king, 2, 18, 20, 21 ; (/) the future life, 
16. In addition, there is a reference to sacri- 
fice in Ps 37, an allusion to the Temple services 
in Ps 24, and a foreshadowing of the Messianic 
hope in Pss 2, 20, 28, and 40. The following 
Pss. are either quoted from or distinctly referred 
to in NT. : 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, 
32, 34, 40, 41. In several instances the NT. 
writer finds the fulfilment of the OT. passage 
in Christ. Thus Ps 2, with its defence of 
Jehovah's righteous King, of whom He says, 
4 Thou art my Son, this day have I begotten 
Thee,' is regarded as descriptive of Christ in 
Acl3 33 and Hebl^ 5 5 ; and Ps22, with its 
pathetic presentment of the suffering Servant 
of Jehovah, is reported to have been actually 
quoted by Christ upon the cross (Mt27 44 
Mkl5 34 ), and v. 18 is asserted in Jnl9 24 to 
have been literally fulfilled in one of the 
incidents of His crucifixion. 

The moral teaching of this first book of 
Psalms is simple and emphatic. It rests upon 
an unswerving belief in the will and power of 
God to uphold the moral values of life, and 
mete out punishments and rewards according 
to personal desert. In whatever circumstances 
they may be placed, the writers never lose 
hold of their conviction of the ultimate pros- 
perity of the righteous and destruction of the 
wicked. Appearances may seem to contradict 



328 



1. 1 



TSALMS 



% 12 



their faith, but they cling to it all the more 
strenuously, and insist that in the long run 
the balance will be redressed. The ideal 
character portrayed by them is that of the 
good man, defamed, wronged, and oppressed 
by irreligious foes, but holding fast his faith 
in G-od, and trusting confidently that, in His 
own good time, He will deliver him. Some- 
times there is a note of joy and thankfulness 
at the accomplishment of the deliverance ; 
and this leads on to the anticipation of a time 
when, throughout the whole world, the justice 
of G-od will be manifested, and His power felt. 

PSALM 1 

This Ps. forms an appropriate introduction 
to the whole Psalter. In some Hebrew MSS 
it is not numbered with the Psalms, but stands 
before them as a prologue, and in others it 
is combined with Ps 2. It is one of the 
k orphan ' psalms, and the want of a title 
indicates that it did not originally belong to 
the Davidic collection, 3-41. The subject of 
the Ps. is the blessedness of the righteous man 
who studies the Law of Jehovah, as con- 
trasted with the unhappy end of the ungodly. 
It consists of two strophes, vv. 1-3 and vv. 
4-6, the former describing the character and 
destiny of the righteous, and the latter the 
character and destiny of the wicked. 

i. Blessed] EM ' happy.' The first of the 
Old Testament beatitudes. Walkethnot] There 
seems a gradual progression intended in the three 
clauses of the v. : walk, stand, sit, and wicked, 
sinner, scoffer. 2. Law] the whole revela- 
tion of God's will as made known in the sacred 
writings, especially the Pentateuch. 

Doth . . meditate] lit. ' crooneth over,' re- 
peats again and again in a low tone. 

3. And he shall be] better, ' for he becomes,' 
i.e. in consequence of his constant study of 
God's law. Like a tree, etc.] cp. Jerl7 7 > 8 , 
where the illustration is more fully developed, 
and the character of the wicked is similarly 
illustrated (1 7 5 > 6 ) ; and Ezk 47 12 . And what- 
soever, etc.] The illustration is dropped at 
this stage, and the words apply to the righteous 
man. Shall prosper] the simple faith of the 
pious Israelite, which no adversity was able 
wholly to overcome : cp. Psll2 and see Ps37, 
where the problem of the suffering of the 
righteous perplexes another Psalmist. 

4. Chaff] A common OT. type of the 
wicked : cp 35 5 . Threshing-floors were usu- 
ally on high ground, where the wind would 
easily catch the chaff when it was beaten from 
the corn and drive it away (Isa 17 13 ). Driveth 
away] PBY adds, 'from the face of the 
earth,' following LXX and Vulgate. 5. The 
judgment] every visitation of God's provi- 
dence, or perhaps the final judgment. Con- 
gregation] the faithful people of Israel. 



PSALM 2 

The historical situation of this Ps. cannot 
now be recovered. It may refer to some 
threatened rebellion of subject kings in the 
early days of Solomon, or to some similar 
movement under one of the later kings ; but 
it is impossible to give it any precise date. 
This, however, is of the less importance, as the 
leading feature of the Ps. is its application to 
the Messianic King — the ideal ruler of Israel. 
Some writers deny that it had any historical 
setting, and hold that it refers exclusively to 
the ideal King, the viceroy of Jehovah. As 
one of the Messianic Pss. it is appropriately 
used on Easter Day. It is divided into four 
strophes or verses, and is a dramatic poem, 
different speakers being introduced. The 
divisions are, vv. 1-3, 4-6, 7-9, 10-12. In 
the first two strophes the Psalmist is the 
speaker ; in the last two the King. (1-3) The 
poet views the nations plotting against 
Jehovah and His representative, the Messianic 
King ; (4-6) but remembering the power and 
majesty of God, he sees a speedy end to their 
devices. (7-9) Then the King is introduced 
relating Jehovah's decree and promise of 
sovereignty over all nations, and (10-12) 
bidding the rebellious kinglets therefore be 
warned in time and repent. 

1. The heathen] RV ' the nations,' i.e. the 
G-entile or non- Jewish peoples. Rage] better, 
'plot together.' 2. Against the LORD] In 
rebelling against Jehovah's anointed King 
they were rebelling against Jehovah Himself. 

3. Bands] The words of the kings are of 
course metaphorical ; they were seeking to 
cast off what was to them a foreign yoke. 

4. The contrast between Jehovah in His 
majesty and the puny plotters is dramatically 
introduced. 5. Then] i.e. when the plot 
ripens into action. 6. Yet] lit. ' and.' Upon 
my holy hill of Zion] Zion is the eastern hill 
of ancient Jerusalem on which the ' city of 
David ' with its stronghold was built ; it is 
used poetically for Jerusalem the holy city : 
cp. Isa 64 10. 

7. The Messianic King now speaks, quoting 
the promise given to David, the father of the 
dynasty, through Nathan the prophet : see 
2 S 7 4 * 17 . Thou art my Son ; this day, etc.] on 
the day of his anointing, when he was set 
apart to his high office. But some refer it to 
the day of his birth. In any case the king 
was adopted as the son of God, reigning in 
His name over His people (cp. Acl3 33 Heb 
l 6 5 5 ). 9. A rod of iron] because they are 
rebels who can only be restrained by repres- 
sive methods. 

10. Be wise] The obvious lesson from the 
truths stated in the preceding vv. 

12. Kiss the Son] This is a difficult pas- 



329 



1 



PSALMS 



4.8 



sage. The translation of the AV is only got 
by assuming that the Psalmist has chosen the 
Aramaic word for ' Son ' instead of the 
Hebrew. LXX renders, 'Lay hold of in- 
struction,' which is in harmony with the 
general drift of the passage, and is supported 
by the Targum. Others translate ' Kiss ' (i.e. 
worship or serve) ' with sincerity.' The doubt 
does not affect the teaching of the Ps. as a 
whole. From the way] RV l in the way.' When 
his wrath, etc.] better, ' For soon His wrath 
will burn.' Blessed are all they, etc.] This 
is either a pious reflexion of the Psalmist at 
the end of the words put into the mouth of 
the King ; or, as Prof. Briggs holds, a litur- 
gical addition suitable when the Ps. was used 
in worship. 

PSALM 3 

This is the first of the 'Davidic' Psalms. 
It is a morning prayer as v. 6 suggests. The 
heading of the Ps. provides a historical setting 
for it in the revolt of Absalom, and it is the 
only Ps. specifically dated at that time. There 
are many features in that revolt (2 S 16-18) 
which suit the circumstances to which the 
Psalmist refers. He speaks of the increasing 
number of his enemies (cp. 2S17 11 ), of the 
contempt in which many held him (cp. 2S 
16 7 - 10 ), of the danger in which he lay (cp. 2S 
17 2 ), and of his preservation by Jehovah 
(cp. 2S17 14 ). The Ps. contains the Psalmist's 
description of his foes (1, 2) ; his inward 
assurance of God's help (3, 4) ; his statement 
of his present experience (5, 6) ; and his 
prayer for complete deliverance and national 
blessing (7, 8). 

1. Increased] cp. 2S15 12 > 13 . 2. Of my 
soul] i.e. of myself. 3. A shield] a natural 
metaphor in days when kings were warriors : 
cp. 18 2 849.il H59 5 etc. 4. Out of his 
holy hill] i.e. Zion, the seat of Jehovah's 
worship, where in a special sense He was 
present. The Psalmist was probably at a 
distance from Jerusalem. Selah] This word 
is found 71 times in the Psalter. It occurs 
in 40 Pes., as well as three times in Hab3, 
which is also a Ps. Its meaning and use are 
both uncertain. Possibly it is derived from a 
root, meaning to ' lift up.' LXX translates it 
' interlude,' while the Jewish tradition renders 
it 'for ever.' (1) Some think that it is an 
instruction to the musicians to 'strike up' 
wiili ;iii interlude during an interval of the 
singing. (2) Prof. Briggs suggests that the 
LXX and Jewish renderings are really two 
aspects of the same thing : the former (' inter- 
lude ') denoting the point where the benedic- 
tion might be sung and the Ps. concluded for 
that service; while (Ik; latter ('for ever') 
gives the last word of tin; benediction, which 
would indicate the same thing. (3) Taking 



another derivation (from sallem, ' supple- 
ment '), others conjecture that the note may 
indicate the point at which the MS has to be, 
or has been, supplemented from another MS. 
It is best, perhaps, just to regard it generally 
as a ' musical interlude.' 

5. I laid me down, etc.] His very sleep, 
natural as it was, was a proof of God's care, 
for he might have slept the sleep of death. 

Sustained] RV ' sustaineth,' suggesting 
continual oversight. 7. Arise, O LORD] The 
ancient marching-song of the Hebrew host 
began with these words (NulO 35 ). 8. Salva- 
tion belongeth unto the LORD] A triumphant 
assertion of what the adversaries denied in 
v. 2. Thy blessing is] RV ' thy blessing be ' 
upon the people as upon their leader. Selah] 
see on v. 4. 

PSALM 4 

This is an evening hymn, and though no 
occasion is mentioned it may perhaps be re- 
ferred, like Ps 3 (its natural companion), to the 
time of Absalom's revolt, but to a somewhat 
later stage in the course of events, when the 
peril had largely passed away. It contains 
David's appeal to God (v. 1), his appeal to 
his enemies (vv. 2-5), and his own resolve 
(vv. 6-8). 

Title.— (RV) ' For the Chief Musician ; on 
stringed instruments (Neginoth).' 

1. God of my righteousness] The God who 
is on the side of the Psalmist's righteous cause. 

Enlarged me] RV ' set me at large.' 

2. Sons of men] in contrast with God, who 
is addressed in v. 1. How long will ye turn, 
etc.] RV ' how long shall my glory be turned,' 
etc. Leasing] RV ' falsehood.' 3. Butknow] 
introduces the truth which the Psalmist's 
enemies ignored. 4. Stand in awe] LXX 
renders, * Be ye angry,' and is followed by 
St. Paul in Eph4 26 . Be still] cease your 
striving after vanity. Selah] see on 3 4 . 

5. Sacrifices of righteousness] sacrifices 
accompanied by right conduct, offered in a 
right spirit, and so acceptable to God. Perhaps 
there may be a reference to the insincere 
sacrifices of 2S15 12 . 

6. There be many] possibly in allusion to 
the discontented people whom Absalom sought 
to win by fair promises (2Slf> 4 ). LORD, lift 
thou up] a striking transition from the vain 
quests of men to the one source of the chief 
good. The light of thy countenance] favour, 
such as earthly kings express by a smiling 
face: see Nn6 26 Ps80 3 .?,i9. 7. More than in 
the time] RV i more than they have when," etc 
' They ' seems to refer to the enemies of the 
writer. He in his hardships is happier than 
they in their plenty : the peace of God is 
better than the mirth of harvest. 8. The note 
of evensong. Read, ' In peace will I both lay 



330 



5.1 



PSALMS 



7.6 



me down and sleep.' The whole night's rest 
is peaceful, because God, the only source of 
protection, is on the Psalmist's side. 

PSALM 5 

This is a morning prayer before going to 
the sanctuary. The chief difficulty in ascribing 
it to David lies in the reference (v. 7) to ' thy 
holy temple.' The word means a ' palace,' and 
is not strictly applicable to the tent which 
David provided for the ark (2 S 6 l>1 ). But it 
was used of the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 S 1 9 ), 
and may have been poetically transferred to 
David's humbler tent ; or it may be figuratively 
employed to denote the heavenly temple. 
The Psalmist appeals to God for hearing 
(vv. 1-3), contrasts the exclusion of the wicked 
from God's presence with his own access 
(vv. 4-7), asks for guidance in the midst of his 
enemies (vv. 8, 9), and prays for their over- 
throw and for the triumph of the righteous 
(vv. 10-12). This is one of the Pss. for Ash 
Wednesday. 

Title. — Nehiloth] EM ' wind instruments.' 

i. My meditation] the thoughtful desire of 

the heart which hardly finds expression in 

words. It is in contrast with the ' cry ' of v. 2. 

2. My King] If the writer is David he 
forgets his own royalty in the presence of the 
heavenly King. Will I pray] RY ' do I pray.' 

3. In the morning - ] emphatic and twice 
repeated. Direct] RY 'order,' arrange, per- 
haps, as a sacrifice (Gn22 9 Lvl7> 8 ). But see 
Job 23 4 32 1* 33 5 37 19 . Look up] RY 'keep 
watch ' for an answer. 

4. Neither shall evil dwell] RM ' the evil man 
shall not sojourn.' 5. Foolish] RY ' arrogant.' 
Stand in thy sight] endure the holiness of thy 
presence. 6. Leasing] RY ' lies.' Will abhor 
the bloody] RY ' abhorreth the bloodthirsty.' 

7. The two features of access to God are 
(1) God's grace, and (2) the worshipper's rever- 
ence. Toward] The worshipper in the Temple 
court prostrated himself towards the sanctuary. 

8. Straight] RY ' plain,' level, easy to walk 
in. 9. The heart and the speech of the 
wicked are alike corrupt. See Ro 3 1 3 , where 
this v. is quoted. The throat of the flatterer 
is compared to an open grave, ever clamouring 
for fresh victims — a very suggestive figure. 

10. Destroy . . them] RY ' hold them guilty.' 
Against thee] The Psalmist identifies God's 
cause with his own. 11. Love thy name] thy 
revealed character. A name comes to be the 
equivalent of all that we know about the 
person who bears it : cp. ' Hallowed be Thy 
name.' 

PSALM 6 

This is the first of the Penitential Psalms, 
the others being Pss 32,38, 51, 102, 130, 143. 
It is the prayer of a sufferer whose experience 



is like that of Job. He is prostrated by severe 
illness, and is even in danger of death, while 
the mockery of his enemies makes his trouble 
the harder to bear. He entreats earnestly that 
God may deliver him (vv. 1-7), and rises to a 
sudden confidence that his prayer has been 
heard and that his enemies will be put to 
shame (vv. 8-10). 

Title. — On Neginoth upon Sheminith] RY 
' on stringed instruments, set to the Sheminith 
(lower octave).' 

1. Rebuke . . chasten] the two aspects of 
affliction — the one being for punishment and 
the other for discipline ; the one proceeding 
from displeasure and the other from love. 

2. Weak] R Y ' withered away ' : see Ps 
102 n. My bones] the innermost framework 
of my body. Vexed] used here of physical 
pain, and in the next v. of mental anguish : 
cp. Ps 2 5 . 3. My soul . . also] The bodily pain 
has produced distress of spirit. There is an 
echo of these words in Jn 12 27 . O LORD, how 
long ?] The broken sentence is more expressive 
than if it had been complete'd : see Ps90 13 . 

5. The grave] RY ' Sheol,' the shadowy 
abode of the dead. In the OT. time there 
was no clear expectation of immortality in 
the sense of a happy future life. 6. All the 
night] RY ' every night.' 7. Mine eye is con- 
sumed] The sunken eye is a sure token of 
bodily anguish or mental distress. 

10. Read, 'All mine enemies shall be 
ashamed . . they shall turn back, they shall be 
ashamed suddenly.' 

PSALM 7 

This Ps. is an appeal to God as the righteous 
Judge against an ungrateful and vindictive 
enemy. Nothing is known of Cush the Ben- 
jamite, but the case of Shimei affords a paral- 
lel to the circumstances here referred to 
(2S18 21 ). The absence of any Scripture 
mention of Cush makes it all the more probable 
that the title of this Ps. is genuine, and not 
invented. The Psalmist asserts his own inno- 
cence (vv. 1-6), calls on God, the righteous 
Judge of all the earth, to exercise His power 
against evil-doers (vv. 7-13), and describes 
how the malice of the wicked works its own 
defeat (vv. 14-17). 

Title. — Shiggaion] perhaps, ' a wandering 
(i.e. changeful) melody.' 

3. If I have done this] with which Cush 
charged him. See further in v. 4. 4. The 
second clause may be read without the paren- 
thesis, ' or despoiled him that without cause 
was mine adversary.' 5. Take] RY ' over- 
take.' Mine honour] RY 'my glory,' an equi- 
valent for ' soul ' and ' life ' in the previous paral- 
lel clauses. Selah] see on 3 4 . 6. Awake for me] 
a daring figure, as if God's delay had been due 
to sleep. To the judgment that, etc.] RY 'thou 



331 



7.7 



PSALMS 



9.7 



hast commanded judgment,' i.e. exercised the 
justice of which Thou art the source. 

7. So shall, etc.] RV ' and let,' etc. People] 
RV ' peoples.' So in v. 8. An assize of all 
the nations is pictured. For their sakes, etc.] 
RV ' over them return thou on high,' or ' sit 
thou above them,' i.e. in judgment. 8. Shall 
judge] RY ' ministereth judgment to.' 9. Just] 
RV ' righteous,' the same epithet which is 
applied to God. The hearts and reins] the 
whole inner life. The reins are the kidneys, 
and are spoken of like the heart, the bowels, 
and the internal organs generally, as the seat 
of thought and feeling. 

11. Read, ' God is a righteous judge, yea, a 
God that hath indignation every day.' 12. Read, 
1 If a man turn not He (God) will whet,' etc. 

13. He ordaineth, etc.] RV "Hemakethhis 
arrows fiery shafts. -1 The sense is parallel 
with the last clause of v. 12. 

14. There is a transition at this point from 
God to the wicked man. 15. He made] RV 
'he hath made.' The evil he planned for 
others comes on himself. 16. another figure 
for the same thing. Mischief is like a stone 
thrown up, which falls back upon the thrower's 
head. Pate] Old English for 'head.' 17. All 
that has been said illustrates the righteous- 
ness of the Lord, which is accordingly the 
ground of this concluding ascription of praise. 

PSALM 8 

This Ps. is a poem of wondering praise, 
called forth by the thought of the supremacy 
and honour that God has given to man, who 
in himself holds such an insignificant place in 
the universe. The glory of the heavens and 
the variety of the works of nature combine to 
emphasise the marvel of this choice. The Ps. 
is based upon the story of creation (Gn 1 2 6- 28 ), 
and sets forth the ideal dignity of man. V. 6 
is applied in 1 Corl5 27 Ephl 22 to the exalta- 
tion of Christ, in whom alone the ideal is 
realised. In Heb2 6 * 8 the same thought is 
expressed in another way, man's failure to 
attain to full dominion being contrasted with 
the supremacy Christ has won. The Ps. is 
used on Ascension Day. 

Title.— Upon Gittith] RV 'set to the Gittith' 
(perhaps an instrument, or tune, of Gath). 

1. O LORD our Lord] lit. 'Jehovah, our 
Lord.' So in v. 9. Thy name] seeonPsS 11 . 

Above] RV ' upon.' The glory of God is 
stamped or impressed on the \ isihlo universe. 

2. Babes and sucklings] a figure for nun 
in bheir weakness and ignorance. The words 
are quoted by our Lord in a more literal Bense 
(Mt211«). Ordained strength] RV ' estab- 
lished strength,' laid a foundation for Thy 
great work. LXX lias l perfected praise,' and 
our Lord follows this version in the quotation 
just mentioned. Because of thine enemies, 



etc.] God's use of feeble instruments to dis- 
play His glory puts His adversaries to silence : 
see 1 Cor 1 2 < -™. 

3. The work of thy fingers] The wisdom 
and skill of the Creator are thus poetically 
expressed. The moon and the stars] It is the 
glory of the sky by night which is before the 
writer's mind. The discoveries of astronomy 
only make the conceptions of the Ps. more 
impressive. 4. What is man] The word ren- 
dered ' man ' means ' frail man ' — humanity in 
all its weakness and limitation. The son of 
man] the human race. The expression is a 
simple variant, and is exactly equivalent to 
' man ' in the former clause. Visitest] with 
loving care and remembrance. 

5. A little lower than the angels] RV v but 
a little lower than God.' ' A little less than 
divine ' would represent the meaning. Man, 
the only creature made in God's image, stands 
nearest to Him in the ranks of the universe. 
Philosophy and science are at one with Scripture 
in placing man at the top of the scale of cre- 
ation. 6. All things under his feet] A refer- 
ence to Gn 1 2 6- 2 « : applied to Christ, 1 Cor 15 27 
Heb2<3-8. 

PSALM 9 

Pss 9 and 10 are combined in LXX, and 
there is certainly a real, though obscure, re- 
lationship between them. The two together 
form one ' acrostic,' the vv. beginning with 
the successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, 
though in both Pss. there is a gap in the ar- 
rangement. The subject matter of the two 
Pss., however, does not suggest that we have 
in them the two halves of what was originally 
a single Ps. Ps 9 is distinctly national and 
Ps 10 as distinctly personal, and though both 
may be by the same author, the problem of 
their connexion must be left unsolved. 

Ps 9 is the song of a king who has gained a 
victory over a foreign enemy, and finds in this 
a proof of God's righteous rule over the whole 
earth — a rule which he prays may be yet more 
fully displayed. Only in vv. 13, 14 is the note 
of personal affliction and need to be heard. 

Title.— Upon Muth-labben] ' Muth-labben' 
means ' Death to the son,' and probably indi- 
cates some well-known song, to the tune of 
which the Ps. was directed to be sung. 

3. They shall fall] RV ' they stumble.' 

4. Judging right] RV 'judging righteously.' 

5. Heathen] RV 'nations.' So in vv. If), 
19. 6. RV ' The enemy are come to an end, 
they are desolate for ever : and the cities which 
thou hast overthrown, their very memorial is 
perished.' The words are still part of the 
prayer to Jehovah. Faith in God demands 
complete deliverance. 7. Shall endure] RV 
' sitteth as king.' The eternal rule of God 
contrasted with the passing powers of earth. 



332 



9.8 



PSALMS 



11.7 



8. People] RV 'peoples.' io. Thy name] 
see on 5 11 . 

ii. Which dwelleth in Zion] Jerusalem, 
and especially the hill of Zion, was regarded 
as the earthly throne of God, after David had 
placed the ark there : see 76 2 132 13 . 12. RV 
1 For he that maketh inquisition for blood re- 
membereth them.' G-od is represented as the 
avenger of blood (Gn 9 5 ). Humble] RV ' poor ' 
or meek. One of a group of words which in 
OT. have at first an outward and then a more 
spiritual sense, the chief sufferers from want 
and oppression being often God's true people. 

13, 14. This personal cry of distress seems 
to break the connexion rather abruptly. Pos- 
sibly we should read, ' The Lord has had 
mercy . . he has considered my trouble.' The 
gates of death] the extremity of affliction. 

The gates of the daughter of Zion] ' The 
daughter of Zion ' is a figure for Jerusalem : 
see Isal s Lam2 2 ^ Ps45 12 137 8 . The gates of 
an Eastern city were its most public and busy 
spots. The throng of life is thus contrasted 
with the solitude and dreariness of ' the gates 
of death ' in v. 13. 

16. RV ' The Lord hath made himself known, 
he hath executed judgment.' Higgaion] a 
musical term applied only here. It occurs in 
the text of 92 3 , and probably means something 
like our forte. Selah] see on 3 4 . 'Higgaion. 
Selah ' together may mean fortissi mo. 17. Be 
turned into hell] RV 'return to Sheol,' the 
place of the dead, not regarded specially as a 
place of torment. ' Return ' seems strictly to 
applv to the body, which goes back to the dust 
whence it was taken : cp. Gn3^ Ps90 3 10429. 

18. Needy] Another of the group of words 
referred to in the note on v. 12. Poor] The 
same word as in v. 12. 19. Man] The word 
means ' frail man,' as in 8 4 . 

PSALM 10 

This Ps. has no title. Its relationship to 
Ps9 has been discussed in intro. to that Ps. 
It reflects a time of great social disorder, in 
which wickedness and violence are rampant, 
and the righteous are sorely oppressed. It 
falls roughly into two parts. The wrongs 
which call for redress are described (vv. 1-11) 
and God's interposition is invoked (vv. 12-18). 

1. God seems to be ignorant of what is 
taking place, or indifferent to it. The Psalmist, 
however, does not really believe this, or he 
would not appeal to God at all. 2 h . RM 
k They (the poor) are taken in the devices that 
they (the wicked) have imagined.' 3. And 
blesseth the covetous, etc.] RV ' And the 
covetous renounce th, yea, contemneth the 
Lord.' 4. Will not seek, etc.] RV ' saith. He 
(God) will not require it 1 : see v. 13. God is 
not, etc.] RV ' all his thoughts are, There is 
no God.' 5. Always grievous] RV ' firm at 



all times.' He seems to prosper in all his 
plans. Puffeth] in scorn and contempt. 

7. Fraud] RV ' oppression.' Vanity] RV 
' iniquity.' Part of this v. is quoted in Ro3 14 
as a description of human depravity in general. 

8. The brigand life here described has never 
been uncommon in Eastern lands, and the pic- 
ture given is by no means metaphorical : see 
Prov 110-18. Poor] RV ' helpless,' RM ' hap- 
less,' a word found only here and in vv. 10, 14. 

10. RM ' And being crushed he (the poor) 
boweth down, and the helpless fall by his 
strong ones ' (by the wicked man's followers). 

11. Cp. vv. 1, 4. The blindness of God, 
which the Psalmist knows is only apparent, is 
what the wicked man really believes in. 

14. Thou hast seen it] A direct contradic- 
tion of the wicked man's thought in v. 11. 

1 5. Break . . the arm] destroy the power. 

16. The faith of the Psalmist here asserts 
itself. The heathen] RV ' the nations.' The 
past extermination of the Canaanites, or some 
repulse of foreign invaders, is regarded as a 
pledge that God will remove the present 
troublers of society. 1 8. The man of the earth] 
RV ' the man which is of the earth.' The word 
is again ' frail man.' Foreign enemies and 
evil-doers at home must alike be made to feel 
their impotence against God. 

PSALM 11 

The Ps. is a song of confidence in God, and 
in the security of the righteous under His pro- 
tection, notwithstanding the timid counsels of 
less trustful friends, and the evil devices of 
the wicked, who are doomed to destruction. 

3. If the foundations be destroyed] if those 
in high places disregard the first principles of 
righteousness. This is an argument of un- 
belief and cowardice. It is suggested that 
wickedness may be so successful as to make 
resistance useless. 4. God is the great Reality 
whom such pleadings leave out of account. 

His holy temple] the heavenly sanctuary. 

Try] test, as precious metals are tested. 

5. Trieth] tries and approves. They stand 
the test. 

6. Snares] Another reading is ' burning 
coals,' which fits the context better. Fire and 
brimstone] as in the destruction of Sodom : 
Gnl9 24 . An horrible tempest] RV 'burning 
wind,' like the simoom of the desert. Their 
cup] a common Scripture figure for ' their 
destiny ' ; men's experiences in life being like 
a draught which they have to drink. 

7. RV ' The Lord is righteous : he loveth 
righteousness.' God's dealings with men reflect 
His own character. His countenance, etc.] 
RV ' the upright shall behold His face,' shall be 
admitted to His favour, as worthy subjects are 
admitted to the presence of a king : cp. 
Mt5*. 



333 



12. 2 



PSALMS 



15.4 



PSALM 12 

The same subject may be traced here as in 
Pss 9-11, viz. a time of persecution and op- 
pression coupled with a conviction that God 
lives and will yet deliver. 

Title as in Ps 6. 

2. Vanity] empty and false words. A 
double heart] a figure for treachery and deceit. 

4. Our lips are our own] We have a right 
to say what we please, to gain our end. 

5. Now will I arise] God's time for inter- 
position always arrives sooner or later. The 
Psalmist pictures the proper moment as having 
come. From him that puffeth, etc.] RY ' at 
whom they puff.' 6. The words of the LORD] 
His promises of help to the righteous. They 
are reliable, in contrast to the deceitful words 
of the wicked in v. 2. A furnace of earth] 
RY l a furnace on the earth.' The meaning is 
perhaps, k silver tried in a furnace (and flowing 
out) on the earth.' 7. This v. is the conclusion 
of the thought of the Ps., though v. 8 repeats 
the opening complaint. 

PSALM 13 

The prominence which the Ps. gives to one 
enemy (v. 2) among the writer's numerous 
adversaries (v. 4), suggests the circumstances 
of David's persecution by Saul (IS 2 1-27). 
The Psalmist begins in agitation and despond- 
ency, and ends in tranquillity and faith. 

1. PBY l How long wilt thou forget me, 
Lord, for ever ? ' A single question instead of 
the double one of AV. 'Forget for ever' 
means ' continue to forget.' The seemingly 
self -contradictory form of the question reflects 
the conflict of the writer's feelings, ' Hope 
despairs and yet despair hopes' (Luther). 
Note the four repetitions of l how long' in 
vv. 1, 2. 2. Take counsel in my soul] be 
compelled to make vain plans for my own 
deliverance. 3. Lighten mine eyes] give me 
new life and hope. ' Dying eyes are glazed : 
a sick man's are heavy and dull. Returning 
health brightens them' : see 1S14 27 - 29 . 

PSALM 14 

This Ps., like Ps 12, gives a picture of a 
corrupt state of society in which God is ignored, 
and His people are oppressed. David's author- 
ship is not absolutely disproved by v. 7, which 
some have regarded as a later addition, and 
where, in any case, ' bring back the captivity ' 
may only mean n tsl ore the fortunes.' Though 
God is denied (v. 1), He really sees (v. 2). 
sj- :iks(v. 3), and acts (v. 4). The Ps. reappears 
with some variation! as Ps 53. Vv. 1—3 are 
qnoted m \l-> 3 10 - 12 . 

1. The fool is a character who in Scripture 
is marked by wickedness as well as by what 
we call folly. His defect is moral as well as 



mental. In his heart] His denial is a practical 
one, and he really acts upon it, whatever he 
may say or think that he believes. There is 
no God] cp. Psl2^iM3. 

2. The LORD looked down] cp. Gn65 11* 
18 21 , where similar figures describe God's 
perception of the wickedness of men in the 
primitive world. 

3. Gone aside] from the true path. 

4. God speaks in surprise at the folly of the 
wicked. Eat up my people as they eat bread] 
conduct at once rapacious and unconcerned. 

Call not upon the LORD] Such wickedness 
is naturally prayerless. 

The Septuagint (LXX), Vulgate, and Syria! 
versions insert between vv. 4 and 5 four verses 
w r hich are retained in the PBY q.v. They were 
probably inserted first as a marginal note in 
some codices, being quoted from Ro3 10 - 18 
as an illustration of this passage, and so 
ultimately found their way into the text of 
some MSS. 

5. There were they in great fear] a sudden 
mention of God's interference. Some historical 
event, like the destruction of Pharaoh's host, 
seems to be in the writer's mind. 6. EM ' Ye 
put to shame the counsel (i.e. the righteous 
thoughts) of the poor, but the Lord is his 
refuge.' ' The poor ' are the afflicted right- 
eous : see 9 12 . 

7. Out of Zion] Zion is regarded as God's 
dwelling-place, from which He sends forth 
His help : see 3 4 . Bringeth back the captivity] 
The phrase may have the general sense of 
1 restoring prosperity to,' and need not refer 
to the Babylonian exile : see Job42 10 . Jacob, 
like ' Israel,' is a name for the nation. 

PSALM 15 

In this Ps. we have a fine summary of the 
essentials of OT. piety. It sets forth the 
character and conduct required in the wor- 
shipper for acceptance with God. The occasion 
of its composition may have been the bringing 
of the ark to Jerusalem (2S6 17 ). Cp. with 
the whole Ps. Isa33 14 > 15 . This is another of 
the Pss. for Ascension Day. 

1. Abide] RY 'sojourn.' The worshipper 
is conceived as the guest of God. Tabernacle] 
lit. 'tent,' the kind of structure prepared by 
David for the ark. Thy holy hill] Mt. Zion. 
viewed as God's dwelling-place, and specially 
consecrated first by the presence of the ark, 
and afterwards by Solomon's Temple. 

2. In his heart] Emphasis is laid on inward 
sincerity as well as on outward integrity. 

3. Backbiteth] RY 'slandereth.' Taketh up 
a reproach] The phrase refers to receiving and 
repeating what is to another's discredit. 4. He 
that sweareth to his own hurt, and changeth 
not] A truly upright man will keep his word 
even to his own disadvantage. 



334 



15. 5 



PSALMS 



17. 13 



5. Usury] was forbidden by the Mosaic Law 
|bv25 36 > 37 Dt23^> 20 ) as inconsistent with the 
kindly spirit of brotherhood among Israelites. 
Interest was allowed to be taken from fo- 
reigners. The absence of greed and exaction 
is what the Psalmist commends. Nor taketh 
reward against the innocent] Bribery has always 
been one of the greatest corruptions of society 
in the East. It was sternly forbidden in Israel 
(Ex23 7 > 8 Dt27 25 ), and the worthy guest of 
Jehovah could not stoop to such a thing. Shall 
never be moved] an expressive way of summing 
up the strength and stability of a righteous 
life. 

PSALM 16 

The Ps. is the confident and joyous prayer 
of one whose highest satisfaction is in God 
and in good men (vv. 2, 3), who renounces all 
the ways of idolatry (v. 4), and who finds in 
God not only ample wealth and happiness for 
the present (vv. 5-7), but also a continuous 
prospect of the truest life (vv. 8-11). The Ps. 
is quoted in Ac2 25 13 35 as a prophecy of the 
Resurrection of Christ. While this is not its 
primary reference, and while the language 
does not necessarily involve all that is read 
into it in the NT., it is true that the thought 
of the Ps. suggests the hope of immortality, 
and that the Resurrection of Christ affords 
the most striking illustration of its meaning. 

Title. — Michtam of David] The meaning 
is uncertain. ' Michtam ' may possibly be ' a 
golden Psalm,' or it may have some musical 
reference. 

2. RV ' I have said unto the Lord (Je- 
hovah), Thou art my Lord : I have no good 
beyond thee.' 3. RV ' As for the saints that 
are in the earth, They are the excellent in 
whom is all my delight.' 

4. That hasten, etc.] RV ' that exchange 
J the Lord for another god. 1 Drink offerings 

of blood] to be understood perhaps not liter- 
ally, but in the sense of cruel and impure sacri- 

j fices. Their names] the names of the idols 

I which are thus worshipped. 

5, 6. There are two figures here, one con- 
i tained in the words portion, lot, lines, heritage, 
I suggested by the division of the land of Canaan 
l among the tribes, and another contained in the 

word cup, which denotes the experiences of 

i the Psalmist's life. In Nul8 20 God is the 

only portion of the Levites, who received no 

I earthly territory. The writer here claims the 
same goodly heritage. 
7. My reins] or as we should say, ' my 
heart ' : see 7 9 . God's inward voice heard in 
hours of quietness, is one of the chief bless- 
ings of His people. 8. I have set the LORD, 
etc.] the constant, deliberate, and conscious 
exercise of faith. 9. My glory] my soul : see 
Ps7* 1081. Rest in hope] RV 'dwell in 



safety.' The primary reference is not to the 
dead body in the grave, but to the continuance 
of bodily life on earth. 

10. In hell] RV ' to Sheol.' The meaning 
is, ' Thou wilt not suffer me to die.' Thine 
Holy One] RV 'thine holy one'; RM 'thy 
godly (or beloved) one.' The allusion is 
primarily to the Psalmist himself, though the 
passage is used by St. Peter (Ac2 25 " 28 ) to prove 
that the resurrection of Christ was in accord- 
ance with prophecy. Corruption] RM ' the 
pit,' the grave, the state of the dead. 

11. The path of life] not specially of life 
after death, but of true life in the fellowship 
of God. In thy presence] the presence in 
which the Psalmist already lived (v. 8). 

At thy right hand] RV l in thy right hand.' 
For evermore] The contrast which the Ps. 
draws is not, perhaps, so much between life 
here and life hereafter, as between life with- 
out God and life with Him. In its very 
nature, however, the latter life is enduring, 
and hence the Psalmist's words contain an 
anticipation (though it may be a dim and 
only semi-conscious one) of the immortality 
which Christ has brought to light. 

PSALM 17 

The Psalmist makes his appeal to the justice 
of God (vv. 1, 2), and supports his prayer by 
an assertion of his conscious innocence (vv. 
3-5) and an account of the eager cruelty 
of his enemies (vv. 9-12). The concluding 
thought, that true satisfaction is found in God 
alone (vv. 14, 15), recalls the teaching of Ps 
16, with which this Ps. presents other points 
of likeness. 

1. Feigned] false, insincere. 2. My sen- 
tence] my judgment, in the favourable sense 
of ' vindication.' Let thine eyes, etc.] better, 
' thine eyes look upon equity,' a confident as- 
sertion of God's justice. 3. Proved] tested. 

In the night] when man is alone with God, 
and conscience shows things in their true char- 
acter. Shalt find, etc.] RM ' findest no evil 
purpose in me.' 4. Concerning] RV ' as for.' 

By the word of thy lips] the commandments 
of God. 5. RV ' My steps have held fast to 
thy paths, My feet have not slipped.' 

8. The apple of the eye] The pupil of the 
eye, a specially important and delicate organ, 
with peculiarly sensitive arrangements for its 
protection : see Dt 32 10 . Under the shadow 
of thy wings] as a mother-bird shelters her 
young. 10. They are inclosed in their own 
fat] better, ' they have shut up their heart,' a 
figure for arrogance. 11. Us] The Psalmist 
mentions his companions along with himself. 

Bowing down] RV ' to cast us down.' 

12. Like as a lion] RV ' He is like .a lion,' 
the chief enemy (perhaps Saul) being meant. 

13. Disappoint] RV ' confront.' From the 



335 



17. 14 



PSALMS 



19.2 



wicked, which is, etc.] RV ' from the wicked 
by thy sword.' 14. From men which are, etc.] 
RV ' from men by thy hand.' From men of 
the world, etc.] EM ' from men whose portion 
in life is of the world,' whose ideal is animal 
gratification, a numerous offspring, and wealth 
to leave behind them. Full of children] RY 
' satisfied with children.' 

15. The Psalmist's satisfaction, present and 
future, lies in the fellowship of God. When 
I awake] either ' after each night's rest,' or 
' after the night of trouble is past.' The 
thought of life after death may not have been 
clearly in the writer's mind, but his conviction 
and experience that true life is life in God 
involve the foundation of the Christian hope. 

With thy likeness] cp. Nul2« Psl39 18 . 
The Psalmist seeks continual fellowship with 
God. 

PSALM 18 

Of all the Pss. this is the one which can be 
ascribed with greatest confidence to David. It 
is found, with some variations, in 2S22, and 
the title is largely taken from 2S22 1 . It 
consists of a series of triumphant thanksgiv- 
ings to God, with which the writer connects a 
highly figurative account of his deliverance 
from danger (vv. 4-19), an assertion of his 
own uprightness (vv. 20-24), and a description 
of the victories he has won by God's assistance 
(vv. 29-48). 

1. I will love thee] RY ' I love thee.' This 
v. is omitted in 2 S. It was perhaps inserted 
when the Ps. was adapted for use by the 
congregation in the Temple. 

2. Notice the succession of figures drawn 
« from the experiences of a warrior's life in a 

country where natural strongholds as well as 
artificial fortresses were common. Strength] 
RY 'strong rock.' Buckler] RY 'shield.' 
So in v. 30. Horn] a symbol of irresistible 
strength. 4. Sorrows] RY ' cords.' So in 
v. 5. 5. Hell] RY ' Sheol,' the state of the 
dead. Prevented] RY ' came upon.' So in 
v. 18. Yv. 4, 5 mean that David felt himself 
in peril of death. 6. His temple] in heaven. 

7-16. In these vv. the manifestation of 
God's power to deliver is poetically described 
as the physical appearance of God Himself, 
accompanied by the most impressive natural 
phenomena, such as earthquake and thunder- 
storm. He is conceived as dwelling in the heart 
of the thunderstorm, surrounded by fires which 
break forth as Lightning through the cloud. 

10. A cherub] Cherubim are most familiar 
to readers of Scripture as symbolic figures 
appearing ill the furniture and decoration of 
the tabernacle and the Temple. They also 
appear in Ezekiel's vision of the mystic chariot 
as the bearers of God's throne (Ezk 1, 10). 
Here the cherub seems to be a personification 



of the storm cloud, as the parallel idea in the 
next clause shows. 

12. Read, "From the brightness before him 
there passed through his thick cloud hail- 
stones and coals of fire.' Coals of fire] light- 
ning. 13. His voice] the thunder. 14. His 
arrows] another figure for lightning. 15. The 
drying up of the Red Sea is woven into the 
imagery of the storm. 16. Many waters] the 
emblem of David's troubles. The whole 
sublime manifestation of God was on his 
behalf. 19. A large place] the opposite of 
' straits.' 

24-26. David finds in his own case an illus- 
tration of the truth that God deals with all 
men according to their works, opposing those 
who oppose Him, as well as showing His per- 
fections to those who are like Him. 

27. High looks] RY ' the haughty eyes.' 

28. My candle] RY ' my lamp,' the symbol 
of David's prosperity : see Job 18 6 . 29. This 
v. may refer to the pursuit of the Amalekites 
(1 S 30) and the capture of Jerusalem (2 S 5 c " 8 ). 

33. Hinds' feet] agile, swift, and sure. My 
high places] The figure of the hind, climbing 
precipitous hills, is continued. 34. A bow of 
steel, etc.] RY ' mine arms do bend a bow of 
brass ' (i.e. copper or bronze), a harder task 
than to bend a wooden bow. 

35. Gentleness] RM ' condescension.' For 
the thought cp. 113 6 Isa57 15 : see alsoPs23. 

36. Enlarged my steps] given me freedom 
to move without obstruction. 40. Given me 
the necks of mine enemies] RY 'made mine 
enemies turn their backs unto me.' 

43. Heathen] RY ' nations.' So in v. 49. 
David subdued all the countries around Pales- 
tine (2 S 8). Shall serve] This and the follow- 
ing future tenses to the end of v. 45 are better 
rendered as past. 45. Be afraid] RY ' come 
trembling.' 47. People] RY ' peoples.' 

PSALM 19 

This Ps. falls into two well-marked divisions. 
Yv. 1-6 describe the glory of God (El) as seen 
in the heavenly bodies, especially the sun, and 
are thus parallel to Ps 8. Yv. 7-14 deal with 
the excellence of the revelation of God (Jeho- 
vah) in the Law — the subject which is ex- 
panded in Ps 119. It is possible that two 
independent Pss. are here combined, as in 
Ps 108, or that the second half was written as 
an addition to the first by another hand. The 
first part may quite well have been David's 
work. The second part may be divided into 
the praises of the Law (vv. 7-11), and the 
Psalmist's prayer for preservation from sin 
(vv. 12-14). This is one of the Pss. for 
Christmas Day. 

1. The firmament] the sky, conceived of as 
a solid canopy : see Gn 1 6 . 2. Days and nights 
in unbroken succession testify to God's glory. 



33G 



19.3 



PSALMS 



21. 12 



3. RV ' There is no speech nor language; 
Their voice cannot be heard.' Their witness 
is none the less impressive for its silence. 

4. The silent testimony of the heavens is 
world-wide. Their line] the measuring line, 
marking off the region to which the message 
of the skies comes. LXX has ' their sound,' 
and is followed by St. Paul, who quotes this 
v. in Rol0 ls . Tabernacle] or tent: see 
Isa40 22 . The sun, as the most glorious of the 
heavenly bodies, is personified as a hero. 5. As 
a bridegroom] The comparison suggests the 
vigour and beauty of youth as well as the 
splendour of wedding attire. A race] RV 
1 his course ' from E. to W., the two ' ends ' 
of heaven mentioned in v. 6. 6. There is 
nothing hid, etc.] another way of putting the 
universal scope of the sun's testimony. 

7-9. Here we have a sudden transition from 
nature to revelation. The word law (torah) 
means ' teaching' or 'instruction,' and describes 
not only the Law of Moses, but all the com- 
mandments of G-od. It is described as a 
testimony (see Ex 25 16 > 21 ) or witness to God's 
character and requirements (v. 7), as statutes 
(RY ' precepts '), a commandment (v. 8), judg- 
ments or moral decisions (v. 9). Each term is 
connected with some practical benefit which 
the Law confers on men. 

7. Converting] RV 'restoring.' 8. Enlight- 
ening the eyes] imparting refreshment and 
vigour to the soul : see on 13 3 . 9. The fear 
of the LORD] another expression for the 
t Law, which produces this fear in the heart. 
Clean] opposed to impurity of life. Enduring 
for ever] as the expression of G-od's eternal 
righteousness. 10. The honeycomb] rather, 
' the droppings of the honeycomb,' the purest 
: of the honey. 

12. Understand] RV ' discern.' Cleanse] 
RV k clear,' in the sense of ' acquit.' Un- 
conscious sins could be atoned for (Nul5 22-26 ), 
and for such sins forgiveness is asked here. 

13. Presumptuous sins] those deliberately 
committed, in contrast to those of ignorance 

,'and inadvertence. For such transgressions 
, the Law provided no atonement (Nu 1 5 30 > 31 ), 
and the Psalmist prays to be restrained from 
committing them. Innocent from the great 
transgression] RV ' clear from great trans- 
gression.' 14. Strength] RV 'rock.' 

PSALM 20 

This and the following Ps. form a closely 
connected pair. The one is a prayer for a 
king going out to battle, and the other is a 
■k thanksgiving for his triumphant return. Both 
' have the same title. There is nothing against 
the early date of the Pss., and David may be 
their subject, but it is hardly natural to regard 
1 him as their author. In Ps 20, vv. 1-5 are 
the prayer of the people, v. 6 is the confident 



utterance of an individual (perhaps a priest or 
the king himself), and in vv. 7-9 the people 
again take up the strain. 

1. The name] is equivalent to the God to 
whom it belongs. It expresses all that is 
known about Him. Defend thee] RV ' set 
thee up on high,' over all enemies. 2. The 
sanctuary] God's dwelling-place on Mt. Zion 
is here meant, as the next clause shows. But 
see v. 6. 3. Remember . . accept] The words 
refer to the sacrifices both of the past and of 
the present. Sacrifices were usual before 
going out to war : see 1S7 9 > 10 13 9 > 12 . 

4. According to thine own heart] RV ' thy 
heart's desire,' i.e. victory. Counsel] plan 
of campaign: see 2S17. 5. Thy salvation] 
the deliverance to be wrought by the king's 
success. Set up our banners] lift them up 
and wave them in triumph. 

6. Now] A single person here takes up the 
song after the sacrifice has been offered. Faith 
is assured that the offering has been accepted 
and the king's prayers heard. His anointed] 
the king : see 2 2 . From his holy heaven] 
God's real dwelling, of which Zion is but the 
type. 

7. Some] refers to heathen enemies, like 
the Egyptians (Ex 14 IsaSl 1 ). Remember] 
RV ' make mention of,' as a watchword. 

8. Brought down] RV ' bowed down.' 

9. Read with LXX ' Lord, save the 
king : and answer us when we call.' 

PSALM 21 

The title and authorship have been discussed 
under Ps 20, to which this forms a sequel. 
Its contents include a thanksgiving to God for 
His blessings to the king (vv. 1-7), an address 
to the king promising future victories over his 
enemies (vv. 8-12), and a closing ascription 
of praise to God (v. 13). The Ps. is used on 
Ascension Day. 

1, 2. The prayers for victory in Ps 20 
have been answered. 3. Preventest him] lit. 
' goest to meet him.' A crown] the victory 
confirming his rule, like a second coronation. 

4. In OT. times long life on earth was 
regarded as one of the greatest of blessings : 
see 1K3 11 . The language here is ideal, but 
it was not unusual to speak so of kings 
(IK 131 Ken 2 3). 5 . Thy salvation] the 
victory bestowed by God, which reflects divine 
attributes — ' glory,' ' honour and majesty ' — 
upon the king. 6. With thy countenance] RV 
' in thy presence.' 

9. Oven] RV ' furnace,' as fuel for a 
furnace. 10. The king will destroy young 
and old among his enemies — the terrible 
custom of ancient conquerors. II, 12. Read, 
' For though they intend . . though they 
imagine . . they shall not prevail, for thou shalt 
make them turn . . thou shalt make ready,' etc. 



22 



337 



>. 1 



PSALMS 



23. 3 



PSALM 22 

The Ps. has two sections, in the first of 
which (vv. 1-21) the writer earnestly seeks 
God's help in a time of extreme trouble, while 
in the second (vv. 22-31) he breaks into a 
song of thanksgiving and praise. The trouble 
is caused by strong and relentless enemies 
who scorn his trust in God, and persistently 
threaten his life. The thanksgiving is re- 
markable for its anticipation of the world- 
wide acknowledgment of God that is to follow 
the Psalmist's deliverance. The last-named 
fact has led some to the view that the Ps. 
describes a national rather than a personal 
experience, while the use made of it in the 
NT. has caused others to regard it as wholly 
prophetic of the sufferings of Christ. There 
seems to be a real personal element in the Ps., 
but at the same time the writer as a righteous 
sufferer has a representative character, and 
his words have a partial fulfilment in the 
experiences of the faithful remnant in 
Israel, and a complete fulfilment in those of 
Jesus Christ, which are the supreme type 
of righteous suffering leading to the establish- 
ment of a universal kingdom of God. The 
contents of the Ps. explain its use on Good 
Friday. 

Title.— (RV) ' Set to Aijeleth hash-Shahar ' 
(the hind of the morning) ; probably the name 
of some well-known song, to the melody of 
which the Ps. was intended to be sung. 

I. The opening words (in the Aramaic 
form) were quoted by our Lord on the Cross 
(Mt27 46 ). It has been supposed that He 
repeated the whole Ps., and that the remainder 
was drowned in the tumult and jeers of the 
mob. 2. And am not silent] RM ' but find 
no rest.' 3. The praises of Israel] which 
have deservedly surrounded God in the past, 
and which He will not cease to deserve by 
ceasing to deliver His people. The thought 
is expanded in vv. 4, 5. 

6. This v. describes the Psalmist's humilia- 
tion in terms similar to those used of the 
suffering Servant of the Lord in Isaiah (41 14 
497 5214 532,3). 7 . shoot out the lip., 
shake the head] gestures of contempt and 
hatred. 8. These very words were used by 
the priests in mockery of our Lord as He 
hung on the Cross (Mt27 43 ). 12. Bulls., 
strong- huJk of Bashan] suggesting the strength 
and aggressive rage of the Psalmist's enemies. 
Bashan was the N. part of the region E. of the 
Jordan, and was a rich pasture land. 15. The 
parching effects of B fever supply another 
metaphor for the Psalmist's trouble. 

16. Dogs] which haunt Eastern towns and 
villages in Bavage and cowardly packs — fit 
emblems of the Psalmist's fierce and yet con- 
bemptible foes. They pierced my hands and 



my feet] The reference is still to the dogs, 
who snap at the exposed parts of those whom 
they attack. The singular coincidence be- 
tween this v. and what was done at the Cruci- 
fixion is not noted in NT. They pierced] taken 
from LXX and Vulgate. Other versions read, 
' they bound.' Heb. has, ' like a lion' : see RM. 

17. I may tell all my bones] i.e. count them 
all. They are visible through his emaciated 
flesh. The words may be either a literal or a 
figurative description of the writer's miserable 
state. 18. The conduct of his enemies is that 
of robbers. The application of this v. in Jn 
19 24 is well known. 20. My darling] RM 
' my only one,' my precious life. From . . the 
dog] cp. v. 16. 21. Thou hast heard me] a 
sudden conviction of faith which gives a new 
tone to the rest of the Ps. Unicorns] RY 
' wild-oxen.' In this and the preceding v. the 
figures of vv. 12, 13, 16 (bulls, lions, dogs) 
are repeated. 22. These words are put into 
the mouth of Christ in Heb2 12 . 26. The 
meek] the afflicted righteous, like the ' poor ' 
and the ' humble. ' Eat and be satisfied] in the 
meal which accompanies their sacrifice (Lv 
7 16 ), or to which they may be invited by the 
Psalmist when he presents his thankoffering. 

Your heart shall live] RV ' let your heart 
live,' the writer's prayer for his sacrificial 
guests. 

27-30. These vv. extend the circle in which 
God is to be praised. It includes all the in- 
habitants and rulers of the earth, and all the 
generations to come. 

29. They that he fat, etc.] RV ' the fat ones 
of the earth,' the mightiest rulers. Eat and 
worship] join in the sacrificial feast. Or per- 
haps the words mean 'shall worship Him 
alone.' They that go down to the dust] all 
mortal men, perhaps specially referring to the 
kings of the earth with their transient glory. 

None can keep alive, etc.] Read with LXX 
(joining this clause with the beginning of v. 31 
' and as for him that could not keep his soul 
alive, his seed shall serve Him ' (Jehovah). 
The weakest and most distressed will leave 
a posterity to praise God. 30. It shall be 
accounted, etc.] RV ' It shall be told of the 
Lord unto the next generation.' 

PSALM 23 

This is a Ps. of simple and unclouded con- 
fidence in God, who is described first as a 
shepherd (vv. 1-4) and next as an host 
(vv. 5-6). The beautiful imagery of the first 
part would be natural on the lips of the king 
who was a shepherd in his youth. Tho 
reference to ' the house of the Lord ' in v. b 
may be a continuation of the figure of thei 
host, and need not indicate a date after the) 
building of the Temple. 

3. Leadeth] RV ' guideth.' An Eastern! 



338 



23. 4 



PSALMS 



26. 



shepherd goes before his flock. For his 
name's sake] in consistency with the character 
which He has already made known. 

4. Shadow of death] rather, ' deep dark- 
ness ' : see Jerl3 lt5 Am 5 s . The rod was a 
short oaken club for defence ; the staff a longer 
pole for use in climbing, or for leaning upon. 
An Eastern shepherd still carries both. 

5. In the presence of mine enemies] as when 
David enjoyed the hospitality of Barzillai 
(2S17 27 - 29 ). Anointest] RY ' hast anointed,' 
as a host anoints an honoured guest : see Lk 
7 46 . Runneth over] God's hospitality is 
lavish and generous. 6. Goodness and mercy, 
like two angels, ' pursue ' the Psalmist, deter- 
mined, as it were, to run him down. For ever] 
lit. ' for length of days,' referring to prolonged 
earthly life rather than to life beyond the grave. 

PSALM 24 

This Ps. is generally, and very appropriately, 
connected with the occasion when David brought 
up the ark from the house of Obed-edom to 
the tent prepared for it on Mt. Zion. It de- 
clares the universal sovereignty of God the 
Creator (vv. 1, 2), and describes the character 
of those who may approach His earthly 
dwelling (vv. 3-6). Then there follows a 
twice -repeated scene, in which the gates of 
Jerusalem are summoned to open, that God, as 
'represented by the ark, may enter ; while the 
warders ask who the approaching conqueror is, 
and the people reply that He is the Lord of 
hosts (vv. 7-10). 

1. The fulness] all that fills it, all that is in 
-it. 2. This v. expresses the ancient idea of 
the structure of the universe, with ' waters 
under the earth' (Gn7UEx20 4 ). 4. Cp. Ps 
15. 5. Righteousness] is a gift of God and 
a part of the salvation He bestows. 

6. O Jacob] RY ' God of Jacob.' Selah] 
isee on 3 4 . 

7. Lift up your heads] as if to make the 
entrance more roomy. Everlasting - ] EM ' an- 
cient,' with an illimitable history behind them. 

10. The LORD of hosts] one of the great 
,OT. titles of God. The ' hosts ' may include 
the armies of Israel, as well as the stars and 
angels who form ' the host of heaven.' Selah] 
see on 3 4 . 

PSALM 25 

This is the second of the ' acrostic ' or 
1 alphabetic ' Pss. (cp. 9,10). As it now stands 
there are a few irregularities in the arrange- 
ment, some of which appear again in Ps 34. 
/(The closing v. suggests the circumstances of 
the exile, but it is probably an addition, as the 
last letter of the alphabet is reached in v. 21. 
The rest of the Ps. contains nothing to in- 
dicate its date or authorship, and its value is 
independent of any view that may be taken as 



to these. Some have supposed that the writer 
speaks in the name of the nation, but much of 
the Ps. has a distinctly personal character. It 
falls into three parts — a humble prayer for 
defence, instruction, and forgiveness (vv. 1-7); 
a meditation on the character and ways of God 
(vv. 8-14) ; and a further prayer for deliver- 
ance from trouble (vv. 15-21). 

1. Aspiration reveals and determines char- 
acter. The man who lifts up his soul to God 
stands contrasted with him who lifts up his 
soul to vanity (24 4 ). 2. I trust in thee] 
RV k in thee have I trusted.' 5. Lead (RY 
' guide ') me in thy truth] i.e. ' in thy faithful- 
ness.' 

6, 7- Note the threefold use of remember. 
God's remembrance is sought, not for the 
Psalmist's sins, but for His own changeless 
character of grace, and, in accordance with 
that character, for the Psalmist himself. It 
has been suggested that the writer, living late 
in Israel's history, colours his personal prayer 
with the thought of the nation's early sins and 
of God's past deliverances. 7. Mercy] RY 
' lovingkindness,' as in v. 6. So in v. 10. 

8. Sinners] a truly evangelic thought. God's 
grace is not for those who have deserved it 
alone, but for all who seek it in penitence. 

9. In judgment] in the principles of practical 
righteousness. 

10. Covenant . . testimonies] God's law is 
viewed in the one case as the basis of His 
gracious contract with Israel, and in the other 
as a witness to His own character. 1 1 . For thy 
name's sake . . pardon] Forgiveness is asked 
because it is God's nature to forgive. For it 
is great] The plea appears strange, but it is 
the utterance of deep penitence, combined 
with strong faith in the forgiving grace which 
is characteristic of God. 12. Teach in the 
way that he shall choose] God's instruction 
moulds the will, and directs it to right deci- 
sions and resolves. 13. Earth] RY 'land.' The 
promise of temporal blessing to the good man 
and his posterity is in harmony with the 
general thought of the OT. 14. Secret] RM 
' counsel ' or ' friendship ' ; confidential fellow- 
ship. The earthly blessing is crowned with a 
spiritual one. 15. The net] the entanglements 
and perplexities of trouble and sin. 

2 1 . There is a seeming inconsistency between 
the plea of integrity and uprightness and the 
confessions of sin in vv. 7, 11. But what the 
Psalmist claims is not perfection, but a sincere 
love of goodness, and the humble dependence 
on God expressed in the words I wait on 
thee. 

PSALM 26 

This Ps. appears to belong to a later age than 
David's, when the Temple (v. 8), with its altar 
(v. 6), and its public assemblies for worship 



339 



26. 1 



PSALMS 



29. 



(v. 12), was a familiar institution. The writer, 
conscious of his own uprightness, protests 
against the idea of being classed with the 
wicked, and sharing their untimely fate. He 
appeals at the outset to God's judgment, and 
at the close preaches the assurance that it will 
not fail him. 

i. Therefore I shall not slide] RV ' without 
wavering.' 2. Reins] see on 7 9 . 3. The 
Psalmist's conscious integrity is not self- 
righteousness. His knowledge of God's charac- 
ter has made him what he is. 

6. Wash mine hands] a figure perhaps taken 
from the practice of the priests (Ex30 17 - 21 ), or 
of the city elders (Dt216,7) : cp. Mt27 4 . 

Compass thine altar] as the worshippers in 
the Temple gathered to witness the sacrifices. 

7. Publish, etc.] RV 'make the voice of 
thanksgiving to be heard.' 8. Honour] RV 
' glory,' God's manifested Presence, associated 
with the ark and the mercy seat. 

9. Gather not my soul] ' Do not cut it off.' 
Let me not share their fate. The persons 
described in vv. 9, 10 are evidently men in 
places of power, who use violence and have 
wealth to protect themselves by corrupting 
justice. 11. Redeem me] Save me from being 
destroyed with the wicked. 12. An even 
place] a symbol of comfort and safety. 

PSALM 27 

This Ps. falls naturally into two parts, vv. 1-6 
and vv. 7-14, which are in such marked contrast 
as to make it probable that here, as in Ps 19, two 
independent poems have been combined. The 
one breathes a spirit of fearless and triumphant 
confidence in the face of hostile armies, while 
the other, though trustful, is the prayer of 
one in deep distress, orphaned and beset by 
false accusers. The warlike tone of vv. 1-6 
is in favour of ascribing them to David, and 
vv. 5-6 do not necessarily imply a reference to 
the Temple, which would be inconsistent with 
this view. 

1. Strength] in the sense of ' stronghold ' : 
see 18' 2 . 2. To eat up my flesh] like wild 
beasts of prey. They stumbled and fell] 
Past victories inspire present confidence : cp. 
David's words to Saul (1 S 17 34 " 3ti ). 3. In 
this] RV k even then.' 

4. Dwell in the house of the LORD] as 
the guest of Jehovah : sec 23 6 . The figure 
suggests constanl fellowship with God. 

Beauty] RM 'pleasantness,' bhe gracious 
aspeci of the divine Host. To enquire in his 
temple (or palace)] !<> find <>ul ;ill that such 
intercourse with I ;<"! can teach. 

5. The abode of Jehovah, like the ten1 of 
;i desert chieftain, affords protection as well as 
hospitality. The figure <»r vv. I. ."1 may have 
been based on the visible dwelling-place of 
Jehovah at Jerusalem, and it' w the words 



used need imply nothing more than the tem- 
porary structure erected by David. 

8. The original is condensed, but the words 
in italics express the thought. This v. gives 
the essence of all divine revelation and of all 
human response to it. Seek ye my face] as a 
visitor seeks access to the presence of an 
Oriental king. The figure is continued in v. 9. 

1 o. R V l For my father and my mother have 
forsaken me, but,' etc. 11. A plain path] not 
a path clearly marked, but one that is level 
and safe. 13. I had fainted\ is a phrase sup- 
plied to complete the sense of the abbreviated 
original. The land of the living-] as opposed 
to Sheol, the state of the dead — an illustration 
of the value of the present life for OT. faith. 

PSALM 28 

This Ps. is in many respects similar to Ps26. 
especially in the writer's prayer that he may 
be distinguished from the wicked, and may 
escape their fate ; and in the confidence which 
he reaches in the closing verses. In this Ps.. 
however, the peril of death appears more 
acute (v. 1), and some have supposed that both 
Pss. were written in a time of pestilence. 

1. The pit] the grave, or Sheol, the state 
of the dead. Unless his prayer is heard he 
looks for nothing less than death. 2. Thy holy 
oracle] RM ' the innermost place of thy 
sanctuary,' the Holy of Holies, where God's 
Presence specially dwells. Here, as in Ps26. 
the existence of the Temple seems to be in- 
dicated. 3. Draw me not away] to punish- 
ment and destruction : cp. 26 9 . 4. Deeds] 
RV ' work.' Endeavours] RY l doings.' 

Work] RV k operation.' These changes bring 
out the intended contrast between this v. and 
the next. 5. Destroy] RV ' break down,' in 
direct opposition to build up. 

8. Their strength] RM ' a strength unto his 
people.' The saving strength] RV k a strong 
hold of salvation.' His anointed] the king. 

9. Feed them] as a shepherd. Lift them 
up] RV ' bear them up,' a beautiful con- 
tinuation of the same figure : see Isa40 n . 

PSALM 29 

This is a Nature-Psalm, calling on the angels 
to praise God (vv. 1, 2), describing the niani 
festation of His power in the thunderstorm 
(w. :')- ( .») and the flood (v. 10), and ending 
with an assurance of His favour to His 
people. 

1. Give] in the sense of ' ascribe.' Mighty ] 
RV ' sons of the mighty.' The angels are 
meant. 2. The beauty of holiness] RM ' hoI\ 
array,' like the robes of the priests in an 
earthly sanctuary. 

3. The voice of the LORD] the thunder. The 
phrase occurs seven times in the Ps. The 
waters] not of the sea. !>nt of the storm-cloud : 



340 



29.5 



PSALMS 



81. 16 



see 18 n . 5. The cedars] the strongest trees, 
vet riven in the thunderstorm. 

6. Them] the mountains which the thunder 
shakes, besides breaking the trees that grow 
on them. Sirion] Hermon. Lebanon and Her- 
mon are the highest mountains in Palestine. 

Unicorn] EV ' wild-ox.' 7. Divideth (RV 
'cleaveth,' EM 'heweth') the flames of fire] 
The reference is to the sharp, pointed lightning 
flashes which accompany the thunder. 

8. The wilderness of Kadesh] in the extreme 
S. of Palestine, as Lebanon and Hermon are 
in the extreme 1ST. 9. Maketh the hinds to 
calve] an actual effect of terrifying thunder- 
storms ; or perhaps the meaning is, ' whirleth 
the oaks.' Discovereth] RV ' strippeth bare,' 
by the wind, or the strokes of lightning. His 
temple] or palace, is not the great temple of 
Nature, but heaven itself, where the angels 
minister (vv. 1, 2). Doth every one speak, etc.] 
RV ' everything saith, Glory,' but better, 
'every one,' i.e. of the angels. From the 
heavens they look down with wonder and 
delight upon the storm, in which they see the 
manifestation of the divine glory. 

10. Sitteth upon the flood] RV ' sat as Icing 
at the Flood,' the great traditional convulsion 
of nature(Gn 7,8), which revealed G-od's mercy 
as well as His power and wrath. The attributes 
then disclosed remain unchanged, and this is 
the ground of the assurance expressed in v. 11, 
which is a beautiful conclusion to a Ps. of 
sublime grandeur. 11. Give strength] The 
power of this mighty God is given to His 
people as they need it : see Isa40 29-31 . 

PSALM 30 

Title.— (RV) ' A Psalm ; a Song at the 
Dedication of the House ; a Psalm of 
David.' 

There is no obvious connexion between the 
contents of this Ps. and its title. It is a 
thanksgiving for recovery from an illness 
which had threatened to be fatal, and in itself 
may very well have been written by David. 
But it is difficult to find in his life an occasion 
corresponding to the title, though the dedica- 
tion of David's own palace, or of the site of 
the Temple, has been suggested. It is more 
likely that the words, ' A Song at the Dedica- 
tion of the House,' were inserted into the 
title at a later time, when the Ps. was 
adopted for use at the dedication of Solomon's 
Temple, or of the second Temple, or at the 
re -dedication of the latter after it had been 
polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes (the origin 
of the Feast of Dedication mentioned in 
Jn 10 22 . See Intro, to Daniel). The Ps. 
opens with praise for the writer's restoration 
(vv. 1-5), tells next of his troubles and his 
prayer (vv. 6-10), and concludes with another 
thanksgiving (vv. 11, 12). 



1. Lifted . . up] RV ' raised up,' from sick- 
ness. 3. The grave] RV ' Sheol,' which, like the 
pit, means the state of the dead. 4. At the 
remembrance of his holiness] RV ' to his holy 
name.' For ' remembrance ' or ' memorial ' in 
the sense of ' name ' see 9 6 . 5. In his favour 
is life] better, ' his favour is for a lifetime,' in 
contrast to ' his anger . . a moment.' 

Endure for a night] RV ' tarry for the 
night ' as a passing stranger. 7. Hast made] 
RV ' hadst made,' referring to the time of 
health and prosperity. My mountain] would 
be a figure for stability, but the reading is 
doubtful. Possibly it should be, ' hadst made 
me to stand upon strong mountains.' Thou didst 
hide thy face] a sudden change of experience, 
by which the Psalmist was shaken out of his 
self-confidence, and taught his entire depend- 
ence on God. 9. This v. shows how little 
the future life counted for in ordinary OT. 
thought. The pit] see v. 3. The dust] is the 
dead body. 1 1. Sackcloth] the garb of sadness. 

12. My glory] my soul. 

PSALM 31 

The writer of this Ps. gratefully records 
God's past deliverances (vv. 1-8), appeals to 
God for help against the enemies who assail 
him in the present (vv. 9-18), and ends with 
fervent thankfulness and serene assurance (vv. 
19-24). The language suggests a later age 
than David's, and has many parallels with the 
book of Jeremiah, the most evident being in 
the words 'terror on every side' (v. 13, Jer 
20 10 ). These parallels are mostly in the 
central section (vv. 9-18), and possibly this is 
an insertion in the middle of an earlier Davidic 
Ps. In the closing vv. there are several 
resemblances to Ps 27. 

3. For thy name's sake] see 23 2 > 3 . 

4. Strength] RV ' stronghold.' 5. The first 
clause of this v. formed one of the Sayings of 
our Lord on the Cross (Lk23 46 ). The Psalm- 
ist's attitude in life was Christ's attitude in 
death. God of truth] i.e. of faithfulness, of 
changeless consistency of character. God is 
always true to Himself. 6. Have hated] RV 
' hate.' Lying vanities] idols : see Jer8 19 10 8 . 

7. Considered (RV ' seen ') . . known] with 
sympathy, followed by succour. 8. Large room] 
RV l large place,' the opposite of 'straits.' 

9. Belly] RV ' body.' 10. Iniquity] As it 
stands this clause traces the Psalmist's suffer- 
ings to his sin. But the LXX and some other 
versions read ' affliction,' which agrees better 
with the context. 11. Cp. Jer 20 7 > 8 . 12. A 
broken vessel] a thing altogether neglected. 

13. This whole verse is closely parallel to 
Jer20 10 . Fear ivas on every side] cp. Jer6 25 
203mg.io 465 4929 Lam2 22 . 15. My times] all 
the occasions of my life. 16. Make thy face 
to shine] Smile upon me in Thy favour : see 



341 



31. 17 



PSALMS 



33.9 



Nu6 25 . 17. This repetition of the prayer of 
v. 1 may suggest that after all the Ps. is a unity : 
cp. 252,3 j er 17 is. The grave] RV ' Sheol.' 

19. Wrought . . before the sons of men] i.e. 
openly. 20. The same thought as in 27 5 . 
Even a desert tent may be a protection if its 
owner is powerful. Secret] RV ' covert.' 

Pride] RV 'plottings.' 21. A strong city] 
RM l a fenced city.' A change of figure from 
the tent of v. 20. If literally understood the 
words might refer to Jeremiah's experiences 
during the siege of Jerusalem. 22. Haste] 
RM ' alarm.' Fear is rebuked by God's 
answer to prayer. 

PSALM 32 

The subject of the Ps. is the happiness that 
follows the confession of sin and the experi- 
ence of forgiveness. This is generally set 
forth at the beginning (vv. 1, 2). Then the 
Psalmist relates his own spiritual history of 
misery before confession (vv. 3, 4), and of 
relief after it (v. 5). He next commends the 
practice of prayer (v. 6), and expresses his own 
confidence in God (v. 7). In v. 8 God speaks 
in words of promise, and the closing vv. are 
devoted to counsel and exhortation (vv. 9-11). 
The period in David's life which best fits the 
references in the Ps. is the time of his im- 
penitence after the murder of Uriah, followed 
by the rebuke of Nathan, and the king's ac- 
knowledgment of his sin (2 S 1 1 26-1 2 23). The 
Ps. is one of those for Ash Wednesday. 

Title.— A Psalm of David, Maschil] The 
word Maschil has been generally explained as 
' a didactic Psalm,' a Psalm of instruction. 
But few of the Pss. so designated have this 
special character, and the more probable mean- 
ing is ' a skilful Psalm ' (see 47 7 RM), one set 
to more elaborate music than usual. 

1, 2. Note the threefold description of 
wrongdoing as transgression, breaking beyond 
bounds ; sin, failure to reach the true aim of 
life ; and iniquity, moral deformity or per- 
versity — also the threefold nature of pardon 
as ' forgiveness,' literally here the lifting of 
the burden of guilt ; ' covering,' in the sense 
of hiding the sin from the eye of the judge, or 
protecting the sinner from punishment ; and 
• not imputing,' the cancelling of an obligation 
to pay the penalty. 

2, No guile] This may refer to the sincerity 
of repentance, oi\ more probably, to the 
changed character of t he forgiven heart. 

3, 4. These vv. may be taken as a descrip- 
tion either of actual sickness, which brought 
sin home lo the conscience, or of spirit mil 
Buffering represented in physical terms. 4. Is 
turned into | I! V ' was changed as with.' 

5. Have I not hid] lit. 'covered,' as in v. 1. 
It is only when man docs not cover his sin 
that God does cover it. Selah] see on 3 4 . 



6. Shall every one] RV ' let every one.' 
The Psalmist wishes others to take his expe- 
rience as an example. In a time when thou 
mayest be found] Another possible rendering 
is, l in the time of finding out sin ' (RM). In 
the floods, etc.] RY ' when the great waters ' 
(of trouble, and especially of God's wrath) 
1 overflow they shall not reach unto him.' 

7. Songs of deliverance] possibly songs sung 
by others. God's grace to one brings joy to 
many. Selah] see on 3 4 . 

8. Guide thee with mine eye] RY ' counsel 
thee with mine eye upon thee.' God does not 
leave those whom He counsels to walk in their 
own strength, but watches over their way. 

9. Lest they come near . . thee] RY ' Else 
they will not come near . . thee.' The horse and 
mule are thought of not as dangerous, but only 
as obstinate and stupid — incapable of being 
brought where they are wanted except by 
force. Men ought to draw near to God in 
unconstrained obedience. 

PSALM 33 

This is an anonymous Ps. of national de- 
liverance, called forth by some historical occa- 
sion which it is now impossible to fix with 
any certainty. From its central conception 
of God as the ruler of all the earth and all the 
nations, it appears to belong to the later pro- 
phetic age. The metrical structure is specially 
regular. The first three and the last three vv. 
form corresponding groups of 6 lines each, and 
vv. 4-19 consist of six groups of 4 lines each. 
The opening call to praise (vv. 1-3) is followed 
by a description of God's character (vv. 4, 5) ; 
of His rule over all the inhabitants of the 
earth, based on His creative power (vv. 6-9) ; 
of His rule over the nations, and of the special 
privilege of Israel as His people, whose de- 
fence is not in military power, but in 
Jehovah (vv. 10-19). The closing vv. (20-22) 
respond to the summons at the beginning of 
the Ps. 

1. Ye righteous . . the upright] the Israelites 
who are genuine servants of God. 2. The 
psaltery and an instrument of ten strings] RY 
k the psaltery of ten strings.' The harp and 
the psaltery were both stringed instruments, the 
latter being the larger. 3. A new song] to eel c 
brate a new deliverance. The phrase occurs 
in several Pss., and has a special connexion 
with the deliverance from the Babylonian 
exile : see Isa42 '". 

4. Truth] RV ' faithfulness.' 5. Righteous- 
ness] is the principle of God's character. 
judgment] its practical application to the 
government of the world. Goodness] RY 
• lovingkindness.' 7. The depth (RV 'deeps') 
in storehouses] The ancient idea of a reservoir 
of water beneath the earth: see Gn7 n . 

9. Read, ' He spake and it was : He com- 



342 



33. 10 



PSALMS 



36. 6 



manded and it stood, 1 referring to the repeated 
'it was so' of Gnl. 

io. The heathen] RY 'the nations.' The 
people] RY ' the peoples.' 12. Cp. Dt33 29 . 

15. RY ' he that fashioneth . . that con- 
sidered.' Their hearts alike] RY ' the hearts 
of them all.' 17. An horse] The Israelites 
had no cavalry, and the chariots and horsemen 
of their enemies appeared specially formidable 
to them: see Dtl7ie Ps20? 147 10 Prov213i 
Isa31!. 

PSALM 34 

The reliability of this title (A Psalm of 
David ; when he feigned madness (RM) before 
Abimelech, who drove him away, and he de- 
parted) is doubtful, both because the Philis- 
tine king in question is called Achish and not 
Abimelech in 1S21 13 , and because the con- 
tents of the Ps. are akin to the proverbial 
wisdom of a later age than David's. The Ps. is 
an alphabetic or acrostic one, with some of the 
same irregularities which are found in Ps25. 
Yv. 10-16 are quoted in lPet3!0-i2. 

1. At all times . . continually] the utterance 
of a faith which can maintain gratitude in 
adversity as well as in prosperity. 2. Humble] 
RY ' meek,' all patient and trustful souls. 

5. They] The Psalmist's individual experi- 
ence is also a general one. 6. This poor man] 
may refer to the Psalmist himself, but if so it 
is as a type of others. 7. The angel of the 
LORD] a Being frequently mentioned in the 
OT. : see Ex23 20 Isa63 9 . He is not merely 
an angelic messenger, but is in some sense 
identified with G-od Himself. He may be said 
to stand for God in His self -revealing char- 
acter, and in His activity among men. 

Encampeth] cp. 2K6 1 *. 

10. Young lions] proverbially strong and 
courageous, and able to provide for them- 
selves. 11. Come, ye children] an address in 
the tone of the book of Proverbs : see Prov4 1 . 

15. Are upon] RY ' are toward,' not only in 
watchfulness, but in favour. See the contrast 
in the next v. 16. The remembrance of them] 
their ' memorial ' or ' name ' : see on 9 6 30 4 . 

21. Evil shall slay the wicked] Sin is self- 
destructive, and works out its own punishment. 
Or perhaps the words mean simply, ' a calamity 
shall slay the wicked.' Desolate] RY ' con- 
demned.' So in v. 22. 

PSALM 35 

This is a prayer for the defeat and destruc- 
tion of malignant enemies, whom the Psalmist 
has formerly befriended, and who now treat 
him with ungrateful cruelty. The circum- 
stances are partly similar to those of David's 
persecution by Saul, but no prominent in- 
dividual is mentioned as hostile, and David's 
attitude to Saul was more forgiving than that 



of the Psalmist towards those of whom he 
complains. The Ps., like Ps31, has many 
resemblances to the book of Jeremiah, and 
some ascribe it to that prophet's time. For a 
discussion of the vindictive tone of such Pss. 
see Intro. There are three sections — a prayer 
for the confusion of the writer's enemies 
(vv. 1-10), an account of their wickedness 
(vv. 11-18), and a further appeal for the 
vindication of the right (vv. 19-28). 

1. Plead my cause] RY ' strive thou,' as in 
a court of law : see v. 23. 5, 6. The angel 
of the LORD] see on 34?. 

13. My prayer returned] better, ' shall return.' 
The blessing, withheld from the unworthy, 
will come back to the Psalmist himself : cp. 
LklO 6 . 15. Abjects] the most worthless out- 
casts : see Job 30 M. And I knew it not] RM 
'and those whom I knew not.' 16. With 
hypocritical mockers, etc.] RY ' like the pro- 
fane mockers in feasts ' — buffoons and para- 
sites, who get a place at table in return for 
entertaining the guests with scurrilous jokes. 

17. My darling] equivalent to 'my soul' : 
see on 22 20 . 18. In the great congregation] 
The Psalmist looks for a public vindication of 
his cause. 

19. Wink with the eye] here a sign of 
triumphant malice. That hate me without a 
cause] quoted by our Lord, and applied to 
Himself in Jn 15 25 . 20. Them that are quiet 
in the land] the same as the 'poor' or 'meek' 
— the humble and patient righteous. 

21. Opened their mouth] in contempt. Hath 
seen it] i.e. the fulfilment of their wicked 
desires. 23. My judgment] the vindication 
of my just cause. 

PSALM 36 

This Ps. consists of two strongly contrasted 
pictures, one of the wickedness of the wicked 
man (vv. 1-4), and one of the goodness of 
God (vv. 5-9), followed by a prayer that the 
Psalmist may continue to enjoy God's bless- 
ing (vv. 10, 11), and by a confident assurance 
of the final overthrow of the wicked (v. 12). 
The Ps. seems to reflect the social conditions 
of a later age than David's. 

1. The transgression of the wicked saith] 
Sin is personified as an oracle to whose voice 
the wicked man listens. Within my heart] A 
better reading is, ' within his heart.' There is 
no fear of God, etc.] quoted in Ro 3 18 . 2. Until, 
etc.] RY ' that his iniquity shall not be found 
out and be hated.' 3, 4. A description of the 
character and conduct of the man who is 
deceived by sin. 

5. There is an abrupt transition here to an 
infinitely nobler theme. 6. Great mountains] 
RY 'mountains of God.' In these vv. all 
that is infinite, sublime, and unfathomable in 
nature is made emblematic of the perfections 



343 



36.8 



PSALMS 



89.9 



of Jehovah. 8. God is host as well as pro- 
tector. The figure is perhaps taken from the 
sacrificial meals eaten by the worshippers in 
the Temple (Lv7 15 ). 9. A highly spiritual 
conception of the nature of man's fellowship 
with God, anticipating some of the loftiest 
teaching of the NT. 12. There] The over- 
throw of the wicked is already a visible fact 
for the Psalmist's faith. 

PSALM 37 

This is an acrostic Ps., in which the alpha- 
betic arrangement is carried without a break 
through 22 stanzas of varying length, to which 
the vv. of the English Bible do not correspond. 
The contents are closely akin to the maxims 
of the book of Proverbs, but they are touched 
with a fervour which elevates them into true 
poetry. The creed of the Psalmist is that 
sooner or later, even in this life, wickedness is 
punished, and righteousness vindicated. This 
is a theory which, of course, is too simple to 
cover all the facts of experience, but it is true 
as far as it goes, and its practical doctrine of 
' trust in God and do the right ' is sound at all 
times. 

3. So shalt thou dwell . . and . . be fed] RV 
' dwell in the land and follow after faithful- 
ness.' Do not go to other lands : an utterance 
of patriotism. 8. In any wise to do evil] RV 
' it ' (fretfulness) k tendeth only to evil doing.' 

9. The earth] RV ' the land ' of Canaan. 
So in vv. 11, 22. 10. It shall not be] RV 'he 
shall not be.' II. See Mto 5 . 13. His day] 
of retribution. 14. Conversation] conduct, 
manner of life. 

18. Knoweth the days] regards with favour 
and watchful care: cp. I 6 31 7 . For ever] 
from generation to generation. For OT. 
thought there was satisfaction in the blessings 
of one's posterity as well as in those of one's 
own life : see vv. 26, 27, 29. 20. Fat of lambs] 
RV ' excellency of the pastures,' the grass and 
flowers which wither away — a figure distinct 
from that of the burning which follows. 

23. Ordered] RV ' established.' 35. A green 
bay tree] RV ' a green tree in its native soil.' 

36. He passed by] RV ' one passed by.' 
Perhaps we should read, 'I passed by.' 

37. End] RM ' future ' or ' posterity.' 
39. Strength] RV ' strong hold.' 

PSALM 38 
I'll iv Pg, may be compared with Ps6. It is 
the prayer of one who, like Job, is iii greal 
bodily Buffering | \ v. 1 10), and is also deserted 

by his friendfl (v. 1 1 ). and heset l>\ treacherous 

enemies 1 \ \ . 12, 19,20). He is conscious that 

his trouble is due to his sin (vv. 1. IS), and 
appeals trustfully to God for pardon, healing, 

and deliverance. The description of personal 
suffering is too minute for a purely national 



Ps. It has been suggested that the author, if 
not David, may have been Jeremiah (see 
Jer20). This is another of the Pss. for Ash 
Wednesday. 

Title. — The phrase ' to bring to remem- 
brance ' probably indicates that the Ps. was 
used in connexion with the offering of the 
'memorial' of incense (Isa66 3m S"), or of the 
shewbread with incense (Lv24 7 ), or of the 
meat offering with incense (Lv2 2 ). 

1. This v. repeats 6 1 . 

2. Arrows] represent God's judgments as 
sent from afar, while His hand suggests closer 
dealing. 3. Rest] RV k health.' 4. Sin is 
compared first to a flood, and then to a burden. 

7. Loathsome disease] RV 'burning,' in- 
flammation. 14. No reproofs] no arguments 
in his own .defence. 15. His silence before 
men is explained by his hope in God. 20. While 
the Psalmist admits his own sin he is at the 
same time a sufferer for righteousness : see on 
25 21. 

PSALM 39 

This is a Ps. of great pathos and beauty. 
The writer's sore sickness, accepted as the 
punishment of sin (vv. 9-11), has impressed 
him with the frailty and vanity of human life. 
He refrains at first from all complaint lest his 
words should be sinful and harmful (vv. 1, 2). 
When he does speak it is to utter without 
bitterness his conviction of life's brevity and 
nothingness (vv. 3-6). He concludes with a 
humble prayer that though he is but a pilgrim 
on earth God may grant him pardon and re- 
covery before he passes from the world 
(vv. 7-13). 

Title.— (RV) k For the Chief Musician, for 
Jeduthun.' etc. Jeduthun was one of the 
directors of sacred music in David's time (1 Ch 
16 41 25 1 ). If the Ps. be of later origin the 
phrase in the title may mean ' after the manner 
of Jeduthun,' as in Pss(>2, 77. 

1. While the wicked is before me] The 
visible prosperity of the wicked afforded the 
temptation to complain. 2. Even from good] 
RM 'and had no comfort.' 3. Complete 
silence proved impossible. Pent-up feeling 
found a safe relief in prayer. 5. Vanity] or, 
1 a breath ' (Heb.). 6. In a vain shew] RM 
'as a shadow." like a phantom in a dream : the 
eager efforts of life arc contrasted with the 
emptiness of their results. 

7. What wait I for?] If life ends in vanity 
what is there to hope for? The answer is 
'God,' ami the meaning is not so much that 
God will he the soul's portion in the future 
life, as that Cod's presence here redeems life 
from its nothingness. 8. The foolish] those 
who have mocked at his troubles. 9. The 
characteristic tone of the whole Ps. is in these 
words. The writer accepts with reverent 



;;u 



39.11 



PSALMS 



41. 12 



resignation all the facts and experiences of 
life. 

ii. This is another v. summing up the 
philosophy of the Ps. Makest his beauty, 
etc.] RM k consumest like a moth his delights ' : 
see Isa50 7 Mt6 19 . 12. Stranger . . sojourner] 
The fact that life is transient becomes here a 
plea for favour. 13. Spare me] lit. ' look 
away from me,' ' avert thy frown.' Recover 
strength] lit. ' brighten up.' The day of life 
may be short, but the Psalmist seeks for 
sunshine while it lasts. 

PSALM 40 

ThisPs. falls into two well-marked divisions, 
which many think to have been originally 
separate Pss. In vv. 1-11 the writer recalls 
with thankfulness how God has heard his 
prayers and delivered him from trouble 
(vv. 1-4), declares the greatness of God's 
mercies (v. 5), presents himself as a living 
sacrifice (w. 6-8), and desires the continuance 
of God's blessing on account of his fearless 
witness for righteousness (vv. 9-11). In vv. 
12-17, on the other hand, the Psalmist is in 
distress, both from sin (v. 12) and from perse- 
cution (vv. 14, 15). He pleads for the speedy 
confusion of his enemies, and for the deliver- 
ance both of himself and of all who seek God 
(vv. 13-17). This part of the Ps. resembles 
Ps 35. Vv. 13-17 are reproduced with some 
variations as Ps 70. Vv. 6, 7 are applied to 
Christ in HeblO 5 " 9 . The Ps. is probably a 
national Psalm. In it the nation, or the church, 
rather than the individual, is speaking. The 
horrible pit will then be the pit of exile, and 
the new song will be that sung for deliverance 
from exile and restitution to the home-land. 
This is one of the Pss. for Good Friday. 

2. Pit . . clay] The combination of these 
figures for trouble is illustrated by the dun- 
geon, with mire at the bottom, into which 
Jeremiah was cast (Jer38 6 ). A rock] a place 
of firmness and security. 3. A new song - ] a 
song of praise for new mercies : see on 33 3 . 

6. Sacrifice and offering, etc.] a striking 
recognition that spiritual service, even in OT. 
times, is more than all forms of worship : see 
1S15 22 . Mine ears hast thou opened] to 
understand the true requirements of the Law. 
The boring of the ears in token of perpetual 
servitude (Ex21 6 Dtl5 7 ) is not here referred 
to. LXX has, ' a body hast thou prepared me,' 
and is followed in the quotation in HeblO 5 . 

7. BV ' Lo, I am come,' the Psalmist's 
personal consecration to God's service : see 
Isa6 9 . In the volume of the book it is written 



of me] rather. ' in the roll of the book it is 
prescribed to me.' The words are a paren- 
thesis, and the reference is probably to Deut- 
eronomy (see 2K22 8f -), with its spiritual and 
inward view of obedience. The writer to the 
Hebrews rightly recognises that Christ's 
obedience perfectly fulfilled this ideal of de- 
voted surrender to God's will. 

9. In the great congregation] among the 
people assembled at some festival. 10. Have 
not hid, etc.] In a good sense God's law is 
hidden in his heart (v. 8, cp. 119 n ), but 
here he means that he has not concealed his 
convictions from cowardice. 

PSALM 41 

The Psalmist has been brought low by sick- 
ness, and pronounces a blessing on those who 
consider such sufferers as himself (vv. 1-3). 
His own experience has been of an opposite 
kind. His enemies have triumphantly antici- 
pated his end, and their hypocritical sympathy 
has only been the guise of malice (vv. 5-8). 
One friend in particular has done his utmost 
to injure him (v. 9). He asks God to restore 
his health that he may requite all this unkind- 
ness, and finally expresses his confidence in 
God's favour and unchanging support (vv. 
10-12). In Jnl3!8 the words of v. 9 are 
appropriately applied to Judas. V. 13 is not 
a part of the Ps., but forms the concluding 
doxology to Book 1 of the Psalter. 

1. Poor] a different word from that so 
often used for the afflicted righteous. It 
means the ' weak ' or ' sick.' 2. Blessed upon 
the earth] rather, ' counted happy in the land.' 

6. The visitor who comes in pretended 
sympathy only seeks information to be mali- 
ciously used outside. 8. An evil disease] or, 
a result of wickedness ; lit. 'a thing of belial.' 

9. Which did eat . . my bread] The ties of 
hospitality, which in the East are regarded as 
specially sacred, had been violated as well as 
those of friendship. Lifted up his heel] a 
figure for unfeeling violence and brutality. 

10. That I may requite them] a touch of 
vindictiveness which Christians may not 
imitate : see Intro. 11. Recovery has begun. 
The enemy has been disappointed of his 
triumph. This is already taken as a proof of 
God's favour. 12. Integrity] The conscious- 
ness of an upright purpose is not inconsistent 
with the confession of sin in v. 4 : see on 
25 21 . Settest me before thy face for ever] 
the opposite of the fate predicted by his 
enemies in vv. 5, 8. To be in God's presence 
is to enjoy true and unending life. 



345 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



42. 6 



BOOK 2 (Psalms 42-72) 



The second and third Books of the Psalter 
(Pss 42-72 and 73-89) are but the two parts 
of a whole, the largest section of which 
(Pss 42-83) is called the Elohistic Psalter, 
because the name Elohim (God) is used almost 
exclusively instead of the name Jehovah 
(the Lord), which is predominant in the rest 
of the Psalms. It is evident from the contents 
of these two books that the Elohistic compiler 
gathered them from at least three earlier col- 
lections, for Pss 42-49 are Psalms of the 
Korahites (43 is part of 42), as are also 
Pss 84-89 (except 86) ; Pss 50 and 73-83 are 
Psalms of Asaph ; while Pss 51-72, 86, are 
Psalms of David. Ps 72 originally ended 
a collection of Psalms attributed to David ; 
and it is a plausible conjecture that Pss 42-50 
once stood after Ps 72, the Davidic Psalms 
being thus together and the subscription (72 20 ) 
appropriate. 

Taking Book 2 by itself, we may notice 
that in the Davidic collection Pss 66 and 67 
did not originally belong to it, while Ps 72 
is called ' a psalm of Solomon.' The great 
majority of these Pss. have the rendering in 
AV ' To the chief musician ' ; indicating (see 
Intro.) that they had been included in the 
collection of the Chief Musician as well as in 
that of the Elohistic collector, both of these 
editors working on previously existing collec- 
tions. Ps 53 is an Elohistic form of Ps 14, 
and Ps70 of Ps40 13 " 17 ; while Pss 57 7- 11 and 
605-12 are combined in Ps 108. Several of the 
Davidic Psalms in this book are referred by 
their titles to incidents in David's life ; these 
are of varying degrees of probability, and are 
discussed in their places. 

It is difficult to classify the Pss. according to 
their subjects or references, but a rough divi- 
sion may be attempted. Thus, (a) Pss 42, 
43, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 69, 70, 71 
are prayers for personal help and deliverance ; 

(b) Pss 44, 46, 47, 48, 62 are thanksgivings, and 
breathe the spirit of confidence and triumph ; 

(c) Ps 45 is a marriage ode ; ((f) Ps 41 1 is a 
didactic piece akin to the book of Proverbs ; 
(e) Pa 65 is a thanksgiving in time of harvest. 
References to the Temple as the centre of 
worship are found in Pss 42, 43, 48, 50, 65. 
The following are quoted in the NT. : 44, 45, 
48, 50, 55, 62, 67, 68, and 69. The writers 
of the Pss. in this Book evince the same perfect 
trust in (io<l ami confidence in His power 
to relieve them from bheir troubles, as are 
exhibited in the firsl Book. 

Several of the I'ss . BUCh B8 the 51st, have 

an nnmistakable persona] tone ; and there are 
not wanting indications of a highly spiritual 
view of religious worship ami ritual. The 



desire of the true Israelite is not only for the 
Temple (42 4 ), but k for God, for the living 
God.' Burnt offerings are of small account 
in the sight of Him to whom belongs k the 
world and the fulness thereof ' (50 T " 14 ). ' The 
sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ' (51 17 ). 

In this Book the 45th and 72nd Pss. are 
usually classed as Messianic. They both 
describe the character of the ideal king, 
ruling in righteousness, watching over the 
poor and punishing the oppressor, having 
dominion over subject nations ' from sea to 
sea,' and being blessed by all nations, because 
they have been blessed by him. Probably 
they were written in connexion with definite 
historical events — in the one case the marriage 
of a king, in the other a king's accession to 
the throne ; still they unite themselves with 
that Messianic hope which gradually took 
shape among the Jews, and came to fill a 
large place in their religious thought. 

PSALM 42 

This Ps. and the following one are closely 
connected, and it is practically certain that 
they were originally one. Ps 43 has no separ- 
ate title, and its closing refrain occurs twice 
in Ps 42 (vv. 5, 11). Both Pss. belong to a 
time when the Temple worship was in full 
activity, and the writer is a Levite who is de- 
tained in the N. of Palestine (v. 6), and beset 
by enemies, apparently heathen (42 9 43 1 > 2 ), 
who taunt him about his God (42 s . W). He 
longs to return and take his part in the Temple 
service, and is confident that God will yet 
fulfil his desire. 

Title.— Maschil] see on Ps 32. For (RV 
' of ') the sons of Koran] i.e. from a collection 
compiled by the Levitical guild bearing that 
name. 

2. Appear before God] in the Temple 
at Jerusalem. 4. Read, ' These things would 
I remember as I pour out my soul within 
me.' AV and RY suggest that the Psalmist's 
memories of better days add to his sorrow ; 
but the meaning is rather that they give him 
hope. For I had gone, etc.] RV ' how I went 
with the throng, and led them to the house of 
God.' Holyday] a sacred festival, the original 
meaning of k holiday.' 5. For the help of his 
countenance] We should probably read, ' who 
is the health of my countenance and my God,' 
as in v. 11, Ps43 6 . 

6. Land of Jordan . . Hermonites] RV ' land 
of Jordan and the Hermons,' the sources of 
the Jordan in the NE. of Palestine. The 
plural ' Hermons' refers to the separate peaks 
of the mountain. The hill Mizar] the 'little 
mountain." some lower hill in the same locality. 



346 



42. 



PSALMS 



45. 17 



7. At the noise of thy waterspouts] better, 
' in the roar of thy cataracts,' the cascades that 
rush down Hermon when the snow melts in 
spring. Thy waves and . . billows] a figure for 
trouble, probably in this case suggested by the 
appearance of the Jordan in flood. 8. And 
my prayer] RY ' even a prayer.' 10. As with 
a sword in my bones] better, ' as though they 
would crush my bones,' the whole framework 
of my being. 

PSALM 43 

1. An ungodly nation] RM ' an unmerciful 
nation,' a loveless, heathen people. 2. Cp. 
429. 3. Thy holy hill] the Temple on Mt. 
Zion. Thy tabernacles] or dwelling-place. 

4. O God my God] instead of ' Lord my 
God ' — showing that the Ps. is ' Elohistic.' 

PSALM 44 

This is a prayer for deliverance from national 
trouble which has not been deserved by any 
apostasy or idolatry. The strong assertions 
of national faithfulness are akin to the spirit 
of the Maccabean age, but the conditions indi- 
cated in the Ps. may be found also at an earlier 
date, such as the time of the invasion by Sen- 
nacherib in the reign of Hezekiah. God has 
helped His people in the days of old (vv. 1-3), 
and they are still confident in Him (vv. 4-8), 
yet He has allowed their enemies to bring them 
low (vv. 9-16). But they are still loyal to 
Him (vv. 17-22), and cry earnestly that He 
would remember them and save them (vv. 
23-26). 

Title.— See on Ps 42. 

2. Heathen] RY 'nations.' People] RY 
' peoples,' the inhabitants of Canaan. So in 
w. 11,14. 8. Selah] seeon3 4 . 11,12. Some 
are slain, and others sold into captivity. 

12. For nought, etc.] God does not gain by 
such transactions. His name and cause are 
rather discredited. 13, 14. See the speech of 
Rabshakeh (2 K 18 27 " 35 ). 19. Place of dragons] 
RY ' place of jackals,' a desert, to which con- 
dition the country had been reduced. ' Shadow 
of death] deep darkness and gloom. 23. Why 
sleepest thou ?] an expression of startling bold- 
ness, yet the prayer of v. 26 shows that its 
daring springs not from unbelief but from faith. 

PSALM 45 

The poem celebrates the marriage of a king. 
After the prelude (v. 1) come addresses to the 
royal bridegroom (vv. 2-9) and bride (vv. 
10-12), a description of the bridal procession 
(vv. 13-15), and a final address to the king 
(vv. 16, 17). The marriage of Solomon to the 
Egyptian princess, of Ahab to Jezebel, of 
Jehoram to Athaliah, as well as later alliances, 
have all been suggested as the occasion in 
view. But while the Ps. had no doubt a 



historic reference, yet the language used of 
the king is of such a transcendent character 
that it could only be strictly true of the 
Messiah, or ideal King, and we find it quoted 
with a Messianic meaning in Heb 1 8 > 9 . The 
Ps. is consequently used on Christmas Day. 

Title.— RY ' Set to Shoshannim.' Shoshan- 
nim (' lilies ') indicates the melody to which 
the Ps. is set, or possibly instruments shaped 
like lilies on which it was played ; and A Song 
of loves describes the nature of the poem. 

1. Is inditing, etc.] RY ' overfloweth with 
a goodly matter.' I speak, etc.] RM ' I speak : 
my work is for a king.' 3. With thy glory, 
etc.] RY ' Thy glory and thy majesty.' These 
are the weapons with which the king girds 
himself. 4. Because of] in the cause of. 5. In 
the heart, etc.] RY ' The peoples fall under 
thee ; they ' (the arrows) ' are in the heart of 
the king's enemies.' 

6. Thy throne, O God, is] RM ' Thy throne 
is the throne of God.' This gives a good sense, 
and meets the difficulty that the human king 
who is addressed in the first instance could 
hardly be called ' God.' There are textual 
reasons for believing, however, that the original 
reading was simply, ' Thy throne shall be for 
ever.' Right sceptre] RY ' sceptre of equity.' 

7. Oil of gladness] the oil, not of the 
coronation, but of a festive occasion. 

8. Myrrh . . aloes . . cassia] These perfumes 
are not the substances now so named. Ivory 
palaces] palatial chambers ornamented with 
inlaid ivory work. Ahab had such a palace 
(IK 22 39 : C p. Am 3 15). Whereby, etc.] RY 
' stringed instruments have made thee glad.' 
Their music greets the king as he enters. 

9. Did (RY ' doth ') stand the queen] the 
new consort, who takes the place of honour. 

Gold of Ophir] the finest gold. Ophir was 
either in Africa or in S. Asia. 11. Thy Lord] 
rather, ' thy lord ' : see 1 Pet 3 6 . Worship . . 
him] rather, ' do him homage.' 12. The 
daughter of Tyre] the city of Tyre, a personi- 
fication like ' daughter of Zion,' ' daughter of 
Babylon.' Tyre was the wealthiest of Israel's 
neighbours, and was in alliance with David 
and Solomon. It would naturally grace a 
royal Israelite marriage with a gift, even if 
the bride were not, like Jezebel, herself a 
Tyrian princess. The rich among the people] 
better, ' the richest among the peoples.' 

13. Is all glorious within] RY 'within the 
palace is all glorious ' : i.e. in the inner cham- 
ber from which she comes forth to meet the 
king. Of wrought gold] RY ' inwrought with 
gold.' 16. Instead of thy fathers, etc.] A dis- 
tinguished posterity is better than a long 
ancestry, which was lacking in Solomon's case. 

Mayest make] RY ' shalt make.' In all the 
earth] a world-wide dominion is promised for 
the king's children. 17. People] RY 'peoples.' 



347 



46. 1 



PSALMS 



49. 14 



PSALM 46 

Pss 46-48 form a group which we may 
assign with little doubt to the reign of 
Hezekiah, when Sennacherib's army was 
suddenly destroyed (2 K 1 9 35 ). They all strike 
the same note of gratitude, confidence, and 
praise, which is found in Isaiah's references to 
the same event (Isa 29-31, 33, 37). Ps 46 is 
divided into three strophes, and the refrain of 
vv. 7,11 probably stood also between v. 3 and 
v. 4. 

Title. — RV ' Set to Alamoth.' Alamoth is 
generally understood to mean ' soprano ' (see 
lChl5 20 ). 

i. Our refuge and strength] the original of 
Luther's famous Ehi feste Burg. 2, 3. The 
language is figurative of stress and trouble. 

4. A river] the river of God's presence and 
favour : see v. 5, Isa33 21 ; cp. Isa8 6 . Shall 
make glad] RV ' make glad.' 5. Right early] 
RM ' when the morning appeareth.' 

6. Heathen] RV ' nations.' So in v. 10. 

7. LORD of hosts] see on 24 10 . 8. Desola- 
tions] rather, ' astonishments ' or ' wonders.' 

10. Be still] Desist from your vain efforts : 
cp. 4 4 . 

PSALM 47 

This Ps., though akin to Pss 46, 48, is less 
definitely historical, and simply summons the 
earth to join in a chorus of praise to God as 
the victorious King, not only of Israel, but of 
all the nations of the world. 

1. People] RV ' peoples.' So in w. 3, 9. 
3. Shall subdue . . shall choose] RM ' sub- 

dueth . . chooseth . . ' 4. The excellency (or 
' pride ') of Jacob] the fair land of Israel. 

5. Gone up] to heaven, in triumph after the 
battle : see 68 n . 7. With understanding] 
RM ' in a skilful psalm (Maschil).' 8. Reign- 
eth . . sitteth] better, ' hath become king . . hath 
taken his seat.' 

9. Even the people] RV ' To be the people ' 
— the Gentiles actually becoming the people of 
the true God. Possibly the right reading 
is. together with the people' — the Gentiles 
joining with the Jews in homage to Jehovah. 

Shields of the earth] the princes : see 89 18 
Hos4i8(RM). 

PSALM 48 

This Ps. celebrates the safety and glory of 
Jerusalem, and the praise of her divine King. 

The deliverance He has wrought is vividly 

portrayed, and we can hardly fail to recognise 
that the overthrow of Sennacherib is in view. 
The Ps. is ii-cd on Whitsunday. 

2. For situation] RV ' in elevation.' On 
the sides of the north] An obscure clause. 
• The sides of the north ' may mean the Temple 
hill, as distinguished from the real of the city : 



or, as some think, there may be a comparison 
of Mt. Zion to the sacred mountain in the 
remote north on which Assyrian mythology 
placed the home of the gods : see Isal4 13 Ezk 
386 392 (RV). 

3. Is known] RV 'hath made himself 
known.' 4. Kings] The vassal kings of Sen- 
nacherib (Isa 10 s ). They gather and march in 
order till they see Jerusalem. Then they are 
amazed, and forced to turn back in confusion. 

7. Ships of Tarshish] a general phrase for 
large sea-going vessels. Tarshish was some- 
where in the western Mediterranean, perhaps 
in Spain. Sennacherib's army was like a 
wrecked navy. 8. As we have heard, so have 
we seen] History has repeated itself. 

10. RV ' As is thy name . . so is thy praise.' 
God's name is His revealed character, which 
now receives due recognition and response 
from the whole world. 14. Probably the last 
v. originally ran : ' For such is Jehovah our 
God : He it is that shall guide us for ever and 
ever.' 

PSALM 49 

There is little to fix the date of this Ps. 
The writer moralises, in the fashion of the 
book of Proverbs, on the vanity of wealth and 
honour apart from understanding. The rich 
man cannot deliver his friends or himself from 
death, and his prosperity need cause no dismay 
to those who are less fortunate in this world. 
The upright, among whom the Psalmist counts 
himself, will be received by God, and thus 
made superior to the power of death. Vv. 12. 
20 form, by their similarity, a kind of refrain. 

1. People] RV 'peoples,' explained by in- 
habitants of the world. 4. Parable . . dark 
saying] We might render, 'proverb . . riddle ' : 
see 78 2 Prov 1 G . 5. When the iniquity of my 
heels, etc.] RV ' When iniquity at my heels,' 
etc. RM gives a still better sense, connecting 
vv. 5, 6, ' When the iniquity of them that 
would supplant me eompasseth me about, even 
of them that trust,' etc. 7. See Ex 21 3 « (B V ) 

Redeem . . ransom] Life that is forfeit to 
man may be bought back with money, but not 
life that is claimed by God. 

8. This v. is a parenthesis, interrupting the 
connexion between vv. 7. 9. Is precious, and 
it ceaseth] RV 'is costly. and must be let alone.' 

ic. Leave their wealth to others] losing it 
for themselves. II. LXX and other versions 
imply a slight change of reading which gives 
a better sense : 'Graves are their houses for 
ever, the dwelling-places for all generations of 
those who called their lands after their own 
name.' 12. Being in honour abideth not] RV 
' abideth not in honour.' 

13. Their posterity] RV 'after them men.' 

Approve, etc.] persist in the same foolish view 

of life. 14. Like sheep, etc.] RV 'They are 



348 



49. 15 



PSALMS 



51. 16 



appointed as a flock for Sheol ; Death shall be 
their shepherd ' — a grim and forcible figure. 

In the morning - ] when God's day of reckon- 
ing dawns. Shall consume, etc.] RV ' shall 
be for Sheol to consume, that there be no 
habitation for it.' 

15. The grave] RV 'Sheol.' The hope ex- 
pressed is not necessarily that of a definite 
resurrection after death, but may be that of 
deliverance from the premature ending of life 
in this world. But the words he shall receive 
me show that what the Psalmist values most is 
life with God as opposed to life without God. 
and this thought is the germ of the Christian 
doctrine of immortality : see on 16 10 > n . 

18. Blessed his soul] congratulated himself 
on his wealth : cp. Lkl2 19 . 19. They shall 
never see light] shall abide for ever in the 
darkness of Sheol. 20. And understandeth not] 
Those who perish like the beasts are not the 
rich as such, but the rich who do not know God. 

PSALM 50 

The title (A Psalm of Asaph) is discussed in 
Intro, to Book 3, where the other Pss. of Asaph 
are found. The present Ps. is one of solemn 
warning to those who attempt to serve God by 
formal sacrifices while their lives are full of 
wickedness. God will come to judge His 
people (vv. 1-6). He tells the formalists that 
He does not need animal sacrifices (vv. 7-13), 
and asks for praise, obedience, and prayer 
(vv. 14, 15). He reproves the hypocrites for 
their sins (vv. 16-20) and ends with a call to 
repentance (v. 21) and a promise of salvation 
to true worshippers (v. 22). The teaching of 
the Ps. is that of the great prophets of the 8th 
and 7th centuries B.C., and it is probably to 
be assigned to that period. 

1. The mighty God, even the LORD] RV 
i God, even God, the Lord.' From the rising, 
etc.] from the E. to the W., not from morning 
to evening. 2. Zion, the perfection of beauty] 
see 48 2 Lam 2 is. Shined] RY ' shined forth,' 
from His earthly dwelling-place. 4. Heavens 
from above] RV ' heavens above.' 

5. Saints] the true Israel, whose worship is 
not hypocritical. A covenant . . by sacrifice] 
The covenant between Jehovah and Israel at 
Sinai was ratified in every act of sacrifice, as 
one to which the worshipper bound himself 
afresh. This shows that the Ps. recognises the 
true religious value of sacrifice, and only 
condemns the abuse of it. 

7. Against thee] RV ' unto thee.' 8. Will 
not reprove] because such offerings were not 
what God most regarded. Or thy burnt offer- 
ings, etc.] RV ' and thy burnt offerings are 
continually before me.' 13. Eat . . drink] The 
primitive idea of sacrifice was that the god 
partook of the offerings in a physical sense. 
This view is rejected here. 14. Thanksgiving] 



RV 'the sacrifice of thanksgiving.' 21. Kept 
silence] not in indifference, but in patience. 

23. Conversation] RM ' way,' manner of 
life. 

PSALM 51 

Title.— (RV) ' For the Chief Musician. A 
Psalm of David : when Nathan the prophet came 
unto him, after he had gone in to Bath-sheba.' 

It is impossible not to feel the general 
appropriateness of this Ps. to the occasion 
mentioned in the title, and there is no historic 
OT. figure except David to whom we can point 
as an illustration of the great sin and deep 
penitence which are the theme of the Ps. The 
theory that the speaker is the nation of Israel 
hardly accounts for the highly personal tone 
of the whole poem. At the same time, the 
affinity of the thought and language with the 
closing chapters of Isaiah (see especially on 
v. 11) favours the view that the writer lived 
during the exile, in which case he may well 
have chosen David's great transgression and 
its results as the subject of a ' dramatic lyric' 
On any supposition as to authorship and date 
vv. 18, 19 are to be regarded as a liturgical 
addition appended to the Ps. when it came to 
be used in the Temple services. Part of v. 4 
is quoted (from LXX) in Ro 3 4 . 

4. Against thee, thee only] David had sinned 
against Uriah and Bath-sheba as well as against 
God : but as all obligations to men have their 
foundation in God's law, so all sin against 
them is included and hidden in the one fact 
of offence against God. That thou mightest 
be justified . . be clear] that Thy justice and 
holiness might be clearly shown. 5. This v. 
does not reflect any stain on the Psalmist's 
birth, but traces his sin to the inborn evil of 
his nature. 

6. Truth in the inward parts] truth as 
opposed to self-deception or conscious hypo- 
crisy, in the inward parts as opposed to mere 
superficial goodness. Thou shalt make me to 
know] God is willing to give what He desires 
men to have. 7. Hyssop] employed in the 
OT. ceremonies of purification, a bunch of the 
herb being used to sprinkle blood (LV14 6 ' 7 ) 
or water (Nu 1 9 18 ) on the unclean. Snow] cp. 
Isa 1 18 . 8. Bones which thou hast broken] see 
on 42io. 

10. Create in me] RM ' create for me.' 

Renew] better, w make new.' What is sought 
is something that has never been in the 
Psalmist's life before. A right spirit] RM ; a 
stedfast spirit,' that will not yield to tempta- 
tion. 11. Thy holy spirit] The only other 
mention of this in the OT. is in Isa63 10 > n . 

12. With thy free spirit] RV 'with a free 
spirit,' a spirit of willing and unforced obedi- 
ence. 16. Desirest not] RV ' delightest not 
in.' Delightest not] RV ' hast no pleasure.' 



349 



51. 17 



PSALMS 



55.3 



17. Cp. 34 is. 

18. This and the next v. form a prayer for 
the restoration of Jerusalem, written either 
during the exile or in the troublous times 
before ^"ehemiah's mission. 19. Be pleased 
with] RV ' delight in.' Burnt offering and 
whole burnt offering] two expressions for the 
same sacrifice, the one emphasising its being 
burnt, the other the completeness with which 
it was consumed. The conception of the 
essence of religion here is evidently very 
different from that of vv. 16, 17, which almost 
look like a criticism of — some even maintain, 
a protest against — animal sacrifice. In any 
case they assert that the sacrifice of the broken 
heart is that which God loves best. 

PSALM 52 

Title.— (RV) 'For the Chief Musician. 
Maschil of David : when Doeg the Edomite 
came and told Saul, and said unto him, David 
is come to the house of Ahimelech.' 

In some respects Doeg (1 S 22 9 ) might stand 
for the original of the wicked man in this Ps., 
but the absence of all reference to the mas- 
sacre of the priests at Nob (1S22 17 " 19 ) throws 
grave doubt upon the correctness of the title. 
The Ps. appears to reflect the social evils de- 
nounced by the prophets of later times (see 
Am 5 11 8 6 Mic22 3 2 > 3 73), and to be directed 
against some prominent oppressor, whose 
character and fate are depicted in vv. 1-5, 
while vv. 6-9 describe the contrasted happiness 
of the righteous man. 

1. Goodness] RV 'mercy.' God] is here 
' El,' the Strong One, whose power is greater 
than that of the mightiest man. i The good- 
ness of God ' is the fact that makes the boast 
of the strongest evil-doer to be vain. 6. Fear . . 
laugh] These two emotions are not incon- 
sistent. The one is the solemn awe inspired 
by the suddenness of the tyrant's downfall, the 
other the gladness caused by the revelation of 
God's righteousness. 

7-9. These vv. are put into the mouth of 
the righteous, and are introduced in RV by 
'saying.' 7. Cp. Ps49. 8. But I arn\ RV 
1 But as for me, I am.' A green olive tree] in 
oontrafri with the wicked who is rooted up like 
a weed | v. 5) : q>. 92 •*■ ' *. 9. Before thy saints] 
RV 'in the presence of thy saints.' to be con- 
nected with I will wait. Possibly we should 
read, ' I will declare that thy name is good,' etc. 

PSALM 53 
This is a second version of Ps 14 with the 
important difference thai God (Elohim) is 
everywhere substituted for the LORD (Jehovah ). 

There are a few other variations and additions. 

especially in \ . 5 ( 11 '••"). The changes are 
interesting chiefly as an illustration of the 
process of editing which iras applied to many 



Pss. and many portions of the OT., and in 
particular of the consistent preferences, on the 
part of separate writers, for one divine name 
rather than another. 

Title. — Mahalath] variously interpreted : (1) 
as a corruption of Alamoth (see Ps 46), (2) as 
the first word of the song to the tune of which 
the Ps. was set, and (3) as an instrument such 
as the flute or cithern. For Maschil see on 
Ps32. 

5. God hath scattered the bones of him that 
encampeth against thee] This is the most im- 
portant addition in the Ps., and seems to point 
to some definite historical occasion for which 
Ps 14 was adapted by the editor. 

PSALM 54 

Title.— (RV) -For the Chief Musician; 
on stringed instruments. Maschil of David: 
when the Ziphites came and said to Saul, Doth 
not David hide himself with us ? ' 

Whatever be the value of the title there is 
nothing in the Ps. to make us reject it, unless 
it be the allusion in v. 3 to the Ziphites as 
' strangers.' For the historical incident see 
1 S23 19 26 1 . The Ps. consists of a prayer for 
deliverance from enemies (vv. 1-3), and an 
expression of confidence and praise (vv. 4-7). 
For Maschil see on Ps 32. The Ps. is used 
on Good Friday. 

1. Judge me] Do justice to me. By thy 
strength] RV l in thy might.' God's ' judg- 
ment ' is a practical vindication of His people's 
cause. 3. Strangers] In 86 14 this v. is re- 
peated, with the substitution of i the proud ' 
for ' strangers,' and possibly we should read 
' the proud ' here. The difference depends on 
the interchange of two very similar Heb. 
letters. k Strangers,' if not applicable to the 
Ziphites, may refer to the men of Keilah, who 
were perhaps Canaanites. Oppressors seek] 
RV ' violent men have sought.' 

4. The Lord] here 'Adonai,' not 'Jehovah.' 

5. Reward evil] RV k requite the evil ' that 
they have done. Thy truth] thy faithfulness, 
or righteous self-consistency. 6. Freely] RV 
' with a freewill offering ' (Nu 15 3 ); LXX ' with 
free will.' O LORD] the one occurrence of 
' Jehovah ' in this Elohistic Ps. 

PSALM 55 

The author of this Ps. can hardly be David, 
for he speaks as a citizen of a distracted city 
rather than as its king, and the friend of whom 
he complains is his equal and not his subject. 
There is really nothing to fix the date of the 
Ps.. though some of the experiences of Jere- 
miah may illustrate it. It falls into three 
portions, which have been described as marked 
}>v despair (vv. 1-8), indignation (vv. 9-15), 
and trnst (vv. 16-23). 

3. Cast iniquity upon me] attack me with 



350 



55.6 



PSALMS 



58. 4 



wicked devices, as they might roll down stones 
on an enemy. 6. A dove] the wild rock-dove, 
which can fly fast and far. 8. Hasten my 
escape] RV ' haste me to a shelter.' 

9. Divide their tongues] with a confusion 
like that of Babel. 13. Guide . . acquaintance] 
RV ' companion . . familiar friend.' 14. Unto 
. . company] RV k in the house of God with 
the throng.' 15. Quick into hell] RM ' alive 
into SheoL' For the light in which we are to 
regard such imprecations see Intro. 

18. From the battle that was against me] 
RM ' so that none came nigh me.' There 
were many with me] RV ' they were many 
that strove with me.' 19. Because, etc.] RV 
(with comma after old) ' The men who have 
no changes, and who fear not God.' By 
4 changes ' we may understand ups and downs 
of fortune, or pauses in their wickedness. A 
slightly different reading would give, ' who 
have no faithfulness.' 23. Bloody] RV 'blood- 
thirsty.' 

PSALM 56 

Title.— (RV) ' For the Chief Musician ; set 
to Jonath elem rehokim. A Psalm of David: 
Michtam: when the Philistines took him in 
Rath.' 

For Michtam see on Ps 16. Jonath elem 
rehokim (" the dove of the distant terebinths ') 
indicates the song to the melody of which 
the Ps. was to be sung. As in the case of 
Ps 34 the title hardly describes accurately 
the occasion which it mentions (1S21 10 ), and 
consequently too much weight must not be 
attached to it. The Psalmist, with many 
enemies around him, casts himself on God's 
mercy, and his confidence utters itself in a 
twice-repeated refrain (vv. 4, 10). 

1. Daily] RV ' all the day long.' So in v. 2. 

2. Against me, O thou most High] RV 
' proudly against me.' 4. In God I will praise 
his word] By God's help I will praise Him 
for the truth of His promises. 7. Shall they 
escape by iniquity ?] A slight change of reading 
would give, ' Requite them according to their 
iniquity.' People] RV 'peoples.' This prayer 
would become more intelligible if national 
rather than personal enemies were in view. 

8. Tellest] countest. Put thou my tears] 
or, 'my tears are put.' Thy bottle] or 'skin.' 
God treasures His servants' tears as if they 
were water or wine. St. Bernard says, ' the 
tears of penitents are the wine of angels.' 

Thy book] in which all things are recorded. 

12. Thy vows, etc.] The vows I have made 
to Thee bind me to Thy service. 13. Wilt not 
thou deliver ? etc.] RV ' hast thou not deli- 
vered,' etc. — an affirmation in the form of a 
question. The meaning is, ' Yea, and my feet 
from falling.' 



PSALM 57 

Title.— (RV) ' For the Chief Musician ; set to 
Al-tashheth. A Psalm of David : Michtam : 
when he fled from Saul, in the cave.' 

This and the two following Pss. were set to 
the melody of the song beginning Al-tashheth 
(' Destroy not '), which was apparently a vintage 
song (Isa 65 8 ). The occasion referred to in the 
title is either David's stay in the cave of Adul- 
lam(lS22 1 ), or the incident in the cave of 
Engedi (1S24 3 ), but the Ps., has no relation 
either to the one or to the other. It is a 
companion to Ps 56. The general situation 
is the same, but the refrain in this case (vv. 
5, 11) is even more triumphant. Vv. 4, 8 (see 
notes) mark the Ps. as an evening hymn. Vv. 
7-11 form PSIO8 1 - 5 . This is one of the Pss. 
for Easter. 

1. Trusteth] RV ' taketh refuge.' 3. From 
the reproach, etc.] RV ' when he that would 
swallow me up reproacheth,' i.e. reproacheth 
God, blasphemeth. His truth] his faithfulness. 

4. And I lie, etc.] better, ' I will take my 
rest even among fiery foes ' — an expression of 
the calm courage of faith. 

6. My soul is bowed down] LXX ' They 
have bowed down my soul ' ; but perhaps we 
should read, ' their soul is bowed down,' which 
makes the v. consist of two contrasts. 7. My 
heart is fixed] is firm and steadfast in its 
courage. 8. My glory] my soul, as in 7 5 16 9 
30 12 . Psaltery and harp] see on 33 2 . Will 
awake early] RM ' will awake the dawn,' by 
singing even before the morning appears. 

9. People] RV ' peoples': see on 56 7 . 

PSALM 58 

This Ps. denounces the wickedness of unjust 
and oppressive judges, and prays, in a series 
of powerful metaphors, for their destruction, in 
order that righteousness may be vindicated, 
and God exalted as the supreme Judge. It is 
uncertain whether the injustice complained 
of is exercised by Israelites or by foreigners, 
and so the Ps. has been variously placed before 
and after the exile. In any case it cannot be 
regarded as David's. For its subject it should 
be compared with Ps 82. 

Title.— See on Ps 57. 

1. O congregation] RV 'in silence.' Both 
are doubtful renderings of a word which occurs 
only here. The reading now generally ac- 
cepted gives the meaning, ' ye gods,' or 
' mighty ones,' in the sense of ' judges ' : cp. 
82 K Sons of men] Judges are reminded that 
they are human, in spite of their high office : 
see 827. 2 . Weigh] RV 'weigh out.' The 
' scales of justice ' are abused. 3. Estranged] 
from God and righteousness. 4, 5. The com- 
parison with serpents is twofold, first as to 
venom, and second as to obstinate refusal to 



351 



58. 4 



PSALMS 



60.5 



be influenced. 4. Adder] RM ' asp.' 5. Will 
not hearken, etc.] cp. Jer8 1T . The ancient art 
of snake-charming is still practised in the East. 

6. Read with LXX ' God shall break,' etc., 
and in the following vv. k They shall melt . . 
shall be.' This gives solemn prediction in the 
place of mere imprecation. 7. Cut in pieces] 
RY 'cut off,' blunted. 8. Read, ' They shall 
be as a snail which melteth and passe th away.' 
The idea is perhaps derived from the snail's 
slimy track, or from the commonness of empty 
snail shells. 

9. He shall take, etc.] Read, 'While the 
flesh is still raw wrath shall sweep them away 
like a whirlwind.' Flesh is about to be cooked 
in a pot, but almost before the fire has kindled 
a whirlwind scatters the whole arrangement. 
The figure suggests a judgment of startling 
suddenness. 10. This v. breathes a spirit of 
ferocity not unnatural in the warlike days of 
the OT., but impossible to be reconciled with 
the spirit of Christ. 11. He is a God] RY 
' there is a God.' 

PSALM 59 

Title.— (RY) ' For the Chief Musician ; set 
to Al-tashheth. A Psalm of David : Michtam : 
when Saul sent, and they watched the house 
to kill him.' 

For the first part of the title see on Ps57. 
The second part, which alludes to 1S19 11 , 
scarcely explains the contents of the Ps., which 
has foreign enemies in view throughout (vv. 
5, 8, 13). 'My people' in v. 11 has been 
held to imply that the writer was a king, 
while David at the time in question was only 
a subject. It is probable that the Ps. should 
be assigned to the period of the later Jewish 
monarchy. Like many other Pss., it presents 
the three features of danger, prayer, and 
confidence. 

2. Bloody] RY ' bloodthirsty.' 3. Not for 
my transgression] This might express the 
Psalmist's conscious innocence before God, 
but more probably it means that he had done 
nothing to provoke the hostility of his 
enemies. 4. Awake] cp. 44 23 . 5. God of 
Israel] specially invoked because His people 
are being assailed by the heathen. Selah] see 
<.n 3* 

6. The writer's foes are compared to the 
savage dogs which infest Eastern cities and 
prowl round at night in search of garbage. 
Possibly there is ;i hint here that Jerusalem 
was actually besieged. Make a noise] 'snarl.' 

7. Swords arc in their lips] Their speech is 
cutting and injurious. Who, Bay they, doth 
hear ?] They question whether there a a God. 

9. BecavAi </'his strength, etc.] RV 'O my 
strength. I will wait,' etc. 10. Shall prevent 
me] i.e. shall come to meet me. 

11. Slay them not] must be understood in 



the light of v. 13. The prayer is that they 
may not be suddenly cut oft', but may be 
allowed to perish gradually in their sin, in 
order that Israel may have a more memorable 
object-lesson in the righteousness of God. 

13. Let them know, etc.] Read, 'Let them 
know unto the ends of the earth that God 
ruleth in Jacob.' Zeal for God's glory is the 
one motive of the Psalmist's prayer, however 
vindictive some of his requests may appear. 

14. Almost a repetition of v. 6. It may 
mean that the contemptible attitude of the 
heathen described in v. 6 is all that is to be 
left them. 15. Grudge] RY 'tarry all night,' 

15. 16, Read, 'As for them they shall 
wander . . But I will sing.' 16. In the morning] 
Though his enemies prowl all the night it will 
be in vain. 

PSALM 60 

Title.— (RY) ' For the Chief Musician • set 
to Shushan Eduth : Michtam of David, to 
teach : when he strove with Aram-naharaim 
and with Aram-zobah, and Joab returned, and 
smote of Edom in the Yalley of Salt twelve 
thousand.' 

Shushan-eduth (' the lily of the testimony ') 
denotes that this Ps. was set to the same 
melody as Pss 45, 69, 80. For ' Michtam' see 
Ps 16. The historical occasion in the title is 
described in 2 S 8 3-3, is, 14 1 Ch 18 3-s, 12, 13, but in 
these passages Abishai is mentioned instead of 
Joab, and the number of the slain is given as 
18,000. 1 Ch8 12 is probably right in reading 
'Edom' instead of 'the Syrians' (Aram) of 
2S8 13 . The Ps., however, is plainly written 
after a lost battle, not after a victory. It has 
been suggested that while David was engaged 
with the Syrians in the N. of Palestine, the 
Edomites may have gained a temporary success 
in the S. before they were routed by David's 
generals, and that the Ps. may have been 
written under the shadow of this reverse. 
Others think that vv. 6-8, asserting God's 
sovereignty over the whole territory ruled by 
David, are a Davidic fragment worked into a 
later poem of national distress. The last six 
verses form the second part of Ps 108. Yv. 
1-4 describe the defeat of Israel. The prayer 
in v. , r ) leads to a confident expectation of ex ten 
sive conquests by God's assistance (vv. 6-12). 

1. Turn thyself to us] RV 'restore us.' not 
necessarily from captivity. 2. Earth] RY 
1 land." The imagery is that of an earthquake. 

3. Wine of astonishment] RY ' wine of 
staggering, 1 or reeling : see Esa51 17 < '-"-'. where 
God's wrath is similarly compared to stupefy- 
in g wine. 4. That it may be displayed, etc.] 
Head with LXX 'thai they may betake them 
sehes to flight before the bow.' Israel has 
raised the standard only to flee. 5. Thy 
beloved] better, ' thy beloved ones.' 



352 



60.6 



PSALMS 



63. 4 



6f. The Psalmist gives the grounds of his kiah's words in Jer38 5 . The v. is an assur- 



confidence in God. All the nations are His, 
and He deals with them as He sees good. 

6. Rejoice] exult as a victor. Mete] mea- 
sure. Shechem . . Succoth] W. and E. of the 
Jordan respectively. Both places were con- 
nected with Jacob (Gn33 17 > ls ). 7. Gilead . . 
Manasseh] both E. of the Jordan, Gilead 
being N. of Manasseh. Ephraim . . Judah] 
both W. of the Jordan and again named from 
N. to S. They were the two most powerful 
Hebrew tribes, and became the heads of the 
separate kingdoms after Solomon's death. 
Hence they are distinguished, the one as the 
helmet (RY ' the defence of mine head '), the 
other as the ' sceptre ' (RY) of God. 

8. Moab . . Edom . . Philistia] Israel's neigh- 
bours on the E., SE., and W. respectively. 
They are all described as reduced to the lowest 
subjection. Moab is the vessel in which the 
conqueror's feet are washed, Edom the slave 
who cleans his sandals (reading ' unto Edom ' 
with RM), or the corner into which the san- 
dals are thrown when soiled (reading 'upon 
Edom ' with RY). Philistia, etc.] Read, as in 
Psl08 9 , 'Over Philistia will I shout in tri- 
umph.' 9. The strong city] Petra, the almost 
impregnable capital of Edom. It is the Psalm- 
ist who now speaks, asking how Edom is to be 
conquered. 10. RY ' Hast not thou, O God, 
cast us off ? And thou goest not forth, O 
God, with our hosts.' 11. From trouble] RY 
' against the adversary.' 

PSALM 61 

This Ps. was written at a distance from 
Jerusalem, and is either the prayer of a king 
for himself, or the prayer of a subject for 
himself and the king. In the former case it 
would naturally be assigned to David, and to 
the time of his stay at Mahanaim beyond 
Jordan, during Absalom's rebellion. In the 
latter it might belong to any time before the 
exile. In present trouble the memory of past 
mercies inspires confidence for the future. 

2. The end of the earth] or perhaps ' of the 
land.' Jerusalem is the centre, absence from 
which is banishment. The rock that is higher 
than I] ' a rock too high for me,' some inac- 
cessible place of security. 4. Tabernacle] 
tent. The word may be purely figurative (cp. 
Ps23 7 ), or it may refer to the 'tabernacle' 
which David made for the ark. Trust] RY 
' take refuge ' : see Ps 17 8 . 

5. Vows] here stand for the prayers which 
accompanied them. Thou hast given me, etc.] 
RM ' Thou hast given an heritage unto those 
that fear thy name.' This may mean that 
Absalom's rebellion has been crushed, and 
that the land is in the possession of loyal 
Israelites. 6. If David is the writer he speaks 
of himself here in the third person : cp. Zede- 



23 



353 



ance rather than a prayer. 7. Abide . . for 
ever] in the continuance of his royal line : see 
2 S7 12,13,16. Prepare] or appoint. Mercy 
(RV ' lovingkindness ') and truth are personi- 
fied as guardian angels : see Ps 57 3 . 

PSALM 62 

This is a Ps. of the strongest faith, in which 
the experience of hostility (vv. 3, 4) and the 
contemplation of life (vv. 9, 10) only provide 
the background against which a serene confi- 
dence in God displays itself. Its tone is not 
inconsistent with the character of David, who 
' strengthened himself in the Lord his God ' 
(1 S30 6 RY). Yv. 1, 2 are practically repeated 
in vv. 5, 6. 

Title.— Jeduthun] see on Ps 39. 

1. Truly . . waiteth] RY ' my soul waiteth 
only.' The word rendered ' only ' occurs six 
times in the Ps. 3. Ye shall be slain] RY 
' that ye may slay him,' or better still, ' batter- 
ing him,' a figure continued in the next clause. 

As a bowing wall shall ye be, etc.] R Y ' like 
a bowing wall and like,' etc. The comparison 
applies not to the assailants but to the person 
assailed. 

9. While God is all, men are nothing, whether 
they be high or low. Vanity or breath, and 
lie or illusion are the most that they can be 
called. To be laid in the balance] RY 'in 
the balances they will go up,' because of their 
lightness. Altogether] RY 'together,' both 
high and low combined. 11, 12. Power and 
mercy] the two sides of the full-orbed char- 
acter of God, both displayed in His unerring 
judgments of men. 

PSALM 63 

Title. — A Psalm of David, when he was in 
the wilderness of Judah. 

The writer of this Ps. is a king (v. 11), who 
is at a distance from the sanctuary, and in 
danger from eager foes. If the title be correct 
it must refer, not to David's earlier experi- 
ences in the reign of Saul (1 S22 5 ), but to the 
time when his flight from Absalom led him 
through the wilderness of Judah, between 
Jerusalem and the Jordan (2S15 23 " 28 ). His 
longing for God's presence (vv. 1, 2) passes 
into joyful confidence (vv. 3-8) and certain 
expectation of his enemies' overthrow. 

1. O God, thou art my God] the ' Elohistic ' 
equivalent of ' O Lord, thou art my God.' 

Early] RM 'earnestly.' 2. RY 'So (or 
' thus ') have I looked upon thee in the sanctu- 
ary, To see thy power and thy glory.' The 
sanctuary may be the temporary abode of the 
ark at Jerusalem. It is the memory of com- 
munion with God there which inspires the 
Psalmist's present longing. 4. Thus] better, 
' therefore.' Lift up my hands] in prayer. In 



63. 5 



PSALMS 



66. 15 



thy name] trusting in the revealed character 
of God. 5. Hunger is now substituted for 
thirst to describe the spiritual longing which 
God satisfies. 

6. The night watches] were three in number 
— the first, the middle, and the morning watches. 

8. The clinging effort of the human soul 
and the upholding grasp of God are the two 
sides of the relationship of faith. 9. The 
lower parts of the earth] the under-world of 
Sheol. 10. Foxes] jackals. 11. By him] by 
God : see Isa65 16 . 

PSALM 64 

This is a Ps. on a familiar theme. The 
Psalmist's life is in danger. He describes the 
injurious words and malicious plans of his 
enemies, and foretells how their overthrow 
will be a warning to all who see it, and a new 
ground for the righteous to rejoice in God. 
The same figure (shooting an arrow) is em- 
ployed both for the assaults of the wicked and 
for their discomfiture by God. 

4. In secret] RV ' in secret places.' The 
perfect] the upright man : cp. 37 37 . Fear not] 
regard neither God nor man. 5. Matter] RV 
1 purpose.' They say, Who shall see them ?] 
cp. 10 n . 6. They accomplish, etc.] better, ' we 
have perfected, nay they, a careful device.' 

8. RV ' So shall they be made to stumble, 
their own tongue being against them,' their 
evil words coming back upon themselves. See 
them] ' see their desire upon them ' : cp. 54 7 . 

Flee away] RV ' wag the head,' in scorn : 
see 22 7 Jer 48 27 . 9. Note the contrast with 28 5 . 

PSALM 65 

The allusions to the Temple worship show 
that this Ps. belongs to a later age than 
David's. As to its occasion we can gather 
that a national religious festival at Jerusalem 
was in view (vv. 1-4), that a striking national 
deliverance had produced a wide-spread im- 
pression of God's power (vv. 5-8), and that a 
favourable season gave promise of an abun- 
dant harvest (vv. 9-13). The presentation 
of the firstfruits at the Passover (Lv23 10 ' 14 ) 
would suit the fiist and last conditions, and 
the repulse of the Assyrian invasion in Heze- 
kiah's reign would fulfil the second. 

1. Waiteth] 'is silent,' an obscure expres- 
sion. LXX has ' praise beseemeth thee.' 2. All 
flesh] God is thought of as the God, not only 
of Israel, bu1 of nil the world : cp. 5 b . 3. Me 
..our] The Psalmist speaks, now for himself , 
now in the name of the nation. 4. i'.r, n of 
thy holy temple] RV the holy place of thy 
temple.' 5. By terrible things] by impressive 
deliverances. In righteousness] connected 
frith ' thon wilt answer as ' ( B V ). 7. People] 
RV 'peoples. 1 8. Thy tokens] the manifesta- 
tions of Thy power. Outgoings, etc.] the 



gates of morning and evening, the E. and 
the W. Rejoice] shout for joy — the inhabit 
ants of E. and W. are meant. 

9. With the river, etc.] RV ' the river of 
God is full of water.' The rain is meant, or 
its source in the sky. Thou preparest, etc.] 
RV ' thou providest them corn when thou hast 
so prepared the earth,' i.e. by the plentiful 
early rain (Nov.-Feb.). 10. Ridges] RV ' fur- 
rows.' Settlest] levellest. Furrows] RV 
'ridges.' 11. Read, ' Thou crownest the year 
of thy goodness' (RM). The prospect of a 
rich harvest was only the last gift in a year 
of many blessings and deliverances. Thy 
paths drop fatness] God is pictured as walk- 
ing through the land, and causing fertilising 
showers to fall wherever He treads. 

12. The wilderness] not a desert, but open 
pasture-land — a ' steppe ' or ' veldt.' The little 
hills, etc.] RV ' the hills are girded with joy ' 
— a fine poetic personification of nature which 
the next v. continues. 

PSALM 66 

This Ps. triumphantly celebrates a great 
national deliverance. The whole earth is 
summoned to join in the chorus of praise (vv. 
1-4). The memories of the exodus are re- 
called (vv. 5-7), but only as an introduction 
to more recent trials and triumphs (vv. 8-12), 
and the Ps. ends with vows of lavish sacrifice 
(vv. 13-15), and with enthusiastic testimony 
to God's great goodness (vv. 16-20). The 
failure of Sennacherib's invasion, and the re- 
turn from Babylon have each been suggested 
as the occasion of the Ps., and the former is 
the more probable. There is a striking change 
from ' we ' and ' us ' (vv. 1-1 2) to ' I ' and ' me ' 
(vv. 13-20), which is best explained by sup- 
posing that the Psalmist at first merges him- 
self in the nation, and afterwards regards his 
people's deliverance in the light of a personal 
blessing, as it has been an answer to personal 
prayer. 

3. Art thou in thy works] RV ' are fchy 
works': see 65 5 . 6. The sea] the Red 
Sea. Flood] RV ' river,' the Jordan. There] 
both at the Red Sea and at the Jordan. 

8. People] RV 'peoples.' These foreign 
nations are to praise k our God,' Israels God. 

9. Holdeth] RM 'putteth,' or better, 'hath 
set.' There is a definite allusion to a recent 
deliverance from national ruin. Suffereth not] 
better, 'hath not suffered.' 

10-12. The peril is described in a succession 
of figures, the refining furnace, the net. the 
burden, the prosl rat ion of the vanquished under 
the trampling of the \ ictors' horses, fire, water. 

11. Affliction] RV 4 a sore burden.' 13. Pay 
. . my vows] make the offerings I promised. 

15. Incense of rams] not actual incense, 
but the • sweet savour' of the burning flesh. 



351 



66. 16 



PSALMS 



68. 18 



1 6. For my soul] for the deliverance of my 
life : see v. 9. 17. He was extolled, etc.] RM 
' high praise was under my tongue,' ready to 
break forth when prayer should be answered. 

18. RM ' If I had regarded iniquity . . the 
Lord would not hear.' The answer of God was 
the proof that the prayer had been offered 
from an upright heart. 

PSALM 67 

This short and joyful Ps. is in the first place 
a harvest thanksgiving (v. 6), perhaps at the 
Feast of Tabernacles. God's goodness to 
Israel reveals Him also to the nations (v. 2), 
and calls forth their praise (vv. 3, 5), their 
submission (v. 4), and their worship (v. 7). 
There is a symmetrical parallelism on either 
side of the middle verse, v. 5 corresponding to 
v. 3, and vv. 6, 7 to vv. 1, 2. 

1. This v. is partly taken from the priestly 
benediction (Nu6 24 ), but with the change of 
' the Lokd ' (Jehovah) into ' God ' (Elohim). 

2. Thy way] of dealing with men. Saving 
health] salvation. 3. People] RV 'peoples.' 
So in vv. 4, 5. 4. Righteously] RV ' with 
equity.' Govern] RM ' lead,' as He led 
Israel. 6. RY ' The earth hath yielded her 
increase.' 

PSALM 68 

This is one of the grandest of the Pss., but 
its origin and date are involved in much ob- 
scurity. It contains expressions borrowed 
from the Blessing of Moses (Dt33) and the 
Song of Deborah (Jg5), and presents several 
parallels with the exilic prophecy of Isa 40-66. 
It may be assigned with some probability to 
the close of the exile, in which case it is to be 
regarded as a triumphant anticipation of God's 
victory over His enemies in the restoration of 
His people from the Babylonian captivity. 
After an inspiring prelude (vv. 1-6) the 
Psalmist recalls some of God's triumphs in 
the past — at the exodus and in the wilder- 
ness (vv. 7-10), in the conquest of Canaan 
(vv. 11-14), and in the choice of Zion as His 
dwelling (vv. 15-18). God next appears as 
the present Saviour of His people and as the 
Vanquisher of their enemies (w. 19-23). Then 
comes a picture of a triumphal procession of a 
reunited Israel in honour of His victory (vv. 
24-27), and of heathen kings bringing tribute 
to Jerusalem (vv. 28-31). A magnificent dox- 
ology (vv. 32-35) closes the Ps., which is an- 
other of the Pss. for Whit Sunday. 

1. Taken from the invocation of Moses at 
! the moving of the ark (JSTulO 35 ), with the 

change of Lord (Jehovah) into God (Elohim). 

2, 3. The wicked . . the righteous] the hea- 
1 then and Israel respectively. 4. Extol . . 
, heavens] RV ' cast up a high way for him that 

rideth through the deserts' : cp. Isa 40 3 . By 



his name JAH] RV ' his name is JAH,' an 
abbreviation of Jehovah, as in Hallelu-jah. 

5. His holy habitation] heaven : see Dt. 26 15 . 

6. In families] RM ' in a house.' Those . . 
chains] RV ' the prisoners into prosperity ' : 
cp. Isa 61 1 Psl46 7 . Dwell in a dry (RV 
' parched ') land] like the rebellious Israelites 
who perished in the wilderness. 

7. 8. A free quotation from the Song of 
Deborah (Jg5 4 > 5 ). Note again the substitu- 
tion of ' God ' for ' Lord.' Selah] see on 3 4 . 

8. The heavens also dropped] in the rain 
which accompanied the thunderstorms of Sinai : 
see 77 17 . 9. A plentiful rain] here a figure 
for all the blessings of the sojourn in the wil- 
derness. Omit whereby with RV. 10. Hath 
dwelt] RV ' dwelt.' Therein] in the wilder- 
ness. Hast prepared] RV ' didst prepare.' The 
poor] or afflicted, the needy wanderers in the 
desert. 

1 1 . Gave the word] secured the victory by 
his simple command. Great ivas the company, 
etc.] RV ' the women that publish the tidings 
are a great host.' In the East it is the women 
who celebrate victories with song and dance : 
see 1 S 18 6 > 7 . Vv. 12, 13 are the words of the 
women. 12. Another echo of Deborah's Song 
(Jg5 30 ). The kings are the kings of Canaan 
subdued by Joshua. 

13. Among the pots] RV ' among the sheep- 
folds,' another phrase from Deborah's Song 
( Jg 5 16 ), where it rebukes the inactivity of the 
Reubenites. RV reads, ' will ye lie . . sheep- 
folds, as the wings of a dove,' etc., in the same 
sense of reproof. But the best rendering is in 
RM, ' When ye lie among the sheepf olds ' (i.e. 
when ye return to your homes) ' it is as the 
wings,' etc., describing the brightness and peace 
of the prosperous time after the conquest of 
Canaan. Some understand the silver and gold 
to refer to the spoils of the victors. 14. It 
was white, etc.] RV ' It was as when it snoweth 
in Zalmon.' Zalmon was a wooded hill near 
Shechem (Jg9 48 ). The scattered kings of 
Canaan were like the driven snowflakes seen 
against the dark green background. 

15. RV ' A mountain of God' (i.e. a great 
mountain: see 36 6 ), 'is the mountain of 
Bashan ; an high mountain is the mountain 
of Bashan.' Hermon, which bounds Bashan 
on the N., is probably meant. Though it is so 
lofty God has chosen Zion in preference to it 
(v. 16). 16. RV 'Why look ye askance' (i.e. 
why are ye jealous), ' ye high mountains, at 
the mountain' (Zion), 'which God hath desired 
for his abode?' 17. Thousands of angels] 
RV ' thousands upon thousands.' God enters 
Zion in a great procession of His heavenly 
armies: cp. Dt33 2 . As in Sinai, etc.] RM 
' Sinai is in the sanctuary.' The holy associa- 
tions of Sinai are transferred to Zion. 

18. Having taken possession of Zion God 



355 



68. 19 



PSALMS 



69.31 



has returned to His heavenly throne. Cap- 
tivity] RV ' thy captivity,' thy band of captives. 
See Deborah's Song (Jg5 12 )- For men . .for 
the rebellious] RV ' among men . . among the 
rebellious.' God's conquered enemies pay 
Him tribute. St. Paul's quotation in Eph4 8 
changes ' received ' into ' gave.' 

19. Loadeth us with benefits] RV ' beareth 
our burden.' 20. RV ' God is unto us a God 
of deliverances : and unto Jehovah the Lord,' 
etc. The issues from death] the ways of 
escape from death, which God can provide. 

21. Wound] RV 'smite through.' The 
hairy scalp] the long flowing locks which were 
the sign of the warrior's strength and of his de- 
votion to his cause. See Dt32 42 RM, and the 
Song of Deborah ( Jg 5 2 ), where we should read 
' For that flowing locks were worn in Israel.' 

22. Bring my people] RV ' bring them,' i.e. 
Israel's enemies, who will be gathered for 
vengeance from the most inaccessible hiding 
places. Bashan was a country of intricate and 
rocky retreats. 23. RV ' That thou mayest 
dip thy foot in blood, that the tongue of thy 
dogs may have its portion from thine enemies.' 
God is still the speaker, and Israel is addressed. 
For the tone cp. 58 10 . 

24. In] RV ' into.' 26. From the fountain] 
RV ' ye that are of the fountain,' all the de- 
scendants of Jacob : cp. Dt33 28 . 27. With 
their ruler] RV ' their ruler,' the tribe from 
which the first king was taken (1 S9 21 ). 

Council] ' company.' Zebulon and Naphtali 
(see Jg5 ls ) represent the northern kingdom, 
Benjamin and Judah the southern. 

28. Read, ' God, command thy strength : 
be strong, O God, thou that hast wrought for 
us.' 30. The company of spearmen] RV ' the 
wild beast of the reeds,' the hippopotamus, 
the symbol of Egypt. Bulls, with the calves 
of the people (RV ' peoples ')] heathen kings 
and their subjects. Till every one submit, etc.] 
RV ' trampling underfoot the pieces of silver.' 
God treats the tribute of the heathen with 
contempt. 31. Egypt] as Israel's ancient 
enemy. Ethiopia] as one of the remotest of 
lands. 33, 34- Cp. Dt33 2 6- 2 7. 

PSALM 69 

This whole Ps. should be compared with 
Pss 22, 31, 35, 38, and 40. It is the prayer 
of one who is in dec]) distress, wrongfully per- 
secuted by enemies, and conscious that, though 
tie 1- -in lul. Iiis Bufferings are due to his fidelity 
to God (vv. 1-12). He pleads for deliverance 
(w. 1:; 20) and calls upon God to take the 
severest vengeance on liis adversaries (w. 21- 

28). The Ps. doses with a triumphant strain 

of praise (w. "-".» .''>»'»). V. :'.."> points to a date 
Long after tin- age <>f David — either during 
the exile. <>r. more probably, in the last years 
of the Jewish monarchy (see Jer33 10 34 7 ). 



The situation of the writer closely resembles 
that of Jeremiah, and the numerous parallels 
between the Ps. and his prophecies give colour 
to the conjecture that he may have been its 
author. This Ps. is more frequently quoted 
in the NT. than any other, except Ps 22. 
Title. — Shoshannim] see on Ps 45. 

I. Are come in unto my soul] threaten 
my very life. 2. Mire . . deep waters] to be 
understood figuratively of danger and distress. 

3. Weary of] RV ' weary with.' 4. I re- 
stored, etc.] RM ' I had to restore,' etc., 
possibly a proverbial phrase for unjust treat- 
ment. 7. Cp. Jerl5 15 . 8. Cp. Jerl26. 

9. The zeal, etc.] The Psalmist was con- 
sumed by his devotion to God's cause. Thine 
house] either the actual Temple, profaned by 
idolatry, or the Jewish nation, fallen from its 
high ideal. For the latter sense, see Jerll 15 
1 2 7 23 ". The clause is quoted in Jn 2 v. 

The reproaches, etc.] see Jer6 10 20 8 . The 
words are applied to Christ in Rol5 3 . 

II. Sackcloth] the sign of mourning. A 
proverb] or byword. 12. The gate] the open 
space beside the city gate where worthless 
loafers gathered. 

13. In an acceptable time] lit. 'in a time of 
good pleasure,' i.e. at the time thou pleasest. 

The truth of thy salvation] the faithfulness 
of Thy saving grace. 15. The pit] may be, 
like the waters, a general metaphor for trouble, 
but it is more likely that the grave is meant. 

18. Cp. Jerl5 21 . 19. Thou hast known] 
RV 'thou knowest' : cp. Jerl2 3 15 15 18 23 . 

20. Hath broken my heart] cp. Jer 23 9 . 

21. Gall] some bitter and poisonous plant, 
perhaps the poppy. Vinegar] wine become 
sour and undrinkable. The language is figur- 
ative, and perhaps proverbial, for cruel mockery 
of one in trouble. In spite of the verbal 
coincidence in Mt27 34 , the treatment of Christ 
by the soldiers had not this character, but was 
intended to allay His sufferings ; and, except 
as to the fact of His thirst (Jnl9 28 ). there is 
no direct reference in the Gospels to this v. 

22. And that which . . welfare] RV ' and 
when they are in peace.' This v. is quoted 
freely along with v. 23 in Roll 9 . 23. A 
prayer that blindness and paralysis may tall 
upon the Psalmist's enemies. 25. This v. is 
quoted freely (from LXX) in Ac 1 20 . 26. Talk 
to the grief] RV ' tell of the sorrow.' LXX 
' add to the sorrow.' 27. Add iniquity, etc.] 
cause their guilt to be filled up, rather than for- 
given. Into thy righteousness] into the salva- 
tion which God's righteousness secures for His 
people. 28. The book of the living] RV ' of 
life,' the list of the righteous who are to be 
preserved alive. The reference is not to the 
future hut to the present life. 

31. Praise is the truest sacrifice : cp. 50 13 > 14 . 
Hath horns and hoofs] is full grown as 



356 



69. 33 



PSALMS 



72. 20 



well as ceremonially clean (Lvll 3 ). 33. His 
prisoners] perhaps an allusion to the victims of 
the first captivity (2 K 2410-16). 

PSALM 70 

This Ps. is simply a repetition of Ps40 13 -i 7 , 
with a few variations. ' Lokd ' (Jehovah) is 
changed into ' God ' (Elohim) except in v. 1 b . 
On the other hand, ' Elohim ' is changed into 
f Jehovah ' in v. 5 b . By a change of one letter 
in the Hebrew ' turned back ' is substituted for 
' desolate ' in v. 3, and ' make haste unto me ' 
appears instead of ' thinketh upon me ' in v. 5. 
The five vv. composing the Ps. constitute a cry 
to God for help and deliverance. 

Title : see on Ps 38. 

PSALM 71 

This Ps. of prayer (vv. 1-13) and praise (vv. 
14-24) was apparently written by an old man 
(vv. 9, 18) and in the time of the exile. Some 
parts of it are undoubtedly national, but much 
of it expresses personal experience and desire 
and faith. It is largely made up of extracts 
from other Pss., yet it has a unity and a beauty 
of its own. 

1-3. Practically taken from 31 1- 3 . 5, 6. See 
229.10. 7. As a wonder unto many] a striking 
example of God's mysterious chastisement of 
His own : see Isa52i4. 12. See 22 n 40 i3 . 

13. See 35 4 > 26 : cp. also v. 24. 

15. I know not the numbers] cp. 40 5 . 16. Go 
in the strength] RV ' come with the mighty 
acts,' bringing them as the subject of the song. 

18. This generation] RY ' the next genera- 
tion.' 20. For me read ' us' all through this 
v. (RY). The Psalmist predicts a resurrection 
of his nation which is, as it were, dead and 
buried in its exile. 21. Thou shalt increase] 
RV ' increase thou.' Comfort me on every 
side] RY ' turn again and comfort me.' 

PSALM 72 

Title.— A Psalm for (RY ' of ') Solomon. 

The title in AY suggests that David is the 
writer, and Solomon the subject, of this Ps., 
but, as RY shows, the authorship is really 
ascribed to Solomon. The Ps., however, ap- 
pears rather to be the prayer of a subject for 
the king. Some actual ruler — Solomon, Heze- 
kiah, or another — is no doubt in view, but, as 
in Ps45, the royal figure is so idealised that 
the Ps. becomes truly Messianic, and applicable 
only to the perfect divine King, though it is 
nowhere expressly quoted in this sense in the 
NT. The justice and beneficence of the king's 
reign, the world-wide extent of his dominion, 
the prosperity of his country, and the perpetuity 



of his fame, are successively described. Yv. 
18, 19 are the closing doxology of Book 2 of 
the Psalter, and v. 20 is an instructive editorial 
note. 

1. Judgments . . righteousness] the qualities 
of a great and upright ruler : see v. 2. The 
king's son] a parallel expression for the king. 

2. Thy poor] the class who suffered most 
from unjust and oppressive rulers. 3. By 
righteousness] RY ' in righteousness.' Under 
a righteous government peace will be the fruit 
that grows on all the wooded slopes of the 
land: see Isa32 17 . 5. They shall fear thee] 
not the king, but God. LXX reads instead, 
' He shall endure as long as the sun, and while 
the moon doth shine.' 6. Upon the mown 
grass] to start the new growth. LXX and 
Yulg. render, ' upon a fleece ' : cp. PBY ' into 
a fleece of wool.' 7. The metaphor of v. 6 is 
continued. ' Righteousness ' (LXX) and peace 
are the vegetation which springs up after the 
fertilising showers. 

8-1 1. These vv. should be read as a prayer 
rather than as a prediction. ' May he have 
dominion . . May they bow,' etc. 8. From sea 
to sea] from the Red Sea to the Mediter- 
ranean. The river] RY ' the River,' the Eu- 
phrates in the E. The ends of the earth] the 
extreme W. : see Ex23 3 i 1K421. 9. They 
that dwell in the wilderness] the wandering 
desert tribes. Lick the dust] the attitude of 
abject submission. 10. Tarshish] probably 
Tartessus in Spain : see on 48 7 . The isles] 
the coast-lands of the Mediterranean. Sheba] 
Saba in S. Arabia. Seba] an unknown locality, 
elsewhere connected with Ethiopia (Isa43 3 
45 1 4 ). 

12. The poor also, etc.] RY ' and the poor 
that hath no helper.' 14. Precious shall their 
blood be] Human life will be protected, and 
not held cheap, as it is where tyranny flourishes. 

15. He shall live] better, ' May he live, and 
may men give him . . may they pray,' etc. For 
him] PBY renders, ' prayer shall be made ever 
unto him ' : an indefensible translation, which 
has arisen from an exclusive reference of the 
Ps. to Christ. 

16, 17. These vv. also are best read as a 
prayer. ' May there be . . may his name en- 
dure,' etc. 16. An handful] RY ' abundance.' 

In the earth] better, ' in the land.' Shake 
like Lebanon] wave or rustle like the cedars 
of Lebanon. They of the city, etc.] better, 
' may men spring forth out of the city like 
grass of the earth.' 17. Be blessed] RM 'bless 
themselves': see Gn22i« 26 4 (RM), and cp. 
Isa65i6. 

20. See Intro, to Book 2. 



357 



INTRO. 



PSALMS 



rs. 20 



BOOK 3 (Psalms 73-89) 



There are two groups of Pss. in this book, 
Pss 73-83 being Psalms of Asaph, and Pss 84-88 
(except 86) Psalms of the Sons of Korah. The 
likeness of the title of Ps89 to that of Ps88 
suggests that it belongs to the same group. 
The Sons of Asaph and the Sons of Korah 
were guilds of singers connected with the 
second Temple (2 Ch 20 ^ Ezr 2 « Neh 7 **), and 
these groups of Pss. belong to collections made 
by them for the Temple services. 

The Psalms of Asaph, though of different 
dates, are of a similar character, having many 
features in common. They are national and 
historical Pss., setting forth God's working 
in history, expressing national wants, and sug- 
gesting lessons from the past for use in the 
future. These Pss. have a definite doctrine 
of God. On the one hand, He is the Shepherd 
of Israel (80 1 ), and the people are the sheep 
of His pasture (74 1 77 ™ 7913). This idea is 
frequently suggested, and it is elaborated at 
length in Ps78. On the other hand, God is 
the Judge (7 5 7 ), defending Israel against ene- 
mies (76 3 " 6 ), executing His judgments against 
the wicked (76 8 > 9 ), and also administering 
justice to the poor and defending them from 
oppressors (82 2 ' 4 ). Another feature of these 
Pss. is the way in which history is used for 
instruction, admonition, and encouragement. 
Ps78 is a lesson of comfort and courage from 
the past experiences of the nation (cp. 77 11 
308-10 817,10 839,11). 

The Psalms of the Sons of Korah are largely 
devoted to the exaltation of the Temple wor- 
ship. Those who dwell in its courts are blessed 
(84 4 ) ; a day spent there is better than a 
thousand elsewhere (84 1°). Jerusalem is the 
favourite place of God (87 2 ) ; to be born there 
is a high privilege (87 5 ) ; and a special blessing 
attends those who have it (87 6 ). 

The problem of the prosperity of the wicked 
presses upon all the Psalmists, and the author 
of Ps73 dwells upon it. Only religion enables 
him to bear the burden that oppresses him 
(73 l7 ) ; but when comforted by the thought of 
God's presence and healed by communion with 
Him, lie is able to persevere in faith and hope. 

Pb89 is frequently referred to in NT., e.g. 
\r I.'. - (v. 20), 2Th 1 10 (v. 7), Rev is (w. 27 
and 37); while Ps78' 2 is applied in Mtl.T" to 
Clnist's teaching by parables. 

The Pss. of Asaph, like those of Book 2, are 
' ESlohistic': the Korahite Pss. are ' Jehovistic,' 
like those of Books 1, 4, and 5 (see Intro, to 
Rook 2). 

PSALM 73 

This Pb., like Pss .".7 and 49, and the book 
of Job, deals with the perplexing problem 



presented to thoughtful minds by the pros- 
perity of the wicked and the sufferings of the 
righteous. The Psalmist has been deeply 
exercised by this question (vv. 2-14), and 
after struggling with doubt (vv. 15, 16) has 
learned in the sanctuary of God to understand 
the end of the wicked (vv. 17-20), and to 
repent of his own unbelieving thoughts (vv. 
21, 22). He has found rest in the conviction 
that the only true and lasting blessedness lies 
in the fellowship of God — a fellowship which 
ensures present guidance and future welcome 
(vv. 23, 24), which is the object of his supreme 
desire (v. 25), and which is independent of 
all possible change (v. 26). Separation from 
God is destruction (v. 27). Nearness to God 
is happiness (v. 28). There is no indication 
in the Ps. as to its date, except the allusion in 
v. 17 to the existence of the Temple. 

Title. — See Intro, to Book 3. 

I. The conclusion reached by faith precedes 
the account of the struggle with doubt. Of a 
clean heart] a spiritual rather than a merely 
national conception of Israel. 3. Foolish] 
RV ' arrogant.' 4. Most scholars read, ' For 
they have no torments ; sound and stalwart is 
their body.' 6. Compasseth . . chain] RV 
' is as a chain about their neck,' in the sense 
of an ornament : see Prov 1 9 . 7. Render, 
' Their iniquity cometh forth from the heart : 
the imaginations of their mind overflow.' 

8. RV ' They scoff, and in wickedness utter 
oppression.' 9. Against] RV ' in,' a descrip- 
tion of pride. 10. His people] the followers 
and imitators of the wicked man. Return 
hither] better, ' turn hither,' after the wicked 
man's example. Wrung out to (RV ' by ') 
them] rather, ' are supped up by them.' 
They drink in the wicked man's principles, or 
share in his prosperity : see PBV. 

12-14 are Des ^ understood as the utterance 
of the Psalmist's doubts. 15. Say] RV'had 
said.' Should offend against] RV 'had dealt 
treacherously with.' Thy children] God's true 
people, of whom the Psalmist was one, and to 
whom he felt that he dare not be disloyal. This 
thought is a practical refutation of doubt, 
even before the theoretical answer is found. 

16. To know] RV l how I might know.' 

17. Then . . end] RV 'and considered their 
latter end.' Difficulties are resolved and the 
soul strengthened against the temptations of 
doubt in the presence and communion of God, 
as enjoyed in His sanctuary. 20. When thou 
awakest] better, ' when Thou stirrest up 
Thyself.' Their image] not themselves. The 
end of the wieked is nothingness. It is only 
a shadow of them that survives for God to 
contemplate. 



358 



73. 22 



PSALMS 



76. 



22. Foolish] RV ' brutish.' 23. Thou hast 
holden, etc.] Though the grasp of faith on 
God may waver, fellowship with Him depends 
most of all on His grasp of His people. 

24. The experience of God's fellowship 
contains in itself a promise that it will con- 
tinue and become closer. This thought 
plainly leads to belief in immortality. 26. My 
flesh and my heart] both the outer and the 
inner man. Though both of these should 
perish, something would yet remain in eternal 
union with God. 27. Whoring] a familiar 
OT. figure for departure from God. 

PSALM 74 

Pss 74 and 79 seem to reflect the same 
historical situation, and are usually ascribed 
to the same author. Both were written in a 
time of national calamity, when the Temple 
was profaned (Ps 74), and the Israelites ruth- 
lessly slaughtered (Ps 79) by a heathen enemy. 
The occasion described must have been either 
the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
rezzar's army (586 B.C., 2K24 2Ch37 llf - Jer 
391-8 52i-i4) 5 or the persecution of the Jews 
by Antiochus Epiphanes (168-165 B.C. : see 
1 Mac 1-4 and the Intro, to Daniel). Y. 7 
seems to point to the former, vv. 8, 9 to the 
latter period. After an opening appeal to 
God (vv. 1, 2) the Ps. describes the ravages 
of the enemy in the Temple (vv. 3-7), and 
the distressed condition of Israel (vv. 8, 9). 
A second appeal (vv. 10, 11) is followed by 
recollection of God's past mercies, especially 
in leading His people from Egypt to Canaan 
(vv. 12-15). Next comes an ascription of 
praise to God as the Ruler of Nature (vv. 16, 
17), followed by a final prayer that He will 
vindicate His own glory, which the heathen 
have dishonoured (vv. 18-23). 

Title.— Maschil] see on Ps 32. 

1. Smoke] Like a dark thunder-cloud 
threatening a flock : see 18 8 . 2. The rod . . 
redeemed] RV ' which thou hast redeemed 
to be the tribe of thine inheritance.' 3. Lift 
up thy feet unto] Hasten to see. 4. Their 
ensigns] either military standards or religious 
emblems : see 1 Mac 1 47, 54 > 55 > 59 . 5. A man . . 
lifted up] RV ; They seemed as men that lifted 
up.' The thick trees] RV ' a thicket of trees.' 

8. Synagogues] The mention of these 
points to the later date for the Ps., as they 
only arose after the return from the Baby- 
lonian exile. 9. Our signs] either God's 
miraculous interpositions, or Jewish religious 
customs such as sacrifice, circumcision, and 
sabbath-observance, all of which Antiochus 
Epiphanes forbade under the heaviest 
penalties : see 1 Mac 1 45 > 48 > 50 . No more any 
prophet, etc.] This hardly applies to the 
Babylpnian capture of Jerusalem, when both 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel were alive, and when 



the former had foretold that the captivity 
would last 70 years. For the absence of 
prophets in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes 
see 1 Mac 446 927 1441. 

11. The last clause is condensed in the 
original. RV adds to the last clause, ' and 
consume them? 

13. The sea] the Red Sea: Ex 14 21. The 
dragons] k sea monsters,' a figure for Egypt. 

14. Leviathan] probably the crocodile, 
another figure for Egypt : cp. Ezk29 3 " 5 32 1 ~ 5 . 

The people inhabiting the wilderness] the 
wild beasts of the desert. 15. Cleave the 
fountain] i.e. cleave the rock from which the 
fountain flowed : see Ex 17 6 Nu20 8 . Rivers] 
the Jordan : Josh 3 13 423. ^ I7 . The 
signs of God's presence in nature. 18. The 
foolish people] RV 'a foolish people,' a 
heathen nation : see Dt32 2 i. 20. Of the 
earth] better, 'of the land,' the hiding-places 
to which the Israelites were pursued by their 
enemies : see lMacl 53 227-38. 23. Increaseth] 
RV ' ascendeth.' 

PSALM 75 

In contrast with the plaintive strains of 
Ps74 this is a Ps. of thanksgiving for some 
national deliverance (v. 1). It celebrates God 
as the Judge of all the earth, who interposes 
in His own time amid the confusions of men 
(vv. 2, 3). His enemies are warned against 
pride (vv. 4-8) by the certainty that His cup 
of punishment is prepared for the wicked (v. 8). 
The Ps. ends with an ascription of praise (v. 9), 
and a declaration of God's righteous purpose 
(v. 10). In vv. 2, 3, 10, God Himself is the 
speaker. There is nothing to indicate the date 
or occasion of the Ps., which presents some 
parallels with the Song of Hannah (1 S2 1 " 10 ). 

Title.— (RV) Al-tashheth] see on Ps 57. 

i b . RV l for thy name is near : Men tell of 
thy wondrous works.' God's ' name ' means His 
saving presence (Isa30 2 7). 2. God speaks. 
Receive the congregation] RV ' find the set 
time ' for judgment. 3. Bear up] RV ' have 
set up.' God's moral order stands sure even 
when it seems that ' the world is out of joint ' : 
cp. 1 S28. Selah] see on 3 4 . 4. Fools] RV 
' arrogant ' : cp. 1 S 2 4 . 4,5.' Lifting up the 
horn ' and having ' a stiff neck ' are figures for 
self-exaltation and obstinacy. 6. Read, ' For 
neither from . . cometh judgment.' Foreign 
invasions of Israel generally came from the 
N., and deliverance might naturally be looked 
for from some of the other quarters mentioned. 

7. Setteth up] RV ' lif teth up ' : cp. 1 S 2 6, 7. 

8. A cup] The same figure for God's punish- 
ment is found in Isa51 17 Jer25 15f - 48 26 49 12 . 

PSALM 76 

Like the previous Ps. this is a song of 
national deliverance, which may have been 



359 



76.2 



PSALMS 



called forth, as the title in LXX suggests, by 
the overthrow of Sennacherib's army (2 K 1935 
2 Ch322i Isa373<3). In vv. 1-6 God is described 
as returning to His dwelling-place in Zion from 
the mountains where He has overthrown His 
adversaries. In vv. 7-9 another figure is in- 
troduced which represents God as uttering 
sentence from heaven upon His enemies, while 
the earth is hushed in silence. V. 10 explains 
how God gains glory even from the rebellious- 
ness of men, and vv. 11, 12 call the whole 
world to render Him the homage which is due 
to His terrible majesty. 

Title. — Neginoth] see on Ps4. 

2. Salem] Jerusalem. 3. Selah] see on 3 4 . 

4. More glorious . . than] RV ' glorious . . 
from.' Mountains of prey] God comes back 
like a lion from hunting and slaying His foes. 

8. Judgment] RV ' sentence.' io b . RV'the 
residue .. gird upon thee.' The spent and 
powerless anger of men is worn as an ornament 
by God, or becomes His sword by which they 
are destroyed. 

PSALM 77 

The Ps. records the writer's experience of 
personal perplexity and darkness, which, how- 
ever, has been caused by the contemplation of 
Israel's national distress. It may be dated 
appropriately in the time of the exile. Vv. 
1-3 describe the Psalmist's trouble, in which 
even prayer has brought no comfort. Vv. 4-9 
speak of his meditations on the brighter past, 
which lead to the question whether God has 
finally rejected His people. In vv. 10-20 
he turns for comfort to the story of God's 
wonderful works of old, and dwells especially 
upon His deliverance of Israel from Egypt 
(v. 15), His sublime manifestation of power at 
the Red Sea (vv. 16-19), and His guidance of 
His people through the wilderness (v. 20). At 
this point the Ps. comes to an abrupt close. 

Title. — Jeduthun] see on Ps39. 

1. Cried . . gave] RV ' will cry . . will give.' 

2. My sore ran] R V ' my hand was stretched 
out,' in the attitude of prayer. 3. Selah] see 
on 31 4 . Mine eyes waking] rather, 'the 
guards of my eyes.' The eyelids are kept from 
•losing. 6. My song in the night] a former 
time of happiness and praise : see Ps42 8 
Job 35 10. 

10. This is my infirmity] The Psalmist here 
recoil iscs thai his doubts are due to his own 
weaknessandnot to any change in God. io b . RM 
reada, ' Thai the righl hand of the Most High 
doth Change,' which may be taken as an ex- 
clamation, mentioning the idea only bo dismiss 
it as impossible, n. Remember] RV ' make 
mention <.f.' 12. Talk of ] RV'mnseon.' 

13. In the sanctuary] RV ' in holiness.' 

14. People] HX • people*.' 

15. The sons of Jacob and Joseph] Jacob re- 



78.9 



:wo 



presents the kingdom of Judah, and Joseph 
(father of Ephraim and Manasseh) the northern 
kingdom of Israel. The division of the nation 
is clearly hinted at : see on 80 1.2. 

16. The waters] the Red Sea : Ex 1421-31. 

17. Sound] thunder. Arrows] lightning. 

18. Heaven] RV 'whirlwind.' 19. Is., are] 
RV 'was . . were.' Footsteps . . not known] 
when the waters had returned to their place. 

PSALM 78 
This long historical Ps. may be compared 
with Pss 105, 106, and with Dt 32. It traces 
the course of God's relations with His people 
from the exodus down to the time of David, 
and dwells on the repeated manifestations of 
Israel's rebelliousness, on the chastisements by 
which they were visited, and on the patient 
mercy of God which continued to bless them 
in spite of all their sins. The Ps. does not 
follow a strict chronological order, but records 
first Israel's ingratitude for God's provision of 
food and drink in the wilderness (vv. 12-34), 
and afterwards the plagues of Egypt (vv. 
43-51), the journey to Canaan (vv. 52-55), the 
defections of Israel in the days of the Judges 
(vv. 56-58), the calamities of the Philistine 
wars (vv. 56-64), and the establishment of 
David's kingdom (vv. 65-72). While the con- 
duct of the whole nation is in view throughout 
the Ps. the tribe of Ephraim is singled out for 
special condemnation at the first (vv. 9-11), 
and emphasis is afterwards laid on its rejection 
in favour of Judah, and on the rejection of 
Shiloh in favour of Jerusalem as the national 
sanctuary (vv. 67-69). The date of the Ps. is 
subsequent to the building of the Temple (v. 69), 
but apparently before its destruction by the 
Babylonians. The phrase ' the Holy One of 
Israel ' (v. 41) is characteristic of Isaiah's pro- 
phecies (Isa6i3 10 ir 2923) ? and suggests that 
the Ps. was written in or after his time. The 
historical allusions are confined to the primi- 
tive narrative of the Pentateuch (JE), which 
was earlier than the exile. The references to 
Ephraim indicate a time after the disruption 
of the kingdom (1 K 12 2 Ch 10), but the object 
of the Ps. was probably not to rebuke Ephraim, 
but rather to warn the whole nation by re- 
calling the lessons of the past. 

1. Law] RM 'teaching.' 2. Parable] in 
the sense of ' didactic poem.' Dark sayings] 
lit, 'riddles.' The history of Israel is an 
enigma, requiring an explanation such as the 
Psalmist gives. These two words occur to- 
gether in 49 4 Provio Ezkl7 2 . The v. is 
quoted in Mtl334 )3 r> w ith reference to Christ's 
method of teaching by parables. 3, 4. The 
\ v. are roiinected. Read, -The things which 
we have heard . . we will not hide from their 
children' : cp. Dt4 !) 6" 11 ». 

9. This v. does not refer to a particular 



78. 12 



PSALMS 



80. 13 



incident, but is a general figurative description 
of Ephraim's opportunity and failure, antici- 
pating what is said in v. 67. Even before the 
revolt of Jeroboam Ephraim had shown a 
tendency to rivalry with Judah (2 S 19 41-20 22). 

12. Zoan] Tanis, a city in the Delta of the 
Nile : see v. 43. 18, 21. Cp. Ex 16, 17 Null. 

26. The wind that brought the quails (Nu 
ll 31 ). 29. Their own desire] RV 'that they 
lusted after.' 36, 37. There was no real 
change of heart. His covenant] see Ex 24 7. 

40. Provoke] RV 'rebel against.'" 

41. Limited] RV ' provoked.' 

43-51. The plagues in Egypt. 44. Floods] 
RV' streams.' 45. Divers sorts] RV 'swarms.' 

47. Frost] RM ' great hailstones.' 48. Hot 
thunderbolts] lightning (Ex 9 24). 49. By send- 
ing evil angels among them] RV 'a band of evil 
angels.' the disasters being personified as mes- 
sengers of God. 51. Tabernacles] RV 'tents.' 

Ham] or Kem, meaning ' black,' because of 
the soil, was the Egyptian name for Egypt. 

54. Sanctuary] the land of Canaan, as sacred 
to God. This mountain] the mountain land 
of Canaan: cp. Exl5 17 . 55. Heathen] RV 
'nations.' Divided . . an inheritance] see Josh 
13, etc. 

56-64. The reference is to the days of the 
Judges. 57. Unfaithfully] RV 'treacherously.' 

A deceitful bow] which causes the archer to 
miss the mark (Hos7 16 ). 60. Shiloh] see on 
Jgl83i lS13,24je r 7 12-14 266. 

61. Strength . . glory] the ark : see 1 S4. 

64. Priests] see 1 S 4 n . Made no lamenta- 
tion] In the perils of the time mourning rites 
could not be observed : see Job 27 X5 . 

65. For this bold figure cp. Isa42i 3 > 14 . 

66. In the hinder parts] RV ' backward.' 

67. Joseph . . Ephraim] Joseph was the 
father of Ephraim. Both names are used for 
the northern kingdom as a whole. Shiloh, 
where the ark had been, was in the territory 
of Ephraim. Now it was taken to Zion. 

69. High palaces] RV 'heights,' the heavens. 

Like the earth] firm as the earth. 71. Great 

with young] RV 'that give suck,' as in Isa40 n . 

PSALM 79 

For the occasion and date of this Ps. see 
intro. to Ps 74. It gives a pathetic picture of 
the calamities that have fallen upon God's 
people (vv. 1-4), entreats God to withdraw His 
anger from them, to forgive their sins, and to 
avenge them on the heathen (vv. 5-12), that 
they may give Him perpetual praise (v. 13). 

1. Jerusalem on heaps] This is truer of the 
Babylonian captivity than of the time of 
Antiochus Epiphanes. 6. Quoted from Jer 
10 25 . 8. Former iniquities] RV ' the iniquities 
of our forefathers,' which are regarded as justly 
punished by the present calamities. Prevent] 
in the Old English sense of w go before,' antici- 



pate our need. 9. Here as in Ps74 God's 
regard for His own glory is the Psalmist's 
chief plea. 

io b . RV ' Let the revenging of the blood of 
thy servants which is shed be known among 
the heathen in our sight.' 11. The sighing of 
the prisoner] Some of the people had been 
carried into captivity. 12. The prayer for 
vengeance expresses a moral sentiment less 
advanced than that of the NT. It springs, 
however, not from mere personal or national 
vindictiveness, but from a sincere religious 
indignation at the dishonour done to God's 



PSALM 80 

This Ps. is an appeal to God to save His 
people from the adversities that have come 
upon them, and have made them the laughing 
stock of their enemies (vv. 1-7). Their past 
history is recalled under the figure of a vine, 
once flourishing, but now wasted by wild beasts 
and fire (vv. 8-16). Special prominence is 
given to the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, and 
Benjamin (v. 2). The Ps. was probably written 
at least after the fall of the northern kingdom 
(721 B.C., 2K175,6 189-H), if not during the 
Babylonian exile. The Psalmist either be- 
longed to that kingdom or had a special 
sympathy with it in its misfortunes. After 
the kingdom of Israel came to an end its 
rivalry with Judah was largely forgotten, and 
the later prophets cherished the hope of a 
restoration which would embrace the whole 
nation (Jer3H-i 5 31 1-20 Ezk37i 5 " 28 ). 

Title. — Shoshannim-Eduth] see on Pss 45 
and 60. 

1. O Shepherd of Israel] a representation of 
God characteristic of the Asaphic Pss. (see 
Intro, to Book 3). Joseph] the father of Eph- 
raim and Manasseh. The name is applied to 
the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. Dwellest 
between, etc.] RV 'sittest upon the cherubim' : 
see Ex 25 20-22 Ezk 1 26 10 1. 2. Ephraim . . Ben- 
jamin . . Manasseh] These three tribes were 
the descendants of Rachel. They encamped 
together in the wilderness, and followed im- 
mediately after the tabernacle when Israel was 
marching (Nu 2 18-24). The Psalmist prays that 
they may be restored to their ancient place of 
favour. 3. This v. recurs as a refrain in vv. 
7, 19. Turn us again] bring us back from 
captivity. Cause thy face to shine] from 
Nu625. 

8. For the vine as an emblem of Israel see 
Isa 5 1-7 27 2 "6 Jer 2 21 Ezk 1 7 1-10. 1 1 . The sea] 
the Mediterranean on the W. The river] 
RV ' River ' : the Euphrates on the E. These 
were the ideal boundaries of Israel (Gnl5 18 
Ex233iDtll24p s 728) 5 w hich were reached 
for the time in the days of Solomon (IK 4 24). 

13. Boar .. wild beast (RV 'beasts')] 



361 



80. 15 



PSALMS 



;. 7 



Israel's enemies, especially, perhaps, the As- 
syrians. 15. Vineyard] RV 'stock' ; another 
reading gives k protect.' 16. They perish] The 
figure of the vine is dropped here. 

17. Let thy hand be upon] to protect. The 
man of thy right hand] the nation of Israel 
personified, with a special allusion to the name 
Benjamin, which means ' son of the right hand ' : 
see v. 15. Son of man] another expression for 
the nation in its human weakness : cp. the use 
of the phrase in Ezekiel (2 1 , etc.). 

18. Quicken] make alive, revive. 

PSALM 81 

After a summons to celebrate the Feast of 
Tabernacles (vv. 1-3) this Ps. recalls the mean- 
ing of Israel's national festivals as memorials 
of their deliverance from Egypt (vv. 4-7). 
From v. 6 onward God is the speaker. In 
vv. 8-10 He repeats His ancient command to 
Israel to worship Him alone, and in vv. 11, 12 
He tells of their disobedience and its con- 
sequences. The concluding vv. express His 
desire that Israel may now prove more loyal 
than of old, that He may bless them with 
victory over their enemies, and with all out- 
ward prosperity (vv. 13-16). There is nothing 
to fix the date of the Ps., except that the allu- 
sion to the feast in vv. 1-3 shows that either 
the first or the second Temple was in existence 
when it was written, and that vv. 14, 15 point 
to a time when Israel was confronted by 
enemies. It was after the return from the 
exile that the Feast of Tabernacles came into 
greatest prominence (Ezr3 4 NeliS 13 ' 17 Zech 

1416-19). 

Title.— Gittith] sec on Ps 8. 

3. In the time appointed] RV 'at the full 
moon.' The Feast of Tabernacles began on the 
15th day of the seventh month (Lv23 34 ), i.e. 
at full moon. The beginning of the same 
month (the new moon) was celebrated by the 
Feast of Trumpets (Lv 23 ~ 4 ). 5. He went out 
through] RV k he went over ' (RM ' against ') : 
op. Ex 13, etc. ' He ' refers to God. Where 1 
heard . . understood not] rather, k I heard the 
speech of one that 1 knew not,' i.e. of God. 
The Psalmist puts himself in the place of the 
a ncit ut Israelites, and thus introduces the words 
..t God which follow. Before bhe exodus God 
had bees unknown to Israel by His name 'I 

Am." or 'Jehovah ' (Ea 3 l: '-" 6 s " 8 ). 

6. Pots] KY 'basket.' Baskets for carry- 
ing bricks, eto», are often represented on the 
Egyptian monuments. 7. Secret place of 

thunder| the pillar of cloud and lire : see 
El 1 I '. Meribah] 'Strife': see Nu 20" 
Selah] see on 3*. 9. is a ((notation of the 

tirst commandment (Ex20 8 l>t .">"). 10. Open 
thy mouth, etc.] So Orientals feast their 
favoured guests. 12. And they walked] RV 
• that they mighl walk.' 



13-16. The verbs refer to the present — 
Would hearken . . would w^alk . . subdue . . turn 
. . submit . . endure . . feed . . satisfy. 15. The 
haters of the LORD] i.e. Israel's enemies. 

Unto him] probably means ' unto Israel.' 

PSALM 82 

This Ps. is an impeachment of unjust judges, 
who are officially called ' gods.' It represents 
them as put upon their trial at God's tribunal 
(v. 1). God Himself denounces their wicked- 
ness (v. 2), and reminds them of their duties 
(w. 3, 4). In v. 5 He declares that they are 
incorrigible, and in vv. 6, 7 pronounces sen- 
tence upon them. V. 8 is the Psalmist's own 
prayer that God may manifest His righteous 
judgment to all the nations. The date of the 
Ps. is quite uncertain. Oriental judges have 
been corrupt in all ages. 

1. Of the mig;hty] RV 'of God' (El). A 
heavenly assembly is meant, as in Job 1 6 2 1 
Zech 3. The gods] the judges of Israel, so 
called as the official representatives of God on 
earth. See Christ's explanation in Jnl0 34 > 36 . 

2. Accept] RV ' respect.' 3. Defend] RV 
' judge.' 5. They know not] The judges are 
deaf to reproof. Out of course] RV ' moved.' 
Injustice leads to the wreck of society. 6. See 
on v. 1 . 7. The v. contrasts the purely human 
fate of the unjust judges with the superhuman 
dignity of their calling. 

PSALM 83 

This Ps. describes a confederacy of God's 
enemies, the object of which is to attack and 
exterminate Israel (vv. 2-5). A list of the 
allies is given (vv. 6-8). The Psalmist appeals 
to God to interpose (v. 1), and to deal witli 
these hostile nations as He dealt with the 
Midianites (Jg 6-8) and the Canaanites (Jg 
4, 5) of old (vv. 9-12). Vv. 13-18 continue 
the prayer for their overthrow, in order that 
they may seek and acknowledge the true God. 
No historical occasion is known on which all 
the nations mentioned were leagued against 
Israel. The Ps. is connected by some with the 
in\ asion in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Oh 20), 
by others with the opponents of Nehemiah 
( Neb I 7 - s ), and by others st ill with the enemies 

of Judas Maccabeus (1 Mac 5). 

3. Thy hidden ones] those in God's pro 
fceotion : cp. '27 6 31-°. 5. Are confederate! 
RV 'make a covenant.' 6, 7. Edom . . 
Moab . . Ammon] The neighbours of Israel 00 
the St;, and B, 6. Tabernacles] RV l tents." 

Ishmaelites] wandering desert tribes. 

Hagarenes] or Eagrites, a nomadic tribe in 
the region E. of Gilead (1 Ch5 10 ). 7. Amalek] 
a tribe of the desert S. of Palestine. 

Gebal] a district of Edom, S. of the Dead 
Sea. The Philistines] RV 'Philistia,' between 
Palestine and the Mediterranean on the SW. 



362 



83.8 



PSALMS 



87. 



Tyre] a city and kingdom on the NW. sea 
board of Palestine. 

8. Assur] RV k Assyria.' This empire did 
not come into close contact with Israel till 
after the time of Jehoshaphat. After the 
fall of Assyria the name was used generally 
for the region of the East, even under the 
Persian kings (Ezr 6 22 ). The children of Lot] 
the Moabites and Ammonites (Gnl9 36 - 38 ) 
already mentioned, and apparently the leaders 
of the hostile combination. 

9. Sisera . . Jabin . . Kison] see Jg4, 5. 

10. En-dor] not mentioned in Jg4, 5, but 
it was in the locality referred to in Jg5 19 : see 
Joshl7 n . 11. Oreb, and. . Zeeb] the princes 
of Midian (Jg 7 25 ). Zebah, and . . Zalmunna] 
named as kings of Midian in Jg8 5 ' 21 . 13. A 
wheel] RV ' the whirling dust.' 15. Perse- 
cute] RV ' pursue.' 

PSALM 84 

This Ps. sets forth the attractiveness of the 
Temple and its worship (vv. 1-4), and the 
happiness of the pilgrims who gather to it 
from different parts of the land (vv. 5-7). 
After a prayer for God's favour (vv. 8, 9), 
it speaks of the privilege of the humblest 
office in the Temple (v. 10), and closes by 
describing the graciousness of God (v. 11), 
and the blessedness of trusting Him (v. 12). 
The Ps. belongs to a period when the Temple 
was standing, and when its services were regu- 
larly carried on. If v. 9 is a prayer for the 
king, it must be the first Temple that is in 
view. Pss 42, 43 have points of resemblance 
to this one, and may possibly be by the same 
author. 

Title.— Gittith] see on Ps 8. 
1. How amiable] RM 'how lovely,' and 
how lovable. 4. They that dwell in thy house] 
the priests and other Temple officials. 5. The 
ways of them'] RV ' the high ways to Zion? 
The reference is to Israelites whose hearts are 
set on the journey to Jerusalem. 6. Baca] RM 

: ' balsam trees,' which grow in dry situations. 
This fact gives the v. its point. The pilgrim 
heart finds refreshment even on thirsty ground. 
A well] RV ' a place of springs.' The rain . . 
pools] RV ' the early rain covereth it with 
blessings.' 7. From strength to strength] The 
pilgrimage brings no weariness, but the 

x opposite : see Isa40 31 , and cp. ' The Pilgrim's 

! Progress.' 

9. Our shield] This phrase may either refer 
to God (see v. 11) or to the king, in parallel- 

1 ism with ' thine anointed ' in the following 

j clause : see 89 18 RV. Look upon the face] 

1 regard with favour. Thine anointed] probably 

the king. Some suggest that the high priest 

or the nation as a whole may be meant. 

10. Better than a thousand] spent elsewhere. 
A doorkeeper] This was the special duty 



363 



of the sons of Korah, who are mentioned in 
the title of the Ps. (1 CM™). 

PSALM 85 

This Ps. looks back upon the mercy which 
God has shown to His people in bringing them 
back from captivity (vv. 1-3), entreats Him to 
remove the displeasure that has again fallen 
on them, and to deliver them from present trou- 
bles (vv. 4-7), and ends with a hopeful picture 
of the blessings that will follow the answering 
of the prayer (vv. 8-13). It evidently belongs 
to a time soon after the return from the 
Babylonian exile — either the days of dis- 
couragement before the building of the second 
Temple (Ezr 4 4, 5, 24 Hag 1 Zech 1 12-21), or the 
period of Nehemiah (Neh 1 3 ). The Ps. is one 
of those for Christmas Day. 

2. Selah] see on 3 4 . 9. That glory may 
dwell] The reference is to the Shechinah, the 
symbol of God's presence. 

10, 11. Mercy .. truth, etc.] These char- 
acteristics, which are thus personified, are, first 
of all, attributes of God, but they are also to 
be reflected in the lives of His people. This is 
shown by the mention of earth as well as 
heaven in v. 11. 12. Material prosperity 
will accompany spiritual blessings. 13. Set 
us . . steps] RV l make his footsteps a way to 
walk in.' 

PSALM 86 

This is a Ps. of general supplication for 
help in trouble, and breathes a devout spirit 
of gratitude and confidence towards God. 
Specially remarkable is the hope of v. 9 that 
God will be universally worshipped. The Ps. 
is made up of quotations from other Pss. and 
portions of the OT., and is to be dated after 
the return from the exile. 

1. Hear] RV 'answer.' Poor and needy] 
see 40 17 70 5 . 2. Preserve my soul, etc.] see 
2520. Holy] RV ' godly ' ; rather, ' one whom 
thou favQurest.' 3. Daily] RV 'all the day 
long.' 4. See 25 1. 7. See 50 15 . 8. See Ex 
15 11 Dt324. 9. See 2227-31. II# g ee 26 3 
27 n . Unite my heart] deliver me from divided 
purposes and affections. 

13. The lowest hell] RM ' Sheol beneath,' 
the state of the dead : see 56 13 . 14. See 54 3. 

Assemblies] R V ' congregation ' : see 22 16 . 

15. SeeEx34<3. 16. See 25^. 

The son of thine handmaid] another phrase 
for 'thy servant' : see 116 16 . 

PSALM 87 

This Ps. expands the thought of Ps86 9 . 
Zion is the chosen dwelling of God (vv. 1-3), 
the spiritual birthplace of the other nations 
(vv. 4-6), and the source of joy to them all 
(v. 7). In v. 4 God is the speaker. The men- 
tion of Babylon as no longer an enemy of 



87. 1 



PSALMS 



Israel, but as receiving spiritual blessing from 
Zion, shows that the Ps. was written after the 
bitter experience of the captivity was over. 

i. His foundation] i.e. God's. The holy 
mountains] the hills on which Jerusalem stood. 

2. Zion] Jerusalem. The dwellings of 
Jacob] other cities of Judah. 3. Selah] see on 
3 4 . 4. Rahab] Egypt : see Isa30? 51 9 Ps89 10 . 

To them that know me] RV l as among them 
that know me.' This man] RV 'this one,' 
this nation. So in v. 6. 5. This and that 
man] RV ' this one and that one.' This and 
that nation shall be converted to God. 

6. People] RV 'peoples.' God is repre- 
sented as making a register of the nations 
which have been born into His kingdom. 

7 a . RV 'They that sing as well as they 
that dance shall say.' The nations which have 
been born again will rejoice in their new con- 
nexion with Zion, and will address her 
accordingly. y h . Springs] RV 'fountains.' 

PSALM 88 

This is the saddest and most despairing of 
all the Pss. The writer is apparently the 
victim of some incurable disease like leprosy, 
with which he has been afflicted from his youth 
(v. 15), and which cuts him off from the society 
of men (vv. 8, 18). His life is already a living 
death (vv. 3-6), and beyond death he has no 
hope (vv. 10-12). He traces his trouble to 
God's displeasure (vv. 7, 14, 16), yet it is to 
God that he turns in pathetic appeal for relief 
(vv. 1, 2, 9, 13). Nothing is known as to his 
identity, or as to the date of the Ps. 

Title.— Mahalath] see on Ps53. Leannoth] 
may mean k for singing.' Heman] see 1 K43i. 

3. The grave] RV ' Sheol,' the under- world 
of the dead. 4 Strength] RV 'help.' 5. Free] 
RV ' cast off.' 6. Pit . . darkness (RV ' dark 
places ') . . deeps] expressions for Sheol. 

9. Mourneth] RV 'wasteth away.' 11. In 
destruction] RV l in Destruction.' The Heb. 
is Abaddon, used as a proper name fcr Sheol : 
see Job 26 6 2822 3112 p r0 vl5U 27 2 ° Rev9 n . 

13. Prevent] RV 'come before. 17. Daily] 
RV ' all the day long.' 

PSALM 89 

We have here another national and historical 
Ps., written when the Jewish kingdom and its 
king had fallen very low before their enemies, 
contrasting the promisee made to David with 
their Beeming lack of fulfilment in the course 
of events, and appealing to God to vindicate 
His faithfulness. Vv. 1-4 are introductory, 
announcing the Psalmist's purpose of praising 
God, and recalling the covenant made with 
David. 'I'Im following vv. celebrate God's 
glory among His heavenly hosts (w. 5-7), in 
His victory over His enemies, especially Egypt 
(vv. 8-10), and in the world of nature (vv. 11, 



89.38 



364 



12). Vv. 13, 14 declare His attributes of 
strength, righteousness, mercy, and truth, and 
vv. 15-18 speak of the blessedness of His 
people and their king. His promises to David 
are repeated at length (vv. 19-37), and the 
present humiliation of king and people are 
graphically described (vv. 38-45). The closing 
vv. are a prayer, in which the Psalmist pleads 
the shortness of his own life, and the re- 
proaches of the heathen, as reasons for a 
speedy manifestation of God's faithfulness to 
His word (vv. 46-51). V. 52 is the closing 
doxology of Book 3 of the Psalter. The Ps. 
was probably written during the exile, and it 
has been supposed that the king of vv. 39-45 
is Jehoiachin, who was deposed and carried 
away to Babylon in his youth, after a reign of 
three months (2 K 24 8-12 2Ch36 9 -u Jer24i 
29 2 ), and kept a prisoner there for thirty-seven 
years (2K25 27 ). 

Title.— Maschil] see on Ps 32. Ethan the 
Ezrahite] mentioned in 1 K 4 31 and 1 Ch 2 6. 

3, 4. God is here the speaker : see on vv. 
19-37. Selah] see on 3 4 . 5. Congregation 
of the saints] RV ' assembly of the holy ones.' 
The angels are meant. 6. Sons of the mighty] 
angels : see 29 1. 7. Assembly of the saints] 
RV ' council of the holy ones,' as in v. 5. Had 
in reverence of] RV l feared above.' 8. Or to 
thy faithfulness] RV ' and thy faithfulness is.' 

10. Rahab] Egypt : see on 87 4 . 12. Tabor 
and Hermon] the most prominent mountains 
of Palestine. 14. Justice] RV ' righteousness.' 

Habitation] RV ' foundation.' 15. The joy- 
ful sound] perhaps the sound of trumpets on 
the occasion of Israel's national and religious 
rejoicing. 17. Our horn] see 75 4 >!0. 18. RV 
' For our shield belongeth unto the Lord ; and 
our king to the Holy One of Israel.' The 
' shield ' is the same as the ' king,' who is under 
God's protecting care. 

19. In vision] 2S7 1 *. Thy holy one] RV 
' thy saints,' the nation of Israel. I have laid 
help, etc.] I have given a brave man My aid 
to defend Israel. 

19-37. are a poetical expansion of 2S78-16. 

22. Exact upon him] RM ' do him violence.' 

25. In . . in] RV ' on . . on ' : see on 80 n . 

27. My firstborn] The position formerly 
given to the nation (Ex 4-) is lure assigned 
to its king. 30 f . The promises of the past are 
recalled in view of the sad present, [srael 
had suffered for his sins. Should he not be 
restored? 37. And as the faithful witness, 
etc.] The meaning is uncertain. The 'faith 
ful witness " may be the moon, or we may read, 
'and the witness in the sky (God) is faithful.' 

38. Abhorred] RV 'rejected.' Thine anointed] 
Israel's king. A particular individual, pro- 
bal.lv Jehoiachin, seems to be in view in this 
and the following vv., though they may also 
be understood of the nation as a whole. 



89. 39 



PSALMS 



90. 17 



39. Made void] EV 'abhorred.' 40. The 
thought passes from the king to the nation. 
For the figure cp. 80 12 . 45. The days of 
his youth] a phrase specially appropriate to 
Jehoiachin. 46. Shall] RY ' how long shall.' 

47. Wherefore . . in vain ?] RY k For what 



vanity hast thou created all the children of 
men ! ' 48. Hand of the grave] RY ' power of 
Sheol.' 50. People] RY ' peoples,' the enemies 
of Israel. 

52. The doxology marks the close of Book 
3:cp. 4113 7218.19. 



BOOK 4 (Psalms 90-106) 



The Pss. in this book, as in that which 
follows, are mostly of comparatively late date, 
and suitable for use in the worship of the 
sanctuary. 

The two books seem to have been conjoined 
at one time, and to have formed the third 
great division of the Psalter. In the 17 Pss. 
of Book 4 several smaller groups or collections 
are to be distinguished. Pss 93, 95-100 are 
called the ' theocratic ' Pss., because they cele- 
brate God as King, finding in the restoration 
of Israel from Babylon the evidence of His 
rule over the world. These Pss. are probably 
to be dated soon after that event, when it was 
still the one thought in men's minds. Pss 90, 
91, 94 and 102 probably belong to the exile, 
as their language suggests such a time of 
national humiliation and sorrow. Pss 103 and 
104 go together, and are probably by one 
author, who belonged to the period of the 
return. Pss 105 and 106 form a pair of about 
the same date. The whole book is ' Jehovistic ' 
in its use of the divine name. 

The Pss. of the fourth book may be classified 
thus, the divisions necessarily overlapping one 
another : (a) Penitential Pss., 90, 91, 94, 102 ; 
(6) Pss. of Thanksgiving, 92, 93, 95-100, 
103-106 ; (c) National Pss., 94, 97, 99, 102, 
105, 106 ; (d) Historical Pss., 105, 106 ; (e) a 
Gnomic Ps., 101. 

Most of the Pss. in this book are anonymous, 
but Pss 101 and 103 are ascribed by their titles 
to David. LXX, however, also gives as 
Davidic Pss 91, 93-99, 101, 103 and 104. 

There are definite references to the Temple 
worship in several of these Pss., indicating 
that the sacred building was restored to per- 
mit of the sacrifices being offered and public 
worship performed. The musical service was 
rendered with instrumental accompaniments 
(98 5 > 6 ) ; the people were called upon to join 
in praise (95 x 96 1 98 M) and kneel in prayer 
(95 6 ) ; offerings were to be made in the courts 
of the Temple (96 8 ). 

The Messianic hope appears in this book in 
the form of an expectation of Jehovah's 
coming in judgment. This was strengthened, 
if not wholly suggested, by the restoration 
from captivity, in which the pious Israelites 
saw the beginning of that coming. The people 
were led to look for a still greater day when 
their enemies would be finally overthrown, and 



the faith of those who had trusted in God 
would be completely justified (see Pss 96-98). 

PSALM 90 

The title of this Ps. (A Prayer of Moses 
the man of God) ascribes it to Moses, but 
several considerations have been pointed out 
which suggest a later date for its composition. 
The average length of life in the time of 
Moses is supposed to have been greater than 
that mentioned in v. 10 (Dt 34 7 Josh 24 29 ). 
Israel's national life seems not to be just 
beginning, but to have lasted already for many 
generations (v. 1). The recent past has been 
a time of calamity rather than of deliverance 
(v. 15). The Ps. contains resemblances to 
the book of Deuteronomy, which is now gener- 
ally regarded as much later than the time of 
Moses, and these resemblances may have 
suggested the title. At the same time, there 
is much in the Ps. which is consistent with 
the title, and some scholars still maintain 
its Mosaic authorship. If not written by 
Moses it may most probably be assigned to 
the exile. The Ps. contrasts the eternity of 
God with the transience of human life (vv. 
1-6), traces the brevity and troublousness of 
man's existence to God's displeasure with sin 
(vv. 7-12), and ends with a prayer for God's 
forgiveness and favour (vv. 13-17). It is 
appropriately used in the Burial Service. 

1. See Dt 32 7. 2. Mountains] see Dt33i 5 . 

3. Return] to dust (Gen3 19 ). 4. A watch 
in the night] of which the sleeper is unconsci- 
ous. There were three night-watches among 
the Israelites (Lam2i9 Jg7 1 9 1 Sll 11 ). 

5. They are as a sleep] or, ' they fall asleep ' 
in death, g. Spend] RY ' bring to an end.' 

As a tale that is told] RM ' as a sigh,' a 
breath. 

10. Their strength] RY 'their pride.' 

n b . RY 'and thy wrath according to the 
fear that is due unto thee ? ' Who under- 
stands Thine anger against sin so as to give 
Thee fitting and holy reverence ? 

12. Apply . . wisdom] RY ' get us an heart 
of wisdom': see Dt5 29 32 29 . 13. Repent] 
see Dt3236. 

14. Early] RY ' in the morning.' 15. Ac- 
cording to] i.e. in proportion to. 17. The 
work of our hands] The phrase occurs in 
Deuteronomy seven times. 



365 



91. 1 



PSALMS 



95. 



PSALM 91 

This Ps. describes the safety of those who 
trust in God, and may have a special reference 
to the nation of Israel at a time when other 
nations were involved in calamity. The 
dangers that threatened Babylon towards the 
end of the exile have been suggested as a 
probable occasion for it. The Psalmist some- 
times speaks in the first person (vv. 1, 2, 9), 
and sometimes addresses his promises to the 
godly man, or to the nation, in the second 
person (vv. 3-8, 9-13). God Himself is the 
speaker in vv. 14-16. 

i. Secret place] covert. Shadow] the 
shelter which a mother-bird gives her brood, 
as in v. 4: see 17 8 . 3. And . . pestilence] LXX 
' from the destroying word,' the snare being 
explained as malicious speech: see 38 12 . 
'Pestilence' comes later, in v. 6. 5. The 
terror, etc.] assaults by night, as compared 
with attacks by day. 6. Destruction] plague. 
Pestilence and Plague are here personified : see 
2 S 24 16, 17 i sa 37 36. 9 . Because . . refuge] K V 
' For thou, Lord, art my refuge ! ' Even 
. . habitation] RV ' Thou hast made the Most 
High thy habitation.' II, 12. These vv. are 
quoted in the accounts of our Lord's tempta- 
tion (Mt 4 6 Lk 4 10). 13. Dragon] RV serpent.' 

PSALM 92 

This is a Ps. of praise, called forth by 
some special manifestation of God's loving- 
kindness. This general theme is set forth in 
vv. 1-4. Vv. 5-11 contain reflections on the 
meaning of God's works, a meaning which is 
hidden from the foolish (v. 6). The wicked 
seem to flourish only that they may be destroyed 
(v. 7). God is supreme, and His enemies must 
perish (vv. 8, 9). This has been proved in 
the experience of the Psalmist, or of the nation 
for which he speaks (vv. 10, 11). Vv. 12-15 
describe the abiding prosperity and blessedness 
of the righteous. The Ps. contains no definite 
indication of date, but it may most probably 
be taken as a song of the return from exile. 

4. Works] doings — a different word from 
'work' in the same v. 7, 8. refer to a defi- 
nite event which the Psalmist has in view. 
Read, v <li«l spring . . did flourish . . it was that 
they might be,' etc. 10. Shalt . . exalt] RV 
• 1 1 : 1 - 1 exalted. 1 Unicorn] RV ' wild-ox.' 

Shall be] RV 'am.' IX. Shall see . . shall 
hear] RV ' hath seen . . have heard.' 

13, 14. The righteous arc compared to trees 
in Dm; Temple courts. 14. Fat and flourish- 
ing] RV ' full of sap and green.' 

PSALM 93 

This I's.. along with !'>•> 95 LOO, celebrates 
God as King. The thought which is common 
to this whole group seems to have been 



awakened by a national deliverance, which was 
probably the return from the Babylonian 
captivity. The present Ps. is brief, and speaks 
of God's sovereign rule, His majesty and 
strength (v. 1), the eternity and steadfastness 
of His royal throne (v. 2), His supremacy 
above the waves of the sea (vv. 3, 4), and 
the holiness of His Temple (v. 5). 

1. The world . . is (or, ' shall be ') stablished] 
see 75 3 82 5 . God's rule is the security of all 
moral order in the world. 3, 4. The floods 
and waves are emblems of the heathen nations. 

4. Noise] RV ' voices.' 

PSALM 94 

This is a national Ps., written at a time 
when Israel was oppressed by foreign enemies. 
It may be connected either with the days of 
the exile or with some later period of national 
distress. The opening w. appeal to God to 
show Himself as judge of the earth (vv. 1, 2). 
The misdeeds of the oppressors are next de- 
scribed (vv. 3-7), and a rebuke is addressed to 
certain Israelites who were tempted to give 
up their faith in God (vv. 8-11). The next 
vv. speak of the blessings of adversity (vv. 
12, 13), and the certainty that God will not 
forsake His people (vv. 14, 15). The Psalmist 
has found in God his only refuge and comfort 
(vv. 16-19), and concludes his Ps. with the 
conviction that He will overthrow the wicked 
(vv. 20-23). 

I. Shew thyself] RV ' Shine forth.' 2. A 
reward] RV ' their desert.' 4. How long, 
etc.] RV ' They prate, they speak arrogantly,* 
etc. The v. is a statement, not a question. 

7. The oppressors not only injure Israel, 
but despise Israel's God. 

8. Understand] RV ' consider.' Brutish . . 
fools] These words refer to Israelites who are 
tempted to adopt the heathen point of view. 

9. 10. These vv. form an argument for the 
knowledge and effectual government of God. 

10. Heathen] RV 'nations.' Shall not h< 
know f] These words are supplied to complete 
the sense. The Psalmist breaks off his argu- 
ment abruptly. 11. This v. is quoted with 
some modification in lCor3 20 . 14. The first 
clause is quoted in Roll' 2 . 15. Return unto 
righteousness] shall again be just. 17. Almost] 
RV 'soon.' Silence] the grave, or Sheol. 

PSALM 95 

This Ps. (the ' Venite,' 'Invitatory Psalm ') 
consists of a call to praise God as King, as the 
Creator of the world, and the Shepherd of His 
people (vv. 1-7), followed by a warning against 
unbelief, drawn from the fate of the rebellious 
Israelites in the wilderness (vv. 7-11). There 
is nothing to mark its date, but like the other 
Pss. of the same group it may be referred to 
the days of the return from Babylon. 



366 



95.4 



PSALMS 



100. 3 



4. Strength of the hills] RV ' heights of the 
mountains.' 7. If ye will] RV ' Oh that ye- 
would.' 8. In the provocation] RV ' at Meri- 
bah' (Nu20 13 ). Temptation] RV ' Massah ' 
(Ex 17 7). 

7-1 1. These vv. are quoted in Heb3 7 - n , and 
are the basis of the argument that follows. 

PSALM 96 

This is a triumphant song of praise to God 
(vv. 1-3), contrasting His power and glory 
with the nothingness of the heathen- idols (vv. 
4-6), calling all the earth to worship Him (vv. 
7-9), exulting in His rule (v. 10), and calling 
all nations to rejoice in the prospect of His 
coming in judgment (vv. 11—13). The tone of 
the Ps. is closely akin to that of Isa 40-66, and 
was in all likelihood inspired by the deliver- 
ance from exile. The existence of the second 
Temple will then be implied in vv. 6, 8. This 
Ps. has been wrought into the composite poem 
of lChl6S-36. 

3. Heathen] RV ' nations.' So in v. 10. 

People] RV ' peoples ' So in w. 7, 10, 13. 

9. The beauty of holiness] RM ' holy array.' 

13. God's judgment is welcomed and not 
feared, for it means the deliverance of His 
people and the overthrow of their enemies. 

PSALM 97 

This is another ' theocratic ' Ps., declaring 
how God has taken vengeance on His enemies 
in a way to which all nature responded (w. 
2-6), denouncing idols and their worshippers 
(v. 7), expressing the joy of the cities of Israel 
at His judgments (w. 8, 9), calling His people 
to hate evil (v. 10) and to share the gladness 
which ought to be their portion (vv. 11, 12). 
The Ps. is a ' mosaic ' of phrases from other 
Scriptures, and, like the preceding Pss., is 
probably to be referred to the end of the 
exile. 

1. Isles] the coastlands beyond Palestine, 
an expression for the Gentile world. 2. What- 
ever may be mysterious about God's rule, it is 
certainly founded on righteousness : see 89 14 . 

3. See 188. 4. See77ie-i8. 5. See Jg 5 5. 

8. Zion] Jerusalem. Daughters of Judah] 
the other cities of the land : see 48 n . 9. See 
83 18 . 11. Light is sown] A more probable 
reading is, ' light hath arisen.' 12. At . . holi- 
ness] RV ' to his holy name,' this being the 
true meaning of ' remembrance ' or ' memorial ' : 
see 32ii 394. 

PSALM 98 

This Ps. closely resembles Ps 96, especially 
in its beginning and ending, and is to be 
referred to the same occasion. It celebrates 
a deliverance which God has wrought for 
Israel in the sight of all the earth (vv. 1-3), 
summons all men (vv. 4-6), and all nature 



(vv. 7-9) to praise Him. V. 6 proclaims Him 
as King, and v. 9 anticipates with gladness 
His coming to judge the world. 

2. Heathen] RV ' nations.' 5. A psalm] 
RV 'melody': see Isa51 3 . 9. People] RV 
' peoples' : see 96 13 . 

PSALM 99 

This Ps. is like the preceding ones in the 
prominence it gives to God's Kingship, and no 
doubt belongs to the same period with them. 
God's holiness, too, is emphasised in the refrain 
of vv. 3, 5, 9. The Ps. begins with a call to 
worship God with the awe and reverence 
which are due to Him (vv. 1-3). His righteous 
rule in Israel is a reason for repeating the 
summons (vv. 4, 5). The history of His 
dealings with His people from the days of 
Moses and Aaron to the time of Samuel is 
summed up (vv. 6-8). V. 9 is almost a repe- 
tition of v. 5, and implies that the Temple has 
been restored. 

1. People] RV 'peoples.' So in v. 2. 

Betiveen the cherubims] RV 'upon the 
cherubim' : see on 80 1. 2. Zion] The Temple 
at Jerusalem is God's dwelling and the seat 
of His rule. 3. For it is holy] RV ' holy is 
he.' 4. The king] God : see v. 1. 5. His 
footstool] The ark is so called in lCh28 2 , 
but if this Ps. was written after the exile the 
ark cannot be directly referred to here. The 
language may be a survival of an earlier usage. 

For he is holy] RV ' holy is he,' as in v. 3. 

6-8. These vv. may be taken as an illustra- 
tion from the past of the principle on which 
God still deals with His people, or they may 
be translated by present tenses, as referring to 
the intercessors in Israel whose prayers God 
has answered in the deliverance from captivity, 
and who are figuratively called ' A Moses . . 
a Samuel.' 8. Both in the past and in the 
Psalmist's time God has shown at once His 
hatred of sin and His forgiving love to His 
people. Inventions] RV 'doings.' 

PSALM 100 
This famous Ps. (the 'Jubilate,' 'Old 
Hundredth') does not give God the title of 
King, but its contents are otherwise so similar 
to those of the previous 'theocratic' Pss. 
that it is naturally grouped along with them 
both as to subject and date. It calls the 
world to worship God (vv. 1, 2), describes 
Him as the Creator and Shepherd of His 
people (v. 3), points to the second Temple as 
the seat of His service (v. 4), and closes 
with an ascription of praise which was often 
repeated in post-exilic worship (v. 5). 

3. Us] refers specially to Israel, ye being 
addressed to the nations : see v. 1. And not 
we ourselves] RV 'and we are his.' The 
sheep of his pasture] see 95 7 , and the 



367 



100. 5 



PSALMS 



104.4 



'Asaphic' Pss. (73-83). 5. Is everlasting-] 
EV 'endureth for ever': see 1 Ch 1634,41 
2Ch73-6 2021 Ezr3H Psl06i 1071 1181-4 136, 
138 8 , etc. The Chronicler evidently trans- 
poses into earlier times Pss. which were written 
after the exile, and the same thing appears to 
be the case with this formula of praise. 

PSALM 101 

This Ps. is the prayer of a ruler, apparently 
of a king. Many scholars believe that the 
title which ascribes its authorship to David is 
correct, and connect it with David's desire to 
have the ark brought from the house of Obed- 
edom to Jerusalem (2 S 6 6_19 ). Others suppose 
it to have been written by flezekiah, Josiah, 
or one of the Maccabees. The writer first 
utters his resolves as to his personal life and 
conduct (vv. 1-4), and then announces his 
purpose of choosing his servants only from 
among the upright, and of discouraging and 
exterminating all forms of wickedness (v v. 5-8). 

2. When wilt thou come unto me ?] This 
interjected phrase may refer to David's longing 
for the presence of God, as symbolised by the 
ark, in his capital. 4. Not know a wicked 
persori] RY ' know no evil thing.' 7. Tarry 
in my sight] RY l be established before mine 
eyes.' 8. Early] RY ' morning by morning.' 

PSALM 102 

This Ps. belongs to the closing days of the 
exile, and utters the hope of Israel's restora- 
tion (vv. 13-22). The Psalmist has been 
supposed by some to speak simply in the name 
of the nation, but it is more probable that he 
describes his personal distress, though this 
was caused by the captivity and humiliation 
of his people. In v. 14 he speaks of his 
fellow-countrymen in the plural, and his 
shrinking from premature death (vv. 11, 23, 
24) breathes a distinctly personal note. He 
is wasted away with lonely sorrow (vv. 1-7, 9), 
mocked by enemies (v. 8), and conscious that 
his affliction is a token of God's displeasure 
(v. 10). But the eternity and changelessness 
of God are the ground of his hope (vv. 12, 
24-28) both for himself and for the whole of 
God's people. 

3. Like smoke] RM ' in smoke.' An 
hearth] RV 'a firebrand.' 5. Skin] RV 
'flesh.' 6, 7. describe figuratively the 
Psalmist's mournful love of solitude. 

6. Desert] RY 'waste places.' 8. Are 
sworn against me] RY ' do curse by me,' the 
Literal meaning of 'execrate.' 10. Lifted., 
up . . cast down] RV ' taken . . up . . cast away.' 

11. That declineth] that vanishes when the 
--iin Bets. 12. Remembrance] \i\ 'memorial,' 
i.e. name: see Lam5 w . 13. Favour] RV 
' have pity upon.' So in v. 14. The set time] 
see Isa-in- CI '. 



15. Heathen] RY 'nations.' 16, 17. Shall 
build . . appear . . regard . . despise] R V k hath 
built . . appeared . . regarded . . despised.' 

18. The people] RY 'a people.' The 
restored Israel will be a new nation. 

19. His sanctuary] heaven, as the parallelism 
shows. 21. To declare] RY ' that men may 
declare.' 22. People] RY 'peoples.' 

25-27. Quoted in Heb 1 10-12. 27, 28. The 
changelessness of God is a guarantee that 
His kingdom will endure among men. This is 
an argument for national rather than for per- 
sonal immortality. For the higher Christian 
truth see JnU 1 ^ 

PSALM 103 

In this Ps. the hope of the previous one has 
been fulfilled, and sorrow has given place to 
thanksgiving. Its probable date is soon after 
the return from exile. The Psalmist utters 
his personal gratitude and praise (vv. 1-5), and 
tells how God has shown to Israel in his own 
day the same power and grace which He showed 
in the days of Moses (vv. 6-12). Special 
emphasis is laid on God's fatherly pity for His 
people in their frailty, and on the eternity of 
His mercy as shown to generation after genera- 
tion (vv. 13-18). An ascription of praise to 
God as the universal King, in which all His 
angels and all His works are called to join, 
closes the Ps. (vv. 19-22). 

5. See Isa 40 31 . The eagle's strength seemed 
to indicate perpetual youth. 6. Righteousness 
and judgment] RY l righteous acts and judg- 
ments,' i.e. deliverances. 17. Expresses the 
same assurance as 102 23 " 28 . 19. Prepared] 
RY ' established.' 21. Ministers] servants, 
referring to the angels. 

PSALM 104 

This is a Ps. of Nature, celebrating God's 
glory as seen in His works both inanimate and 
animate. It is an expansion of the closing vv. 
of Ps 103, and like that Ps. begins and ends 
with the phrase, k Bless the Lord, my soul ! ' 
The two Pss. are probably the work of the 
same author. Psl04 follows to some extent 
the order of the creation-poem in Gnl. and 
may be compared also with Job 38-41. Yv. 
5-9, 19 speak of the creation of the world. 
but the greater part of the Ps. describes its 
present condition and arrangements, which need 
not be analysed in detail. The closing vv. 
consist of an ascription of praise (vv. .'51 34), 
and a prayer for the destruction of the wicked 
(v. 35). 

3. Chambers] lit. 'upper chambers': see 
Ain'.i' 1 . The waters referred to are those 
above the firmament (Gnl' Psl48 4 ), which 
are the BOnrce of rain: see v. 13. Wings of 
the wind] see 18 10 . 

4. His angels spirits] read either, 'his angels 



368 



; 



104.7 



PSALMS 



INTRO. 



winds,' or ' winds his messengers' (RY). The 
former rendering is the more natural, is parallel 
to that of the next clause, and is adopted in 
Hebl 7 , where the v. is quoted. The latter 
reading seems to give a simpler sense, but the 
other is quite intelligible also. As God mani- 
fests His own glory in the universe, so He 
manifests the power of His angels in the winds 
and the lightning. 7-9. These vv. are parallel 
to Gnl 9 ' 10 . God's command to the waters is 
conceived as having been uttered in thunder 
(v. 7). 16. Full of sap] RY ' satisfied,' as in 
v. 13. 19. See Gnl 14 - 18 . 22. Gather them- 
selves together] RY ' get them away.' 

25. -So is this great and wide sea] RV 
' Yonder is the sea, great and wide.' Things 
creeping, etc.] or, ' things moving,' etc. : see 
Gnl 21 . 26. Leviathan] see Job 41, where the 
crocodile is referred to. Here a sea-monster 
is meant. 31. The glory . . shall endure . . the 
LORD shall rejoice] RV ' Let the glory . . en- 
dure . . let the Lord rejoice.' 34. My medita- 
tion of him shall be sweet] RY ' Let my medi- 
tation be sweet unto him': see 19 14 . 35. The 
point of the Psalmist's prayer is that evil may 
be banished from the world, though he identi- 
fies sin with sinners, and seems to include their 
destruction in his wish. Praise ye the LORD] 
This sentence should probably be read as the 
beginning of the next Ps. 

PSALM 105 

This Ps. and the following one form a closely 
connected pair, and may be looked on as by 
the same author. From the closing vv. of 
Ps 106 it appears that they were written after 
the first return from exile had taken place, 
but while many Israelites were still scattered 
among the heathen. Both Pss. are partly 
wrought into the composite poem in lChl6. 
Ps 105 is a song of thanksgiving, recalling with 
gratitude God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob (vv. 8-12), His guidance of Israel 
into Egypt, with special reference to the history 
of Joseph (vv. 13-23), His goodness to them 
there in the days of oppression (vv. 24, 25), 
His deliverance wrought through Moses and 
Aaron by means of the plagues (vv. 26-38), 



His mercies in the wilderness*(vv. 39-41), and 
finally His gift of Canaan to His people in 
fulfilment of His ancient promise (vv. 42-45). 

1. People] RY ' peoples.' So in vv. 20, 44. 

14. Kings] Pharaoh (Gnl2 1 7), and Abime- 
lech (Gn20 17 > 18 ). 15. Anointed] a phrase not 
literally applicable to the patriarchs, but used 
by the Psalmist because they were the heads 
of the nation, like the kings of later times. 

Prophets] Abraham is so called in Gn 20 ?. 

19. His word] Joseph's interpretation of the 
butler's and baker's dreams (Gn40 20-22 ). 

28-36. The ninth plague is placed first, the 
third and fourth are transposed, and the fifth 
and sixth are omitted. 31. Divers sorts] RY 
' swarms.' Coasts] RY ' borders.' So in v. 33. 

44. Heathen] RY ' nations.' Inherited] RY 
' took in possession.' 45. Praise ye the LORD] 
see on 10435. Psl05, like Psl06, probably 
begins and ends with ' Hallelujah.' 

PSALM 106 

As Ps 105 gives thanks for God's goodness, 
so Psl06 confesses Israel's sin and acknow- 
ledges God's mercy, both being illustrated in 
an historical retrospect from the deliverance 
from Egypt down to the return from captivity: 
cp. Ps78 Ezk20. 

1. See on 100 5 . 7. Provoked him] RY ' were 
rebellious.' So in vv. 33, 43. 8. For his 
name's sake] see Ezk 20 14 . 26. Lifted up his 
hand] sware. To overthrow] RY ' that he 
would overthrow.' So in v. 27. 28. See Nu25 2 
Hos 9 10 . The dead] the lifeless heathen gods. 

29. Inventions] RY ' doings.' So in v. 39. 

32. Strife] RY'Meribah': see 95 8 . 

34. Nations] RY 'peoples.' Concerning 
whom] RY ' as.' 35. Were mingled] RY ' min- 
gled themselves.' Heathen] RY ' nations.' So 
in vv. 41, 47. 37. Devils] RY 'demons': 
see Dt32 17 . 46. Implies the return from 
captivity. 

48. This doxology concludes Book 4 of the 
Psalter, but appears at the same time to have 
been an original part of Psl06. Let all the 
people say, etc.] A direction to guide the people 
in worship. 1 Ch 16 36 shows how it was carried 
out. 



BOOK 5 (Psalms 107-150) 



This book, which seems originally to have 
been joined with Book 4, contains forty-four 
Pss., the vast majority of which are of late 
date. The contents of these Pss. are a surer 
guide to the period to which they belong than 
is the case in the other books, as many of them 
give either direct references or unmistakable 
hints regarding experiences of the exile or 
the return. Thus Psl07 10 - 16 refers to the 
years of captivity, as does also Psl37. Other 
Pss., such as 126, refer to the joy of the 



return, and others still, e.g. 132, are prompted 
by the rebuilding of the Temple. 

The feature of this book which is most 
marked is its liturgical character. Many 
(though not all) of the Pss. contained in it are 
not individualistic but congregational, and bear 
traces of having been composed for use in 
public worship. Pssll5 9 - 18 116 12 " 19 118, 135 
and 136 may be cited as good illustrations. 
Many smaller groups have been incorporated 
in this book, and can be easily recognised. The 



24 



369 



107. 1 



PSALMS 



110.3 



principal are the Hallel Psalms (113-118), the 
Songs of Ascents or Pilgrim Psalms (120-134), 
and the Hallelujah group (145-150). Psalm 
108 is composed of Pss57 7 - n and 60 5 ' 12 , and 
was obviously compiled for liturgical purposes. 
Psl36 is a chant with responses for choir or 
congregation after each verse. 

Fifteen of the Pss. of this book bear the 
title ' Of David,' indicating that they were 
taken by the final editor from the earliest or 
Davidic psalter. One of these (Ps 142) has a 
historical note, which describes it as ' a prayer 
when he was in the cave ' ; but there is nothing 
in the Ps. to justify the reference. The book 
is Jehovistic in its choice of the divine name, 
Jehovah occurring 236 times and Elohim only 
7 times. 

PSALM 107 

The Psalmist sings the lovingkindness of 
the Lord, giving examples from (a) Israel in 
the wilderness (vv. 4-9), (b) people in captivity 
(vv. 10-16), (c) people in sickness (vv. 17-22), 

(d) vicissitudes of sea-going men (vv. 23-32), 

(e) and a rescue from drought (33-42). The 
Ps. has a refrain at intervals (vv. 8, 15, 21, 31). 

i . For his mercy endureth for ever] evidently 
a well-known refrain: cp. Psl36. Mercy] 
better, 'lovingkindness.' 2. Redeemed] per- 
haps from exile. 3. Lands] i.e. foreign lands. 

4. The v. might refer to wanderings on the 
way from Egypt, but the reference to ' a city 
of habitation' (v. 7) points rather to return 
from Babylon to Jerusalem. 10. Sit] RV 
'sat.' Iron] perhaps metaphorically : cp. 105 1S . 
The reference is evidently to captivity, i.e. 
slavery. 11. The words of God] as declared 
by His prophets. 14. Bands] i.e. their state 
of subjection : cp. 2 3 . 

16. Cp. Isa45 2 . 17. A new illustration. 
Read, probably, 'Sick men, because of the way 
of their transgression,' etc. 20. Sent] RV 
' sendeth.' The phrase is noteworthy as herald- 
ing, unconsciously perhaps, the Word (Jn 1 14 ). 

23-30. A striking description of mariners in 
a storm. 27. Are at their wit's end] RM ' all 
their wisdom is swallowed up.' 30. Their 
desired haven] RM ' the haven of their desire.' 
The word rendered 'haven' is an Assyrian 
Loan-word, and properly means an 'emporium' 
or ' mart.' It is found here only. 

33. General instances of God's kindness in 
various districts. Some suggest that this is a 
later addition to the Ps. It has great like- 
- to Job and [ss 40- 66. 34. Barrenness] 
better, K V l a Ball desert' — perhaps thinking 
of Sodom : cp. Job 39 6 . 35. Cp. Isa41 18 . 

39. Again] better, 'and when'; but the v. 
is abrupt and the connexion obscure. 

40. Quoted From Job 12 ^t 8 *. It interrupts 
the connexion, and by some is omitted. 41. Cp. 
Job21 u : 'He set the needy on high from 



(above) affliction, and established (for him) 
families as a flock.' 43. Cp. Hosl4 9 , a closing 
admonition. 

PSALM 108 

This is a composite Ps. 1-5 is practically 
Ps57 7 - n , and 6-13 is the same as 60 5 ' 12 . For 
notes on individual vv. the reader is referred 
to these two Pss. Probably the two frag- 
ments were brought together in a separate 
collection from Book 2, and subsequent perhaps 
to the formation of that book. This Ps. 
preserves its Elohistic character. It bears the 
title, ' A Song, a Psalm of David.' It is one of 
the Pss. for Ascension Day. 

PSALM 109 

The strongest of the imprecatory Pss. 
(see Intro.). Probably it is just to regard 
the Psalmist as speaking in the name of 
the whole nation, vexed and harried by 
foreign enemies, e.g. Antiochus Epiphanes. 
The theory that the Psalmist recounts the 
curses used against him by his enemies is 
untenable. Calvin notes the awful use of this 
Ps. by certain monks, who hired themselves 
out to recite it against private enemies. 

6. Satan] RV 'an adversary.' The word 
has both meanings in Hebrew. Satan was the 
accuser who blamed men before God : cp. Job 
1, 2 Zech3. 7. Let his prayer become sin] 
truly a horrible curse : cp. Provl5 8 . 8. Let 
another take his office] cp. the reference to 
Judas Iscariot (Ac 1 20 ). Hence this was known 
to the early Fathers as ' Psalmus Iscarioticus.' 

10. Let them seek, etc.] better, ' let them 
be driven out far from their desolate homes.' 

11. Spoil] better, 'make spoil of.' 23. I 
am tossed up and down] better, ' I am shaken 
off like a locust.' 

PSALM 110 

A fragment of an ode of victory to a priest- 
king — ' Worthy, 1 says Luther,' to be set in a 
frame of gold and diamonds.' A truly Mes- 
sianic Ps., finding its fulfilment in the triumphs 
of Christ in the world, and quoted Mt'22 43 
Mkl236 Lk20« Ac 2 ^ Hebli3 5<5 : see Intro. 

1. Lit.' Oracle of Jehovah to my lord.' The 
Psalmist seems to hear God addressing the 
king, whom Jehovah invites to a seat at His 
right hand, the place of honour. Our Lord 
applies this v. in the Messianic sense in which it 
was evidently understood by His countrymen. 

2. Send] better, 'stretch . . (saying), Hale 
thou.' etc. 3. Thy people, etc.] better, 'Thy 
people offer themselves in the day of thy 
mustering,' i.e. of the army for battle. In 
the beauties of holiness] Many scholars, with 
slight change in Heb., render, ' on the 
mountains of holiness,' i.e. on the holy 
mountains. ' From the womb of the morning 



370 



110.4 



PSALMS 



116. 



comes to thee the dew of thy youth,' i.e. thy 
young men gather to thy standard in the 
morning like the dew for vigour and fresh- 
ness. 4. The king is to be priest as well. 
This might be true of a Davidic prince : cp. 
2S6 14 , or of Simon Maccabseus, cp. IMac 
10 21 . But it is ultimately most certainly 
Messianic : cp. Zech 6 n - 13 . ' After the manner 
(RM) of Melchizedek,' who was king and priest 
in Salem, i.e. Jerusalem: cp. Gnl4 18 . 

5. The LORD] i.e. Jehovah. The v. describes 
the victory of the king. Shall strike] RM 
'hath stricken.' 6. The Hebrew is diffi- 
cult, but the meaning is clear. Dead bodies 
cover the field ; heads of men are smitten over a 
wide area (in the pursuit). 7. The victor 
king stoops to drink of the brook by the way, 
and with renewed strength (head uplifted) 
continues the pursuit of the flying enemy. 

PSALM 111 

Pss 111, 112 are closely connected both in 
form and substance, and are apparently the 
work of one author. They are alphabetical 
(see Intro.). A liturgical introduction is 
prefixed to both, viz. ' Praise ye the Lord ' : 
in Hebrew ' Hallelujah.' The theme of Ps 
111 is the refrain of Psl07, 'Oh that men 
would praise the Lord for his goodness, and 
for his wonderful works to the children of 
men.' The Ps. is used on Easter Day. 

1. Assembly] RV ' council ' ; the word means, 
' a secret gathering.' 5. Meat] i.e. food. 

6. That he may give them] RV ' in 
giving them.' Probably the writer refers to 
the conquest by Joshua. 9. Redemption] i.e. 
from Egypt. He . . commanded, etc.] i.e. He 
made a covenant, which was never to be 
violated. 10. The fear, etc.] a very frequent 
saying among the sages of Israel : cp. Prov 1 7 
9 10 , etc. The meaning is that religion is the 
foundation of all wisdom. 

PSALM 112 

See on Ps 111. This also is an alphabetical 
Ps., every half-verse beginning with a suc- 
cessive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The 
subject is specially the blessedness of the 
truly religious man. 

5. A good man] RV ' Well is it with the 
man that.' He will guide his affairs with discre- 
tion] RV ' he shall maintain his cause in 
judgment,' i.e. in court of law. 9. His horn] 
symbol of strength and power. 

PSALM 113 

This Ps. begins the group (113-118) known 
in the Jewish Church as the Hallel Psalms, or 
Hymns of Praise, from hillel, to praise. They 
are sung at the Passover Feast — Pss 113, 114 
before the second cup, and 115-118 after the 
fourth cup ; formerly recited also at the other 



two feasts, at the New Moons, and on the 
eight days of the Feast of Dedication (Cheyne). 
Ps 113 has been called the Magnificat of the 
Old Testament. Note the liturgical intro- 
duction and conclusion (' Hallelujah ' = ' Praise 
ye the Lord ') for use in the Temple service. 
6. ' Who stoopeth down to look in heaven 
and on earth.' 9. The barren woman] a 
grievous sorrow to a Jewish wife. There is 
here an echo of Hannah's song (1 S2 1 " 10 ). 

PSALM 114 

This has been called ' one of the finest lyrics 
in literature.' Probably it is a post-exilic 
psalm wherein, under the figure of the old 
exodus from Egypt, the Psalmist chants the 
return from Babylon. In all ages of the Church 
it has been used to celebrate the release from 
the bondage of sin. Hence it is a hymn for 
Easter night. 

1. Strange language] i.e. unintelligible 
speech — foreign. 2. Was] RV ' became.' 

3. Saw it] i.e. the presence of God. The 
allusion is to the dividing of the Red Sea and 
of Jordan, the opening and closing events of 
the deliverance from Egypt. 4. Skipped] 
i.e. trembled: cp. Sinai, Exl9 18 . 5. What 
ailed f\ The answer is, the presence of God. 

8. Cp. Exl76 Nu20U. 

PSALM 115 

In LXX 114, 115 are one Ps., while 116 is 
divided into two. Apparently Ps 115 was 
written to be sung antiphonally : cp. the re- 
sponses in vv. 9, 10, 11 — the first eight and 
the last three verses to be sung by the con- 
gregation. Probably it is a very late Ps. The 
writer proclaims the vanity of idols, and as- 
cribes all help and blessing to Jehovah alone. 

1. Israel is reviled by idolatrous foreigners, 
and appeals to God to vindicate His honour. 

3. God is the God of heaven, therefore He 
can save His people. 4. This the idols can- 
not do. 

9. A Levite sings, ' O Israel, trust thou in the 
Lord.' The choir respond, ' He is their help 
and their shield': so 10, 11. 12-15. is sung 
by a different person. 

16. ' The heavens are the heavens of 
Jehovah,' etc. : His peculiar dwelling as op- 
posed to the earth, which is the habitation of 
men. 17. Silence] i.e. Sheol, where there is 
no communion with God. 

PSALM 116 

Pss 115-118 were probably the hymns sung 
by our Lord and His disciples. Some modern 
scholars, however, deny this, on the ground 
that, in Christ's time, the Hallel was only 
in its beginning, and consisted simply of Ps 
113, or, at most, also of Ps 114 : see Mt26 30 
Mkl4 26 . Psll6 is apparently a song of 



371 



116. 3 



PSALMS 



119. 46 



thanksgiving after severe illness, but the 
Ps. has been used by both churches and in- 
dividuals in spiritual as well as temporal 
deliverances. The Psalmist's experiences pass 
through various stages, viz. suffering (v. 3), 
prayer (vv. 4, 5), deliverance (vv. 6-9), thanks- 
giving in public (vv. 12-19). At v. 10 LXX 
begins a new Ps. 

3. Hell] EM ' the grave.' He was at the 
gates of death. 9. His life will be preserved. 

10, 11. The sense is most obscure. Two 
meanings are proposed : (a) I believed even 
when I spoke, saying, I am greatly afflicted, 
even when I said in my haste, All men are 
liars ; (&) I believe (for I will speak) that I 
was greatly afflicted. In my alarm I said, All 
men are liars. 13. The Psalmist intends to 
offer a sacrifice, and already anticipates the 
feast which follows when he would solemnly 
raise the cup to Jehovah ingratitude for deliver- 
ance ; hence he calls it the cup of salvation. 

15. Precious] i.e. of such consequence to 
God that He will require penalties for it. 

PSALM 117 

The shortest chapter in the Bible, and 
the middle chapter. It is a doxology, calling 
all peoples to praise Jehovah. It may have 
been appended to some Ps. 

PSALM 118 

This Ps. was evidently written for the 
Temple worship on the occasion of some great 
festival (v. 24), when it might be used as 
a processional hymn. It has been variously 
referred (a) to the time when Zerubbabel laid 
the foundation of the second Temple ; (b) to 
the time of Nehemiah ; (c) to the cleansing of 
the Temple by Judas Maccabaeus. It is a 
noble song. Luther declared that he owed 
more to Ps 118 than to all the princes and 
friends who supported him. 

Vv. 1-18, dealing with the subject of God's 
mercy, which has brought them out of trouble, 
are sung by the procession antiphonally in half- 
verses ; 19 is the request of the procession 
before the gates, and 20 the Levite reply ; 
21-24 are sung antiphonally ; 26 is the cry of 
the Levite choir within ; while 29 is a closing 
Liturgical chanl for the whole congregation. 

3. House of Aaron] the iUte of the nation. 

5. In distress] lit. "in a strait place.' The 
Lord] KM 'Heb. JahJ a contraction of Je- 
hovah. 12. Are quenched] but Baethgen, with 
a alight change of Hebrew, renders, ' they flared 
forth like a fire of thorns,' and this makes 
admirable sense. ( tmrl for. 

13-16. The bhonghl changes bo the scene of 
the encounter. 14. Quoted from Ex 15 s . 

15. The right hand, etc.] This and the fol- 
lowing v. arc what the voice says. 19. Gates 
of righteousness] i.e. the gates of the Temple 



whence God's righteousness streams forth, or 
it may mean the gates into which righteous 
men enter : cp. v. 20. 

22. The stone] i.e. Israel primarily. The 
builders] the nations of the world. There is. 
however, a tradition that such a stone really 
existed in the building of the second Temple. 
The ultimate application to Jesus Christ is 
most fitting : cp. Mt 2 1 42 Ac 4 n , etc. 24. The 
day] a day of triumph. 

25. Save now] Heb. hosheea na anna ; hence. 
' Hosanna.' which became a liturgical formula : 
cp. Mt 2 1 9. 26. Cometh] better, ' entereth ' (the 
courts of the Lord). 27. Which hath shewed" 
RV 'and He hath given.' Bind, etc.] The 
Hebrew is obscure. ' Bind the sacrificial victim 
with cords even till you come to the horns of 
the altar,' or, less likely, ' Bind the procession 
with festal garlands and approach the horns of 
the altar.' There is nothing about binding the 
sacrifice to the horns, etc. 

PSALM 119 

The longest Ps. and the best example of an 
alphabetical Ps. There are in it twenty-two 
stanzas ; each of the 8 vv. of each stanza com- 
mences with the same Hebrew letter. The 
subject is practically the same throughout, 
viz. the great help and guidance and comfort 
to be derived from studying continually the 
Law of the Lord. Much ingenuity is displayed 
in expressing the same thoughts under various 
forms. 

Note in this connexion the following variety 
of terms — Law, or instruction (torah) : Testi- 
monies, or affirmations of God's will ; Judgments, 
or judicial pronouncements as to the Law ; 
Statutes (lit. ' inscriptions '), or published 
enactments ; Commandments, Precepts, or 
injunctions. 

It is difficult to locate the Ps. in time or 
circumstances. Such devoted meditation on 
the Law is a feature of later Judaism which 
arose chiefly after the exile. This is also true 
of the mechanical arrangement of the Ps. If 
the writer records his own experiences the} 
must have been very trying — trouble, sorrow, 
the hostility of powerful foes, and even cap- 
tivity. But some scholars believe that the 
writer sometimes records his own experiences, 
sometimes the experiences of the pious remnant 
of Israel. 

19. Stranger] or. 'sojourner,' passenger, with 
but a short time to learn God's will. 21. The 
proud] perhaps Jews who had been influenced 
by foreign culture. 25. Quicken] i.e. revive. 
29. Way of lying] i.e. faithlessness to God's 
law. 39. My reproach which I fear] viz. of 
sinning against (rod. 43. Be prays never to 
be deprived of the power of testifying to 
God's truthfulness. 46. Before kings] i.e. in 
exile. 



372 



119. 54 



PSALMS 



124. 



54. ' Melodies have thy statutes been to me 
in the house of my sojourning,' i.e. in this 
brief life: cp. 39 ^ 56. 'This (comfort) I 
have that I have kept thy law.' 70. Fat as 
grease] dull, gross : cp. Job 15 26 > 27 Isa 6 10 . 

83. Bottle] RM ' wine skin.' Bottles were 
made of the untanned hide of an animal. In 
the smoke they would be dried up, shrivelled 
and useless. Such Israel seemed to be in 
captivity. 84. How many, etc.] i.e. my days 
are few. 

91. They] i.e. the heavens and the earth. 

96. The most perfect earthly things are 
finite and limited ; but God's law is for all 
needs and for all time. 109. My soul, etc.] i.e. 
my life is ever in jeopardy. 118. Their deceit 
is falsehood] better, ' their self-deception is a 
lie.' 123. Fail for] fail through longing for. 

130. The entrance] RV 'the opening,' i.e. 
the unfolding. 132. Usest to do] i.e. art wont 
to do. 140. Very pure] i.e. true metal : cp. 
18 30 . 147. I prevented, etc.] i.e. Before day- 
break I cried. 148. 'Mine eyes forestall the 
night-watches,' i.e. when each watch comes I 
am already awake. 16 1. Princes] probably it 
was Israel, i.e. the Jewish nation, that was so 
persecuted. 

164. Seven times] i.e. very often. 

165. Nothing shall offend them] RV 'they 
have none occasion of stumbling.' 176. Like 
a lost sheep] probably refers to the Jews scat- 
tered in exile. The last clause of the v. pre- 
cludes the idea of straying into sin. 

PSALMS 120-134 

These Pss. are similar in thought, style, and 
language. Each bears the heading A Song of 
degrees. RV ' A Song of Ascents.' Scholars 
now agree for the most part in interpreting 
this title ' A Song of Pilgrimages ' (lit. ' goings 
up'), as indicating the use of these Pss. for 
pilgrims on their annual journeys to keep the 
various feasts at Jerusalem. Others explain 
the l Ascent ' as referring to the return of the 
exiles from Babylon. This section had doubt- 
less been a separate Psalter with this title , ' Songs 
of Pilgrimages,' affixed. When these Pss. be- 
came a part of the greater collection 90—150, the 
title was affixed to each Ps. separately. There 
is also an indication in these titles that the Pss. 
are specially intended for vocal music. Ex- 
quisitely beautiful they are, well fitted for 
pilgrim songs, either for the Jew to Jerusalem, 
or for the Christian to that heavenly Zion 
whose builder and maker is G-od : see Intro. 

PSALM 120 

A cry for help to Jehovah in the midst of 
sore distress, evidently by an exile under foreign 
oppression. 

4. ' Sharp arrows of a mighty man, with glow- 
ing coals of broom,' i.e. burning charcoal made 



of broom. Both expressions are figures for 
divine judgments : cp. 140 10 . 

5. Mesech] i.e. the Moschi, a tribe dwelling 
near the Euxine Sea : cp. G-nlO 2 , also Hero- 
dotus 3. 94. Kedar] tribes of N. Arabia famous 
for their black tents : cp. Song 1 5 . Here the 
two names are probably taken as typical ex- 
amples of the wild and inhospitable peoples 
among whom many of the Jews were exiled. 

6. Long] the emphatic word ' all too long.' 
Turbulent tribes fond of war surround the 
writer. 

PSALM 121 

The song of the traveller, whose guide is 
Jehovah. 

I. Hills] RY ' mountains.' The mountains 
suggest strength, and the Psalmist asks a 
question, ' Whence shall my help come ? ' The 
answer is given in v. 2 : ' from Him who 
made the mountains and all else.' If this Ps. 
were sung going up to Jerusalem then the 
'mountains' may be the hills around Jerusalem, 
or those on which that city is built. 

5. Shade] i.e. shelter for defence. 

6. A belief in the injurious influence of the 
moon is an almost universal superstition. If 
e.g. the moon shines on the face of a sleeper 
he may become blind : cp. ' moonstruck.' 

PSALM 122 

The writer recalls a journey to Jerusalem 
and the many sacred memories associated with 
that much-loved city. 

1. ' I rejoiced with them that said unto me.' 

2. Shall stand] rather, ' were standing,' i.e. 
came to be standing. 3. Jerusalem is builded] 
RV ' Jerusalem that art built.' Compact] 
descriptive of the appearance of the rebuilt 
city, with the breaches restored and the walls 
complete, after the return from exile. 

4. Go up] better, ' went up,' in days gone 
by. Unto the testimony] RV ' for a testimony ' 
of G-od's relationship to Israel : cp. 81 5 . 

5. Thrones] i.e. tribunals. House of David] 
either the Davidic line of kings or the princes 
of the house of David. 

6. They shall prosper] RM ' let them pros- 
per.' 

PSALM 123 

The Psalmist looks up steadfastly to God, 
and expresses his confidence in Him. 

4. The scorning of those, etc.] the mocking 
of them that are at ease — heathen oppressors 
living in careless security. The circumstances 
are similar to those in Ps 120. 

PSALM 124 

This Ps. is sung at the Feast of Purim to 
commemorate the deliverance from Haman. 
It is a gladsome lyric, thanking Jehovah for 



373 



124. 1 



PSALMS 



131.2 



escape from heathen destruction, and may cp. ProvlO 22 . For so he giveth his beloved 



well have been composed under the impulse of 
deliverance from the Babylonian exile. In its 
formation it illustrates a particular rhythmic 
effect, viz. the ascending scale of a series of 
phrases. 

i. Now may Israel say] what Israel says is 
vv. 1-5. 3. Quick] RV ' alive,' as Assyria 
and Babylon did to many nations. 4. Stream] 
better, ' torrent,' the winter torrent familiar in 
Palestine. Over our soul] overwhelming the 
very life of the nation. 

PSALM 125 

Jehovah is the bulwark of Israel, but evil- 
doers shall perish. Evidently the nation is 
under foreign rule : cp. v. 3. 

2. The mountains] Jerusalem is high, but 
the hills, such as the Mt. of Olives and the 
Hill of Evil Counsel, are higher. 3. The rod 
of the wicked] RV ' the sceptre of wickedness,' 
i.e. heathen dominion shall be broken off lest 
in despair the righteous Jbe tempted to turn 
aside to sinful practices. 5. Those who hesitate 
between serving Jehovah and worldliness will 
be swept away with heathen idolaters. 

PSALM 126 

A song of those who have been redeemed 
(from exile), and a hopeful prayer for those 
who have not yet returned. 

1 . Turned again the captivity of Zion] either, 
brought back the exiles who returned to Zion, 
or, turned again the fortunes of Zion, i.e. per- 
haps, set her free from foreign yoke. 

4. Turn again our captivity] perhaps, ' bring 
back the exiles.' As the streams in the south] 
i.e. like the hill streams in the arid S. land of 
Judah (the Negeb), dry for a time in summer 
but becoming suddenly swollen torrents in the 
rains of autumn. 

5. A proverb — sow in tears, reap with ring- 
ing cries. The reference may be to the diffi- 
culties amid which the pioneers of the return 
from exile had to work : cp. Ezr and Neh. 

6. Weepeth] suggestive of the patient 
labour of the sower. Bearing precious seed] 
better, ' bearing a measure of seed.' The sower 
carried the seed in a cloth tied to his body — 
this cloth full is a ' measure.' 

PSALM 127 

A warning against over-anxiety in any work. 
Let it be left in the wise hands of Jehovah, 
who gives the best blessings without human 
aid. Perhaps the Pa. was addressed to some 
too-zealous workers in the restoration of 
Jerusalem. The title assigns it to Solomon, 
but probably it w:is written long after his day. 
Its proverbial philosophy may have led to its 
association with his name : cp. Provl 1 . 

2. Bread of sorrows] RV ' bread of toil ' : 



sleep] a difficult phrase. With a slight change 
in the Hebrew we may render, ' surely he 
giveth his beloved in sleep.' Others may toil 
and worry and vex themselves and make little 
progress. But to His loved ones God gives 
prosperity even while they sleep : cp. Mk 4 '-'". 

3. Children] according to Jewish belief one 
of God's greatest blessings, yet given without 
the laborious thought and care of men. 

4. Children of a man's youth would grow 
up and be able to help and protect him when 
he is old. 5. But] RV ' when.' In the gate] 
Here the market was held and justice ad- 
ministered. The man with stalwart sons 
need not fear false accusers at the judgment- 
seat : cp. Job5 4 . 

PSALM 128 

The man who fears God will be blessed in 
his family life. The Ps. has been called the 
1 Home, Sweet Home ' of Judaism. 

3. By the sides of thine house] RY ' in the 
innermost parts of thine house,' i.e. in the 
women's apartment. Olive plants] a precious 
tree in Palestine. 5. ' May the Lord bless 
thee out of Zion,' i.e. from His dwelling-place. 

6. The Psalmist closes with a note of 
patriotism : RY ' Peace be upon Israel.' 

PSALM 129 

A song of deliverance in trouble and the 
overthrow of the wicked. 

3. Made long their furrows] Descriptive of 
the persecutions Israel had endured. 

6. Afore it groweth up] better, ' before it is 
plucked,' or, ' before it is unsheathed,' i.e. 
before it shoots into blossom. 8. Cp. Ruth 2 4 . 

PSALM 130 

The De Profundis — a song of redemption 
from trouble through faith in God. Probably 
a very late Ps. The Ps. is antiphonal. First 
voice (vv. 1, 2), Second voice (3, 4), First voice 
(5, 6), Chorus (7, 8). 

1. Out of the depths] i.e. from sore trouble. 

4. Feared] Rather a startling statement. 
But the fear of God means true, earnest 
religion : cp. 1 9 10 Gn 20 n . 6. RY ' more than 
watchmen look for the morning,' i.e. impati- 
ently. 7. Plenteous redemption] i.e. abundant 
means of effecting salvation for His people. 

8. Redeem, etc.] i.e. deliver not only from 
the consequences of sin, but from sin itself. 

PSALM 131 

A song of child-like resignation of one com- 
mitting himself to God in time of trouble. 

2. Behaved] RV l stilled.' Children were 
wanned between two and three years of age. 

Even] better, 4 within me,' or ' upon me,' re- 
ferring to the child upon its mother's bosom. 



374 



V6% 1 



PSALMS 



137. 



PSA^LM 132 

This is the most difficult of the Pilgrim 
Songs. According to accepted literary criticism 
it must be a post-exilic Ps. The Temple wor- 
ship has been restored. The days of David 
are in the distant past. The circumstances of 
the time are such that G-od's promise to David 
of a perpetual dynasty is recalled as a ground 
of hope. Accordingly we must believe that 
the writer either incorporated a fragment from 
an earlier period, vv. 6-10, or represented Israel 
speaking, dramatically describing three periods, 
(1) vv. 6, 7, the time of David ; (2) 8, 9, the 
time of Solomon ; (3) 10, the writer's own age. 
In any case, the Ps. is one of great charm and 
delicacy, echoing and re-echoing the pro- 
mise that Jehovah hath chosen Zion for His 
habitation. 

i. ' Lord, remember unto David all his 
afflictions' (cp. 1 Ch22 14 ), i.e. for good — to do 
him good in consequence: cp. 137 7 . David] 
perhaps, here, ' the house of David,' or ' the 
representative of David.' 

3-5. David's vow to find a permanent home 
for the ark : cp. 2 S7 2 . 6. We heard of it at] 
i.e. the people heard the ark was at Ephratah, 
perhaps the district round Kir jath- jearim, where 
the ark stayed till a place was prepared for it in 
Mt. Zion : cp. lChl3 5 . Fields of the wood] 
' field of Jaar,' i.e. Kirjath-jearim, shortened 
for the sake of rhythm. 

8-10. These vv. are found in 2 Ch 6 41 > 42 , and 
undoubtedly refer to the dedication of the 
Temple by Solomon. 8. Ark of thy strength] 
the symbolical centre of Jehovah's power in 
Israel. The ark is mentioned only here in the 
Psalter. Unless, as suggested above, the whole 
passage is quoted from the very late book of 
Chronicles, it is difficult to account for its pre- 
sence in this Ps. 9. Thy saints] Glod's chosen 
people. 10. Turn not away the face] owing 
to the rejection of his prayer. Thine anointed] 
means the king. 

11, 12. Cp. IK8 25 . In vv. 11-18 we may 
trace the divine answer to the prayers of vv. 
8-10. 13. This is the keynote of the Ps. 14. 
See 68 16 . 15. A Messianic promise against 
famine, very welcome in such a country as 
Palestine. 

16. Salvation] here, ' health,' ' prosperity.' 

17. The horn] which is generally a sj^mbol 
of strength, is in Daniel the symbol of a king. 

To bud] sprout: see Jer23 5 33 15 Zech3 8 , 
where the ' branch ' or ' sprout ' denotes the 
Messianic King : see also Lk 1 69 . Ordained] 
RM ' prepared.' A lamp] symbol of undying 
prosperity in a house : cp. 1 K 1 1 36 Prov 20 20 . 

18. Flourish] i.e. sparkle. 

PSALM 133 

An exquisite gem of song describing the 



blessings of unity — suitable for a pilgrim song, 
when rich and poor, priest and peasant, might 
fraternise with Zion in sight. 

2. Precious ointment] better, ' goodly oil.' It 
is doubtful whether the second relative clause 
is parallel to the first referring to the oil, or 
whether it refers to Aaron's beard. The Heb., 
like the AV, can be interpreted either way. It 
is probably best to take it as referring to the 
oil. So LXX takes it. The idea is to emphasise 
the richness and fulness of life which friendship 
gives. 

3. R V ' Like the dew of Hermon that cometh 
down on the mountains of Zion.' Hermon is 
the most conspicuous feature in Palestine, 
standing in the extreme N. away beyond the 
springs of Jordan, and over 9,000 ft. in height. 
The writer evidently thought that the dew 
came down from the distant Hermon cool and 
fresh, and settled on Zion. For there] i.e. 
in Zion. Peace and harmony are life to the 
nation. 

PSALM 134 

A night-greeting addressed to the priests and 
Levites in the Temple. Y. 3 is their reply to 
the greeting. 

PSALM 135 

A Ps. of praise suitable for public worship, 
beginning and ending with the liturgical Halle- 
lujah. It is full of rich mosaics illustrating 
Jehovah's greatness and the vanity of idols. 
Pss 134, 135 were sometimes taken as one by 
the Jews, Ps 135 being an expansion of 134, 
with certain elements from Psll5. 

4. Peculiar treasure] see on Ex 19 5 . 7. For 
the rain] i. e. to produce rain, as it was thought : 
cp. Zechl0 ] E,Y. Treasuries] storehouses, 
where, according to ancient belief, the winds 
were kept. 10, 11. Cp. Nu21 24 . 13. Memo- 
rial] that by which Jehovah is remembered. 

14. Judge] i.e. do justice on behalf of: cp. 
Dt32 36 . Repent himself] i.e. pity, relent to- 
wards. 15,18. See 115 4 ' 8 . 21. Out of] i.e. 
from out of. 

PSALM 136 

A song of praise to God ever merciful. It 
is sometimes known as the great Hallel, al- 
though the Talmud includes also Pss 120-135 
under this title. It differs from all other Pss. 
in the Psalter in that each v. closes with a 
refrain. 6. Cp. 24 2 . 1 9-22. Cp. 1 35 n > 12 . 

23. Low estate] i. e. condition of abasement, 
perhaps the exile or subjection to a foreign 
yoke. 

PSALM 137 

A lifelike memorial of the bitter experiences 
of exile concluding with (a) a strong expression 
of patriotism, and (b) an outburst of hatred 



375 



137. 1 



PSALMS 



141.7 






against the enemies of Jerusalem. Probably 
written soon after the exile. 

1. Rivers of Babylon] The river was the Eu- 
phrates, from which branched off a network of 
canals, on whose banks grew the willows here 
referred to. These were a species of poplar. 

2. Harps] the Khuior was the most ancient 
kind of harp, properly a lyre. 3. A song] lit. 
k the words of a song.' Sing us, etc.] probably 
in mockery. Hebrew music would not be so 
good as Babylonian. 5. Forget her cunning] 
i.e. her skill in playing on the harp. 

7. The children of Edom in the day] RV 
1 against the children of Edom the day,' i. e. the 
day of the destruction of Jerusalem by the 
Chaldeans (2K 25 sf -)< when Edom rejoiced at 
its fall : see Obad vv. 10-12. 8. Who art to 
be destroyed] i.e. doomed to destruction. 

9. Stones] RY ' rocks.' We cannot defend 
this terrible curse, but the cruelties of these 
Eastern oppressors were a provocation which 
fortunately we cannot now realise. 

PSALM 138 

Although the title ascribes this Ps. to David, 
it is generally considered to belong to the post- 
exilic period, of whose earnest piety it is one of 
the best examples. According to some scholars 
the speaker is Israel, but this is doubtful. 

1. Before] i.e. in front of, in opposition to 
the (false) gods. 2. Thy name] Thy character, 
as hitherto revealed. The present fulfilment 
of thy promise surpasses the renown of all thy 
former doings. 

3. Strengthenedst me] RY k Thou didst en- 
courage me,' lit. ' madest me proud.' 

6. Afar off] RY ' from afar.' They are not 
hidden from God's eye, or beyond the reach of 
God's justice. 8. ' Jehovah accomplished (all 
things) for me.' The works of thine own hands] 
i.e. the Jewish nation, if Israel is the speaker. 

PSALM 139 

One of the very greatest of the Pss. No 
grander tribute has ever been paid to the omni- 
science and omnipresence of God. The Ps. is 
ascribed to David, but the Hebrew is decisive 
in favour of a date very long after David, be- 
ing marked by Aramaisms. 

1-6. God's omniscience. 7-12. God's omni- 
presence. 13-18. God's wonderful provi 
dence in human Life. 19-22. God's hatred o\' 
sin. 23, 24. A prayer thai the Psalmist may 

be cleansed from all evil. 

3. Compassest] KM l winnowest.' i.e. scrutin 
iaest. 5. Beset] surround, influence. 6. High] 
the wrord means ' inaccessible ' : cp. l)t 2 s8 . 

8. Hell; U V -sh, <>!.' i.e. the under world. 

9. The wings of the morning] i.e. follow the 
firsl rays of dawn which stretch like outspread 
wings to the far horizon. Uttermost parts of 
thesea] i.e. the West — Mediterranean. 11. If 



I say] The text has, ' and I said.' Cover] some, 
with slight change, render 'screen me.' and this 
is evidently the thought of the Psalmist. Even 
the night, etc.] RY * and the light about me 
shall be night ' — a parallel to previous clause. 
13. Possessed] rather, ' formed,' or ' created.' 
Reins] the kidneys, seat of thought, feeling, 
etc., according to Hebrew belief. Covered 
me] rather, ' woven me together,' like a piece 
of cloth, with bones, sinews, muscles, etc. : cp. 
Job 10 n . 15. In the lowest parts of the earth] 
Probably the writer is speaking poetically of 
the mysterious origin of a human personality 
in the womb. 

16. A most obscure verse. ' Thine eyes be- 
held my' (yet) 'unformed substance, and in 
thy book were they all written,' (even) ' the 
days which were preordained when as yet there 
was none of them.' The Psalmist himself, 
all his days, and all their happenings, were in 
the mind of God before he was born. 

18. I am still with thee] either, k my thoughts 
still go out to thee and thy wonders,' or. k I 
am still in thy thought as an object of care 
and love.' 

19. Surely thou wilt] RM '0 that thou 
wouldest.' Bloody men] B,V 'bloodthirsty 
men.' 21. The thought is evidently, 'hateful 
to all right-thinking persons must those be 
who rebel against such a wonder-working 
God.' 

24. Wicked way] better, ' way leading to 
sorrow ' ; the idea is the same. Way ever- 
lasting] i.e. the enduring way — well expressed 
in Provl2 2S. 

PSALM 140 

A prayer for deliverance from enemies (per- 
haps national), ascribed to David probably 
because it consists mainly of quotations from, 
and adaptations of, earlier Pss. 

2. ' Continually do they stir up wars ' : cp. 
Provl5 ls . 3. Selah] see on 3 4 . 7. Covered] 
better, 'screened.' 11. Let not, etc.] better. 
1 a slander shall not.' 

PSALM 141 

An evening prayer in time of trouble. The 
Psalmist prays that he may be strengthened 
to resist temptation, and so escape the fate of 
evil men. 

2. Be set forth] lit. - raise itself.' like the 
smoke of incense. 5. Correction from friends 
is desirable. An excellent oil, which shall not 
break my head] BY ' as oil upon the head ; let 
not my head refuse it.' For yet, etc.] ' for still 
m\ prayer is againsl their wrong-doing.' 6. An 
obscure verse. 'When their judges are flung 
headlong by tin 1 sides of the crag, then shall 
they hear mv words that they are sweet.' 

7. AN,, obscure; perhaps, "Their bones 
will be scattered at the mouth of Sheol as 



376 



141. 8 



PSALMS 



149. 9 



when one cleaveth and breaketh up the earth,' 
referring to the judges. 8. But] better, ' for.' 
Leave not, etc.] RM l Pour not out my soul,' 
i.e. let me not die : cp. Isa53 12 . 

PSALM 142 

A prayer of a hunted soul : ascribed to 
David ' in the cave,' but not likely to be by 
him. 

3. ' When my spirit is faint within me ' (then 
I remember) ' thou knowest my path.' 

7. Prison] metaphorical : cp. 107. 10 . Com- 
pass me about] RM ' crown themselves because 
of me.' The meaning is, that they will rejoice 
with him in his rejoicing. 

PSALM 143 

A late Ps., though ascribed to David, con- 
sisting mainly of appropriate reminiscences 
from earlier Pss. 

2. Shall no man living-, etc.] perhaps, ' is no 
man living righteous.' 3. That have been long 
dead] better, ' that are for ever dead ' : cp. 
Lam3 6 . 4. Is . . overwhelmed] better, 'faints.' 

Is desolate] better, ' is bewildered.' 

6. Selah] see on 3 4 . 7. Hear] better, ' an- 
swer ' : cp. 28 1 . 10. ' Let thy good spirit lead 
me in an even ' (i.e. safe, peaceful) ' country ' : 
cp. 27ii. 

PSALM 144 

This Ps. consists mainly of thoughts and 
quotations from earlier Pss., e.g. 8 and 
18. Vv. 12-15 are, however, quite unlike any- 
thing else in the Psalter, and some suppose 
them to be a quotation from a lost Ps., possibly 
by David. 

2. My goodness] lit. 'my lovingkindness,' 
but with the change of a single Hebrew letter 
we can render ' my castle,' which is much more 
suitable. My people] probably we should 
render, 'the peoples.' 3, 4. Cp. 8 4 39 5 . 

7. Strange children] i.e. strangers. 9. See 
332. 

12. The want of connexion seems to point 
to a new fragment. Our daughters, etc.] Two 
renderings are possible: (1) ' our daughters be 
draped in purple cloth like the hangings of a 
palace,' or (2) ' our daughters as corner stones 
carved after the similitude of a palace,' strong 
and graceful. For ' palace ' PBV reads 'temple.' 

14. Breaking in] invasion by an enemy. 

Going out] either into exile, or to sur- 
render to an enemy. Complaining] R V ' out- 
cry': cp. Isa24 n Jerl4 2 . 

PSALM 145 

This is an alphabetic Ps., but the v. with 
the letter Nun, which should come after v. 13, 
has been lost. It is a noble Ps., celebrating 
the praise of God as the bountiful Giver of all 
good things, used in the Jewish church at 



morning service, and worthy to be used in all 
the churches. It is the last Ps. ascribed to 
David in the Psalter. 

5. RV ' of the glorious majesty of thine 
honour and of thy wondrous works will I 
meditate.' 13. Here LXX adds the missing 
v., as follows : ' Jehovah is faithful in all his 
words and kind in all his works.' 

PSALM 146 

Here begins the final group, Pss 146-150, 
known as the ' Hallelujah ' Pss., because each 
begins and ends with that word, meaning, 
' Praise ye the Lord.' They sum up the joy 
of the returned exiles, and form a fitting dox- 
ology to the Psalter. They are, of course, 
specially intended for use in the second 
Temple. Ps 146 praises God as the true 
Helper. 

9. Turneth upside down] lit. ' causeth to turn 
aside ' (into the trackless desert, where it 
disappears). 

PSALM 147 

A song of praise in which the Psalmist re- 
counts God's mercies (1) in restoring Jeru- 
salem, (2) in helping those cast down, (3) in 
caring for the animal world, and (4) in the 
changing seasons. 

2. Build up] i.e. rebuild, after the captivity. 

7. Sing praise] better, ' make melody.' 

10. Against self-reliance. II. Hope in his 
mercy] better, ' wait for His lovingkindness.' 

17. Morsels] crumbs (of bread). Frost and 
snow at Jerusalem are comparatively rare. A 
change soon follows : cp. v. 18. 

19, 20. The writer returns to God's doings 
for Israel. Judgments] better, ' ordinances,' 
revealed only to Israel. 

PSALM 148 

This is the ' Gloria in Excelsis ' of the 
Psalter, wherein all created things, animate 
and inanimate, are called upon to praise 
Jehovah. 

1. From the heavens] i.e. angels and the 
heavenly bodies. 4. Waters that be above the 
heavens] So God divided the waters : see 
Gn 1 6 > 7 . 6. Which shall not pass] RM ' which 
none shall transgress.' 8. Vapours] smoke or 
steam: cp. 119 83 . 13. Excellent] RV 'ex- 
alted.' 14. RM 'a horn for his people, a 
praise for all his saints,' i.e. the giving victory 
to God's people ('exalting the horn') is a 
subject of praise. 

PSALM 149 

A song of praise to God who gives the vic- 
tory, including vengeance on the enemies of 
Israel. 

4. Salvation] RM ' victory.' 5. Upon their 
beds] even in the night-season. 9. The judg- 



377 



150. 1 



PSALMS— PROVERBS 



INTRO. 



ment] probably referring to the prophecies and 
Pss. concerning the destruction of the heathen : 
cp. 18 so- 43 8310-is Isa45i 4 . This honour, 
etc.] better, ' This ' (the overthrow of their 
enemies) ' shall be an honour for all his saints.' 

PSALM 150 

This is ' the grand Finale of the spiritual 
concert,' and worthily closes not only this 
little Hallelujah group, but the whole Psalter. 

I. Firmament of his power] the spreading 
roof of the sky which His power has made. 

3. Trumpet] i.e. Shopher, a kind of horn. 



Psaltery] i.e. Nebhel, a species of harp, or 
guitar, or lyre, with a bulging resonance box 
at one end. Harp] i.e. Kinnor, the most 
ancient form of harp ; a lyre. 4. Timbrel] 
i.e. Toph, a circlet of wood covered with skin 
and ornamented with brass bells ; tambourine. 

Stringed instruments] i.e. Minnim, properly, 
' strings,' i.e. of a harp. Organs] RV ' the 
pipe,' i.e. Ugabh, perhaps a Pan's pipe : cp. 
Gn4 2i . 5. Cymbals] i.e. Tseltselim, evidently 
of two kinds. High sounding] cp. 1 Cor 131. 

6. The climax is reached. k Let every thing 
that hath breath praise the Lord. Hallelujah.' 



PROVERBS 



INTRODUCTION 

The Hebrew word Mashal covers a much five main divisions. The Introduction c. 1-9 ; 



larger area than our ' Proverb.' The latter 
signifies a pithy, pointed saying, which, by its 
obvious correspondence with the facts of 
human nature and experience, wins popular 
acceptance. Of such brief, clear and sensible 
utterances there are abundant examples in the 
book before us. But it also contains other 
forms of composition. There are passages in 
which the subject is continued for several 
verses, especially in the earlier and some of 
the later chapters ; lengthy descriptions, such 
as that of the Bad Woman (c. 7) and the Excel- 
lent Woman (31i°- 3r ); homilies and addresses 
(1 20-33 g). i n other books of the Bible the 
Mashal has a still wider range of meaning : it 
is an allegory (Ezkl7 2 ) ; a figurative discourse 
(Nu23 7 >i 8 ); abyword(Jer24«); a taunt (Isa 
14 4 ); a lament (Mic 2 4 ) ; an argument (Job 
29 !). The idea at its root is that of a simili- 
tude or parallelism, a comparison with some 
well-known object, and it is, as a rule, dis- 
tinguished from the other parallelism with 
which we are familiar in the Bible, that of the 
Psalms, in that it is spoken, not intended to 
l)e sung. 

The proverbs contained in the book which 
bean this name arc not of the kind which 
spring unbidden to the lips of the people, the 

' Bitsofancienl observation by his fathers garnered, 

each 
A .1 jul .hie worn and polished in the current of his 
Bpeech.' 

Thej show on their face that they were 
composed by thinkers, by the class of men 
who were known as 'the wise ' (Jobl5 18 Jer 
18 18 ). In some cases this is distinctly stated 

(1° 22 17 24 s8 ). They arrange themselves in 



101-2216; 2217-24; 25-29; the Appendix, 
31, 31. To the Introduction (li) and to two 
of the collections (10 1 251) the name of Solo- 
mon is prefixed. We are not, however, to 
understand that he was the author of all the 
sayings under these headings. He was tra- 
ditionally regarded as the representative of all 
wisdom, and at 1 K4 32 we read that he ' spoke 
three thousand proverbs.' The majority of 
the maxims and discourses preserved in our 
book belong to times and circumstances alto- 
gether unlike his, but we have no means of 
distinguishing with certainty any that may 
have originated with him. The collection 
probably contains many pre-exilic proverbs 
besides those of Solomon ; but it also con- 
tains others of a later date and cannot have 
been cast into its present form till some time 
after the exile. 

Proverbs occupies an important place in what 
is known as the Wisdom Literature of the 
Jews. This consists of the Canonical Books, 
Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, the apo- 
cryphal Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of 
Solomon. Job handles the serious problem 
of the relation between the sufferings of the 
righteous and the justice and goodness of God. 
Ecclesiastes discusses the value of life from ;i 
pessimistic standpoint. The Wisdom of Solo 
mon seeks to demonstrate, both to the Gentiles 
and to those Jews who were tempted to apos- 
tasy, that there is no true wisdom apart from 
thefaith in the One God. Proverbs and Ecole- 
Biasticns are guides for daily life, not con- 
eerning themselves with intellectual difficulties 
or the controversy between monotheism and 
idolatry, but devoted to the promotion of 



378 



INTRO. 



PROVERBS 



1. 



uprightness and purity. It was said of Socrates 
that he brought philosophy down from heaven 
to earth. He turned men from speculations 
on the origin of the universe to their duties 
as individuals and members of the common- 
wealth. A somewhat similar remark might 
be made about this branch of the Wisdom 
Literature. Its chief concern is with the sane 
and prudent ordering of daily life. It looks 
on wisdom as the art of living well. It en- 
forces virtue as the way by which the goal of 
happiness may be reached. It guards against 
stumblingblocks, pitfalls, and bypaths. It 
makes great use of prudential considerations. 
Yet it is religious at heart. The fear of 
the Lord is its beginning. G-od's law, re- 
vealed in Scripture and experience, or imparted 
by meditative and observant men, is never for- 
gotten. His government is over all human 
affairs ; His rewards and punishments take 
effect in this present life, and are sincerely 
believed in. But wisdom is not regarded as 
confined to these strictly practical matters. 
Agur (30 3 ) uses the word almost in the sense 
of philosophy. And the wisdom which dis- 
plays its excellence by guiding aright a young 
man's course is seen to be essentially one 
with that attribute of God which directed the 
creation of the world (c. 8). 

The ideal of life here enjoined is by no 
means an unworthy one. Honesty, industry, 
chastity, considerateness for all, helpfulness 
towards the distressed ; humanity, reverence, 
and trust towards God are urged unweariedly. 
There is no base or unworthy maxim, no 
sanction of the spirit of revenge, like the 
Italian, ' Wait time and place for thy revenge, 
for it is never well done in a hurry ' : no re- 
commendation of fawning obsequiousness, like 
the Eastern, ' If the monkey reigns, dance 
before him.' In some respects it is even 
healthier in tone than its companion books. 
Compare, for instance, its view of woman 
(141 1822 19143110-31) w ith Eccl728 Ecclus 
25 16 - 26 . On the other hand, there are defects. 
Two weaknesses are especially to be noticed. 
First, the absence of all belief in a real life 
beyond the grave. This is a serious draw- 



back. When men came to realise that rewards 
and punishments are not distributed on earth 
in accordance with conduct, the foundation 
was destroyed on which the proverb-writers 
built their recommendations of virtue. The 
Wisdom of Solomon, which owes much to its 
contact with Greek thought, marks a great 
advance in this particular (2 23 3, 4 m 5 15 6 19 ) ; 
and in the teaching of Christ the prospect of 
a future dispensation of judgment occupied an 
important place. Secondly, there is no warm 
and inspiring hope of the reclamation of the 
foolish and sinful. If a man is on the wrong 
side of the line it is taken for granted that he 
will remain there, contrary to the charity and 
hopefulness of Him who ' came not to call the 
righteous, but sinners to repentance.' 

As to the notes which follow, it should be 
remembered that our limits of space preclude 
anything beyond a short explanation, illus- 
tration, or paraphrase of the more difficult 
ambiguous and interesting paragraphs. The 
reader is strongly recommended to have the 
Revised Version always before him. In con- 
cise sayings, where everything depends on the 
exact point being touched, the rendering of a 
single word makes all the difference. The 
RV or its margin often hit the mark which 
the AY has missed. For example, the latter 
uses the word ' wisdom ' to represent several 
words of the original. It is always worth 
noting where the RV substitutes 'wise dealing,' 
' prudence,' ' subtilty.' Again, the RY has 
sometimes availed itself of the help furnished 
by the LXX. This is of great importance. 
Passing from mouth to mouth, not deemed 
equally sacred with the utterances of the 
Law or even of the Prophets, these adages 
frequently failed to keep their original form. 
And the form presented by the Greek Yersion 
sometimes recommends itself as the correct 
one. 

One other recommendation may be per- 
mitted. Ecclesiasticus is well worth reading 
along with Proverbs. Its tone is very similar, 
but it was written somewhat later (about 200 
B.C.) ; it is an invaluable aid to the understand- 
ing of the Jewish mind. 



PART 1 (Chs. 1-9) 



CHAPTER 1 



The c. falls into three principal divisions. 

1-6. Title and Introduction explaining the 
object of the whole book, which is to instruct 
the inexperienced and add to the educated 
man's knowledge. It is assumed that good 
conduct is an art which can be taught. But 
the learner must be in sympathy with the 
subject ; a right judgment concerning moral 



truth is attainable only by those who hunger 
and thirst after righteousness. The method 
of instruction is by proverbs, figures, parables 
and vivid pictures, and is therefore substantially 
the same as that which our Lord adopted. 

7-19. A Warning against Companionship 
with Robbers. We are at first astounded at 
finding such a warning necessary. Only in 
days of weak government, such as the 5th and 
4th cent. B.C., when the rulers were mere 



379 



1. 4 



PROVERBS 



3.3 



representatives of a distant foreign monarch, 
was such a state of affairs possible. 

20-33. Wisdom's Call and Threats. Wisdom 
is represented as a preacher, who goes out 
into the streets, the broad places near the city 
gates, the long gateways through which men 
enter or leave the town, the ' dusky lane and 
wrangling mart,' there to lift up her voice. 
As the prophets (Isa 20 2 Jer 5 1 Mic 1 8 ) went 
amongst their fellows, as Socrates was daily 
found in the marketplace conversing with all 
who would, as Jesus Himself ever taught in 
synagogues and in the Temple, where all the 
Jews come together (Jn 18 20 ), so Wisdom is not 
fastidious or exclusive ; none can complain 
that they have been denied the opportunity of 
hearing. But the hour is now past. The 
simpletons, the unbelieving scoffers and the 
crassly stupid are threatened with swift and 
sudden punishment. For the Wisdom which 
here speaks is not of quite the same spirit as 
that of NT., which is peaceful, gentle, easy to 
be entreated, full of mercy ( Jas 3 17 ) : there is 
more of Elijah than of Christ in it. 

4. Read, ' to give prudence to the simple.' 
The simple, open to each new impression, 
believes anything. The prudent, or subtle, 
has learnt caution from experience. 6. Inter- 
pretation] RV 'figure' (Hab26). Dark say- 
ings] RV 'riddles' (JgUis Nul2« EzkH 2 
Hab26). 

7. A motto for the whole book. True 
morality is based on a right relation to God. 
Fear is the keynote of OT. piety ; not slavish 
terror, but reverence and humility. 

8. The teacher addresses the learner as ' My 
son ' : parents will also give moral instruction. 

9. Read, 'a chaplet of grace.' At banquets 
the heads of the guests were crowned with 
garlands. Chains] cp. Gn 4 1 42 Dan 5 29 . 

12. Grave] 'Sheol' (RV) and the pit are 
the cheerless under- world, away from God and 
all real life, which the dead were supposed to 
inhabit (218 2 3 14 ). 

17. Warning is useless : they do not see 
that they are rushing to destruction. 

23. Turn and listen whilst I declare my 
purpose. 

3 1 . Mediaeval theologians taught that molten 
gold would be poured down the throats of the 
avaricious in hell and that other vices also 
would be punished in kind. ' That they might 
learn that by what things a man sinneth, by 
these he is punished ' (Wisdll 16 ). 

32. When simpletons turn away from in- 
struction they shall Buffer for it. 'He who 
will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled 
by the rocks.' Prosperity] ELM ' carelessness,' 
false security. 'Serious things to-morrow,' 
the Greek tyranl said, thrusting under the 
pillow of his couch the letter which would 
have saved him from assassination. 



CHAPTER 2 

The Search for Wisdom 

1-4. The condition which must be fulfilled. 
Spinoza said, ' The effort to understand is the 
first and sole basis of virtue.' 

1. Hide] i.e. as a treasure. 2. The heart 
in OT. is the seat of the intellect. 4. Wealth 
was hoarded in the shape of gold and jewels. 
In times of peril this was buried (Gn43 23 
Job3 21 Jer 41 8 Mt 13 44 ). Hence the suspicion 
with which Orientals have often regarded 
modern explorers. 

5-8. The result. It brings us into relation 
with Him who is the only source of wisdom 
and safety. 

7. Sound wisdom] read, ' deliverances.' 

8. His saints] read, ' His pious ' or ' loving 
ones ' ; those who love and are beloved by 
Him (Psl2i 304 3123). 

9-19. A further result. It saves from the 
seductions of bad men and women. 

10. When] RV ' for.' It becomes part of 
his very mind. 

16-18. The stress laid in these chs. on 
sensual vice proves that the evil was a flagrant 
one. The population was drawn to the great 
towns where such temptations are common. 
The strange woman (22 u ) was not a foreigner 
but an adulteress or harlot, to whom the man 
was not related. In later ages Jewish pride 
entitled such a person ' an Aramaean,' as though 
no Jewess would stoop so low. 

17. The ' friend of her youth ' (RV) is her 
husband (Jer 3 25 ). The covenant of her God] 
Though there was perhaps no religious cere- 
mony, the marriage relation was a religious 
one (Ex 20 14 Mai 2 14). 

18. Read, 

' For her house leads down unto Death, 
And her paths unto the Shades.' 
She and her guests are on their way to that 
under- world which is tenanted by the Shades, 
the disembodied, shadow-like, hopeless dead 
(9 i g ). The ancient idea of a future existence, 
not worthy of the name of existence, prevails 
all through this book. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Blessings op Obedience and of 
Chastisement 

The first and third divisions, 1-10,21-35, 
are exhortations to good conduct and promises 
of consequent blessing. The second, 11-20, 
declares the profitableness of divine chastening 
and the value of wisdom. 

1. Law] or ' direction.' The teacher speaks 
as one having authority. 3. Mercy] RM 
' kindness.' He is to retain kindness and faith- 
fulness, as he would the signet-ring which 
hangs from his neck by a cord (Gn 38 18 Song 8 6 ), 
OT as the phylacteries on arm and forehead : 



380 



3.5 



PROVERBS 



6. 25 



cp. Exl3 9 Dt6 8 11 1S . 5. We are easily mis- 
led by passion and sin. ' Thanks to our 
wisdom, we should, once for all, refrain from 
being clever.' 

8. For navel read 'flesh,' as at 4 22 . This 
change only requires the addition of a single 
letter, and it gives us the pair, ' flesh and bones,' 
which in biblical language make up the body 
(Gn29 14 2S5 1 , etc.). The drying up of the 
bones is a figure of extreme distress (17 22 
Ps32M) : hence the word 'moistening' (EM) 
here. 9. To honour is to pay the dues (Isa 
43 23 Dan ll 38 lTim5 7 ). 10. Presses] i.e. 
' vats.' 

11, 12. Bp. Andrewes prayed : ' From Thine 
anger, and yet more from Thy ceasing to be 
angry, good Lord, deliver us.' 15. Rubies] 
here, and at 20 15 31 10 , more probably, 'red 
coral.' The finest red coral has always been 
very costly. 18. A tree of life] a figure de- 
rived from G-n 3 : see also Ezk47 12 Proviso 
13 12 15 4 . 19. It is an additional reason for 
esteeming her, that creation could not have 
been accomplished without her. 20. The 
depths, etc.] i.e. the subterranean storehouses 
from which fountains and rivers were supposed 
to be derived. 

24. Not affrighted by horrible dreams (Job 
7 14 ). 29. Securely] i.e. without suspicion. 

32. Secret] ' counsel ' or ' friendship ' (RM) : 
thev belong to His 'Privy Council' (Gnl8 17 
Job 1 9 is 29 4 Ps 25 1 4 55 14 Am 3 ?). 35. Joseph, 
Daniel, Ezra, Mordecai are examples. 

CHAPTER 4 

Ancestral Wisdom. The Two Paths 
In vv. 1-9 the teacher lays stress on the 
fact that his instruction is a repetition of his 
father's. No teaching was thought valuable 
save that which was handed down from one 
generation to another. The best pupil was 
the one who was ' a cemented cistern which 
loses not a drop.' Vv. 10-19 might be called 
the doctrine of the two paths, the two ways 
of life. 20-27 enjoin strict attention to in- 
struction and to conduct. 

7. Lit. ' The beginning of wisdom is, get 
wisdom ' (RM). When we feel our deficiency 
we shall make a start. Socrates was the wisest 
of the Greeks because he felt that he was not 
wise. And with all, etc.] Read, 'Yea, with 
all thou hast gotten ' (RY) : cp. Mt 13 45 > 4 <\ 

8. Exalt] i.e. prize highly. 

12. His life is like a broad road in which 
are no obstacles to trip up the unwary. 

16, 17. There were many rapacious officials 
whose appetite for oppression grew with what 
it fed on. 18. The prosperity of the righteous 
is k as the light of the dawn ' (RM), ever 
waxing. 

23. Watch over the inner life of thought 
and feeling ; on it prosperity depends (1 S 16 7 



Mtl5 i9 ). 25. Keep your eye fixed on the 
goal : let nothing turn you aside into the devious 
paths of wickedness. 26. Make your way even 
and level : walk in the smooth, strait path of 
righteousness. 

CHAPTER 5 

Unholy Passion. Hallowed Lov£ 

A dissuasive from immorality addressed 
exclusively to men. The two leading thoughts 
are (1) the disastrous consequences of adul- 
tery ; loss of honour, property, life, oppor- 
tunity of repentance, and (2) the sufficiency 
and desirableness of conjugal love. 

6. Read, ' Lest she should ponder the path 
of life, her ways are unstable, and she knoweth 
not.' So far is she from entering on the level 
path which leads to life, her ways are unstable 
and she is reckless about it. 

9-1 1. All the fruits of a man's labour are 
preyed on by the false-hearted woman and her 
confederates : 

1 Gaming, Women and Wine, 
While they laugh, they make a man pine.' 

14. He has only just escaped being brought 
before the assembly of the people, who would 
have sentenced him to death (Lv20i° Dt22 22 ). 

15-17. A man's pleasures should be sought 
at home. Read, with RY, ' Should thy springs 
be dispersed abroad, and rivers of waters in 
the streets ? ' 18. It is blessed when enjoyed 
legitimately. 19. The opening words are an 
exclamation : ' Lovely hind ! Charming wild 
goat ! ' 22. He has had the instruction, but 
took no heed of it. Now it is too late. 

CHAPTER 6 

DlSSUASIVES FROM HURTFUL THINGS 

Yv. 1-19 are inserted here from some other 
collection, and contain warnings against surety- 
ships (1-5), sloth (6-11), falseness (12-15), 
evils which the Lord hates (16-19). At v. 
20 the thread of c. 5 is resumed. 

1. The surety appears to have taken the 
creditor's hand in the presence of witnesses : cp. 
2 K 10 15 . 3. Read, ' Seeing thou art come into 
the hand of thy neighbour, go, bestir thyself, 
and beset thy neighbour. Make haste to get 
out of his power '(Mt5 25 ). 7. Ants really 
have an elaborately organised society : in some 
species there is a king and queen ; others 
keep slaves. 11. One that travelleth] RY 'a 
robber.' The roads were insecure, as English 
ones were in the times when ' highwayman ' 
meant 'robber.' 13. Cp. the Arab's prayer: 
' O God, pardon us the culpable winking 
of the eyes.' Here the winking, etc., are 
signals to confederates. 16. A proud look] 
lit. ' haughty eyes ' (RY) : see our word 
'supercilious,' from auperciUum — the eyebrow. 

25. The beauty of an Eastern woman's eyes 



381 



6.26 



PROVERBS 



9.1 



is enhanced by being painted round with kohl 
in the shape of an almond. 26. A harlot 
brings him down to a loaf of bread, to extreme 
poverty ; an adulteress will involve him in 
utter ruin. 30. The OT. never treats theft 
leniently. Read, 'Do not men despise,' etc. 
Yes ! and much more an adulterer. 31. In 
divers cases twofold, fourfold, fivefold restitu- 
tion was prescribed (Ex 22, etc.): sevenfold 
means very great (Gn 4 15 ). 

CHAPTER 7 
The Bad Woman 

A picture drawn from life of the enticing 
of a young man by a wicked woman. 

2. The apple] lit. ' the little man ' of the 
eye, so called because an image is reflected 
from the pupil of the eye. It is a figure for 
the most precious and delicate things (Dt32 10 
Ps 17 s ). 3. The Jews wear a long leather band 
twisted round the arm and fingers during 
prayer. Passages of Scripture written on 
parchment and enclosed in a small leather box 
are at the same time worn on the forehead. 

4. My sister] the title by which bride and 
wife are addressed (Song 4 9 ). 

6. The window is the opening ; the casement 
is the lattice-work filling it, looking through 
which one may see and remain unseen. 

9. Twilight ends suddenly, and is followed 
by dense darkness. 11. Stubborn] or 'wilful'; 
an epithet applied to an unruly beast which 
has shaken off the yoke (Hos4 16 ). 14. Lv 
7 16 " 18 shows that such sacrifices were followed 
by a feast : the blood and the fat of the in- 
testines were offered to God ; the rest of the 
animal was consumed by the offerer, his family 
and guests. The woman is therefore inviting 
to a sumptuous feast. 

19, 20. The husband is a merchant, who is 
absent on a long journey, as is evident from 
his having taken with him his purse. He will 
not be home till the ' full moon ' (RV). 

26. Read, 'Yea, many are those she has 
slain.' 27. The chambers of death are the 
many diverse receptacles supposed to be in the 
under-world : cp. Jnl4 2 . 

CHAPTER 8 

Wisdom's Cry 
Wisdom now reappears as a preacher, hold- 
ing forth in all the places where men most do 
congregate. After expounding in varied ways 
the excellence of the gifts which she can bestow, 
she asserts that she was the first of all God's 
creatures, who stood at His Bide when He 
formed our world, and took part in His work 
as a master workman, whose delight has always 
been in the lives and atl'aiis of men. In 
w. 1-21 we find only the ordinary kind of 
personification, in which a quality is spoken of 
as though it were B living individual. In vv. 



22-31, however, it is almost as though Wisdom 
were an actual person, distinct from God. No 
one can wonder that in the 4th cent, of our 
era theologians of diverse schools made con- 
siderable use of this c. in the controversies 
respecting the Second Person in the Holy 
Trinity. But there is no convincing force in 
the arguments which either side derived from 
this source. The object of the writer was to 
recommend that wisdom which is his constant 
theme, which manifests itself in the right 
conduct of life, by showing that it is exhibited 
and exemplified in the wonders of Nature and 
the Creation of the world. There is also a 
trace here of the idea which at a later time 
asserted itself very strongly, that a medium 
was required to bridge over the distance 
betwixt the Spiritual Creator and the material 
universe. Job 28 , 38 Ecclus 1 !- 21 24 Wisd 7 8- 
8 21 should be read along with this c. 

2. The high places are the walls and towers, 
vantage-points for a speaker. 5. Wisdom] 
rather, 'prudence' or 'sagacity.' 12. Read, 
' I, Wisdom, have made prudence my dwelling,' 
i.e. I am complete master of it. 

14-16. There is no genuine statesmanship 
apart from wisdom. 

22-31. This account of creation reminds us 
of Gn 1 Job 38. God makes a vault, the firma- 
ment, which rests on the surrounding waters 
(v. 27). He settles the mountains (v. 25) on 
foundations which are at the level of the floor 
of the sea (Ps 104 8 Jon 2 6). He firmly en- 
closes the fountains of the deep, so that they 
cannot break through (v. 28). 22. Read, ' The 
Lord formed me as the beginning of his 
creation': cp. Coll 15 Rev3 14 . 23. Or] i.e. 
ere, before. 30. Ax one brought up with him] 
as a nursling or foster-child ; RY ' as a 
master workman.' I was daily his delight] 
lit. ' I was delight daily day ' ; my whole ex- 
istence was delight : cp. Psl20 7 , ' I am peace,' 
all peace, nothing else. 34. A king or great 
man would every morning find a crowd of 
clients waiting to pay their court and recehe 
his bounties. Happy the client at Wisdom's 
door. 36. He who misses wisdom wrongs 
himself. 

CHAPTER 9 

The Rivals 

Folly and Wisdom invite guests to their 
respective houses. The consequences of 
accepting either of the two invitations are 
described. We .are reminded of the Greek 
parable, 'The choice of Hercules,' which 
related how the hero, at the beginning of his 
career, was accosted by two fair women, 
Virtue and Vice, who would have him tread, 
one the rough, the other the flowery way. 

1-6. Wisdom's invitation. 

i. The word Wisdom is in the plural, to 



382 



9.2 



PROVERBS 



12. 11 



indicate her variety and perfection. She has 
a house, and therefore is always ready to 
entertain. The seven pillars — a complete 
number — are in the courtyard, supporting a 
o-allery. 2. The wine was mixed with spices 
(Isa5 22 ). 3- Messengers are sent when the 
meal is ready (LkU 1T ). 4. Simple] i.e. inex- 
perienced, easily led, capable of being turned 
either way. Hence Folly (v. 16) has equal 
hopes of influencing them. 5. Bread] The 
name for food in general (v. 2). 6. Eead, 
J Forsake folly.' 

7-12 are out of their proper context. 

7. He will insult and revile you. 10. The 



holy] RV 'the Holy One. 1 12. Cp. Ezkl8* 
Gal 6 5. 

' From David's lips this word did roll, 
"Tis true and living yet : 
No man can save his brother's soul, 
Nor pay his brother's debt. ' 

13-18. Folly is personified as a woman, 
the traits of whose character are drawn from 
the description already given of the lewd 
woman ; and unchastity is looked on as the 
supreme exhibition of folly. 13. She is 
'loud' and ignorant. We speak of a 'loud,' 
meaning a vulgar woman. 17. The forbidden 
is attractive. 



PAET 2 (Chs. 101-2216) 



Here we reach the first collection of what 
were supposed to be Solomon's proverbs. 
Most of them consist of two lines parallel 
to each other. The parallelism is one of 
contrast, or agreement, or explanation, or of 
different persons and objects. It is impossible 
to trace any principle underlying the order in 
which the proverbs stand. Several of them 
are more or less exactly repeated in chs. 
25-29. 

CHAPTER 10 

The main subject, not treated continuously, 
but recurred to again and again, is the blessing 
which attends goodness and diligence, the 
penalty which follows sin and sloth. 

2. Treasures of wickedness] acquired by 
wrong-doing (Am3i°). In many synagogues 
this v. is inscribed over the alms-box. To 
the later Jews ' righteousness ' meant alms- 
giving (Dan 4 27 Tob4io 129 Mt6i). 4. To 
deal with a slack hand is to be lacking in 
energy. 5. ' Make hay while the sun shines.' 

7. ' Only the ashes of the just 

Smell sweet and blossom from the dust. ' 

10. Winketh with the eye] i.e. to stir up by 
malicious hints. In the LXX the second half 
of the v. runs : ' but he that openly rebuke th 
maketh peace.' 12. Love hides them from 
sight. 

14. Near destruction] destruction nigh at 
hand. 

16. The wealth earned by a good man will 
be rightly employed and therefore will bring 
him lasting gain, but revenue spent in self- 
indulgence and sin brings nothing but loss 
in the end. 19. Simeon, son of Gamaliel, 
said : ' All my days I have grown up among 
the wise, and I have found nought of better 
service than silence. . . Whoso is profuse of 
words causes sin.' 

21. Feed] instruct. 24. The fear of the 
wicked] that which he fears. 

25. The storm carries him completely 
away (Ps 1 4 ). 



CHAPTER 11 



I. False weights were exceedingly common 
(16ii 201° Am8 5 ). 6. Transgressors] RV 
' they that deal treacherously.' 10. The shout- 
ing expresses exultation. 12. Disparaging 
remarks concerning neighbours are foolish. 

14. For counsel read l statesmanship.' 
16. A woman of gracious disposition and 
manners obtains honour. 18. Worketh a de- 
ceitful work] RV k earneth deceitful wages,' 
fairy gold, apples of Sodom. 

21. Hands were struck in confirmation of a 
bargain. Hence the meaning here and at 16 3 
is, ' My hand upon it ! ' ' Assuredly ! ' 22. A 
gold ring was and still is worn by Oriental 
women, depending from the right nostril to 
the mouth. 24. Wise and liberal expenditure 
is contrasted with ill-advised niggardly econ- 
omy. 26. Buying up corn to sell at famine 
prices was the evil in those days which corre- 
sponded to monopolies, trusts, and combines of 
later times. ' It is a wicked thing to make a 
dearth one's garner.' 29. He throws his 
household into confusion by bad management, 
arbitrariness, etc. 

CHAPTER 12 

4. A crown, etc.] Possibly there may be a 
reference to the crown worn on their wedding- 
day by bride and bridegroom (Song 3 n 8 9 ). 
In Damascus the bridal crown consists of a 
silver hoop covered with a network of strings 
of corals. On this net are fastened strings of 
gold coins. 

5. Two kinds of plans. 6. Their very words 
are an ambush, meant to cause destruction. 

9. Even a poor man in those days could 
afford to have a slave (cp. Ex 21 32 ), and such a 
man, although others might look down on him, 
would be happier than a person who maintained 
much state and show but was starving all the 
while. 

II. Follow a regular business : to be occupied 
with ' vain things ' (RM), speculations, and the 



383 



12. 12 



PROVERBS 



15.24 



like, brings disaster. 12. Read, ' Wickedness 
is the net of evil men.' Their own badness 
entraps them. 1 6. A fool blurts out his annoy- 
ance : a wise man is in no hurry to publish the 
insult he has received. 18. Thoughtless talk 
inflicts grievous wounds : if a wise man is 
present he heals them. 

20. The counsellors of peace] Those who 
promote prosperity. 21. Mischief] i.e. calam- 
ity (17 20 28 14 ). 23. 'Still waters run deep.' 
' Empty vessels make the most sound.' 

24. Under tribute] forced to do taskwork 
(1K9 21 ). 26. More excellent than] RV'is a 
guide to.' Seduceth them] RY ' causeth them 
to err.' 27. He is too lazy to look after his 
own food (19 24 ). 

CHAPTER 13 

2. Read, 'the desire of the treacherous is 
for violence ' (RM). 3. The times were out 
of joint : those alone were safe who said 
nothing. 4. Soul] as in v. 2 and many other 
passages, means ' appetite.' Made fat] abund- 
antly gratified. 5. Read, ' but a wicked man 
behaves shamefully and abominably.' 

7. One ' feign eth himself rich ' (RM), to gain 
consideration ; another ' f eigneth himself poor,' 
to avoid giving and paying. 8. Providence 
equalises matters : wealth may buy one off 
from peril, but poverty saves us from fear of 
being robbed. Not rebuke] RV ' no threaten- 
ing.' 9. The extinction of the lamp is a sign 
of disaster : cp. 20 20 31 « Job 18 6 Jer25 10 . 

10. ' By pride cometh only contention ' 
(RV) : willingness to be advised saves from 
this and many evils. 

11. The proverb originally ran: 'Wealth 
gotten in haste, etc., but wealth gotten by 
degrees,' etc. ' Come lightly, go lightly.' 

14. Such vv. as this indicate the existence 
of a definite class of wise men, whose teachings 
were highly esteemed. 15. Read, 'A man of 
tact obtaineth favour, but the way of the 
treacherous is their destruction.' 

21. Evil] i.e. misfortune. Good] i.e. pros- 
perity. 23. Tillage] RM ' tilled land.' For 
want of judgment] RV ' by reason of injustice.' 
The idea is that God blesses the labour of 
the righteous poor, but the unjust, though 
they may be rich, will not flourish. 

24. Egyptian proverb : ' The ears of the 
young are placed on the back, and he hears 
when it is flogged.' 

CHAPTER 14 

1. The prosperity of the family depends on 
the wife (31 |u:;l ). 3. Of pride] RM 'for his 
pride.' 4. Where itiiic are no oxen men have 
not to labour a1 keeping the crib clean, but at 
the same time there is 110 profit. The men 
who onload coal in ( Salaia harbour used to sing: 
' The coal is black, but the money's white.' 



8. The wise man's concern is how shall he 
act ; the foolish man's how shall he deceive 
others. 9. Lit. ' the guilt-offering mocketh at 
fools.' This seems to mean that fools trust 
in its expiatory virtue, but that on their behalf 
it has no efficacy. 10. Every one knows where 
his own shoe pinches ( 1 K 8 38 ). 11. Tabernacle] 
or ' tent,' used for ' house '(IK 12 1<3 ). 12. He 
mistakenly thinks that the path of self-indulg- 
ence leads to lasting prosperity. 

13. Men do not always wear their heart 
on their sleeve. Black Care sits behind the 
horseman. 

14. We get our deserts. The backslider in 
heart is he who forsakes God. 15. ' Quick 
believers need broad shoulders.' 16. Rageth] 
RV ' behaveth himself insolently ' ; will not 
be told, knows better than any one else. 

17. Anger is temporary madness. 19. Not 
always: see Lkl6 20 . 22. They wander from 
the way of safety and peace. 24. Riches 
rightly used are a crown : but a rich fool has 
no crown, has nought but folly. 

28. Let the king follow a policy which shall 
increase, not diminish, the number of his 
subjects. 29. Exalteth folly] i.e. exhibits 
great folly. 30. A ' tranquil ' heart (RM) is 
contrasted with a jealous one. 32. If we trans- 
pose two letters we get the following rendering : 
' The wicked is thrust down through his evil- 
doing, but the righteous hath a refuge through 
his integrity.' In any case, it is hardly in 
keeping with the rest of Proverbs to find here 
a reference to the life beyond the grave. 

CHAPTER 15 

I. Grievous] i.e. annoying. 'If one pour 
in hot water let the other pour in cold.' 

3. Beholding] RY ' keeping watch upon." as 
watching over a city (Isa52 8 ), or the prophets 
over the people (Ezk 3 17 ). 4. Read, 'a sooth 
ing tongue .. a wound in the spirit.' 7. Doeth 
not so] RM ' is not steadfast.' 8. A costly 
offering from the one is unacceptable : the 
mere prayer of the other is accepted (Mk 1 2 42 ). 

II. Hell and destruction] RV ' Sheol and 
Abaddon.' The latter means ' place of destruc- 
tion ' : cp. 27 20 Job26 6 28 22 31 12 Ps88 n . 
At Rev 9 n Abaddon is the Angel of Destruc- 
tion. Subsequently it became the name for 
the lowest part of Gehenna. 15. ' Cheerful,' 
not merry : it is not the word rendered ' men \ 
in v. 13. 16. Religion delivers from harassing 
care. 17. A stalled ox] is one kept up and 
fattened for slaughter. 19. The one sees 
imaginary hindrances : the other's course is a 

well made level road. 

21. UV ' maketh straight his going': i.e. 
acts straightforwardly. 23. Well-considered and 
opportune speech brings joy. 24. Lit. 'The 
way of life upward is to the wise man' : he 
escapes the premature death of the wicked. 



384 



15. 26 



PROVERBS 



18. 10 



26. RV ' pleasant words are pure ' (in God's 
eyes). 27. Bribery is one of the greatest curses 
of the East (Ex 18 21 Ezk22*2 Eccl77). 

30. The light of the eyes] i. e. good fortune. 

31. He who does not wish to learn will be 
neither welcome nor happy among the wise. 

CHAPTER 16 

1-9. God's control of human life. 

1. Read, ' the preparations of the heart be- 
long to man, but the answer of the tongue is 
from the Lord.' Man prepares his plans, but 
the decisive, final word is suggested by God. 
' There's a divinity that shapes our ends, rough- 
hew them as we will.' 2. Cp. lCor4 4 . 

4. Read, ' The Lord hath made everything 
for its own end.' God is the absolute Sove- 
reign (Am3 6 ). The wicked are created for 
punishment (Ex 9^ Ezk38!6 39 21 Ro9^). 
The truth here pointed to would be expressed 
in milder terms to-day : we should say that 
nothing escapes the control and the judgment 
of God. 5. Though hand, etc.] read, ' he will 
assuredly not go unpunished' (ll 21 ). 6. Sin 
is expiated by kindness and faithfulness to- 
wards others (Isa 27 9 40 2 Dan 4 2 ? Hos 6 6 ). 

9. ' Man proposes, God disposes.' 

10-15. The vv. relate chiefly to a king's 
powers and functions. 

10. His sentence has the force of a divine 
oracle. 11. Probably the word, the 'Lord,' 
is mistakenly inserted : the human king is 
meant. The merchant carried his (stone) 
weights about in a bag. Explorers have found 
in Palestine ancient weights of haematite, lime- 
stone, etc. 15. The light of .. countenance] 
i.e. his friendly regard. The latter rain] is 
the spring rain, required to ripen the crops. 

16-19. The advantages of a right spirit. 
17. The road they travel does not lead to 
1 misfortune. 

20-25. deal with wisdom and its results. 
20. He that handleth, etc.] read, ' he that 
giveth heed to the word ' (of God or of the 
j teacher). 21. The sweetness, etc.] Attractive 
! speech disposes the listener to learn. 

22. Instruction] RV ' correction ' : their folly 
\ is their punishment. 

26. Hunger prompts labour. It has been 

wittily said that every boy should pray that he 

may be born poor. 30. Read, ' he that shutteth 

his eyes (as if pondering deeply) does it to 

'• devise froward things : he that (scornfully) 

1 compresses his lips has brought evil to pass.' 

Slanderers and backbiters are meant. 31. RV 

1 ' It shall be found,' etc. The NT. does not 

I teach that the righteous are always rewarded 

with long life. 

32. ' Yet he who reigns within himself, and rules 

Passions, desires and fears, is more a king ; 
1 And who attains not, ill aspires to rule 

Cities of men or headstrong multitudes. ' 



25 



33. The lot was put in the folds of the gar- 
ment and then shaken out (Jg 1 3 Isa 34^, etc.). 

CHAPTER 17 

I. Lit. 'the sacrifices of strife.' There 
would be no pleasure in the festal meal which 
followed a sacrifice (7 14 ) if it was accompanied 
with a quarrel. 'A little with quiet is the 
only diet.' 2. The Israelite slave was a member 
of the family (Gn 24 1 2 Dt 5 14 , etc.), might be- 
come the heir (Gn 1 5 2 > 3 ) or marry the daughter 
(lCh234,35). 4. Naughty] injurious. 7. The 
proverb writers show no hope of redeeming 
the lost. Their verdict is, ' He that is filthy 
let him be filthy still.' 

8. He who gives a bribe regards it as a 
precious stone, a stone which brings favour ; 
whithersoever he turns he prospers. Philip 
of Macedon boasted that he had taken more 
towns with silver than with iron. 10. A hun- 
dred strokes would be more than double the 
number allowed by the law (Dt 25 3 ). 1 1. The 
meaning is doubtful. Either, 'An evil man 
seeketh only rebellion,' or, ' Rebellion seeketh 
only mischief.' The rebellion may be against 
God or the king ; if the former, cp. Ps 78 49 f or 
the cruel messenger. 

14. Before it be meddled with] RV ' Before 
there be quarrelling.' The bursting of a dam 
begins with a small crack. ' Little strokes fell 
great oaks.' 16. Money cannot buy it if the 
mind is indisposed to it. 19. To ' exalt the 
gate ' may mean to set oneself above the neigh- 
bours, and so become a target for their envy. 
But the original probably ran : ' He that 
speaketh proud words.' 24. The fool lacks 
the power of concentration. 27, 28. ' I have 
found nought of better service than silence.' 
' Silence is a fence to wisdom.' 

CHAPTER 18 

1. Lit. ' One who separates himself seeks 
desire, quarrels with all wisdom.' This would 
mean that a solitary recluse follows his own 
wishes and opposes everything reasonable. But 
LXX suggests, ' The alienated friend seeks an 
occasion of quarrel, seeks by all means to stir 
up strife.' 2. He likes to talk about his own 
notions. 4. The second half of the v. shows 
that it is a wise man who is in view ; his words 
are ' as deep waters,' i.e. are inexhaustible ; 
he is ever ready to give helpful answers. 

8. Wounds] RV ' dainty morsels.' Malicious 
gossip finds ready acceptance (Jerl5 16 ). 

10. The name of Jehovah is Jehovah Him- 
self as revealed to men, His manifested charac- 
ter (Ps 75 1 ). Orientals have always ascribed 
mysterious powers to the divine titles. Moham- 
medans repeat them one by one as they count 
the ninety-nine beads. One of the ancient 
Persian books declares that the recital of God's 
names is the best defence against all danger. 



385 



18. 14 



PROVERBS 



21.28 



14. Bear] RM 'raise up.' 16. A superior 
cannot be approached in the East without a 
present. 17. ' Hear the other side.' 20. A 
man's happiness depends on the way in which 
he governs and uses his tongue (Mtl2 36 15 11 ). 

22. A good wife (Eccl7 28 ). 24. RV 'He 
that maketh many friends doeth it to his own 
destruction ; but ' 

*The friend thou hast, and his adoption tried, 
Grapple him to thy soul with hooks of steel. 
But do not dull thy palm with entertainment 
Of each new-hatched, unfledged comrade. ' 

CHAPTER 19 

1 . Fool] read, ' rich ' (28 6 ). 2. Read, ' Also, 
desire without knowledge,' etc. Desires must 
be controlled by knowledge. The hasty in 
action will miss his mark. ' While the discreet 
advise, the fool doth his business.' 3. Per- 
verteth] RY ' subverteth.' It is his own fault, 
yet he blames God for it. 6. Great nobles and 
great donors are always sought after. 

10. Delight] RV ' delicate living.' He can- 
not appreciate refinement. Slaves have often 
risen to great power in the East : the danger 
is that they may become like the Felix of Ac 23, 
who was said to exercise royal power with a 
slave's disposition. 13. The Arabic proverb 
is, ' Three things render a house uninhabitable 
— tak (rain leaking through), nak (a wife's 
nagging), and bah (bugs).' 

17. 'So much hast thou of thy hoard 

As thou gavest to thy Lord ; 
Only this will bring thee in 
Usance rich and free from sin : 
Send thy silver on before, 
Lending to His sick and poor. 
Every dirhem dropped in alms 
Touches Allah's open palms, 
Ere it falls into the hands 
Of thy brother.' 

18. RY ' . . seeing there is hope, And set 
not thy heart on his destruction.' Not to 
discipline is to destroy. 19. Attempt to soothe 
him, and he will rage the more. 22. ' Words 
are as breath, and will is all.' Only the inten- 
tion counts (23 6 " 8 Mk 1 2 42 2 Cor 8 12 ). 24. R Y 
' The sluggard burieth his hand in the dish,' 
etc. : the allusion is to the large dish in the 
centre into which all dip (Mkl4' 20 ). 28. De- 
voureth] i.e. gulps down greedily. 

CHAPTER 20 

1. Raging] RV ' a brawler.' Is deceived] 
RM ' reeleth.' It makes a man sneer, quarrel 
and reel about. 2. Fear] the ' terror ' which 
he causes. Soul] RV ' life.' 4. Read, ' In the 
autumn . . therefore when he seeketh,' etc. : 
the first season begins about October, the second 
about April. 5. A clever cross-questioner 
elicits one's plans. 8. Scattereth away] RM 
'winnoweth' (IK 3 28). 



9. ' What mortal when he saw, 

Life's voyage done, his heavenly Friend, 
Could ever yet dare tell Him fearlessly : 
" I have kept uninfring'd my nature's law ; 
The inly- written chart Thou gavest me, 
To guide me, I have steer 'd by to the end " ? ' 

13. Open thine eyes] i.e. Wake up ! 

15. Read, ' There is gold and abundance of 
corals and precious vessels — wise lips are all 
these.' 

16. ' Strangers,' not a strange woman. He 
does not deserve to escape the consequences of 
his folly. 19. A ' chatterbox,' not a ' flatterer,' 
is meant. 

25. RY ' It is a snare to a man rashly to say, 
It is holy,' etc. Reflect before vowing (Eccl 5 l f - 
Mtl5 8 ). There is a Greek story of one who 
found a gold mine, and thereupon vowed a gold 
ram to Juno : soon he substituted a silver one ; 
then a small brass one ; eventually she got 
nothing. ' The river past and God forgotten.' 

26. The wheel of the threshing-cart, crush- 
ing in its weight (Ami 3 ). 27. Conscience is 
a searchlight, piercing the depths of the heart 
(1 Cor2 n ). 28. It is the king's goodness and 
reliableness that are meant. 30. The blueness, 
etc.] RY ' Stripes that wound cleanse,' etc. 
(Ps 11967). 

CHAPTER 21 

1. The 'watercourses' (RY) are the arti- 
ficial irrigation channels of Egypt and Babylon 
(Isa 58 n ). 4. There is no connexion between 
the two halves of the v. RM ' The tillage of 
the wicked is sin,' i.e. the result of his labour 
is sin. 5. One who is in a hurry to be rich 
hastens to want. 6. By a very slight altera- 
tion of the Hebrew text we get the greatly 
improved rendering of RM, 'Is a vapour 
driven to and fro ; they are snares of death.' 

9. A small room is often built on the flat roof 
of an Oriental house ( 1 K 1 7 ^ 2 K 4 10 Ps 1 02 < ). 
' A needle's eye is wide enough for two friends ; 
the whole world is too narrow for two foes.' 

12. Read, ' The righteous considereth the 
house of the wicked ; he overturneth the 
wicked to ruin.' Perhaps the righteous means 
God. 

14. Bribes are carried ready for use in a 
fold of the robe. 16. He will come prema- 
turely to his final resting-place amongst ' the 
Shades' (218). 

17. The oil is that used at banquets for 
anointing (27 9 Dt 1 4 26 Neh 8 12 Am 6 *">). 1 8. Cp. 
II 8 . 

22. Strength of the confidence thereof] the 
stronghold in which it trusted. 25. He desires 
ease and self-indulgence. 27. Read, 'When 
he bringcth it to atone for wickedness ' (RM): 
cp. Lvl9*«S 28. The man who actually 
heard what he swears to, will speak constantly 
or ' for ever ' ; his testimony will never be 



38G 



21.29 



PROVERBS 



24. 28 



shaken. 29. A wicked man boldly maintains 
whatever suits him ; a wise man ' considereth 
his way' (RM). 

CHAPTER 22116 

I. To be regarded with favour is better than 
silver and gold. This v. is inscribed in large 
letters on the walls of Manchester Exchange. 
Rabbi Simeon used to say : ' There are only 
three crowns ; the crown of the Law, the crown 



of priesthood, and the crown of kingdom ; but 
the crown of a good name excels them all.' 

2. ' A man's a man for a' that.' 6. 'As the 
twig is bent so the tree 's inclined.' In the way 
he should go] i.e. according to the position and 
work to which he is destined. 8. The rod, 
etc.] i.e. the power of his tyranny shall 
vanish. 

12. Read, ' The eyes of the Lord are in him 
that keepeth knowledge.' 



PART 3 (Chs. 2217-2434) 



CHAPTER 22^-29 

These proverbs are very unlike the pre- 
ceding in tone and style. The author's own 
personality is brought distinctly into view 
(2217-21 23 1 5 ) ; he had a high opinion of the 
value of his maxims ; he arranges them in 
strophes, not in couplets. 

18. Fitted] RY ' established together,' i.e. 
ready (lPet3 15 ). 20. For excellent things 
j RM suggests ' heretofore.' Perhaps we should 
read 'triply': cp. Hos8i 2 RY. 21. RM 
' Them that send thee,' i.e. his parents. Per- 
haps it ought to be, ' them that ask thee ' 
(1 Pet 3 15). 

27. If the debtor has failed to meet his obli- 
gation and the unlucky surety has no money, 
the creditors will seize the poor man's scanty 
belongings, even to his bed. 28. Landmarks 
were of extreme importance when there were 
no fences : see on Ruth 2 22. 29. Stand before] 
i.e. serve (IS 16 21 IK 108). 

CHAPTER 23 

1. RY 'him that is before thee.' Do not 
excite his contempt. 2. Restrain your appe- 
tite. 3. He invites you for his own purposes. 

4. Cease, etc.] i.e. desist from the attempt 
to be rich. 

6-8. Estimate the niggard according to his 
\ thoughts, rather than his words. Your pleasant 
conversation is wasted labour. 

10, 11. Read, ' The landmark of the widow.' 

' G-od Himself is the Goel, the redeemer, the 

next of kin, who protects widows and orphans 

(Ex 22 21-23 Lv2525 Nu30i2 Ruth 4 3, 4 j er 50 34). 

16. Reins] lit. 'kidneys.' Heart and kid- 
neys were considered to be the seat of mental 
and spiritual life (Job 19 27 Psl6 7 Jerl0 2 
2012). 18. End] lit. ' latter end,' crowning the 
life. 21. The drowsiness follows nights of 
intemperance. 

27. In Galilee there are scores of ancient 
cisterns, bottle-shaped, into which one may fall 



and find it impossible to climb out. 28. The 
miserable duplicities and ' treacheries ' (RY) 
of an unholy passion. 

29. ' Complaining ' — not babbling — arises 
amongst boon companions. Redness of eyes] 
is due to dissipation. 30. Seek] RY ' seek out,' 
try it thoroughly. Mixed wine] see on 9 2 . 

31. Giveth his colour] i.e. sparkles. Moveth 
itself aright] RY ' goeth down smoothly.' 

34. The midst of the sea] i.e. on the high 
seas (30 w Ezk27 25). With a slight change in 
the text we get, ' in a great storm,' instead of, 
upon the top of a mast. 35. The sot is repre- 
sented as saying that the blows which were 
showered on him when drunk have neither in- 
jured nor pained him, and as longing to be 
fully awake from his drunken sleep in order to 
return again to his carousing. 

CHAPTER 24 

5. Read, ' A wise man is better than a 
warrior, and a man of knowledge than a man 
of strength.' 7. When put on his trial ' in the 
gate ' of the city, where public business was 
usually transacted, he has nothing to say (Mt 
2212). 10. Adversity is sent to bring out your 
strength : if you are slack and irresolute in 
the day of trial you are proved* to be a weak- 
ling. 11, 12. Do not seek to evade your re- 
sponsibilities (G-n4 9 Jas4i' 7 ). 13, 14. Wisdom 
is as sweet as honey. 

16-18. Seven] an indefinite, but considerable 
number. The wrath will now fall on you. 

20. Candle] RY ' lamp ' (31 1 8 ). 21, 22. Take 
no part in conspiracies and revolutions. 

23-34. i s a short collection of sayings, with 
the heading, ' These also are sayings of the 
wise.' 

26. Every man, etc.] 'He kisseth the lips ' : i.e. 
behaves as a true friend. 27. Before l build- 
ing the house ' (i.e. getting married), make 
proper provision. 28. This is in opposition 
to the ancient law of retaliation (Ex21 23 - 25 
Lv 24 17-21 Dtl92i). 



387 



25. 1 



PROVERBS 



27.26 



PART 4 (Chs. 25-29) 






CHAPTER 25 

Courts. Quarrels 

1-7. relate to kings and courts. 

1. By the men of Hezekiah the author of 
this v. doubtless means literary men at the 
king's court. These, he says, transcribed the 
following proverbs from some other collec- 
tion or collections. It will be noticed that 
many of them have appeared earlier in the 
book. 

2. The works of God in history and nature 
are beyond us (Dt29 2 9 Job 11 7 15 » Isa45 15 
Ro 1 1 33 ). A king should be conversant with 
all that is going on (IK 3^ Job 29 "). 

4, 5. Finer] a contraction of 'refiner,' as 
'fining pot' (17 3 ) is of ' refining pot.' But we 
learn from LXX that the original reading 
was, ' And it cometh forth perfectly pure.' 

6-8. Forth] RY 'forward': cp. Lkl4H. 
The last words of v. 7 belong to v. 8, ' What 
thine eyes have seen, go not forth hastily to 
dispute about. For what wilt thou do in the 
end, when,' etc. 9, 10. To disclose the dis- 
creditable secret even of an adversary brings 
one an evil name. 11. The words appear to 
mean, 'A word spoken in season is golden 
fruit in silver carvings.' 

13. Snow is used in the East to cool a 
beverage, as we use ice. 14. Of a false gift] 
RV ' of his gifts falsely.' ' Much cry and little 
wool.' 18. A maul is a mace, club, or ham- 
mer. 20. The first clause should probably be 
omitted, and the v. should begin thus : 
4 Vinegar on a wound.' etc. The Heb. words 
for nitre and ' wound ' are almost identical. 
To sing songs for one who is of a heavy 
heart is almost as cruel as to pour vinegar on 
a wound. 

22. Heap coals of fire, etc.] i.e. make him 
burn with shame: cp. Rol2 20f . 23. Driveth 
away] RV 'bringeth forth.' 26. The fountain 
is troubled by the feet of animals (Ezk 32 2 34 18 ). 

27. LXX reads, ' It is not good,' etc. : 
1 Therefore be sparing in words of commenda- 
tion.' Too much flattery is like too much 
honey. 28. ' Man who man would be must 
rule the empire of himself.' 

CHAPTER 26 
Fools. Sluggabds. Talkers 

1 -12. The vv. refer chiefly to fools. 

1. The Palestinian seasons were more regu- 
lar than ours (I S 1 2 ! 7). 2. This is a contra- 
dict ion of the idea that the deity invoked in a 
curse was bound to inflict it (Gn2788 Jgl7 2 ). 
Tin undeserved curse is compared to the aim- 
less movements of a bird. 4, 5. Answer or 
not, according to circumstances (Mtl2 80 



Mk9 39 ). 6. 'He that sends a fool means to 
follow him.' 

7. A fool is no more qualified to use a pro- 
verb than a lame man his legs. 8. This may 
be read, ' As he that bindeth,' etc. It should 
not be ' bound ' there. Or, ' As a bag of gems,' 
etc. (RV). That is not the place for them. 

10. The proverb seems to be directed 
against employing fools and strangers, but it 
is impossible to be sure how the Hebrew words 
at the beginning of the v. originally ran. 

17. RM 'A passing dog,' which does not 
know you. 

18-28. The evil effects of much speaking. 

18, 19. Sport to them is death to others. 

21. For coal read ' bellows.' 23. A pot- 
sherd covered with the lead oxide which re- 
mains after silver has been refined looks valu- 
able, but is worthless; so are 'fervent lips and 
a wicked heart ' (RV) : cp. Lk22 4 ?. 

CHAPTER 27 

Sundry Observations. Agriculture 

4. Envy] a husband's jealousy is meant 
(Song 8 6 ). 5, 6. Men 'hide' (RV) love when 
they refrain from telling a friend his faults. 
An enemy will be ' profuse ' (RV) in deceitful 
kisses : Judas kissed Jesus much (Mt26 49 
RM). 7. The Spartan king told the tyrant 
Dionysius that the broth was nothing without 
the seasoning of fatigue and hunger. 8. 'East, 
West, hame 's best.' 9. Sweetness of disposi- 
tion is desirable when it arises, not from mere 
emotion, but from a settled purpose of the 
soul. 14. Early and loud demonstrativeness 
is not stable. ' Evening words are not like to 
morning.' 

16. The RV makes this difficult v. mean 
that he is attempting the impossible. 17. The 
solitary grows dull. ' The best mirror is an 
old friend.' The Greek proverb is, ' One man, 
no man.' 19. Judge another by yourself. 

21. Estimate him by the reputation he wins. 
The Russian proverb is, ' A man's reception is 
according to his coat ; his dismissal according 
to his sense.' 22. l Heaven and earth fight 
in vain against a dunce.' 'Fools grow with- 
out watering.' 

23-27. A homily in praise of careful at 
tention to the flocks and herds. The writer 
is not disposed to depreciate agriculture, as 
some of the later Jewish proverb-makers were. 
One of these says, ' Lay out your money in 
trade, and you will have flesh and wine daily ; 
lay it out in land, and you will have but a bare 
subsistence.' 24. Riches and honour (the 
crown) are fleeting : attention to field and 
flock are profitable. 26. Sell your stock, and 
with the proceeds buy clothing and land. 



388 



28. 2 



PROVERBS 



30. 33 



CHAPTER 28 



Observations relating chiefly to 
Social Life 

2. Cp. the many changes of rulers during 
the unsatisfactory period described in 2K15. 

3. The addition of a single Hebrew letter 
gives ' wicked ' instead of poor. 4. See the 
account of Phinehas (Nu25). But the law 
here means religious and moral teaching in 
general. 5. Cp. Un220. 

8. Unjust gain] RY ' increase.' The OT. 
denounced usury and interest because it was 
assumed that the borrower was a person in 
distress (Ex2225 Dt23^ Psl5 5 ). That is 
quite a different matter from the lending on 
interest, without which modern trade could not 
. be carried on. 

10. The evil way is the one which ends in 
calamity. 14. He fears to do wrong. 18. For 
at once, read, 'into a pit.' 21. RM 'For a 
piece of bread a man will transgress.' ' I was 
taken by a morsel, says the fish.' 22. Evil 
eye] avaricious. 

27. Hideth his eyes] He ' passes by on the 
other side' (Lk 10 31,32). 



CHAPTER 29 
Kings and Fathers 



3. Cp. the prodigal son (Lkl5). 6. His 
transgression is the snare which catches and 
ruins him. 9. If a wise man has a lawsuit 
with a fool the latter will exhibit the most 
diverse moods, but one thing he will not do, 
and that is to listen quietly. 10. RM ' But the 
upright care for his soul.' 12. They argue 
that truth does not pay. 13. To the poor and 
' the oppressor ' (RY), to all classes alike, God 
gives the light of life (Ps 13 3 38 10 ). 17. ' Bet- 
ter the child weep than the father.' 

18. The vision of the prophet (Isal 1 ) and 
the instruction of the law deterred the people 
from ' casting off restraint ' (RV). Morality 
requires the safeguard of religion. 

19. Ecclus 33 24 ' 29 recommends blows. 

21. LXX has, ' He who has been luxurious 
from a child will become a servant, and in the 
end will be wretched.' 24. This does not 
mean a man who goes shares in the booty, but 
one who knows the thief, hears the adjuration 
to testify (LV5 1 ), and fails to respond. 

27. ' Birds of a feather flock together.' 



PART 5 (Chs. 30, 31) 



CHAPTER 30 

The Words of Agur 



The simplest way of treating the title is to 
read as follows : ' The words of Agur, son of 
Yakeh, of Massa.' Then we may proceed, 
with RM, ' The man saith, I have wearied 
myself, G-od ; I have wearied myself, Cod, 
and am consumed ; for I am too stupid to be a 
man.' Nothing is known of Agur or Yakeh, 
and we can only say of these proverbs that 
they are unlike any that have preceded, and 
are evidently of later date. The grouping of 
objects in twos, threes, and fours reminds us 
of Job 5 19 Ps62H Ami, 2, and of later Jewish 
books, such as ' The Ethics of the Fathers ' 
and the Talmudic treatise ' Horajoth.' 

1-4. He lays no claim to the wisdom of 
which some boast : he does not profess to 
understand the 'Holy One' (RY), or to be 
Master of Nature (Job 38). The garment is 
the clouds. 5, 6. Men should attend to the 
word of revelation, which is pure as refined 
gold ; they add to its teachings at their peril. 

7-9. Two desirable things. 

8. Each household slave had an allotted 
portion of food (31 15 ) : G-od is here the head 
of the family, weighing out to me ' the bread 
of my portion ' (RM). 9. When in great dis- 
tress men often blaspheme (Isa8 21 Revl6 9 ). 
But the meaning may be that he dishonours 
the name of his God by stealing (Ezk36 20 ). 

II-14. Four classes of detestable people. 



15, 16. Read, ' The leech hath two daugh- 
ters — G-ive, Give.' There is an Indian proverb : 
' Fire is not satiated with wood, nor the ocean 
with streams, nor death with all the living, 
nor woman with man.' 17. The unburied 
corpse will be devoured by ravens of the wadi 
and by vultures (RM) : eagles do not eat 
corpses. 

18, 19. Four mysterious things : cp. Wisd 
510,11. 

19. Maid] lit. ' young woman.' 20. This 
woman is an animal, in whom conscience has 
never been developed. 

21-23. Four intolerable things. 

23. The odious woman is the one who has 
long been rejected, but she secures a husband 
at last. A handmaid, etc.] Either she inherits 
from, or she supplants, her mistress : if the 
latter is meant, cp. Sarah's jealousy of Hagar. 

24-28. Four animals, small but wise. 

26. The creature improperly called coney 
here and at Lv 1 1 5 Dt 14 7 Ps 104 18 is the Syrian 
' hyrax,' an animal about the size of a rabbit, 
which feeds on grass, and lives in companies 
in the clefts of the rocks. 27. By bands] cp. 
Joel 2. 

28. The ' lizard' (RY) is so small that 'you 
can grasp it with your hands ' (RM). 

29-31. Four creatures of stately gait. 

31. Instead of greyhound LXX has the 
' cock.' The fourth creature can hardly be 
the king : the passage is corrupt. 33. Retain 
the same word throughout : pressing milk, 



389 



31. 1 



PROVERBS— ECCLESIASTES 






pressing the nose, pressing strife. The 'curd' 
(not butter), which is a favourite and refreshing 
drink in the East, is made by shaking the milk 
about in a vessel of skin. 

CHAPTER 31 

The Mother of Lemuel. The excellent 
Woman 

1-9. An exhortation addressed to king 
Lemuel by his mother, urging him to avoid 
women and wine. The latter leads to slack- 
ness and unfairness in the administration of 
justice. 

1 . Read the title thus : ' The words of 
Lemuel, king of Massa, which his mother 
taught him.' It is possible that the Massa of 
Gn25 14 is meant. 2. The repeated What? 
appears to point to an inclination towards 
these excesses. Son of my vows] see 1 S 1 n . 

3. Read, 'Give not thy love to those who 
destroy kings.' 4. l More are drowned in the 
wine-cup than in the ocean.' 

6. Of heavy hearts] read, ' the bitter in 
soul.' The Talmud treats this verse as the 
foundation of the pious custom of the Jeru- 
salem ladies, who provided medicated wine to 
dull the pain of those condemned to death 
(Mkl523). 

10-31. A complete alphabetical poem, each 
of its 22 vv. beginning with a letter of the 
Hebrew alphabet. It describes the perfect 
housewife, the virtuous, or, as the word rather 
means, the ' excellent,' the ' capable ' woman. 
Industrious herself, she sees to it that her 
servants are the same. She sells the products 
of their spinning and weaving, and buys lands 
with the money. She watches over the con- 
duct of the entire household. She is kind to 
the poor and gentle to all. Husband and 
children pay her honour as the prime source 
of all their welfare. She is self-respecting 
and dignified. Religion lies at the root of her 
character. 



INTRO. 

The ideal is a worthy one, well adapted to 
life in one of the towns of antiquity, where 
the men were engaged in public business 
(v. 23) and the women were supposed to attend 
to all domestic and business affairs. No doubt 
we should need some additional features for 
the portrait of the highest type of womanhood. 
This lady is not in the fullest sense the help- 
meet for man. She is too much the toiler on 
his behalf, too little the partner of his thoughts 
and plans. Tennyson's ' Princess ' strikes a 
note which we cannot afford to miss : 

' Let her make herself her own 
To give or keep, to live and learn and be 
All that not harms distinctive womanhood. 

Till at the last she set herself to man, 

Like perfect music unto noble words ; 

And so these twain, upon the skirts of Time, 

Sit side by side, full-summed in all their powers, 

Dispensing harvest, sowing the To-be, 

Self-reverent each and reverencing each, 

Distinct in individualities, 

But like each other ev'n as those who love.' 

11. Spoil here means gain. 13. Read, 
' worketh at that which her hands delight in.' 

15. The portion is either the proper quantity 
of food or the allotted quantity of material for 
work. 21. Scarlet dye being costly, the gar- 
ments would be of good material, thick and 
warm. 22. Read, k She maketh for herself 
coverings ' (7 16 ). There is no justification for 
the addition, 'of tapestry.' 25. ' She laugheth 
at the time to come ' (RY), because she is 
prepared for anything. 

26. On an Egyptian tombstone is the 
inscription : ' Peace was in the words which 
came from his mouth, and the book of the 
wise Thoth' (the divine scribe of the gods) 
1 was on his tongue.' A later Jerusalem proverb 
was : ' Gentleness is the salt which preserves 
wealth from corruption.' 30. Favour] i.e. 
charm and attractiveness. 






ECCLESIASTES 



INTRODUCTION 






i . Title. The title ' Ecclesiastes ' has been 
adopted by the English Version through the 
Latin Vulgate from the Septuagint (the earliest 
translation of the OT. into Greek from the 
original Hebrew), which gives it as the render- 
ing of the Hebrew title Koheleth. It is, how- 
ever, uncertain whether thai word (derived 
from a root meaning ' to collect ') denotes (a) 



a member of a collective body, i.e. an assembly 
(Gk. Eccleria, whence the title 'Ecclesiastes'), 
implying that the writer was one of a body of 
persons who thought and discoursed on the 
subjects engaging attention in the book, or (b) 
one who collects or convenes an assembly, ' the 
great orator ' which RM substitutes for ' the 
Preacher ' in l 1 . 



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INTRO. 



2. Authorship and Date. Was Solomon the 
author of this book, as l 1 , if taken literally, 
implies ? We may safely reply, No, for (a) 
the original Hebrew throughout the book shows 
traces of verbal forms, idioms, and style later 
than Solomon's time ; (b) the writer says, ' I . . 
(not 'am,' but) was king ' (l 12 ) ; (c) he refers 
apparently to a series of kings preceding him 
(1 16 ) ; (d) he tells us that he was king ' in 
Jerusalem, 1 thus pointing to a date later than 
the Disruption on Solomon's death, when there 
began to be kings outside Jerusalem ; (e) Solo- 
mon would not have drawn with his own hand 
a picture of moral evils (cp. 4* 5 8 8 9 10<3,7,i6), 
for which he would be held himself in large 
measure responsible ; (/) there is no reference 
to features characterising Israelitish history in 
Solomon's day. Besides all these reasons for 
placing the book later than Solomon's time, it 
bears distinct traces of the Greek culture estab- 
lished throughout the civilised world after the 
break up of the Empire of Alexander the 
Great (died 323 B.C.). s Such traces, e.g. appear 
in (a) the writer's advice to enjoy the present 
life (2 24 3 22 5 18 9 7 ) ; (&) his comments on 
human weakness and disorder (5 8 7 7 8 9 > 14 9 16 
10 16f -), on the vanity and brevity of life (e.g. 
1 2 " 17 ), and on the common destiny of human and 
brute creation (3 18f -) ; (c) his references to 
man's inventive capacity (7 29 ), and (d) his 
remarks on the phenomena of nature (1 5 > 6 ). 

Thus the book is decidedly later than the 
days of Solomon. On the other hand, an 
acquaintance with its language seems to be 
shown in the apocryphal book called ' Ecclesi- 
asticus,' written circ. 180 B.C. We may, there- 
fore, with confidence place Ecclesiastes earlier, 
though probably not much earlier, than that 
date. 

But if belief in the traditional authorship is 
on these grounds to be put aside, we need 
have no scruple in at once rejecting the notion 
that the writer, whoever he may have been, 
had the smallest intention of fraud or deceit 
in thus assuming Solomon's character for lite- 
rary purposes. Such personation is nothing 
more than has been practised alike in ancient 
and modern times with perfectly straightfor- 
ward motives. Plato's dialogues or the speeches 
in Thucydides (to take two of the best known 
cases in classical literature) are examples of 
language put into the mouths of great men, 
not as having been literally spoken by them, 
but as expressing the sentiments which in the 
writer's opinion under given circumstances 
might fairly be attributed to them. 

We may notice that the claim to personate 
the great king, such as it is, is more conspicuous 
in the earlier than in the later part of the book. 
The thought of Solomon gradually fades from 
the writer's mind, and he proceeds to give us 
undisguisedly his own attitude towards life 



and its problems in words that do not even 
mean to suggest the Solomon of Israelitish 
history. 

3. Design of the Book. The main purpose 
of the author is evidently to offer men 
counsel, the result of his own experience, as 
to the principles on which they shall order 
their lives. The Divine Creator, he is sure, 
carries on the world in accordance with a plan, 
but that plan is hidden from us. What rule, 
then, shall we follow ? Man, God's creature, 
by nature aims at happiness. How shall happi- 
ness be attained ? A glance around us shows 
that it does not go simply by merit ; for in- 
stances are patent where virtue suffers and 
vice is prosperous. What path, therefore, 
shall we follow to gain our quest ? Shall it 
be wisdom, or unrestrained pleasure, or devo- 
tion to business, or the pursuit of wealth ? 
None of these will avail. Our rule must be 
to alternate wholesome labour with reasonable 
relaxation, assured that, although the ways of 
God's judgments are obscure, all well-doing 
shall in the end be shown forth as approving 
itself to the Divine Judge. 

Many a devout reader, turning over the pages 
of this book, has been conscious of a sort of 
uneasy wonder that it should form part of the 
Bible ; so different is its general tone from 
that of the sacred volume as a whole. For — 

(a) Throughout the whole book the gaze is 
turned inwards. Existence is represented as 
a puzzle beyond our powers to solve. In 
other OT. books the writer feels that he is 
showing us God's hand in His dealing with in- 
dividuals or with nations. But here God is a 
God who ' hides Himself,' and we must grope 
on in the dark in our endeavour to become 
acquainted even with ' parts of His ways.' 

(b) Elsewhere, specially in the prophetical 
and devotional books, God is not only a King 
and moral Governor, a Creator and a Judge, 
but He is tender, willing to forgive the peni- 
tent, ready to succour and sustain. But to 
the writer of this book God is only the Judge, 
austere, needing care in approach, omnipotent, 
and righteous. The element of love in His 
character is hidden. That He is, in the full 
sense of the word, the Divine Father, is seen 
dimly or not at all. The book thus shows the 
low-water mark of the religious thoughts of 
God-fearing Jews in pre-Christian times. 

(c) Human existence is looked at mainly 
on its darker side. It is at once monotonous 
and vain. There is nothing new anywhere. 
Its good things, even if attained, are fleeting. 
Close upon the enjoyment of them the ' days 
of darkness' follow, and they ' shall be many.' 
The book thus emphasises in a way not found 
in the rest of the OT. the lack of a clear vision 
of a future life which had not yet been brought 
to light by Christ. 



391 



INTRO. 



ECCLESIASTES 



INTKO. 



But these very peculiarities, which have 
caused perplexity to devout readers, form, 
when rightly viewed, a signal part of the 
credentials of the book as a constituent part 
of the ' Divine Library,' which, through its 
various elements, historical, prophetical, devo- 
tional, ethical, was destined in God's provi- 
dence to appeal to the needs of successive 
periods of man's existence. To the question 
characteristic of much of the thought of the 
present day, ' Is life worth living ? ' the book 
gives the best answer which a Jew, at once 
influenced by heathen philosophy, and placed 
amidst political and social miseries, could give. 
There is a wide-spread habit of mind, called 
by the convenient name of pessimism, which 
takes a gloomy view of human existence, 
either because of the miseries of the world 
in general, or because of the deficiencies to 
be found in man's nature. Now it is in Ec- 
clesiastes, and Ecclesiastes alone, that this 
tendency is dealt with upon anything resem- 
bling the lines in which it expresses itself 
in the working of men's minds in our own 
generation. 

It is, then, in a very real sense a present 
day question, which is here treated. If 
thoughtful people are now saddened by the 
sorrows and sufferings of the world, and by 
the evil that goes unpunished, so too was ' the 
Preacher. ' But the point for us to notice here is 
that, unlike many now, he retained his reliance 
on God's justice, although devoid of our main- 
stay, viz. the Christian faith which was then 
unborn. The forms of philosophical culture 
familiar to him were not unlike some of our 
own, while one special form of argument 
which we can use was unavailable in his day. 
The steady growth of sympathy with every 
kind of suffering and need, the widening sense 
of human brotherhood — this practical result of 
the fuller realisation of the meaning of Christ's 
teaching and life constitutes for us a special 
form of argument on the side of the Christian 
faith. He had no such help to retain his hold 
upon the God of his fathers. Nevertheless, 
we mark that his faith, however imperilled at 
times, did not fail him. How much less, 
then, should ours fail to whom God has been 
revealed as a God of love through Christ In- 
carnate and t lie Sacrifice for sin. 

4. Analysis of Contents. Although the 
genera] aim of the book is clear, the con- 
nexion of thought is not always easy to 
follow. There are many breaks, repetitions, 
and deviations into side-issues. The following 
is an outline of the contents. 

Introduction. Man's life is saddened by 
its brevity, and by the purposeless and mono- 
tonous repetition which meets him on all sides 
( 1 1-1] ). Various methods may be tried in order 
to obtain relief, viz. the pursuit of wisdom 



(112-18), f enjoyments and of art (21-H). Of 
these wisdom is the noblest, and yet all of 
them are but vanity (2 12-23). The best course 
is to alternate toil with frugal enjoyment ; 
though even this also is vanity (2 24-26), At 
least, however, we can see that God is a God 
of order (3i' s ) ; yet man's insight into God's 
plan is extremely limited. The best course, 
therefore, is to combine the enjoyment of God's 
gifts with uprightness of life (3 9 "i 5 ). True, 
man and beast alike return to the ground ; 
nevertheless, if not here, then hereafter wrongs 
shall be righted (316-22). The ills inseparable 
from both poverty and success cut men off 
from the helpful companionships of life (4 1-12). 
Wisdom prevails over the highest rank ; but 
even so there is nought that is lasting (4i 3 "i 6 ). 
In religious life ignorance and hypocrisy 
prevail (5 1- 7 ), in political and social matters 
cruelty and avarice (5 s ). Greed of gain is 
unsatisfying and in the end futile (5 9 -i 7 ). Let 
a man, avoiding these, make tranquil enjoy- 
ment his aim (5i 8 " 20 ). Length of life only 
increases man's liabilities to suffering ; yea, 
though he be possessed of all possible advan- 
tages (6 1 - 6 ). The only wise course is to use 
what we have, avoid all vain grasping at that 
which is beyond our reach, and accept the 
limitations which the very name man suggests 
(6 7 " 12 ). Advice for the conduct of life (7 "*). 
Avoid extremes whether of asceticism or ex- 
cess (7 15-18 ). Wisdom is rare, yet needed by 
all. Righteousness, seldom found among 
men, is absolutely unknown among women 
(719-29). Wisdom is needed by none more 
than those who have to do with kings' courts 
(8I- 5 ). Many as are the disorders and dis- 
appointments of life, it must still be that God 
will in the end show Himself a just Ruler. 
Make, therefore, a cheerful use of the good 
things of life, while convinced that His 
ways are 'past finding out' (8 6 "i 7 ). Death 
is universal, and what lies beyond is in the 
darkest shadow (9 1 -6 ) ; nevertheless, combine 
innocent enjoyment with diligent work (9 7 -i°). 
The wise, the strong, and the rich are all the 
puppets of chance. One foolish slip may 
bring about much havoc (9 n -l()i). There is 
practical wisdom in patient and quiet regard 
to duty (10 2- 7 ). The incautious reformer 
brings untoward results to himself (10 s - 11 ). 
The fool's talk, unlike that of the wise man. 
is wordy and wearisome, and also abortive 
(1012-15). a boy-ruler is a disaster to the 
kingdom; but the prudent will submit in silence 
(lO 16 * 20 ). Fulfil plain duties, even if success 
be dubious. While the powers of youth re- 
main, let life, though fleeting, be as bright as 
may be | 1 1 M0 ). The service of God will not 
bear postponement to the winter of life (12 1- 7 ). 
The outcome of the whole book is summed up 
(12*14). 



392 



1.1 



ECCLESIASTES 



% 1 



CHAPTEE 1 

All is Vanity 



I— XX. The writer describes himself. He 
declares that all things are transitory and 
without result, whether they be the works or 
the life of man, or the natural forces of heat, 
air, and water. Language cannot do justice to 
nature's wearisome sameness. The oblivion 
which overtakes all. 

i. Preacher] see Intro. §§1, 2. 

2. Vanity of vanities] lit. ' breath of breaths ' ; 
the form of expression being a Hebrew way of 
indicating the superlative degree. Of all fleet- 
ing things existence is the most fleeting. The 
same figure is used in Pss62 9 144 4 of the 
brevity of man's life. The word vanity, occur- 
ring thirty-eight times, strikes the keynote of 
the book. All things living and otherwise bear 
the stamp of the transitory. 

3. What profit] Man toils ; but even grant- 
ing that he gains some tangible result, he can- 
not retain. 4. The earth abideth] Man is so 
far from being lord of the earth, that it sur- 
vives ever fresh generations of its inhabitants, 
and so by contrast brings out more clearly the 
brevity of their existence. 5. Hasteth to his 
place] The sun, on the supposition of his ap- 
parent motion across the heavens from E. to 
W. by day, returns eastward beneath the earth 
by night. 

6. The wind, etc.] We may render more 
closely thus : w Going toward the south, and cir- 
cling toward the north ; circling, circling goeth 
the wind, and on its circlings returneth the wind. ' 
The sameness involved in the constant renewal 
of its changes of direction is brought out by 
the wording. The 'circling, circling,' the 
changing, at once endless and monotonous, 
marks here too an emptiness of aim. 7. Unto 
the place] The writer supposes that the salt 
water percolates by underground fissures, get- 
ting rid of its salt on the way, and so through 
hidden channels returns to the sources whence 
it had set out. 

8. All things are full of labour] KM 'all 
words are ' too ' feeble ' to set forth the case, 
so vast is the subject. 9. The thing] History 
has been repeating itself from all time, and 
will do so evermore. 

10, 11. Is there] He calls on any one who 
may doubt his word to point to something 
which is really new. The only reason that 
events strike us as new is because that which 
has been is swept into oblivion. Previous 
generations have no existence for us, and we 
in like manner shall have no existence for 
those who come after us. 

12-18. The writer, availing himself of his 
status, recounts how he had tested the various 
aspects of life in their aims and results, but all 
to no profit. Everything is perverse or de- 



fective. Great as were his acquirements, the 
result is nil, nay, worse than nothing. 

12. Was king] see Intro. § 2. 

13. My heart] We should say my 'mind,' 
but the heart was considered by the Jews to 
be the seat of the intellectual powers as well 
as of the emotions. All things'] the different 
ways that men work, and their hopes and fears 
in so doing ; their circumstances, pains, plea- 
sures, feelings, aims. Perhaps, he says to him- 
self, men of various trades, modes of life, 
surroundings, will enlighten me, or help me to 
bear my burden. This sore travail, etc.] Men 
who are endowed with any activity of mind 
cannot but be interested in all human endeavour ; 
and their researches and enquiries, unsatisfying 
though they be, are a part of God's order. 

14. Vexation of spirit] KV ' striving after 
wind': cp. HOS12 1 . The satisfaction that 
might have been expected from these studies 
is not to be attained. Air itself is not more 
elusive to the grasp. 15. Crooked] for the 
phrase here cp. Isa40 4 . The world is dis- 
ordered, and there is no cure discoverable. 

Numbered] The required numbers are lack- 
ing, which were needed to make up the sum 
of human action, and no amount of skill in 
arithmetic can supply the deficiency. 

16. Great estate] EY ' Lo, I have gotten 
me great wisdom above all,' etc. (omitting ' am 
come to great estate and '). He has had ex- 
ceptional advantages in gaining wisdom, and 
has made the most of his opportunities. Yet 
even so he has failed. What hope, then, can 
there be that others will solve the problem 
that remains dark to him ? All they] see Intro. 
§2. Wisdom and knowledge] knowledge, the 
possession of facts ; wisdom, skill in employing 
them. 17. And folly] He tries whether the 
study of folly may perchance give him some 
grasp of its opposite, viz. wisdom. But this too 
only serves to confirm him in his general con- 
clusion. Vexation of spirit] see on v. 14. 

18. Much grief] Sir Isaac Newton spoke of 
himself as a child picking up a few pebbles on 
the shore of the wide sea of knowledge. So 
the more the veil is lifted, the wider is seen to 
be the extent of that which is still unknown. 
Bodily and mental exhaustion, sleepless and 
futile endeavour — this is the picture which 
concludes the writer's sketch of his quest after 
the highest good in the shape of wisdom. 

CHAPTEE 2 

Epicureanism and Wisdom alike 
profitless 
1-3. The writer makes enjoyment his quest, 
while aware that it is folly, and avoiding 
excess in a philosophic spirit. 

1. I will prove thee with mirth] Wisdom, 
whether sought in nature or in human things, 
having proved unsatisfying, he now makes a 



393 



% 2 



ECCLESIASTES 



cast in another direction. Increase of know- 
ledge is increase of sorrow ; but what, if he 
were to try the fascination of enjoyment ? 

2. It is mad] He knows all the time that no 
solid comfort will be the issue. Mirth is a 
brief madness: cp. 7 6 . 3. To give myself unto] 
RY k to cheer my flesh with.' Yet acquainting 
mine heart] RY 'mine heart yet guiding me.' 
Whatever indulgences he may yield to, he is 
careful not to drift, and so vitiate his experi- 
ment. Through all he retains a prudent self- 
control. 

4-6. He tries another method, viz. culture 
and art. 

4. I made me great works] The occupation 
of mind and exercise of taste may help him 
in his quest. Houses] Personating Solomon, 
he thinks of the palaces built by that monarch 
(1K7 1-12 ): cp. the cities mentioned in 2Ch 
8 4 ' 6 . 5. Orchards] pleasure ground ; RY 
' parks.' 6. Pools] essential in a land where 
water is scarce, as well as pleasing in effect. 
The wood that bringeth forth trees] R Y ' the 
forest where trees were reared.' 

7— 11. He acquires slaves, herds, and flocks, 
and precious metals, musicians, and inmates 
of the harem. Without being the slave of 
these delights he yet indulges in every desire 
Df his heart, but, as before, all is vanity. 

7. Got] RV ' bought.' 8. Silver and gold] 
cp. 1K9 28 102,14,15,27. Peculiar treasure] 
The specialities and rarities of each country 
found their way to him. Of kings and of the 
provinces] cp. 1 K 10 15 , where Solomon receives 
precious things as tribute from the kings of 
Arabia and the governors of the country. 
Musical instruments, and that of all sorts] RV 
' concubines very many ' (but RM agrees with 
AV). The meaning of the Heb. is obscure. 
Probably, however, the reference is to the 
grosser sort of sensual enjoyments: cp. IK 
111-3. 

9. I was great, and increased] now in splen- 
dour and luxury, as before in knowledge. In 
closing the account of this experiment he ex- 
presses himself as he did at the end of his 
endeavour to find satisfaction in wisdom (l 16 ). 

10. My portion of all my labour] At least 
he had the zest of joys obtained through toil 
or ingenuity. 11. Vexation of spirit] cp. I 14 . 
None of these could satisfy the cravings of 
his spirit. 

12-17. Wisdom is to folly as light to dark- 
D68S ; yet the same end awaits both. Life, 
therefore, is nothing but a weariness. The 
cycle of experiments being completed, there 
is nothing to do but to hark back to the first 
of them, and to consider knowledge and its 
opposites. 

12. What can the man <ht] None can hope 
to attain or approach to the favourable condi- 
tions under which Solomon carried on his quest 



of the highest good. After the king ? even 
that which hath been already done] RM ' after 
the king, even him whom they made king long 
ago ? ' the writer now letting go his persona- 
tion of Solomon, and looking back at him as 
an historical personage. 

13. Wisdom excelleth folly] for, at any rate, 
in seeking it there is no fear of self-reproach. 

14. Are in his head] Unlike the fool, the 
wise man can see what and where to choose. 

15. Why was I then more wise ?] rather. 
' what was the use of troubling myself 'to sur- 
pass others ? ' 16. There is no remembrance] 
not meaning that no memories of famous men 
had survived them, but that such cases were 
too rare to be of any solace against the prac- 
tical ills of life. 17. Vexation of spirit] see 

114. 

18-23. Besides, no one knows what his heir 
may do. 

20. Went about] RY 'turned about,' i.e. 
looked back sadly at the absence of the per- 
manent element in the labours of my life 
past. 21. Equity] RY ' skilfulness.' Hath not 
laboured] The heir acquires good things with- 
out earning them. This too shows the dismal 
tangle of human affairs. 22. Vexation] RY 
'striving' (but RM as AY). 

24-26. Whatever enjoyment there is in life 
is from God, and He thereby favours the 
righteous, not the sinner. 

24. Eat and drink] enjoy in moderation the 
good things of life : cp. Jer22 15 . 

25. Hasten] RY "have enjoyment.' More 
than I ?] RM ' apart from Him ? ' i.e. it is only 
through God's ordinance that simple bodily 
pleasures can change to joy the sadness which 
is the natural outcome of the pursuit of know- 
ledge. This acknowledgment shows that the 
writer, after all, clings to the faith of his 
fathers. The rendering of AY (based on a 
slightly different rendering of the Heb.) would 
mean, ' Who is in a better position than I to 
testify that all good comes from God ? ' 

26. That he may give] The sinner's posses- 
sions pass to the just man, to be used aright : 
cp. Job 27 16 - 17 Provl3 22 . Vexation of spirit] 
see on 1 u . The sinner's toil and expectations 
are alike great ; his joys nil. 

CHAPTER 3 

The practical Ideal. Acceptance of 

the universal scheme 
1-15. God is a God of order. 
The problem which the writer has set him- 
self is not yet solved. He has found that 
wisdom, culture, pleasure, are all good, though, 
even if we combine them, there is still some- 
thing lacking, and they will not explain the 
mystery of existence. In continuing to seek 
for a rule of life that shall lead him to the 
highest good, he reminds himself that God is 



39 1 



ECCLESIASTES 



4. 13 



a God of order, and wisdom lies in adapting 
ourselves to that order. It is at a time 
appointed by the Creator that the individual 
life begins and ends, and the same is true for 
all the events intermediate between birth and 
death which make up the sum of human exist- 
ence. All our undertakings are thus subject 
to His unchangeable decrees. 

2. To plant . . to pluck up] i.e. to begin and 
end a career. 3. To kill] perhaps, to make 
war or peace. To break down] e.g. to make 
a way for what shall better meet- the needs, 
secular or spiritual, of a new generation. 

5. To cast away stones] Probably the whole 
v. means peace and war, the former expressed 
by leisure to clear away stones from a vine- 
yard (cp. Isa5 2 ), and to indulge in family joys, 
the latter by the action of a hostile force 
spreading stones over fertile lands (cp. 2 K 3 19 ), 
and by the claims of military service. 6. To 
get . . to lose] to add to, and to forego gains. 

7. To rend . . to sew] to act in a way that 
involves the sundering of friendship . . to knit 
hearts together again. 

9-14. Man's work, ignorant though he be, 
is fulfilling God's design. Let him aim at 
pleasure and uprightness, while the whole 
scheme of things from first to last is in the 
hands of God. 

9. What profit] how can he be sure that he 
has found the right season ? 

11. The world] rather, as EM, 'eternity.' 
Though man's powers are bounded, he is 
capable of recognising the grand and immea- 
surable scope of God's ordering of all things. 
His mind reflects the universe. This is better 
than, taking AY, to explain it as referring to 
man's natural love of living in the world. So 
that] EY ' yet . . so that.' 

12. No good . . a man~] EY ' nothing better 
for them than.' 14. That men should fear] 
God's unchanging ordinances are for the pur- 
pose of calling forth man's reverence. We 
must trust Him with our future. 15. Requir- 
eth] EY ' seeketh again,' bringeth back in an 
unchanging sequence : cp. 1 9 . 

16-22. Men wrest judgment ; but God shall 
right all wrongs, though how, is beyond our 
ken. 

16, 17. The judges of his time troubled the 
writer. Yet in God's purposes, either here or 
in the future, unrighteous decisions shall be 
reversed. 

18. Manifest] EY 'prove,' i.e. sift or test 
whether they will be upright, in spite of the 
knowledge that death comes to them no less 
than to the beasts. Beasts] EY ' but as beasts.' 

19. That which befalleth . . them] EM 'The 
sons of men are a chance, and the beasts are a 
chance.' They are the sport of hazard alike 
in birth and in death. 20. All are of . . again] 
' Nature the womb and tomb of all ' (Lucretius). 



21. That goeth] EY 'whether it goeth up- 
ward . . downward,' thus neither denying nor 
affirming that there is an intrinsic difference in 
the soul of man. Christ had not yet come to 
bring ' life and immortality to light.' Yet con- 
trast the brighter hope of 12 7 . 22. There is 
nothing better] If man is no better off than a 
beast, let him at least learn, like them, to enjoy 
the present. Bring him] EY ' bring him back, 7 
to see the results of his work. 

CHAPTEE 4 

YlCISSITUDES OF LlFE. ' Oh, THE PITY OF IT ! ' 

1-3. The mass of human suffering and the 
absence of pity are such that better off are the 
dead and still more the unborn. 

It is not only through God's ordinance, but 
by reason of man's perversity, that he is 
disturbed and perplexed by the social disturb- 
ances around him. The world is full of 
trouble. The weak are oppressed by the 
strong. 

4-6. Success involves envy. Better be secure 
and at peace. 4. Right] EY 'skilful,' EM 
' successful.' For this . . neighbour] EM ' it 
cometh of a man's rivalry with his neighbour.' 
Effort is stimulated by competition, but then 
what man has gained by toil is marred by the 
hostility of the less fortunate. Vexation of 
spirit] see on l 14 . 5. Even the fool who 
idly runs through his substance is for the time 
better off, for he is at peace. 

7-12. Two more ills of life are covetousness 
and loneliness. 

8. There is one alo?ie] The avaricious has 
none to share his wealth or to succeed him ; 
yet his toil is insatiable. 

9-12. The advantages of companionship are 
shown by four illustrations, three of which are 
such as have special fitness in the mouth of an 
Oriental writer. Two companions in travel 
find their partnership of value, whether (a) 
they are walking upon a rough and steep path, 
or (b) sleeping at the end of the day in a 
narrow chamber with unglazed windows, or 
(c) in a sudden encounter with thieves, who 
have availed themselves of the darkness of the 
night to dig through the earthen walls in 
search of valuables. Lastly, (d) a threefold 
cord is strong to resist. 12. EY 'And if a 
man prevail against him that is alone.' 

13-16. A man may rise from the lowest to 
the highest station by wisdom ; yet even so 
there is no permanence. 

13. Child] EY 'youth.' 14. He cometh] 
i.e. the poor and wise youth. Whereas 
also . . poor] EY ' yea, even in his kingdom 
he (the child) was born poor.' Thus in EY 
the subject of the whole v. is the youth, where- 
as in AY two persons are spoken of, viz. the 
prisoner who rises through wisdom to be a 
king, and the king who becomes a beggar. 



395 



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ECCLESIASTES 



6. 10 



These vv. have been taken to refer to actual 
events, perhaps in the writer's own day ; but 
no satisfactory reference for them has been 
found. Thus they had best be understood as 
a general statement. 

15. With the second, etc.] RY ' that they 
were with the youth, the second, that stood,' 
etc. 16. There is~] RY ' there was.' Even of 
. . them] RY ' even of all them over whom he 
was.' The sketch is continued ; there is an 
endless stream of those who crowd to pay 
court. They also] RY 'yet they,' etc. 
Oblivion will soon wipe out all. 

CHAPTER 5 

Disheartening Outlook on Life 

1-8. Disorders in the religious, in the 
political world. In the earlier part of this 
c. the writer turns from secular to religious 
matters. He points out the irreverence which 
belongs to worship offered without due thought. 

1. Keep thy foot] cp. Psm™ 1 Provlis. 
Either be silent, or use thoughtfully framed 
words of prayer, as contrasted with hasty 
offerings combined with ungodliness of life. 

And be more ready to hear] RY ' for to draw 
nigh to hear is better.' 3. A dream cometh] 
excessive distractions by day bring disordered 
visions at night. Even so excess in words 
shows folly in him who utters them. Is known 
by] RY ' with a.' 

4. Defer not to pay it] A vow is not essential, 
but once made it is binding : cp. Dt23 21-23 . 
Yows had an important place in the religion 
of Israel, as we see from Gn28 20 Nu6 2f - 
Jgliso lsin Mk7H Acl8is 2123 2321. Cp. 
also the rule of the Pharisees (Mt5 33 ), which, 
however, does not add the caution to think 
before speaking. 

6. Suffer not, etc.] i.e. suffer not your hasty 
vow to lead you into wrongdoing. The angel] 
either the angel who, according to Rabbinic 
belief, presided over the sacrifice (this is, 
however, somewhat out of harmony with the 
tone of the book), or the priest, to whom the 
person who makes the vow addressed himself. 
RM has ' messenger of God ' (see Mai 2 7 ). 

An error] He has brought an offering of 
inferior value, or gives a frivolous excuse for 
the non-fulfilment of the vow. And destroy] 
Punishment will ensue. He here recognises 
that the world is no mere machine : there is a 
righteous Judge. 

8. Violent perverting] The cruelties of a 
satrap, or- pasha, were part of a system extend- 
ing through every grade. Each watches 
(regardeth) with jealousy those below him, 
and seeks his opportunity for plunder. He 
that is higher than the highest regardeth] For 
highest RY lias 'high.' Tin: supreme ruler 
is no exception. There he higher than they] 
those wlio in an Eastern court practically 



bear rule over the nominal governors. The 
whole v., however, is obscure with perhaps 
an intentional ambiguity, and it is possible to 
explain it as meaning that there is a chance 
of getting justice by appeal from a lower to a 
higher tribunal, yea, even to the king himself. 
9-17. The evil of avarice. 

9. RM ' But the profit of a land every way 
is a king that maketh himself servant to the 
field ' ; because a ruler whose taste lies in 
that wholesome direction is unlikely to be 
given to amassing wealth : cp. 2Ch26 10 . 

10, 11. Avarice is attended by two evils: 
(a) it is never content ; and (b) responsibility, 
trouble, and expenditure increase in the same 
proportion. 14. There is nothing in his hand] 
Through a reverse of fortune the wealth, 
which should have descended to the son, has 
disappeared. The case is thus the converse 
misfortune to that of 4 8 . There the riches 
were to be had, but the heir was lacking. 

18-20. Riches are not inconsistent with 
happiness. 

20. For he shall not much remember] He 
will not be overtroubled by the knowledge 
that these pleasures are fleeting, and that life 
itself is uncertain. 

CHAPTER 6 
Life an Enigma 
1-6. Riches will not secure happiness. 

1. Common among] RY ' heavy upon.' 

2. A stranger] because he has no child to 
whom to leave it. The Easterns have a dread 
of being without a child, to keep the parents' 
name in remembrance: cp. Gnl5 2 . 3. And 
his soul] RY ' But his soul.' Misfortunes 
may render him miserable, though he has 
abundance of children and of years of life. 
Examples are Rehoboam (2 Ch 1 1 21 ) and Ahab 
(2 K 10 !). That he have no burial] The greatest 
importance was assigned to this tribute of 
respect: cp. Jer22i9. 4. He] RY 'it,' i.e. 
the untimely birth : so in v. 5. 6. Yet hath 
he seen] RY ' and yet enjoy.' To one place ?] 
The grave embraces all alike. 

7-12. The conditions of man's life are 
essentially uncertain. Man's aim is in the 
main directed to the satisfaction of his bodily 
desires. Yet at best this cannot be perfectly 
attained. The wise, no less than the fool, 
the poor equally with the rich, finds imperfect 
satisfaction in life. 

8. That knoweth to walk before the living ?] 
In other words, that has the skill so to conduct 
himself as to earn respect in the eyes of his 
fellows. 9. Better is] To enjoy what we 
have is better than yearning after things 
which elude our grasp. Vexation of spirit] 
see on 1 17 . 

10. That which hath been] RM 'Whatso- 
ever he be.' Is named already] RY ' the 



390 



6. 11 



ECCLESIASTES 



7. 26 



name thereof was given long ago.' Man] RM 
1 Heb. Adam.' Thus the sense of the v. is, 
' From the beginning man's nature has corre- 
sponded to his bodily frame. He is known as 
man (Adam), because he was made out of the 
earth (Heb. Adamah), and he must accept his 
position: cp. Isa45 9 Ro9 20 . 

ii. Things] RM 'words,' perhaps the 
profitless discussions common in the philoso- 
phical schools (e.g. on fate and free-will). 

12. Man can neither judge what is really 
for his happiness in life nor foresee the future 
fate of that in which he may be interested. 

CHAPTER 7 
Practical Aphorisms 

i-6. Things useful to remember in life. 
The writer has just warned us that we cannot 
rely on either the present or the future. We 
can, however, guide ourselves in the conduct 
of life by bearing in mind useful truths. 
These he now proceeds to give. 

i. Precious ointment] This was a much-prized 
luxury in the East (cp. Ps45 8 Am 6 6 Mt26? 
Lk7 37 ), but to be held in esteem is still 
better. There is a play on words in the Heb. 
(Shem, ' a name,' and Shemen, ' ointment '), 
which can scarcely be reproduced in English. 
Plumptre suggests, ' A good name is better 
than good nard.'' The day of death] Even 
in this respect, however, a man's life cannot 
be judged happy till its end is reached. 

2. The living 1 will lay it to his heart] 
Oriental mourning is elaborate and prolonged. 
Hence there is abundant opportunity for 
those who take life in earnest to obtain a 
hearing for their counsels. 

6. As the crackling of thorns] Frivolity is 
like the fire which the wayfarer lights from the 
thorns that he has gathered, and which goes out 
as suddenly as it has sprung up, leaving only 
dead ashes : cp. Ps 58 9 . 

7-1 4. Ill-treatment may well provoke anger, 
yet pause and exercise control. Accept the 
present with submission. Wisdom and money 
are both valuable, but wisdom is the better of 
the two. All things are in the hands of G-od. 

7. Oppression] RV ' extortion ' : sufferings 
inflicted on the weak by the strong. Mad] 
RV ' foolish.' The heart] R V ' the understand- 
ing.' To be condemned by one whose decision 
is determined by a bribe causes a man to lose 
all power of calm judgment. 8. Better is the 
end] The connexion seems to be this : the 
danger of being warped in our view by outward 
circumstances is such a real one that we cannot 
pronounce an unqualified judgment upon any- 
thing till the end is reached. 10. Thou dost 
not enquire wisely] We have not the materials 
for a just comparison. 

11, 12. Some men through the attainment of 
wisdom or wealth have reached a vantage ground 



in the battle of life. Of the two wisdom is to 
be preferred, as possessed of a quickening power 
which money cannot bestow. 

11. Them that see the sun] i.e. the living. 

12. A defence] lit. a shadow: cp. Isa30 2 > 3 
322. 

13. Who can make that straight, etc.] If 
trouble be God's will for us, we cannot change 
it. 14. Consider] Ask yourself what you may 
learn from it. Over against] RV ' side by side 
with.' Both run through the course of human 
life. To the end, etc.] So that we cannot fore- 
cast the part which the one and the other will 
play in the future. 

15. The anomalies of life. 

15. A just man that perisheth, etc.] It was 
perplexing enough that there should be but one 
end to the righteous and the wicked (3 19 ). It is 
more so when we see the just man cut off by an 
untimely death and the evil-doer enjoying a 
green old age. 

16-18. Extremes, whether of asceticism or 
of excess, are bad. 

17. Over much wicked] The expression seems 
strange, as though moderate wickedness were 
allowable. But the sense is probably as 
follows : the author had just said, ' Be not 
righteous over much,' perhaps alluding to the 
over-scrupulousness of the Jews in observing 
ceremonies, etc. : cp. Mt23. He may now be 
meeting the thought of those who would reply, 
' There is no fear that we shall exceed in that 
direction,' and he warns them that there is an 
opposite kind of excess to which they are more 
prone. Excess in either direction, and folly, 
tend to disturb and shorten life. 

18. From this] RV ' from that.' Whatever 
the nature of the experience to which God sub- 
jects you, take cognisance of the evil as well as 
of the good. That in using such language he is 
not condoning sin is clear from the last part of 
the v. If only he fear G-od, he shall come 
forth unscathed. 

19-22. Be wise enough not to be over sensi- 
tive to criticism, since you also indulge in it. 

19. Wisdom strengtheneth] There is a power 
greater than brute force. 

23-28. Wisdom eludes the grasp. Sweeping 
condemnation of the female sex. 

24. That which is far off] RV ' That which 
is is far off.' ' That which is,' viz. G-od's world- 
plan, all the phenomena of the world and of 
human life, can only be realised by us in frag- 
mentary form. 25. Madness] As in 2 12 , wicked- 
ness and madness are closely connected. 

26-28. The writer gives us the general result 
of his experience of human character. Among 
men he has found but one true friend. The 
other sex he condemns without exception. We 
cannot tell why, ignorant as we are of the cir- 
cumstances of his life. We must, however, 
remember that the position of women in the 



397 



7. 29 



ECCLESIASTES 



9. 10 



East has always been favourable to the growth 
of habits of frivolity, cunning, and licentious- 
ness ; also that elsewhere (c. 9 : cp. perhaps also 
4 8 ) he modifies this judgment. It remained 
for Christianity to bring woman back to her 
rightful position as a helpmeet for man. 

29. Many inventions] From the Fall in Eden 
there has been a continued display of manifold 
ingenuity to thwart God's benevolent purposes 
for man. 

CHAPTEK 8 

Kings' Courts need wary walking 
1-17. Be discreet in relation with a ruler. 
God's purpose must be carried out. His rule 
must be righteous, though this is often not seen 
in actual life. God's ways are just, and past 
finding out. 

The writer now enters on a subject which it 
would not have been wise to treat too plainly, 
viz. the need of showing tact in dealing with 
the arbitrary power of an absolute monarch. 
No part of the book is more decidedly at 
variance with the Solomonic authorship than 
this c. 

1. Who is, etc.] Which of his readers has 
skill to see the meaning of his language, inten- 
tionally left obscure ? Boldness] RV ' hard- 
ness.' Skill of this kind refines the features. 

2. Oath of God] Ptolemy Soter, king of 
Egypt (305-285 B.C.), having transplanted 
certain Jews from Palestine to Alexandria, 
caused them to swear allegiance to his suc- 
cessors. It is possible that the reference here 
may be to that event. If so, we have an in- 
dication of the place and time of writing. 

3. Be not hasty] Do not rashly throw up 
office. Stand, etc.] RV ' persist.' Do not 
take sides with the ruler's open or covert 
enemies. The expression, however, in the 
Heb. is obscure, probably of set intention. 

5. Whose keepeth, etc.] Submission is a 
practical guide in life. Time and judgment] 
The wise man will bide his time, hoping that 
justice will be done in the end. 

6. To every purpose] God's purpose must 
eventually prevail, and retribution, if deserved, 
come even on the highest. Therefore] RY 
' because.' Misery] RM ' evil.' Wickedness, 
like a lead, bears the bad man down to his doom. 

8. Spirit] RM 'wind,' which it is God's 
prerogative to control. No discharge] Under 
the Jewish law exemption from service in 
war was granted in certain cases (Dt20 5-8 ). 
In the battle with death no such release may 
be had. 

9, 10. These vv. are expressed in such 
guarded language that to us they are scarcely 
intelligible. The Line of thought is probably 
as follows. Although death swallows up the 
wicked in the end, nevertheless the writer's 
wide experience ever brings back to his mind 



cases where a man has exercised misrule to 
the hurt of his fellow-men. And then these 
evil men have received a stately burial, and 
been gathered to their fathers with all due 
observances. On the contrary, those who 
had lived virtuously have been dishonoured, 
expelled from the Temple and the Holy City, 
and dismissed from the minds even of the 
people among whom their good deeds had 
been done. Both honour and oblivion had 
been misplaced. 10. Who had come] RV 
' and they came ' to the grave. And gone . . 
so done] RY ' and they that had done right 
went away from the holy place, and were for- 
gotten in the city.' 

12. I know that it shall be well] The writer, 
after all, is one of those who ' keep ' (or at 
any rate revert) ' to the sunny side of doubt.' 
The rule of final justice, he says, must hold. 

14, 15. But now it is often not so. There- 
fore temperate enjoyments, joined with labour, 
are the most abiding possession of man : cp. 
2 2-4 , etc. 16, 17. These problems are beyond 
man's power. 

16. For also, etc.] RM 'how that neither 
by day nor by night do men see sleep with 
their eyes.' 

CHAPTER 9 

Live worthily while you may 

1-3. The future is in God's hands. Good 
and bad alike must die. 

1. Considered in] RV ' laid to.' Declare] 
RV ' explore.' No man . . before them] RV 
' whether it be love or hatred, man knoweth 
it not ; all is before them.' Whether God's 
dealings with them shall be such as to suggest 
His favour or displeasure is unknown, because 
the part of life not yet traversed cannot be 
penetrated. 2. There seems no discrimina- 
tion in the lot of men. 

4. A living dog] Life has at any rate one 
advantage over death. The miserable hope that 
either positive happiness, or at least better 
fortune than in the past, may lie before them. 
The saying receives its point from the con- 
tempt with which a dog is regarded in the 
East. 5. The living know] A conscious re- 
cognition of the inevitable is better than the 
oblivion which belongs to death. 

7-10. Couple enjoyment and work. 

8. White] as symbolical of cheerfulness 
(2Ch5 12 ), and perhaps here, as later (e.g. 
Rev3 4f ), of purity. White was constantly 
worn at feasts. Ointment] Sweet fragrant 
unguents for perfuming the person. 10. Be 
not half-hearted in any duty. The present 
alone is yours : cp. 'in diligence not slothful ' 
(Eol2" RV). In St. Paul's day the darkness 
had been lighted up, and this precept conse- 
quently transformed in the words which close 
the great Resurrection chapter (1 Corl5 58 ). 



398 



9.11 



ECCLESIASTES 



11. 10 



11-18. Results must be left to God. 
dom is better than strength, yet 



Wis- 

it is 



17. Are heard in quiet] RV 'spoken in 
quiet are heard.' There are times when 
men's voices are hushed to listen to wise 
counsel. 18. One sinner, etc.] One man's 
evil deed may bring to nought wide-reaching 
purposes of good. 

CHAPTER 10 

Practical Advice touching Life's 

Puzzles 

1-8. Cultivate wisdom and tact, specially 

in the dangers that attend upon courts, but 

also in ordinary operations. 

1. Dead flies, etc.] This v. really belongs 
to the end of c. 9. As a few of the poison- 
ous flies abounding in hot countries would 
render valueless a whole jar of perfume, so a 
man by a slight admixture of error may render 
nugatory much of his own skilful or upright 
conduct. 

2. At his right hand . . left] A wise man's 
mind directs him to appropriate conduct. A 
fool is sure to do the wrong thing. He is 
gauche. 3. Saith to every one] He advertises 
his folly by his speech. 4. The advice of 8 3 
is repeated. St. Peter (1 Pet 2 20-23) i s aD l e to 
add to the same precept a new and inspiring 
motive. Yielding pacifieth great offences] RM 
' gentleness leaveth great sins undone ' : both 
sides will be saved from committing serious 
misdeeds. 6, 7. He hints that through the 
ruler's error of judgment, as he gently puts it, 
the wrong people have received promotion. 

8, 9. Prudence is needed in many applica- 
tions. Otherwise you may dig a pit to entrap 
your enemy, and then fall into it yourself ; 
or, in pulling down a fence, if you are not 
heedful, one of the serpents lodging in the 
crannies may bite you. Similarly the quarry- 
ing of stones and the felling of timber call 
for watchfulness. 10. If you are not wise 
enough to act with tactful sagacity, you must 
compensate for this by extra force. 

11. RV 'If the serpent bite before it be 
charmed, then is there no advantage in the 
charmer.' The snake charmer, who has neg- 
lected to use his voice with proper skill in 
order to effect his object, will have cause in 
his own person to discover that the mere fact 
of his proficiency will not avail him. 

12-15. Description of folly and its results. 

12. Are gracious] there is beauty in his 
talk. Will swallow up himself] he often will 
have to eat his own words. 14. A fool talks 
confidently and fluently of the future, as though 
it could be foreseen. 15. He wearies himself 
with ineffectual attempts, because he is incap- 
able of carrying on the most ordinary affairs 
of life. 



16-20. Much depends on the ruler. What- 
ever he be, he must be reverenced. 

16, 17. The case referred to can hardly be 
an imaginary one. Ptolemy Epiphanes suc- 
ceeded his father Philopater as king of Egypt 
at the age of six years (205 B.C.), and during his 
minority there was much strife between the 
Syrian and Jewish factions in Egypt, and, on 
the part of some in high places, licentious 
indulgence all day and every day (eat in the 
morning). 

18. When the timber-work of a house is 
neglected, it gives way. So will it be also 
with the fabric of the state. Droppeth 
through] RV ' leaketh.' 

19. If a man is wealthy enough to pay his 
way, there need be but little stint to the 
pleasures, lawful or unlawful, in which he may 
recklessly indulge. But in proportion to the 
height of the position he occupies, will be the 
injury done. But] RV 'and.' Answereth] 
i.e. provides. 20. Nevertheless silent sub- 
mission to authority is the only safety for an 
ordinary person. 

CHAPTER 11 

Life after all is worth living 
1-3. Fulfil the duty of beneficence, knowing 
that results are in the hands of God. 

1. Cast thy bread, etc.] show kindness, even 
where a return is least to be expected. A 
blessing in some sort, although it may be long 
delayed, will result. There is perhaps a refer- 
ence to the sowing of seed on irrigated land. 

2. Give a portion, etc.] be not niggardly or 
calculating in the bestowal of favours. You 
know not when you may need them yourself. 

3. The fixed laws by which the world is 
governed. Where the tree falleth, etc.] There 
is no reference here to the state of man after 
death. 

4-6. Man's knowledge is limited, while 
God's purposes are inscrutable. Winds, 
clouds, and the whole ordering of nature are 
His. Submit to His decrees, and do thy daily 
part, leaving the issue to Him. 

7-9. Existence has its pleasures, but its span 
is brief. Youthful enjoyment is commended, 
provided it be such as need not dread God's 
judgment. 8. RV ' Yea, if a man live many 
years, let him,' etc. The remembrance that 
life is brief is to be itself a motive for enjoy- 
ment while it is possible. 

9. Rejoice, O young man] Youth is naturally 
cheerful. Be it so. But there must be 
present that which shall check excess, viz. the 
knowledge that the Divine Judge will mark 
and punish sinful indulgence ; not always in 
this life (for cp. 8 14 ), but, if not, then beyond 
the grave. 10. Childhood and youth] RV 
'youth and the prime of life.' Vanity] i.e. 
fleeting. 



399 



12. 1 



ECCLESIASTES 



IS. 14 






CHAPTER 12 
In Life remember Death and Judgment 

i. The Creator is to be remembered in 
youth. When the powers of mind and body 
are failing, it will be too late. 

1-7. Commentators have differed much as 
to the interpretation of this passage. It has 
been taken by many as a description of the 
gradual failing of one bodily organ after 
another till death supervenes. In that case 
we may explain vv. 2 f . thus : The light grows 
dim to the aged sense, and reason is dulled 
and ceases to illuminate. The old man weeps 
in his distress, and the troubles that draw 
forth those tears ever recur (v. 2) The limbs 
tremble ; the arms, once strong, are become 
bent and feeble ; the few teeth that are left 
no longer do the work of mastication ; the 
eyes grow darkened (v. 3). The means by 
which the processes of nourishment and sensa- 
tion have been carried on, in other words, the 
body's means of communication with the outer 
world, are shut ; the voice is low and feeble ; 
the slightest sound breaks in upon rest (or, 
' the bird shall rise with a cry,' i.e. the voice 
assumes the piping treble of age), and music 
no longer gives pleasure (v. 4). Fancied 
terrors haunt the soul, and bar the path. The 
sleeplessness, of which the almond tree (the 
Heb. name for it meaning 4 the early waker,' 
cp. Jer 1 n ) is a symbol, becomes the old man's 
lot ; the lightest weight is a burden, and nothing 
rouses the flagging appetite, because he is set- 
ting out on his journey to the tomb, and the 
hired mourners are already awaiting him ; 
even before the actual dissolution comes (v. 5), 
and the golden bowl of the lamp of life is 
broken, and the silver cord, by which it is 
suspended, loosed ; and the pitcher, which has 
gone so oft to draw at the fountain of life, is 
shattered, and so is the wheel, which works the 
rope and bucket to raise water from the deep- 
sunk well (v. 6). Some refer these last two 
clauses respectively to the action of the lungs 
and of the heart. 

Others, however, have explained these vv. 
as setting forth a description of a storm and 
the alarm which it produces, under which 
figure are indicated the signs which accompany 
death. The following is a sketch of that 
interpretation of the passage which sees in it a 
description of the time specially fatal to aged 
persons in Palestine, that is to say, the last few 
days of winter, marked by a violent tempest ; 



the picture being continued by a description 
of the spring time of nature, which, however, 
brings no returning vigour to those who arc 
in the extreme winter of their days. 

There comes on the storm of excep- 
tional severity, which concludes the broken 
weather of winter (v. 2). Servants and masters 
are alike dismayed. The grinding women 
cease from their work, and the ladies of the 
harem, stricken with fear, no longer idly gaze 
from the lattices on the passers by (v. 3). 
Ordinary work has ceased, and the house is 
shut up. But soon the last and greatest storm 
of winter is over, and the advent of spring is 
welcomed by the bird-note, to imitate the 
sweetness of which is the despair of the pro- 
fessional daughters of song (v. 4). Nature is 
joyous, but the aged are full of suspicion that 
danger lurks about and above their path. And 
yet there is on every side evidence of renewed 
power. The almond tree blossoms ; the 
locust crawls out from its shelter ; but the 
aged are not in sympathy. They are beyond 
the influence of appetising stimulants ; for 
they are approaching the grave, and the hired 
mourners are near (v. 5). Then follow the 
figures of speech, already touched on, indicat- 
ing bodily dissolution (v. 6). 

8-13. Eulogy of the Preacher and his 
method. Summary of his teaching. 

This is the Epilogue, and was probably 
added by a different hand. It answers to a 
commendatory preface in the case of a modern 
book. 

10. Acceptable words] He feels that pro- 
verbs were a form of speech that will find 
favour. 

11. The words of the wise, etc.] Leaders 
of thought in each age have the gift of fixing 
their words securely in the memories of their 
disciples (goads . . nails), a gift which comes 
to them from Him who is the supreme Guide 
and Disposer of the affairs of men (one 
shepherd). Masters of assemblies] RM ' col- 
lectors of sentences.' 

12. Be admonished] Jewish teaching was 
largely oral. Gentile philosophers, on the 
other hand, committed their speculations to 
writing, sometimes, e.g. Epicurus, to the 
extent of many volumes. Among such it was 
easy to be bewildered and wearied. 

13-14. The writer's conclusions. There is 
a moral Governor of the world. Here or here- 
after there shall be a recompense, good or 
evil. 



400 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Contents. Two points strike every care- 
ful reader of the poem : the extreme difficulty 
of determining its meaning as a whole and 
deciding as to the class of poetry in which it 
is to be placed ; and the fascinating beauty of 
its details. The former is evident on a mere 
glance at the attempts which have been and 
still are being made to define its scope and 
character. The Jews admitted it into the 
Canon on the supposition that it depicts the 
relations between Jehovah and His people. 
But for that interpretation the doubts which 
gathered round it and were not authoritatively 
discouraged till the Synod of Jamnia (90 A.D.), 
would never have been dispelled. The Chris- 
tian Church followed the same general line, 
explaining the Song as an allegory of the love 
between Christ and the Church or Christ and 
the soul. In this sense St. Bernard wrote no 
fewer than eighty-six sermons on the first two 
chapters. The headings of chapters and pages 
in the English Bible express the same idea. 
In all ages, however, amongst both Jews and 
Christians, there were thinkers who perceived 
that the theme is not divine love but human. 
In course of time the poem came to be regarded 
by many as a drama. The adherents of this 
view were divided as to the plot. Some took 
it to be the story of Solomon's love for a 
country maiden, whom he raised to the rank of 
queen, himself for a while adopting a simpler 
mode of life, and although he eventually 
reverted to luxury and polygamy the poem 
remained as a protest against undue self- 
indulgence. The other and more plausible 
version of the dramatic theory is that the 
maiden was carried off to Solomon's harem 
and exposed to the blandishments of the 
monarch, who was seconded by the ladies of 
the court. But she continued faithful to her 
shepherd-lover, to whom, in the end, the king 
magnanimously restored her. Another opinion 
has recently been maintained with much con- 
fidence and has found considerable acceptance. 
According to it we have to do neither with 
drama, opera, nor unity of any kind, but with 
a collection of love-ditties, partly composed 
for, and all suitable for use at, marriage festi- 
vals. The title ' king ' (1 4 > 12 7 5 ) is explained 
by the fact that in Syria bride and bridegroom 
play the part of queen and king during ' the 
king's week,' the first week of married life. 
Seated on a throne which is erected on the 

26 401 



village threshingfloor, they receive the homage 
of the whole country-side. Nuptial songs and 
dances are executed by the bridesmen, the 
chorus of male and female bystanders, and the 
wedded pair. A plausible account can thus be 
given of the abrupt transitions, the apparent 
lack of connexion between the parts of which 
Canticles is composed. But the whole of the 
facts are not quite explained. Amidst all the 
admitted inconcinnity there is an equally un- 
deniable unity. The recurrence of certain 
expressions (2? 3 5 8 4 : 2^ 4 6 8 14 ) is doubtless 
meant to mark breaks in what is conceived of 
as a single poem. The sentiments and style 
are too similar throughout to have sprung from 
divers writers. Nor is this to be met by the 
assertion that we have before us a collection of 
folk-songs which resemble each other because 
they all belong to the same period and locality. 
Canticles reads like the work of an author who 
composed amatory poems on various occasions 
and subsequently wove them into a garland 
of verse. Perhaps some of the shorter pieces 
have fallen out of the places which he assigned 
to them : this has been forcibly argued with 
reference to 8 llf - 8 13f . But when we remem- 
ber the irrelevance, from our point of view, of 
the verses which are often sung in Eastern 
lands to-day we shall be slow to deny that the 
singers and hearers of the Song of Songs under- 
stood allusions and perceived a fitness which 
are hidden from us. We shall be compelled 
to admit that there is no definite line of ad- 
vance, no initial simplicity, followed by compli- 
cation, rounded off by a dramatic denouement. 
Matters are as far advanced at 1 4 2 4 as at 8 4 . 
Yet the following brief analysis shows that 
the book falls into what may fairly be called 
seven cantos. Canto I, 1 2 -2 7 : A rural bride 
declares her ardent affection for her husband, 
deprecates the townswomen's criticism of her 
beauty, desires to know where she may find 
her beloved. The lovers praise each other. 
Canto II, 2 8 -2 17 : She relates a visit he once 
paid her and the invitation he addressed to 
her. Canto III, 3^-3^ : Her thoughts of him 
and search for him by night. An interlude. 
Canto IY, 4 1 -5 x : He depicts and eulogises her 
charms. He is ready to escort her through the 
most dangerous regions. Her invitation and his 
response. Canto Y, 5 2 -6 9 : A waking dream, 
with painful ending. She describes her lover. 
He has entered his garden. Once more he 



INTRO. 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



INTRO. 



dilates on her loveliness, which surpasses that 
of the ladies belonging to the royal harem. 
Canto VI, 6 10 -8 4 : A short dialogue betwixt 
these ladies and her. Again he praises her and 
she replies in terms of love and desire. Canto 
VII, 8 5 -8 u : An inquiry. The bride reminds 
her husband of their early experiences, cele- 
brates the might and spontaneity of love, 
remembers how carefully her brothers guarded 
her. He sets forth her preciousness in figura- 
tive language. Then he begs her to sing. She 
closes the poem with a repetition of 2 17 . 

2. Value. At the first blush we are sur- 
prised to find in the Bible a poem on human 
love. But we must remember that the mutual 
attraction of the sexes is of God's ordaining. 
So far from being intrinsically evil, it contains 
for both parties an immeasurable possibility of 
blessing. And the love which is here sung is 
ordered, regulated, legitimate. The imagery 
is too suggestive, and the description of phy- 
sical charms too minute, for our taste, but it 
was produced by an Oriental for Orientals. 
More reticence does not necessarily imply truer 
purity. No doubt we should have welcomed 
a clear recognition of the intellectual, ideal, 
and spiritual side of marriage, but it would be 
a mistake to argue that the poet was a stran- 
ger to this better part. And such love as 8 7 
describes is based on broader foundations than 
those supplied by mere sensuous charms alone. 

Again, whilst it is admitted that the poem 
was not meant to be understood either typi- 
cally or allegorically, all true human love is, 
in the Apostle's sense of the word, a mystery 
(Eph5 28-33 ) which carries the Christian's mind 
upward to the union of the soul with Christ. 
Sensuous thoughts and images are never to 
hold us prisoners. The earthly is a stepping- 
stone to the heavenly. Spenser tells us that, 
having in the green time of his youth com- 
posed two Hymns in praise of Love and 
Beauty, ' and finding that the same too much 
pleased those of the like age and disposition, 
which being too vehemently caried with that 
kind of affection, do rather sucke out poyson 
to their strong passion, then hony to their 
honest delight,' he afterwards resolved, ' by 
way of retractation, to reforme them, making. 
in stead of those two Hymnes of earthly or 
naturall love and beautie, two others of 
heavenly and celestiall.' In this he is a safe 
guide — 

' All the glory and the grace of things, 
Witchcraft of loveliness, wonder of flesh, 
Fair symmetry of forms, deep harmonies 
Of line and limb— -are but as shadows cast 
From hidden light of Beauty and of Love.' 
It would be a dull eye that missed the beauty 
of the poem. Its author responded imme- 
diately to every charm of Nature or of Art. 
Above all was his soul attuned to Nature. He 



carries us along with him into the open air. 
to the vineyards, the villages, the mountains. 
He awakes us at daybreak to catch the scent 
of the forest trees, to gather the apples and 
the pomegranates, to listen to the grateful 
plash of falling waters. How he loved the 
flocks of wild pigeons, the crocuses, the fields 
embroidered with lilies ! His verse is fragrant 
with the breath of spring. And the soul of 
artistry within him was moved by the pomp 
of the court, the magnificence of a royal litter, 
the glittering whiteness of an ivory tower, the 
proud display of warriors' shields, the orna- 
ments and costly dress of women. No other 
poem in the Bible can be compared with this. 
It still merits the title, prefixed by the men 
who inserted it in the Canon, ' The Song of 
Songs,' the most beautiful, the one that most 
nearly corresponds with the ideal of its class. 

3. Authorship. But whilst we admit that 
the title is a fitting one, we must remember 
that it has no authority to determine date or 
authorship (see v. 1). The internal evidence is 
conclusive against Canticles having been writ- 
ten by Solomon, and points to a date subsequent 
to the exile, not earlier than the 4th cent. B.C. 
The language alone suffices to prove these 
points : it is of the very latest strain of biblical 
Hebrew. 

4. The following are improvements on the 
Authorised Version : — 

CHAPTER 1 

4. RV ' Make mention of,' for remember. 
RV 'Rightly do they love Thee,' for the 
upright, etc. 

6. RV • Swarthy,' for black. 

7. EM l Wandereth,' for turneth aside. 

9. RV ' A steed ' (better still, ' a mare '), for 
a company of horses. 

13. RM k Bag,' for bundle. 'That lieth/ 
for he shall lie. 

14. RV • Henna-flowers,' for camphire. 

CHAPTER 2 

1. RM ' Autumn crocus,' for rose. 

4. Lit. ' House of wine,' for banqueting 
house. 

5. RM ' Cakes of raisins,' for flagons. 
7. RM ' Gazelles,' for roes. 

RV ' Awaken love, until it please,' for awake 
my love, till he please. 

9. The sense requires that she gaze forth at 
him, not he at her. 

13. RV ' Ripeneth,' for putteth forth. 

RV c The vines are in blossom, they give 
forth their fragrance,' for the vines with the 
tender grape give a good smell. 

14. RV ' ( Joveri of the steep place,' for secret 
places of the stairs. 

15. RV ' Vineyards are in blossom,' for vines 
have tender grapes. 

16. RV l Feedeth his flock,' for feedeth. 



402 



INTRO. 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



1.6 



CHAPTER 3 

6. k What ' is better than Who. 

7. RV w It is the litter of Solomon,' for his 
bed, which is Solomon's. 

9. RY 'Palanquin, 1 for chariot. 

10. ' Inlaid with ebony from,' for paved with 
love for. 

CHAPTER 4 

1. RV ' Thine eyes are as doves behind thy 
veil,' for Thou hast doves' eyes within thy locks. 

RV v Lie along.' for appear. 

2. RY ' Ewes that are newly,' for sheep that 
are even. 

EM ' Are all of them in pairs,' for every 
one bear twins. RY ' Bereaved,' for barren. 

3. RY 'Mouth . . behind thy veil,' for 
speech . . within thy locks. 

4. RM ' AVith turrets,' for for an armoury. 

6. RY ' Be cool,' for break. 

9. RM ' One look from,' for one of. 

12. RM ' Barred,' for inclosed. ' Garden,' 
for spring-. 

13. RM k Paradise,' for orchard. 
RY k Henna,' for camphire. 

15. RY supplies ' Thou art.' 

CHAPTER 5 

1. RM ' Of love,' for O beloved. 

2. RY ' I was asleep,' for I sleep. 

3. ' Tunic,' for coat. 

5. RY ' Bolt,' for lock. 

7. ' Wrapper,' for veil. 
1 2. RM l Sitting by full streams,' for fitly set. 

14. RM ' Topaz,' for beryl. 
4 Lapis lazuli,' for sapphires. 

1 6. RM ' Speech,' for mouth. 

CHAPTER 6 

4. ' Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts,' for 
terrible as an army with banners. 

10. RM ' Pure,' for clear. 

11. RY ' Green plants,' for fruits. 
RY ' Budded,' for flourished. 

12. RY ' Set me among,' for made me like. 

13. RY ' The dance of Mahanaim,' for the 
company of two armies. 

CHAPTER 7 

1. RM ' Steps,' for feet ; ' in sandals,' for with 
shoes. ' The turnings ' or ' windings,' for the 
joints. 

2. RY ' Mingled wine,' for liquor. 

5. RY ' Held captive in the tresses thereof,' 
for held in the galleries. 

8. RY ' Breath,' for nose. 
12. RY ' Whether the vine hath budded, and 



. its blossoms be open,' for if the vine flourish, 
" whether the tender grape appear. 
13. RY ' Doors,' for gates. 

CHAPTER 8 

1. RY ' And none would despise me,' for 
I Yea, I should not be despised. 



2. RY ' Spiced wine, Of,' for spiced wine of. 

5. RY ' I awakened,' for I raised. 

6. RM ' Hard,' for cruel ; ' Sheol,' for the 
grave. RY ' Flashes,' for coals ; ' a very flame 
of the Lord,' for a most vehement flame. 

7. ' Would any man despise him,' for it would 
utterly be contemned. 

9. RM ' Battlement,' for palace. 

10. RY ' Peace,' for favour. 

12. RY l Shall,' for must. 

13. RY ' For,' for to. 



CHAPTERS 12-27 
The ardent Affection of the Lovers 
2-7. Songs of the bride : her enquiry and 
his answers. 

2. Love] The original has ' loves,' i.e. ex- 
pressions of love, repeated kisses and embraces. 

3. Ointments] Orientals have always been pas- 
sionately fond of perfumes. The literatures of 
Egypt, Greece, and Rome abound in references 
to them : in the Bible see Ps 23 5 45 7 > 8 Prov 
7 1 * 27 9 Lk7 46 Jnl23. A modern traveller 
writes : ' Arabs are delighted with perfumes ; 
the nomad housewives make treasure of any 
they have, with their medicines ; they often 
asked me, " Hast thou no perfumes to sell ? " ' 
The ' poured-out ' unguent gives forth its fra- 
grance : even so is the beloved's name praised 
of many. 

4. The king, i.e. the bridegroom, has brought 
the bride into his house, and she, freed from 
any taint of envy, nay, with an ingenuous 
pride, mentions the love with which others 
' rightly ' (RY) regard him. Some scholars 
prefer to read, ' Bring me, king,' etc. 5. In 
speaking of herself as black and ' swarthy ' 
(RY), she is acknowledging herself to be a 
country girl : in the current songs of Palestine 
town-girls are called ' the white ' ; those of 
the country ' the black.' For Kedar see Gn 
25 13 Isa42 n 60 *. The Arab tents are often 
made of black goats' hair or black woven stuff. 
If our present text is correct the maiden 
claims a beauty of her own, comparable to that 
of the richly embroidered curtains in Solo- 
mon's palace. But possibly the reference may 
be to the Salamites, who followed the Kedar- 
enes in occupying the territory S. of Palestine. 
Her face has been bronzed by the sun's ' look- 
ing upon her,' as the prince of Morocco, in 
the ' Merchant of Yenice,' speaks of his com- 
plexion : 

' The shadow'd livery of the burnish'd sun, 
To whom I am a neighbour, and near bred.' 

6. Her mother's sons have made it impos- 
sible for her to avoid this, treating her with 
that arbitrary tyranny which male relatives 
so often display in the East. ' I have known 
an ill-natured child,' says Doughty, ' lay a 
stick on the back of his good cherishing 
mother ' : cp. 1 S 17 28 . Her own vineyard, her 
403 



1. 7 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



2. 7 



complexion, she was forced to leave uncared 
for. 7. Running to her lover, she would fain 
spend the siesta hour, the hot midday, with 
him. Failing to find him, she would have 
to wander aimlessly (RM) beside the other 
shepherds, in whom she took no interest. 

8. With kindly banter he bids her lead out her 
little flock of female kids and take her chance 
of finding him. 9-1 1. It would not occur to 
us to compare a woman to a beautiful mare : 
but an Eastern at once appreciates the simile. 
In Damascus ' the mare comes before wife and 
child ' : she may be worth £40,000, and there 
really is no more beautiful creature. The 
Egyptian horse was once prized much as the 
Arab now is (2Ch928). 

10. With the ' string of jewels ' (RV) com- 
pare a song which may be heard now in Syria : 

'From above, Abu Tabba, from above, AbuTabba, 
Put golden coins upon her, and under her neck a 
string of pearls. ' 

The necklace usually worn consists of three 
rows of pearls. Lady Burton says of a Sama- 
ritan woman : ' Upon her head she wore a 
coat of mail of gold, and literally covered with 
gold coins, of which a very large one dangled 
on her forehead. She wore diamond and 
enamelled earrings, and a string of pearls 
coquettishly arranged on one side of her head 
in a festoon.' 

12-14. The king, i.e. the bridegroom, is re- 
clining on his divan or couch, and the bride's 
presence is as delightful to him as the scent of 
the costly oil of the Indian nard (Mk 143). The 
odoriferous myrrh is a gum, which exudes from 
the bark of a spiny shrub growing in Arabia 
and India. Women wore little flasks of this 
on their breast. 14. The henna (RV ' the 
flower of paradise 1 ) has fragrant yellowish 
white flowers, growing in clusters like grapes. 
It is still found in the wadi of En-Gedi, the 
most delightful spot on the W. shore of the 
Dead Sea, an oasis of luxurious vegetation. 
The sentiment of these w. is thus reproduced 
in a song still popular in Palestine : 

• M.ikr of nir a silver neoklaoe, 
And toss me about on thy breast. 
Make of me a golden sarrmg, 
And hang me in thine ear. 1 

15. He compares her eyes to doves. Eastern 
women spend much pains on bheireyes, paint 
ing them round witli kohl to add to their 
apparent size and increase their expressiveness. 

And the comparison of maidens to doves is 

exceedingly common in the popular poetry : 
' Lovely girls are there, like a Hock of doves. 1 

16, 17. Six- looks forward to their union in 
the swe.t rural district, amongst the cedars 
and the firs. It is as in the bower which Milton 
found in the earthly Paradise : 



• The roof 
Of thickest covert was in woven shade, 
Laurel and myrtle, and what higher grew 
Of firm and fragrant leaf ; on either side 
Acanthus, and each odorous bushy shrub 

Fenc'd up the verdant wall ; 

Here in close recess, 
With flowers, garlands, and sweet-smelling herbs, 
Espoused Eve deckt first her nuptial bed.' 

CHAPTER 2 

1. She compares herself to a simple wild 
flower, the crocus (RM) of Sharon. The plain, 
which extended from Joppa to Caesarea, was 
proverbial for its flowers (Isa 35 2 ), and travellers 
continue to revert to this feature : ' We con- 
stantly had reason to admire the faint har- 
monious colouring of the wild flowers on the 
unfilled plain. Caesarea was surrounded by 
fields of the yellow marigold. Other flowers 
were also conspicuous — the red pheasant's eye, 
in some cases as big as a poppy ; blue pimper- 
nels, moon-daisies, the lovely phlox, gladioles, 
and high hollyhocks.' 

2. He will not suffer her to depreciate her 
own value : compared with other women she 
is a lily among thorns (Prov31 29 ). The Huleh 
lily, in the north of the Holy Land, grows in 
the midst of thorns, which lacerate the hands 
of the flower-gatherers. The soil near Beth- 
lehem, in the S., is enamelled with lilies 
and covered almost everywhere with dwarf 
thorns. 

3-7. In this strife of mutual compliment s she 
now likens him to the beautiful, flowering, 
fruit-bearing apple tree, which gives a welcome 
shade, gratifies the sense of taste, and is 
to Orientals a symbol of love. 4. He has 
brought her to a ' house of wine ' (RM ), a place 
of feasting and enjoyment, where the banner 
floating over them was not merely inscribed 
with the word Love, but was Love itself. The 
entire description is figurative, and if the Ian 
guage were not sufficient to indicate this we 
should be driven to the conclusion by tin 
fact that it was not considered decorous lot 
women to be present at banquets (Esthl 12 
Dan.") 10 ' 23 ). In Egypt the house where 8 
marriage-festival is in progress is marked bj 
rows of Hags and streamers stretched across 
the street. 5. She begs her friends to BUS 
tain her with cakes of pressed raisins (RV). 
such as were given to those who were fainting 
for hunger ( 1 S 25 1S 3( ) ' - 2 S 6 19 Hos 3 ' ). 
7. And they are to leave her and her beloved 
for the present undisturbed by the festal 
dances and songs. The request is repeated 
3 fi s 1. and on each occasion is evidently meant 
to mark one of the main divisions of the poem. 
The adjuration, by the gazelles (RM), and by 
the hinds of the field, is suggested by the 
beauty and the timidity of those graceful 
creatures. 



404 



2.8 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



3. 11 



CHAPTERS 28-217 
A Visit and an Invitation 



8-13. After an interval she relates one of 
his visits to her home. He comes swiftly and 
easily; hills and mountains are no obstacle. 
He stands behind the wall of her mother's 
house, and she gazes at him through the lattice, 
for she has seen his approach from afar. The 
unglazed, latticed windows of an Oriental 
house admits air and a softened light, allow 
those within to see out, and prevent their 
being observed from outside. 10. He would 
have her accompany him to the open country. 
11. It is the right season. The winter and 
the rains are over, for in that climate there is 
a cloudless sky from the beginning of May to 
the end of October. 

12. It is the time of flowers: ' Everywhere 
this day the earth was beautifully green, and 
carpeted with flowers. The air was fresh and 
balmy and laden with the sweet scents of 
spring. . . The sky was so blue, the mountains 
and plains looked so beautiful, the birds, in- 
sects, the wild flowers, the fresh balmy breeze, 
the sweet smells, and gentle sun, the black 
tents, all combined to make one glad to be 
alive.' ' Come here in spring, traveller ! ' 
Lady Butler says, l and not in the arid, dusty, 
burnt-up autumn.' 

13. The early figs are growing spicy ; the 
vines are all blossom and fragrance. It is the 
season when a young man's mind turns lightly 
to thoughts of love. Even in our cold England 
the poet sings — 

1 'Twas when the spousal time of May 

Hangs all the hedge with bridal wreaths, 
And air 's so sweet the bosom gay 

Gives thanks for every breath it breathes ; 
When like to like is gladly moved, 

And each thing joins in Spring's refrain, 
" Let those love now who never loved ; 

Let those who have loved love again." ' 

14. 15. He begs her to lay aside her coyness, 
for she is concealing herself, like a dove in an 
inaccessible mountain gorge. Where there is 
no village pigeon-house the wild doves of Syria 
build in hollows of the steep rocks. At 
the monastery of St. Saba ' one sees, sailing 
on outstretched wings from out of those 
caverns, flights of the fair blue pigeons.' 15. 
She sings him the little ditty concerning the 
foxes that ruin the vineyards : any song, on 
any theme, would have pleased him, and short 
poems that seem to have no special relevance 
to the occasion are still in common use 
amongst the peasants and the Bedouin. 

16, 17. She declares their unchangeable, 
mutual devotion, and bids the shepherd, who 
pastures his flock in the fields bright with 
lilies, come to her. 

17. At midday the heat is overpowering — 



• All round the coast the languid air did swoon, 
Breathing like one that hath a weary dream.' 

But at sunset the day l breathes ' (RM) ; a 
cool breeze blows, and the shadows gradually 
disappear (GnH K Job 14 2 ). The gazelles (RM) 
descend at night to the plains to feed ; they 
leap and run safely on the mountains of Bether. 
The meaning of the last word is not clear : it 
may be the name of a locality not mentioned 
elsewhere in Scripture ; it may signify ' the 
cloven mountains' ; it may be the same as the 
bSsamim (= spices) of 8 14 , or, as RM suggests, 
the spice malobathron. 

CHAPTER 3 

Night Thoughts and an Interlude 

1-4. There is a charming lightness of touch 
and quickness of movement in the story she 
tells, and it is all the more interesting for our 
having to supply the prosaic connecting links. 
' The Unrest of Love ' is an apt title. We 
can only understand it as a maiden's dream. 

2. The broad ways are what we should call 
the squares ; wide, open spaces by the city 
gates and elsewhere. 4. The ' mother's house ' 
is the women's apartments, into which a 
strange man dare not enter. 

6-1 1. It is possible that this is a song of 
the bridegroom's companions on the morrow 
of the wedding, when the throne is set up for 
the bridal pair. But more probably it is a 
kind of interlude, intended to convey the sense 
of contrast between the simple, fearless life of 
the happypair, and the luxurious but anxious 
state which the most magnificent of Hebrew 
kings had kept. The singer sees in imagina- 
tion King Solomon's procession. He makes 
us hear the questions and remarks of the crowd, 
as in the last scene of Shakespeare's ' Henry 
the Fourth.' 6. One man asks, ' What is this 
litter (RV) that is coming out of the wilder- 
ness, the uncultivated grazing land ? ' The 
pillars of smoke are caused by the burning of 
sweet perfumes. Frankincense was an aro- 
matic gum-resin obtained from balsamic plants 
which grow in Arabia and Eastern Africa. 
The powders of the merchant are powdered 
perfumes. The question of v. 6 is answered 
in vv. 7, 8, and possibly we have a third speaker 
in 9, 10. In any case, another word is here 
used for ' litter ' (R V), a word which came after- 
wards to be specially employed for the litter 
in which the bride was carried in procession. 

9. King Solomon's palanquin (RV) is made 
of the costly woods of Lebanon, cedar and 
cyprus. 10. The pillars supporting the canopy 
are of silver, the arms of gold, the seat (RV) 
covered with a costly purple fabric. And, as 
the Hebrew words for love and ' ebony ' are 
very similar, the closing part of the description 
may originally have run, ' inlaid with ebony 
from the daughters of Jerusalem.' 11. The 



405 



4. 1 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



5.4 



women of the chorus are to fancy themselves 
meeting the procession and feasting their eyes 
with the sight of the king in all his glory. 
At a Jewish wedding both bride and groom 
wear crowns : in Syria, at the present day, the 
bride wears one ; in Bulgaria she has a crown of 
alloyed silver. 

CHAPTERS 4i-5i 
Description of her Charms. Her 

Invitation 
1-7. This short poem belongs to the class 
which the Arabs call wasf, in which the bride's 
charms are described : they are sung while she 
is being dressed, or when she exhibits herself 
in her nuptial array, or on the day subsequent 
to the ceremony. Here is one that is still to be 
heard in Palestine: 

1 Oh, her eyes are like the line of ink drawn by the 

stylus, 
And her hair, when she dyed it with henna, like 

birds' feathers ; 
Her nose as the handle of a glittering Indian sword; 
Her teeth like hailstones, yea, even more lovely ; 
Her cheeks like rosy apples of Damascus ; 
And her breasts lovely pomegranates, hanging on 

the tree ; 
Her neck like that of a scared antelope ; 
And her arms staves of pure silver ; 
And her fingers sharp-pointed pens of gold.' 

1. The maiden's eyes are here compared to 
doves, peeping out from behind the veil (RV). 
As is usual with Syrian brides her hair is not 
braided, but hangs loosely down, like a flock 
of black goats which graze along the slope of 
a mountain, and look as though they were sus- 
pended from it (RV). 2. Her teeth are white, 
regular, a perfect set. Her cheek resembles 
the rich colours of the pomegranate. She has 
a swan's neck, a graceful, slender tower, hung 
round with ornaments, as the tower of David 
— whatever that may have been — was hung with 
shields (1 KIO 1 ^" 2K 1 1 10 Ezk27 u 1 Mac4«)- 
For sweetness she may be compared to moun- 
tains on which odoriferous shrubs abound. 

8. The idea conveyed by this abrupt and 
obscure v. seems to be that she will be perfectly 
safe, even in regions remote from home, and 
where many dangers lurk, if only her lover is 
at hand. His presence ensures happiness and 
security. The exclamation, ' Look,' etc., re- 
minds us of a modern traveller's remark con- 
cerning the southern part of Lebanon : ' I 
have travelled in no part of the world where I 
have Been such a variety of glorious mountain 
scenes within so narrow a compass.' Amana 
may perhaps be the name of what is now called 
Jlbel ez-Zebedani, below which is the source 
of the river Amana or Abana (2K5 12 ). On 
some inscriptions of the Assyrian kings the 
range of Ami -Libanua is called Ammana. 
Here, and at 1 ChS 88 , Shenir is distinguished 
from Hermon. The highest point of Hermon, 



Jebel el-Shekh, 9,166 ft. high, is visible from 
the greater part of Palestine. 

9-15. He praises her in ecstatic terms. In 
the ancient Egyptian love-songs the lovers call 
one another 'brother' and sister. One glance 
from her eyes, one pendant hanging from her 
neck, is enough to steal his heart, as it is said 
of Judith (16 9 ), ' Her sandal ravished his eye.' 

10. The smell of her garments is like the 
fresh and healthy odour of the cedars, or, as 
we in England should say, of the pine woods: 
cp. Gn27 2 7p s 45*. 

n. Honey and milk are most highly prized 
amongst Orientals (Isa 7 15 ). 

12. She is as a garden barred (RM) to 
strangers. 

13. Her charms are like the young plants in 
an orchard of pomegranates, protected from the 
depredations of wild beasts. 

14. The saffron is the autumnal crocus, the 
dried flowers of which are employed in medi- 
cine, dyeing and perfumery. The thick, 
creeping rootstock of the calamus is pungent 
and aromatic. The resin of aloes is used in 
the preparation of incense. 15. The 'flowing' 
(RV) streams, etc., reminds us of the many 
streams which run into the sea between Tyre 
and Beyrout. 

16. Accepting his figurative description of 
her, she bids him welcome. The colder north 
wind and the warmer south are naturally 
mentioned : not the east, which brings drought, 
nor the west, which carries moisture from the 
sea. 

C.5. 1. The bridegroom's reply. He bids 
his friends follow his example : ' Drink, yea. 
drink freely of the delights of love ' (RY). 

CHAPTERS 52-69 
A Dream. His Beauty and hers 

2-7. Another dream of hers, with a painful 
ending. The accumulation (v. 2) of names of 
endearment reminds us of the frequent repeti- 
tion, by a Palestinian bridegroom during the 
wedding dance, of Yd haldli, Yd mdli, ' my 
property, my possession ! ' 

2. Heavy dew falls, especially during spring 
and in the second half of the night. The 
Spanish poet whom Longfellow translated had 
in his mind our passage and Rev3 20 : 

' Lord, what am I, that, with unceasing care, 
Thou didst seek alter me, thai thou didst wait. 
Wei with unhealthy dews before my gate, 
And pass the gloomy nights of winter there? 

How oft my guardian angel gently cried, 
"Soul, from thy casement look, and thou ahalt see 
How he persists to knock and wait for thee."' 

And our Lord's parable (Lk 1 1 5 " 8 ) presents a 
parallel to v. 3. The tunic had been put off 
(Ex 22 28 Dt24W). The feet, shod only with 
sandals, needed washing each night. 4. A hole 



40G 



5. 5 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



7.6 



is still cut in the door of Syrian houses, through 
which the owner can insert his arm and the 
key. 5. ' Myrrha stacta,' liquid myrrh, which 
flowed from the bark of the plant, was the 
finest and most costly. In two modern 
Egyptian poems we find : ' My love hath 
perfumed herself on the nights of the festival,' 
and w thou, with sweet hands ! ' 

7. The watchmen treat her as a mere night- 
wanderer : cp. the solicitude of Boaz for Ruth 
(Ruth 3 u ). They tore off her wrapper 
(Mkl4 51 > 52 ), a light garment which rested on 
the shoulders, or was thrown round the head as 
a veil. 

9. The chorus prepares the way for her 
eulogy of her beloved. 

10-16. Nuptial songs in praise of the bride- 
groom's beauty are at the present day compara- 
tively rare in Palestine. His head is the most 
fine gold, an expression which recalls Shake- 
speare's k Golden lads and girls.' His eyes are 
doves, building in a ravine through which a 
stream flows. Possibly the fact that these 
birds delight in clear water and frequently 
bathe in it may explain the 'sitting by full 
streams ' of the RY, or, ' sitting upon fulness,' 
which literally represents the original. 

13. The ' banks of sweet herbs ' (RY) have 
also been rendered, ' towers of perfumes. ' The 
lips are compared to red lilies, red being the 
dominant colour of the flora of that land. 

14. The fingers are round and shapely ; the 
nails like topazes ; the body (RY) a plate of 
ivory encrusted with lapis lazuli, blue veins 
showing through the lighter skin. 15. The 
pillars of marble remind us of a song still 
current in those regions : the singer avers that 
his dear one's foot is of white silver, which 
would be scratched if she walked even on 
cloth. 

C. 6, 1-3. The chorus enquire where he 
may be found, and she, in dreamy and 
indefinite language, informs them. 

4-9. He again strikes in, celebrating her 

beauty. Tirzah is in a lofty and delightful 

situation, surrounded by olive groves : its name 

(= ' Delight ') implies its attractiveness. 

Jerusalem has always been lovely to an Israel- 

! ite's eye (Ps48 2 50 2 Lam 2^, etc.). A pure 

i and charming woman is ' awe-inspiring as 

bannered hosts' (RM). Coventry Patmore 

speaks of ' her awful charm of grace and 

! innocence sincere ' : 

' And though her charms are a strong law 
Compelling all men to admire, 
They go so clad with lowly awe 
None but the noble dare desire. ' 



5. Her eyes have thrown him into con- 
fusion. 8. She is far above all the queens and 
concubines, the ladies of the harem, who are 
just now at hand. 9. She is her mother's only, 
i.e. dearest, one (Gn22 2 ), and her pure one. 



CHAPTERS 610-84 
A Dialogue. Her Loveliness 

10-13. A dialogue between these ladies and 
her. They compare her to the dawn, stooping 
down to look on the earth from the sky. It 
is still common in Arabic poems to address 
the beloved as ' Moon,' or ' Full moon ' ! 

11, 12. She tells of her visit to the nut- 
garden, where, ere she was aware of it, her 
soul, i.e. her desire, set her in the chariots of 
Ammi-nadib. The precise meaning of this 
expression cannot be determined. The general 
sense appears to be that she was sunk in 
reverie, carried away in a lover's dream, a 
flight of fancy. Aroused from this, she would 
shyly hasten away. 13. But the chorus beg 
her to return and perform for them the 
' Dance of Mahanaim ' (RY), a sword-dance, no 
doubt, such as the bride executes, sword in 
hand, on the evening of the marriage, amidst 
a half -circle of men and women, whilst a poem 
(was/ = ' description ') of the character of 7 1 ' 6 
is being sung. The title Shulamite is derived 
from the town-name Shulem (otherwise spelled 
' Shunem '), from which Abishag, the fairest 
maiden of her day, came (1K1 4 ) : obviously 
it is another way of calling her ' fairest among 
women ' (l 8 5 9 6 1 ). 

CHAPTER 7 

1-6. The ivasf begins with a eulogy of her 
dancing : her steps in sandals (RY) are lovely, 
and the circling movements of her body are 
graceful as ornamental chains. In Eastern 
dancing the twisting and vibration of the body 
are of more consequence than the rapid move- 
ment of the feet. The title ' noble's daughter ' 
may be merely a conventional compliment, or it 
may point to the dignity of her character : cp. 
' a daughter of Belial,' 1 S 1 16 . 2. The Talmud 
states that the proportions for mixed wine 
(RY) were two- thirds water, one-third wine. 
In Syria the colour of wheat is considered to 
be the most beautiful for a human body. 

4. Her neck is like a tower of ivory, long, and 
dazzling white. But what about the swarthi- 
ness of 1 5 > 6 ? The answer is that the exact- 
ness and consistency of prose are not to be 
expected in an epithalamium. Heshbon lies 
five and a half hours E. of the N. point of the 
Dead Sea, in a fertile, well-watered region : 
there are several deep wells cut in the rock, 
and a large reservoir. 5. Carmel was regarded 
as the ' Park ' of the land ; there alone were 
rocky dells, with deep jungles of copse. A 
' king is held captive in the tresses ' (RY) of 
the bride's hair : cp. the Arab song : 

' Oh, thy thick hair hangs down ; 
Seven plaits of it take us captive. ' 

6-10. The bridegroom begins with a general 
assertion of the delightfulness of his beloved : 



407 



7. 10 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON 



8. 14 



then, in like manner as the Greek poet Theo- 
critus compares Helen to the straight Cyprus 
tree, our poet likens the bride to the tall, 
straight palm, the loveliest of all trees in his 
eyes, ' man's sister,' as the Arabs call it. Some- 
thing of the same feeling appears in the 
English poem : 

' A daughter of the gods, divinely tall, 
And most divinely fair. ' 

One or two slight changes in the text, partly 
supported by the ancient versions, make of 
v. 9 an expression of desire that her mouth 
may be like the best wine for her beloved, 
' gliding over his lips and teeth.' Syrian 
women cried out to an English lady : ' Go on ! 
when you speak Arabic, your words drop out 
of your mouth like sugar.' 

10-14. Again she declares her affection. An 
intense delight in rural life breathes through 
these lines. 13. For the effect ascribed to 
the mandrake see Gn 30 14 ' 16 . It is not a very 
common plant in the neighbourhood of Jeru- 
salem, but grows freely in Galilee ; its reddish- 
golden apples, about an inch and a half in 
diameter, emit a somewhat sweet odour. On 
a shelf over the inner door (RY) of the house 
she has laid up some of the old fruits for 
him. 

C. 8. if. Obviously this is supposed to 
be spoken in the days of their first love, 
before others were aware of it. Amongst the 
Bedouin, brothers and cousins on the father's 
side are the only male relatives who may 
kiss a maiden. In place of the very difficult 
expression, who would instruct me, two ancient 
versions have a clause parallel to the preced- 
ing one, ' and to the chamber of her who con- 
ceived me.' In Persia wine is obtained from 
pomegranates. 

CHAPTER 8 5 " 14 
Memories. The Close 

5. The chorus enquire who this happy bride 
may be. And the bridegroom points her to 
the apple-tree where he had once found her 
asleep, and to the spot where she was born. 
These are lovers' reminiscences, sweet to them, 
trivial to others. 

6, 7. Her passionate clinging to him, and 
her assertion of the irresistibleness, the in- 
destructibleness, the unselfishness of genuine 
love. 

6. Sho would fain be as inseparable from 
him as the seal-cylinder, which men wore on a 



cord round the neck, or the seal-ring on the 
right hand (Gn 38 18 Jer 22 24 ). Love is strong 
as resistless death. Jealousy can be hard as 
Sheol (RY), the place of the dead. 

' Turning all love's delight to miserie, 
Through feare of loosing his felicitie. ' 

And this is especially true of Orientals : ' A 
son of the East cannot quietly enjoy his 
inward felicity, cannot love without being 
consumed with the suspicion that others will 
rob him of this sweet treasure ; and jealousy, 
the passion which gives birth to hatred and 
blood-feuds, establishes its way in his heart, 
growing apparently out of a morbid excess of 
sentiment.' Othello kills the person he most 
dearly loves. It is ' a very flame of the Lord ' 
(RY), resistless, fierce, consuming (Gn23 6 
Ps80!0 Jon 3 2 Ac 7 20). 

7. Render, ' If a man were ready to give 
the whole substance of his house for love, 
could any one despise him ? ' No. It is better 
worth the purchase than anything else on 
earth. 

8, 9. The solicitude which the brothers once 
felt concerning their sister. If she repels all 
improper advances they will do her honour : 
if she is weak they will carefully guard her. 
When she hath no breasts, she is not of 
marriageable age. To be spoken for is to be 
asked in marriage. 

10. Our heroine can proudly assert her 
purity, and her beloved honours her. 

11, 12. In figurative speech he expresses his 
contentment. King Solomon has a fertile and 
profitable vineyard at Baal-hamon (perhaps 
the town mentioned in Joshl9 2S ). Any one 
would give for its produce a thousand shekels 
(about £130). Those to whom it is entrusted 
will not make less than two hundred shekels 
profit. But the happy lover is well satisfied 
that Solomon should have his thousand shekels 
and the keepers their two hundred, provided 
he may have his dear one. The Arab poet 
sings, ' Take away all roses ; one little garden 
is enough for me.' Solomon here is the typical 
wealthy king, the Croesus of Hebrew fancy 
(.IK 10 21): cp. alsoEccl25. 

13. The bridegroom once more (see 2 14 ) begs 
her to sing. His companions are the young 
men (Jgl4 n )who attended him all through 
the festivities. 

14. Her final word, of invitation to her 
husband, is a slightly modified repetition of 
the refrain 2 17 . 



408 



ISAIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



We know comparatively little of the per- 
sonal life of Isaiah. He was the son of 
Amoz (l 1 ), and from his influence at court it 
has been inferred that he was of royal blood, 
a rabbinic tradition making him nephew to 
king Amaziah. He was married and had at 
least two sons to whom were given symbolic 
names, embodying the substance of his teach- 
ing (7 3 8 3 ' 18 ). Isaiah lived in Jerusalem, 
and there, in close connexion with the king 
and court and in the centre of the national 
life, he exercised his ministry. He received 
his call to be a prophet in the last year of 
Uzziah (740 B.C.), and his latest prophecies 
which can be dated with certainty are con- 
nected with Sennacherib's invasion of Judah 
(701 B.C.), so that his ministry extended over 
a period of at least 40 years. How long 
Isaiah survived the crisis of Sennacherib's 
invasion we know not, but according to a 
Jewish tradition, alluded to by Justin Martyr 
about 150 a.d. Q Dial. Trypho,' cap. cxx), he 
suffered martyrdom by being sawn asunder 
during the persecution of the true servants of 
Jehovah under king Manasseh. It is thought 
that the traditional manner of Isaiah's death 
may also be alluded to in Hebll 37 . 

The Historical setting of Isaiah's 
Prophecies 

Reign of Uzziah. In the last year of this 
king Isaiah received his call (740 B.C.), c. 6. 

Reign of Jotham (740-736). It would seem 
that Isaiah's ministry was not immediately 
exercised, for no utterances have come down 
to us which can with certainty be assigned to 
this reign. 

Reign of Ahaz (736-728). About 736 the 
prophet becomes a more prominent figure. 
Chs. 2-5 form a summary of his teaching at 
this period, and throw much light upon the 
internal condition of Judah during the reign 
of Jotham, and at the time of Ahaz's acces- 
sion, while they exhibit Isaiah as an ardent 
religious and social reformer. The period of 
the prophet's youth had been an age of pros- 
perity and material progress for Judah under 
Uzziah and Jotham. The relations of the 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah were on the 
whole harmonious, and both were free from 
aggression from without. Uzziah conducted 
successful campaigns against the tribes border- 
ing on Palestine, reducing the Edomites 



and Ammonites to vassalage. He greatly 
strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem 
and reorganised the army. He also did much 
to develop the resources of the country and 
to encourage commerce, the port of Elath 
(on the Red Sea) being rebuilt in his reign. 
Under Jotham a like policy was pursued, and 
the country enjoyed prosperity and peace. 
But though outwardly prosperous Judah was, 
at the time of Ahaz's accession, inwardly cor- 
rupt. The development of national wealth 
brought with it social evils ; the accumulation 
of large estates in the hands of a few holders 
(5 8 ), oppression of the poor (3 14 ' 15 ), perver- 
sion of justice (o 7 ' 23 ), luxury and wrongful 
indulgence (2 7 3 16f - 5 n > 12 > 22 ). In religion 
there was a corresponding decay ; the land 
was full of idols (2 8 ' 20 ), and the people, having 
lost their faith, were given to superstitions, 
magic and necromancy (2 6 3 3 ), or had become 
callous, indifferent and sceptical (5 19 ). Isaiah's 
teaching in view of this condition of affairs is 
outlined in the vision wherein he received his 
call. Jehovah is the all-Holy (6 3 ), and as 
the Holy One of Israel (a characteristic title 
in this book) cannot let these things go un- 
punished, but is bound to vindicate His holi- 
ness (6 n a 2 9b ) ; this He will do by a searching 
judgment (6 n > 12 2io- 22 3 24 -4i 5 2e - 30 ), which 
will not, however, destroy the nation, but a 
faithful remnant shall be left (6 13 4 2 " 6 ) through 
which Israel will attain its glorious destiny. 

The Syro-Ephraimite invasion. It is in 
connexion with this crisis in the history of 
Judah that Isaiah first comes forward as a 
statesman. Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian 
monarch, had inaugurated a new epoch for 
that Empire by forming a great scheme of 
conquest which should unite all W. Asia 
under his sway. The smaller states naturally 
took alarm and sought by combination to keep 
off the common enemy. Rezin, king of Syria, 
and Pekah, king of Israel, thus made an 
alliance, and further endeavoured to compel 
Judah to throw in its lot with them. Towards 
the end of Jotham's reign they first assailed 
Judah (2K15 37 ), and before Ahaz had long 
been on the throne they made a determined 
attack with the object of overthrowing the 
Davidic dynasty, and setting on the throne of 
Ahaz a nominee of their own, probably a 
Syrian, who would follow their line of policy 
(7 6 ). The invasion caused a panic in Judah, 



409 . 



INTRO. 



ISAIAH 



INTRO. 



and Ahaz suffered serious losses. The pas- 
sages bearing on the crisis are chs. 7 1 -9 4 
9 8 -10 4 17 1 * 11 (the last two being more espe- 
cially concerned with the kingdom of Israel) : 
cp. 2 K 16 5- 9 2Ch28 6f . Ahaz formed the 
project of calling in the aid of Tiglath- 
pileser (2K16? 2Ch28 16 ), a course which 
Isaiah strongly opposed, foreseeing that it 
would bring calamity upon Judah (7 17 - 20 ) ; he 
urged that Judah had really nothing to fear 
from Rezin and Pekah, whose power was 
doomed to speedy overthrow (7 4 8 4 17 1 ' 3 ), 
and urged reliance in faith upon Jehovah 
(7 9 ) as the only way to secure the safety and 
prosperity of the kingdom. Ahaz, however, 
persisted in his policy of buying the support 
of Assyria, with the result that Judah became 
a dependency of that Empire, and was further 
committed to religious apostasy (2 K 1 6 7 > 8 > iO- 1 ®). 
While the seeds of future trouble and disaster 
were thus sown, as Isaiah foresaw, Judah was 
saved from the danger of the moment, for the 
Assyrians overran Syria, captured Damascus 
(732 B.C.), slew Rezin, and deported the 
people (2K16 9 ) ; the kingdom of Israel was 
also at the same time reduced to a dependent 
condition and the people of its N. tribes taken 
captive to Assyria (2K15 29 ). 

Reign of Hezekiah (727-699). This reign 
forms the third period of Isaiah's prophetic 
activity. Hezekiah was guided by the true 
prophets of Jehovah, and with the support of 
Isaiah and Micah (Jer26 18 > 19 ) carried out a 
great reformation in religion, so that Isaiah's 
ministry was exercised under more favourable 
conditions than before. About the time of 
Hezekiah's accession, Tiglath-pileser was suc- 
ceeded on the throne of Assyria by Shal- 
maneser IV. Egypt at this time was ruled by 
Shebek (Sabaco, or So) of the ^Ethiopian 
dynasty. Efforts were apparently made in 
the early years of Hezekiah's reign to unite 
the smaller states with Egypt in order to 
oppose the Assyrian advance westward. 
Hoshea, king of Israel, actually allied himself 
with So (2K17 4 ), and a strong party in 
Jndah favoured a like course. This line of 
policy Isaiah consistently opposed. Earlier 
he had endeavoured to dissuade Aha/, from 
committing himself to Assyria and from en- 
tangling Judah politically, urging him to 
take heed and he quiet' (7 4 ). Now that 
Judah had become tributary to Assyria, he 
discouraged the project of attempting, in com- 
i.ination with neighbouring states and relying 
on Egyptian aid, to throw oil' allegiance, for 

be saw that prosperity for the future lay in 
accepting the situation, and that restless plot* 
ting againsl Assyria would Involve disaster; 
in returning and reel shall ye be Baved, in 
quietness and confidence shall be your strength 1 
was the burden of his advice (30 1: '). Most 

4 



especially were his utterances directed against 
the politicians who looked upon Egypt for sup- 
port against Assyria, exposing their scepticism, 
mistrust in Jehovah, and misplaced confidence 
in material power which could not avail them 
in the time of need (chs. 28-31). Shalmaneser 
led an army to Palestine to subdue the dis- 
affected states ; and, after a siege of three years, 
Samaria was captured (722 B.C.) by his suc- 
cessor Sargon, the Israelites were taken into 
exile, and the northern kingdom came to an 
end. Sargon then advanced against the 
Egyptians whom he completely overthrew in 
battle at Raphia (720 B.C.), thus justifying 
Isaiah's warnings as to the futility of trusting 
in the power of Egypt. Sargon was again in 
Palestine in 711 B.C., quelling revolts of some 
of the smaller states. To this period belong 
chs. 19, 20 (and perhaps 221-1 4 ), and at this 
time were probably delivered the utterances 
concerning the fate of some of the neighbour- 
ing nations and tribes in view of the Assyrian 
advance westward (15, 16, 18, 21U-17 23). 
Sargon was succeeded by Sennacherib in 705 
B.C. Again attempts were made to stir up 
revolt against Assyria on a large scale with 
the support of the ^Ethiopian Tirhakah, now 
king of Egypt (704 B.C.) ; in the negotiations 
a leading part was taken by Merodach-Baladan, 
king of Babylon (c. 39). Hezekiah at this 
time refused to be guided by Isaiah' s counsel 
of submission to the suzerainty of Senna- 
cherib and joined the rebellion. Sennacherib 
promptly set out to put down his vassals ; 
Babylon was captured (21 1 " 10 ) ; Hezekiah was 
reduced to submission and made to pay a heavy 
fine (2 K 1 8 13 " 1(r ), and the Assyrians advanced 
against Egypt. A little later, seeing the un- 
wisdom of leaving so strong a fortress as 
Jerusalem intact in his rear, Sennacherib sent 
an embassy to demand its surrender, con- 
temptuously defying Jehovah's power to 
defend it. The history of the crisis is told in 
chs. 36, 37, and the prophecies bearing on this 
great invasion of Sennacherib (701 B.C.) are 
contained in chs. 10 5 -12« ; 14^-27 17 1 -'" 14 33 
,^7 6, 7, 21-35. The prophet taught that Jehovah 
is supreme over all, the Assyrian invader was 
but His instrument appointed to chastise His 
people for their sins ; he could not therefore 
defy Jehovah with impunity ; but when his 
work was finished would be punished for his 
arrogance ; a sudden disaster should overtake 
the Assyrians, and Jehovah would preserve 
Jerusalem inviolate, a prophecy which received 
a remarkable fulfilment (37 80 ). This was the 
culminating point of Isaiah's ministry, and no 
prophecies of a later date which may be with 
certainty assigned to him have come down to us. 

'I'm Work ok [saiab as a Prophet 

It was the work of a prophet, in the first 



in 



INTRO. 



ISAIAH 



INTRO. 



place, as a preacher of righteousness, to speak 
in the Name of Jehovah, and it is in this 
capacity that Isaiah appears about the time of 
Ahaz's accession, rebuking the idolatry, super- 
stition and oppression that were rife in the 
nation, announcing the approaching divine 
judgment for these things, yet holding out 
hope of a golden age in the future, for a 
faithful remnant would be preserved to be the 
nucleus of a new people, true to its divine 
calling. This doctrine of the remnant is speci- 
ally characteristic of Isaiah ; for,- while we 
meet with it in other prophets (Amos, Zeph- 
aniah, Habakkuk), it forms the keynote of his 
teaching and is an essential and persistent 
element in it. The idea takes shape in his 
call to be a prophet (6 13 ), it is embodied in 
the name of one of his sons (7 3 ), and is referred 
to again and again in his discourses (4 3 10 21 
30 18f -)- But Isaiah's position and influence at 
court gave a wide scope to his genius, so that 
he comes before us as a statesman, and adviser 
of kings ; both under Ahaz and under Heze- 
kiah it was his work to endeavour to guide the 
counsels of the nation in accordance with the 
principles of true religion, and with the will 
of Jehovah as revealed to himself. Thus he 
attempted to dissuade Ahaz from buying As- 
syrian aid in the crisis of the Syro-Ephraimite 
invasion, and in Hezekiah's reign was the con- 
sistent opponent of the policy of alliance with 
Egypt. But it was also the characteristic 
function of a prophet to foretell the future, 
and in connexion with his work as a statesman 
Isaiah uttered some remarkable predictions 
which received speedy and striking fulfilment. 
During the panic caused by the invasion of 
Rezin and Pekah, Isaiah supported his exhorta- 
tions to equanimity by foretelling the speedy 
ruin of the hostile kingdoms (7 16 8 4 ), and the 
event proved him right. Again during the 
Assyrian invasions in Hezekiah's reign Isaiah 
consistently taught the inviolability of Jeru- 
salem and repeatedly predicted sudden and 
unlooked-for disaster to the Assyrians in the 
moment of their apparent triumph (10 16 > 33 
I425 1712-u 376,7,21-35)^ pr0 phecies which re- 
ceived a remarkable fulfilment in the mysterious 
mortality in Sennacherib's army which obliged 
that monarch to abandon his designs against 
Jerusalem. These forecasts must have been 
quite beyond the range of a politician's calcula- 
tion, and can only be adequately accounted for 
by the possession of prophetic insight. The 
future of Judah is, in Isaiah's view, bound up 
with the fortunes of the royal house, whose 
continuance he affirms (9 7 ), though he antici- 
pates for it dark days and apparent overthrow 
(10 n ) in the near future. The deliverer of 
G-od's people from its foe3, and from the As- 
syrian in particular, is to be a king of David's 
line whose reign is to introduce a golden age 

41 



for the whole world, being marked by right- 
eousness and universal peace. While earlier 
prophets (Amos and Hosea) had merely fore- 
told the permanence of David's line, Isaiah 
goes further, fixing his attention on an indi- 
vidual Messianic King, whose character and 
work he outlines (9 6 > 7 11 1 ~ 9 ). He is the agent 
of Jehovah, but He is more than this, for 
Isaiah calls Him by the Divine Name (9 6 ) and 
pictures the spirit of Jehovah as resting upon 
Him in all its fulness (1 1 2 > 3 ). Thus, according 
to Isaiah, Jehovah was to be fully present in 
the person of the Messianic King, who was to 
be His perfect manifestation as Ruler of His 
people. It is true that Isaiah connects the 
appearance of this glorious monarch with the 
defeat of the Assyrians, the last enemy of 
Judah on his horizon, his view of future times 
being foreshortened, and it may be doubted 
how far he understood the true import of the 
words that he spoke concerning the person and 
work of the King, seized as he was by over- 
mastering inspiration and carried quite beyond 
himself ; but Christians can read his utterances 
in a larger, fuller light, and see how wonder- 
fully they were fulfilled in the Person and 
work of Jesus Christ our Lord. 



B.C. 



Chronological Table 



745 Tiglath-pileser. king of Assyria 

740 Call of Isaiah 

735 Ahaz, king of Judah 

734 Pekah, king of Israel, defeated and slain 

by the Assyrians 
732 Rezin, king of Syria, slain, and Damascus 

taken by the Assyrians 
727 Shalmaneser, king of Assyria 
726 Hezekiah, king of Judah 
722 Sargon, king of Assyria. Fall of Samaria 

and end of kingdom of Israel 
711 Siege of Ashdod by the Assyrians 
710 Defeat of Merodach-Baladan and capture 

of Babylon by Sargon 
705 Sennacherib, king of Assyria 
701 Great invasion of Judah by Sennacherib 
607 Nineveh taken by the Babylonians. Rise 

of the Babylonian Empire under 

Nebuchadnezzar 
586 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. End 

of kingdom of Judah 
549 Beginning of Cyrus' victorious career 
538 Capture of Babylon by Cyrus, followed 

by decree for the return of the Jewish 

exiles 

Non-Isaianic Sections 

A careful study of the internal evidence 
(the contents, allusions, implied historical set- 
ting and literary style) has led the majority of 
modern scholars to the conclusion that some 
portions of this book as we now have it are 
not the work of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but 
1 



INTRO. 



ISAIAH 



INTRO. 



were added to his prophecies at a later period, 
much in the same way as. psalms by later 
writers were added to the original collection 
ascribed to David, and as prophecies of various 
dates by unknown authors were appended to 
the written works of Zechariah. The most 
considerable sections which have thus been 
separated by critical study from the works of 
Isaiah are : — 

(1) Chs. 40-66, now assigned by quite a 
general consensus of opinion to an author (or 
possibly authors) who lived towards the close 
of the Babylonian exile. 

(2) Chs. 13-1423 (see notes). 

(3) Chs. 24-27 (see notes). 

(4) Chs. 34, 35 (see notes). 

(5) Chs. 36-39, parallel, and in the main 
identical, with 2K18 13 -20 19 . An historical 
appendix added because of its bearing on 
Isaiah's prophetic activity in the reign of 
Hezekiah. 

The reasons for separating chs. 40-66 from 
the acknowledged prophecies of Isaiah are : — 
(a) The standpoint of the writer is that of 
the Babylonian exile, more than a century after 
I Isaiah's death : he is living amongst, and speak- 
l ing to, the Jews in exile. See e.g. 42 22 43 28 
47 6 52 5 . Jerusalem is no longer inviolate as in 
1-39, but has been for some time deserted and 
in ruins (44 26 58 12 61 4 63 18 64io,n), and the 
return of the captives to their own land is 
anticipated in the immediate future (46 13 48 20 ). 
In Isaiah's time Assyria under Shalmaneser, 
Sargon, and Sennacherib was the dominant 
world power. But in 40-66 the Babylonian 
Empire, which under Nebuchadnezzar had suc- 
ceeded to the power of Assyria, is tottering to 
its fall, and destined to be overthrown by 
Cyrus who has embarked on his victorious 
career. Isaiah's name and personality, again, 
so prominent in 1-39, are never alluded to in 
40-66. Now, however far an OT. prophet 
may project his vision into the future, the 
standpoint from which he does so is always 
that of his own time, and his words are for 
the warning or encouragement of those of his 
own age. But on the supposition that Isaiah 
is the author of these chs. not only does he 
project his vision into the future, but first 
projects himself to a standpoint in the future, 
and, though Living while the kingdom of Judah 
was still in existence and Jerusalem outwardly 
flourishing, addresses himself to the encourage- 
ment of the Jews of a future age, when they 
should be in exile, and their city and Temple 
a heap of ruins. But this would he a case 
without parallel in OT. prophecy, and it is 
therefore much more likely that these chs. are 
the work of <>ne who actually lived towards 

the close oi the exile. 

(It) The argumenl in chs. 11, 15 seems to 

depend on the fact that Cyrus, the Persian 



conqueror, has begun his victorious career. 
The action of Cyrus is appealed to as a proof 
that Jehovah has not forgotten His people and 
will perform His promises. The passages 
concerning Cyrus are not prophecies of his 
coming (as is sometimes said), but rather 
triumphant appeals to the fact that he has 
come. His career is followed with anxious 
interest, and his successes are regarded as 
accumulating evidences of Jehovah's care for 
His people, and of the working out of His 
will in the course of human history. This 
points to a date shortly after the middle of 
the 6th century B.C. : for Cyrus, whom the 
Jews rightly anticipated as their deliverer, 
first appeared about 550 B.C., overthrew the 
Median empire in 549, and after other achieve- 
ments captured Babylon in 538, and gave 
permission for the return of the captive Jews 
to their own country. 

(c) When we look into chs. 40-66 we find 
that they differ considerably from the earlier 
part of the book both in language and style. 
This by itself is not a conclusive argument, 
because a man's style may alter a great deal at 
different periods in his life, being liable to 
modification from varying circumstances, age, 
or change of subject matter ; nevertheless it 
materially strengthens the case when taken in 
connexion with the other arguments noticed. 
Some of the more striking differences of style 
observable are : — 

(1) Some words or expressions characteristic 
of 1-39 are absent from 40-66, such as : the 
title 'the Lord Jehovah of hosts' (l 24 3 1 
1 16. 33 1 9 4) . the word used for « idols ' (2 8, is, 20 
10 11 19L3 317); the use of the figure of 
Jehovah ■ arising ' or ' being exalted ' (e.g. 
2 11, 19 5 16 28 21 30 18) ; the expression ' glory ' of 
a nation (e.g. 5 i3 8 7 10 16,18)- the figure of 
Jehovah's ' hand stretched out ' in judgment 
(e.g. 5 26 9i2.i7.2i 104 1426,27 23H 31 3); a 
peculiar word for the ' blinding ' of the eyes, 
variously rendered in AY ' shut ' (6 1°), ' closed ' 
(29 10 ), ' dim ' (32 3 ) ; a striking word ' stir up ' 
(9 ii), 'set up,' 'set' (19 2 ); the expression, 
'head and tail, palm branch and rush,' figura- 
tively used (91 4 1915); the term 'fruitful 
field ' (1018 29 1 7 and other places) ; the very 
characteristic word 'remnant' (in the name 
SAear- jashub, 7 3 10 20, 21 nil an{ j elsewhere) ; 
an unusual word for 'many ' (16 14 17 1 ' 2 28'-'). 

(2) On the other hand, noticeable words or 
expressions recur in 40-66, which are absent 
from undoubted prophecies of Isaiah, such as : 
' all flesh ' (40M 49 20 66 16,28,24) . the expres- 
sion ' as nothing ' (40 17 41 u » 12 ) ; the exhorta- 
tion to ' lift up the eyes ' (40 20 49 « 51 « 60 4 ) ; 
the verb ' choose ' in connexion with Jehovah's 
choice of His people (418,9 43 10 . 20 and 
frequently); the verb 'praise' and cognate 
noun (428,10,12 4321 an d often); a rare 



412 



INTRO. 



ISAIAH 



expression for 'things to come' (41 23 44 7 
45 n ) ; the verb rendered ' spring up ' or ' spring 
forth ' (e.g. 42 9 44 4 45 8 ) ; an uncommon word 
for ' bow down ' (44 15 > 17 » 19 4G 6 ) ; an unusual 
word meaning to ' break forth ' into singing 
(4423 4913 an d other places) ; the title 'Holy 
City ' (48 2 52 *) ; references to the ' mirage ' 
(49 10 , also 35 7 [non-Isaianic] ) ; the phrase ' to 
clothe oneself,' or, ' be clothed with,' used 
figuratively (49 1S 50 3 and elsewhere) ; frequent 
reference to the ' sons of Zion ' (49 17,22,25 51 20 
and often) ; utterances of Jehovah beginning 
with the words ' I am ' (45 5 > 6 > 18 and very 
frequently). 

Some of the most striking differences in 
phraseology have been noted by way of 
example, but much longer lists might be given. 
It is true that those who argue for unity of 
authorship are able to point to certain resem- 
blances, such as the use of the characteristic 
title ' Holy One of Israel ' and the recurrence 
of Tohu (' chaos,' G-n 1 2 ) ; but the undoubted 
affinities between the two parts of the book 
may be explained, it is thought, by the influ- 
ence of the prophecies of Isaiah upon the 
author of 40-66. 

(d) As there is considerable divergence in 
phraseology between the two main divisions 
of the book, so the underlying ideas and doc- 
trines are in some respects widely different, e.g. : 

(1) The conception of the faithful remnant 
so characteristic of chs. 1-39, though it may 
be implied in a few places (59 20 65 8 > 9 ), has no 
important position in 40-66, and Isaiah's word 
' remnant ' (Shear) does not occur. 

(2) The conception of Jehovah in chs. 40- 
66 shows an advance on that of the acknow- 
ledged prophecies of Isaiah. It is broader and 
fuller, bringing into prominence, not the 
transcendent greatness and holiness of G-od, 
but His infinite wisdom, knowledge, and power, 
as seen in the creation, sustaining, and govern- 
ment of the world. 

(3) Chs. 40-66 are marked by the introduc- 
tion of subjects that are new. The most 
remarkable of these is the wonderful conception 
of ' the servant of Jehovah.' 

(4) Again, subjects that are not new in 
themselves receive in chs. 40-66 quite different 
treatment. Jerusalem in 1-39 is the capital 
and sanctuary, threatened yet secure in 

: Jehovah's protection. In 40-66 the city is 
already ruined (61 4 ), but destined to be 
gloriously restored, and the delineation of the 
glories of the new Jerusalem, with intimation 
of the part that the nations of the world shall 

1 take in its restoration, forms a remarkable 
feature of the later chapters of the book (see 
especially c. 60). 

(5) Very remarkable is the change which 
comes over Messianic prophecy when we pass 
to chs. 40-66. In the utterances of Isaiah 



the hopes for the realisation of the ideal 
future are centred in a Scion of the House of 
David (9 7 ll 1 ); but the promises so imper- 
fectly realised during the period of the 
kingdom are in 40-66 transferred from the 
Messianic king to the nation as Jehovah's 
chosen servant ; not, however, to the people 
considered in themselves, but in dependence 
on an individual, a personal representative of 
Jehovah, in whom as a perfect servant are 
summed up the ideal qualities of Israel. 

Taking together the arguments thus briefly 
summarised, it is difficult to avoid the conclu- 
sion that chs. 40-66 are not the work of 
Isaiah, but of a prophet who exercised his 
ministry towards the end of the period of the 
Jewish exile in Babylon. There is no reason 
why the student of Holy Scripture should 
be disquieted by such a conclusion, for it does 
not follow that the trustworthiness and 
inspiration of chs. 40-66 must be given up. The 
author of these chs. does not claim to be Isaiah, 
and the name of that prophet is not even 
mentioned in them. Belief in the inspiration 
and divine authority of the OT. cannot fairly 
be held to bind us to a particular theory or to 
human traditions, as to the literary structure 
of the several books. This has to be investi- 
gated by the ordinary methods of literary 
research, because G-od's revelation has come 
down to us embodied in a literature which has 
not been exempted from the ordinary 
conditions of literary composition and trans- 
mission. 

CHAPTER 1 

Jehovah's Arraignment of His People 
This c. is general in character, and much of 
it (e.g. vv. 10-17) might refer to almost any 
period. This general character of the pro- 
phecy renders it especially suitable as an 
introduction, and may account for its position 
at the beginning of the book. It gives us a 
picture of the internal condition of Judah in 
Isaiah's age, and not only brings out his charac- 
teristic teaching, but more than any other OT. 
passage indicates the general line of prophetic 
doctrine. Owing to the corrupt state of the 
nation Jehovah will avenge Himself by a 
judgment, through which, while it proves the 
destruction of sinners, the people will be 
purified, and its ideal character realised by the 
remnant that shall be left (vv. 24-26 : cp. v. 9). 
Some indication of date is afforded by vv. 7-9, 
where the prophet states that the land is 
wasted by foreign invaders and the capital cut 
off from outside help. The prophecy might 
accordingly be assigned to (1) the invasion by 
Rezin and Pekah in the reign of Ahaz (7 1 ), 
735 B.C.; (2) an invasion by Sargon (20 1 ), 
711 B.C. ; or (3) the invasion by Sennacherib 
(chs. 36, 37) in Hezekiah's reign, 701 B.C. It 



413 



1. 2 



ISAIAH 



2. 



is in favour of (1) that the prophecy occurs in 
connexion with others belonging to the reign 
of Ahaz (chs. 2-5), and perhaps the rebuke of 
formal worship suits this period best ; the 
' strangers ' of v. 7 would then be Pekah's 
Syrian allies. Most recent commentators, how- 
ever, assign the prophecy to date (3). There 
is a similar rebuke of formal religion in 29 13 
(same period), though the tone of this c. is un- 
like that of those prophecies which undoubtedly 
refer to Sennacherib's invasion (e.g. chs. 29, 30). 
2-9. Judah's unnatural conduct and its 
consequences. 10-17. Sedulous worship of 
Jehovah is no defence, because a merely formal 
service is displeasing to Him. 18-23. Je- 
hovah offers reconciliation on condition of 
amendment. 24-31. The gracious offer being 
refused, sentence is passed. 

1. See Intro. 

2. Children] Jehovah claimed Israel as His 
son at the exodus (Ex4 22 ). 3. The un- 
naturalness of Israel's conduct is similarly 
contrasted with the behaviour of the animal 
creation, in Jer8 7 . 4. Seed of evildoers] 
i.e. consisting of evildoers (14 20 ). Are cor- 
rupters] RV k deal corruptly.' The Holy One 
of Israel] The use of this title is character- 
istic of Isaiah, and traceable to the impression 
made by the vision wherein he received his 
call and heard the seraphic ' Ter-Sanctus.' 
See Intro. 

5. RV ' Why will ye be still stricken, that 
ye revolt ? ' etc. Why expose yourselves to 
further punishment ? Read, ' Every head . . 
every heart.' The noblest parts of the body 
stand for the rulers and counsellors of the 
body politic. 

7. As overthrown by strangers] lit. ' as an 
overthrow of strangers,' i.e. (a) as an over- 
throw wrought by strangers, or (b) as when 
strangers (whom God cares not for) are 
overthrown. 

8. Cottage . . lodge] solitary huts where 
watchmen lived : cp. Lam2 6 RV. The figures 
express isolation. Owing to the occupation 
and devastation of the country by invaders the 
city is left helpless. 

9. The cities of the plain had perished 
through lack of a righteous remnant (Gn 1 8 24-32). 
The possession of such a remnant had proved 
the salvation of Judah. 

10. The rulers of Jerusalem are addressed 
as rulers of Sodom, and the nation as people of 
Gomorrah. Thus arc emphasised both their 
wickedness and their peril : cp. Ezklfi 48-50 . 

The law of our God] referring not fco the 
written law, bul to the divine teaching which 
follows, delivered through the prophet : see 
28 81« 

11. I delight not] cp. Pas40« 51 lfl Am 5 ' - 
Mirf. 7 . 12. Tread] RV ' trample/: like beasts 
without understanding. The worship was 



merely formal. 13. Vain oblations] Not the 
offerings in themselves, but their hypo- 
critical character is reprobated. Iniquity] 
lit. k nothingness,' k worthlessness.' 14. New 
moons] referring to the monthly festivals 
(Nu28H IS 20 5). 

15. Your hands, etc.] The hands, uplifted 
in prayer, are stained with blood. 

16. 17. Condition of acceptance with God. 

17. Judgment] i.e. justice. Relieve the 
oppressed] RM k set right the oppressor.' 

18. Let us reason] i.e. that the right may 
appear. Forgiveness will follow obedience and 
repentance. 

21. An harlot] figuratively expressing the 
faithlessness, through its idolatry, of the nation 
which had been betrothed to God : cp. Ex 34 15 
Dt31 16 . Judgment] i.e. justice, as in v. 17. 

22. Mixed] read, ' weakened.' The images 
describe the degeneracy of the rulers ; the 
best have become debased. 23. Companions 
of thieves] i.e. conniving at miscarriage of 
justice : cp. Mic 7 3 . 

24. Mine adversaries] the evildoers in Jeru- 
salem. God will purge the city of them. 

25. Purely purge, etc.] RM 'purge away 
thy dross as with lye,' lye, or potash, being 
used as a flux in purifying metals. Tin] i.e. 
alloy. 27. With judgment . . with righteous- 
ness] i.e. (a) through the manifestation of 
God's justice and righteousness, or (b) through 
the justice and righteousness which the re- 
generate people exhibit. Her converts] i.e. 
those of her who return (to Jehovah). 

29. They shall be ashamed . . ye have desired] 
The subject in each clause is the same in 
thought, though the person of the verb is 
changed. Such abrupt change of person is 
not uncommon in Hebrew, especially in the 
prophets, e.g. Mic 7 19 Mai 2 15 . 

29. The oaks] mentioned as connected with 
idolatrous worship : cp. 2K16 4 17 10 . Sacred 
trees were supposed to be inhabited by a deity, 
to whom the worship was offered. The 
prophet indicates that such nature-worship 
will disappoint its votaries. The gardens] 
referred to as the scene of heathen rites : cp. 
65 3 . 30. The fate of the wicked described in 
imagery suggested by v. 29. 31. Read, ' And 
the strong ' (i.e. the wealthy and powerful 
man) ' shall be as tow, and his work ' (i.e. the 
idolatrous image) ' as a spark.' The meaning 
is that his sin will be the cause of his ruin. 

CHAPTERS 2-5 

Isaiah's Preaching early in the 
Reign of Ahaz 
( 'lis. 2-4 are closely connected, and c. 5 is 
generally thought to belong to the same period, 
though it probably represents discourses de- 
livered rather later. There are two points 
which serve as indications of date : (a) The 



414 



2.2 



ISAIAH 



3. 1 



influx of foreign fashions, both in religion 
(2 6 > 8 ) and in common life (3 16-23 , where the 
difficulty of explaining the names for the 
various articles of female attire from the 
Hebrew suggests that the articles, like the 
names, were of foreign importation). (&) 
The weak and capricious character of the king 
and his advisers (3 12 ). These features point 
to the reign of Ahaz, who was an innovator in 
religion (2K16 2 " 4 ' 10 ), but in that case these 
chs. must be placed quite early in his reign, 
because we should gather from the mention 
of deep-sea ships (2 16 ) that Elath, the one sea- 
port of the kingdom, was still in the possession 
of Judah, while we read in 2K16 6 that the 
Syrians captured it during the invasion by 
Rezin and Pekah. 

C. 2. 2-4. Isaiah quotes a prophecy that 
the nations shall resort to Zion, and there 
learn true religion, with the result of universal 
peace. 5-9. Before this future can be real- 
ised, God's own people must trust in Him and 
forsake their idolatry. 10-22. The retributive 
judgment that is coming on the nation is 
described in detail. 

C. 3. I-I5- The ruin of social order in 
Judah, traceable to the misconduct of the 
rulers, who shall be punished. 

16-C. 4 1 . The sin and punishment of the 
ladies of Jerusalem. 2-6. The day of the 
Lord, though a day of judgment for the 
wicked, will prove a day of salvation for the 
faithful remnant. 

C. 5. 1-7. Judah compared in a parable to 
an unfruitful vineyard. 8-24. The charge of 
bringing forth evil fruit is proved in detail. 

[25-30. The coming invasion and dark 
prospect.] 

CHAPTEK 2 

2-4. occur also with a few slight variations 
I in Mic-t 1 - 4 . The passage appears to be bor- 
1 rowed in Isaiah, because (a) it suits its context 
" better in Micah, and (b) it is more complete in 
Micah, Mic4 4 being a part of it. If Isaiah is 
', quoting from Micah, the latter prophet must 
I have spoken the words before the occasion re- 
ferred to in Jer26 18 . Both prophets may be 
quoting from some ancient and well-known 
prediction regarding the future of Zion. 

2. In the last days] RV ' in the latter days.' 
I The phrase has the general meaning cf ' future 
I time ' (Gn 49 1 Dt 4 30 Jer 23 20). Its use in the 
1 prophetic books makes the expression practi- 
cally equivalent to ' Messianic times,' and the 
1 Apostles in NT. use the corresponding Gk. in 
.i the sense of ' the Christian dispensation ' 
' (Ac 2 17 1 Pet 1 20 ij n 2 is Heb 1 L 2 ). In the top 
of] RM ' at the head of.' Under the figure 
of a physical change is set forth the supremacy 
!• of Israel's religion : Zion will be recognised 
as the spiritual capital of the world. 



3. People] RV 'peoples.' The law] RM 

' teaching ' or ' instruction,' such as was given 
by prophets and priests : see 8i 6 . 4. Among] 
RV ' between.' The nations will submit their 
disputes to the arbitration of Israel's God. 
The conviction of the universality of the 
religion of Israel is here plainly shown. 

5. The prophet urges the people to repent, 
that they may fulfil their destiny. 

6. Therefore] RV ' For.' Replenished from 
the east] alluding to the influx of settlers and 
foreign customs from that quarter. Sooth- 
sayers, etc.] Soothsayers are forbidden amongst 
the Israelites in Dt 18 1°. We find an Israelite 
king sending to consult at the Philistine town 
of Ekron (2 K 1 2 ). Please themselves in] R V 
' strike hands with': i.e. 'make compacts with' 
born heathen. The reference is to bargains 
and commercial undertakings (2K14 22 16 6 ). 

7. The increase of wealth and military or- 
ganisation here referred to were features of 
Uzziah's reign (2Ch26i- 15 ). 9. Boweth down 
. . humbleth himself] i.e. before the idols. 

12. The day of the LORD of hosts shall he] 
RM ' the Lord of hosts hath a day.' ' Day ' 
might mean (a) day of battle or victory, cp. 
Am5 18-20 , the earliest mention of the Day of 
the Lord, or (b) day of judgment. This be- 
came the usual meaning ; so regularly in NT. 
Cp. lCor4 3 " 5 . 13-16. The proud will be 
humbled by the destruction of the things that 
minister to their pride. 15. Alluding to the 
works and fortifications of ITzziah and Jotham 
(2 Ch 26 9, 10 273,4). 

16. Ships of Tarshish] i.e. deep-sea ships 
used for foreign trade. Tarshish is supposed 
to have been in S. Spain, at the furthest limit 
of Phoenician commerce. Judah at this time 
possessed a mercantile fleet, the station of 
which was at Elath, on the Red Sea (2K16 6 ). 

Pleasant pictures] The word rendered ' pic- 
tures ' means something figured or with imag- 
ery upon it. A cognate word is used of idol • 
atrous imagery (Nu33 52 ) and of idolatrous 
images painted on walls (Ezk8 i2 ). Since the 
word here occurs in close connexion with 
ships, the reference may be to the sails, which 
were often embroidered with figures in an- 
cient times. Some prefer the meaning ' watch- 
towers,' the root having in Aramaic the sense 
' to look out.' 

20. Cast his idols] in disgust at their in- 
ability to help. 21. Men will try to hide 
from God in terror. 22. Wanting in LXX, 
and perhaps a gloss. 

CHAPTER 3 

1. Stay and the staff] A prophecy of famine: 
cp. v. 7, as the clause following explains. But 
if the latter clause is a gloss then ' stay and 
staff ' would refer to the classes upon which the 
stability of the life of the community depends. 



415 



3.2 



ISAIAH 



5.25 



' Staff ' in the Heb. is the fern, form of 
' stay.' 

2. The prudent] RV ' the diviner,' at this 
time in high estimation (2 6 ). The ancient] 
RM ' the elder,' who held offices in villages 
and towns (Ruth 4 2. * 2K101). 3. Artificer] 
cp. Jer'24 1 ; but RM 'charmer.' Eloquent 
orator] ' skilful enchanter.' 4. Children . . 
babes] in character rather than in years. 

6, 7. The meaning is, the state of society 
shall be such that a man who apparently has 
the bare necessaries of life shall be invited to 
be dictator, but in vain. 

9. The shew of their countenance] i.e. their 
expression ; the meaning being that their char- 
acter may be read in their face. But RM has, 
' Their respecting of persons doth witness,' 
etc. 12. Cp. v. 4. They which lead thee] lit. 
' they that set thee right,' i.e. they that should 
set thee aright. The reference is to king 
Ahaz and his counsellors, amongst whom the 
queen-mother was prominent. 13. People] 
RV k peoples.' 14. Ancients] see v. 2. For 
ye] the pronoun is emphatic : RV ' It is ye 
that have eaten up.' 

16 f. A protest against prevalent luxury as 
evidenced in the extravagant toilette of the 
ladies of Jerusalem. 

16. Tinkling] caused by silver bells on the 
ankles. 18. Cauls] RM 'networks.' Round 
tires like the moon] RV ' crescents ' ; mentioned 
as Midianitish ornaments (Jg8 21 > 26 ). 

19. Chains] RV ' pendants,' or ' eardrops ' ; 
mentioned as Midianitish ornaments (Jg8 2(5 ). 

20. Bonnets] RV ' headtires.' The same word 
is used of a bridegroom's headdress (61 10 ). 

Ornaments of the legs] RV • ankle-chains.' 

Headbands] RV l sashes,' such as were 

worn by brides (49 18 Jer 2 ^). Tablets] RV 

• perfume boxes.' Earrings] RV ' amulets.' 

21. Nose jewels] fastened to the nostril : 
see Gn24--. 22. Changeable suits of ap- 
parel] RV ■ festival robes.' Wimples] RV 

• shawls.' Crisping pins] RV ' satchels.' 

23. Glasses] RV ' hand mirrors.' Hoods] 
RV ' turbans.' 

24. Instead of, etc.] RV ' instead of sweet 
spices there shall be rottenness.' Rent] RV 
' rope,' i.e. binding the captive. Burning] RV 

• branding. 1 i.e. of a slave. 

25. 26. Thy, her] the pronouns refer to 
Zion. 26. Sit upon the ground] a posture of 
mourning : cp. Lam 1 [ . 

CHAPTER 4 

1. The women do not claim to be kept as 
the mans wives, luit only pray that he will 
remove from them the reproach of being 
ohildlesa (cp. GH30 88 ), so depopulated has the 
land become. The \. belongs to c. 3. 

In that day] i.e. when the Day of God's 
judgment (2 U 8 18 ) is over. 



2. Branch] not here a title of Messiah (the 
word is not the same in ll 1 ) but referring to 
the verdure of the land. Fertility of the soil 
is often a feature of the ideal future in the 
prophets (30 ™ Am9 13 Zech^.i?). For the 
expression ' branch of Jehovah ' cp. ' cedars 
of God,' Ps80 10 ; ' trees of Jehovah,' Psl04W. 

Escaped] referring to the godly remnant 
(6 13 ). 3. Shall be called holy] i.e. as actually 
being so : cp. 1 26 . Written] i.e. enrolled as a 
citizen. 4. Spirit] RM ' blast.' 5. Upon 
every dwelling place] RV ' over the whole 
habitation. 1 A cloud, etc.] the sign of God's 
protecting presence ; the imagery is from the 
exodus (Ex 13 21, 22 1419,20). Upon all, etc.] 
' over all the glory shall be spread a canopy,' 
i.e. for shadow and refuge, as explained in the 
next v. 6. Tabernacle] RV ' pavilion.' 

CHAPTER 5 

1-24. Judah, God's unfruitful vineyard, and 
the judgment upon it. 

I. I] i.e. Isaiah. To my] rather, ' for my,' 
or ' of my.' The beloved, as appears later, is 
Jehovah : cp. our Lord's parable (Mt21 33 ). 
The allegory is rhythmical in form : cp. Song 
g 11-Li) 2. Tower] watch-tower : see on l 8 . 

3 f. God speaks. 

7. Judgment] i.e. justice. Oppression] per- 
haps better, 'bloodshed.' Aery] i.e. of the 
oppressed. 

8-10. Unjust seizure of land resulting in 
barrenness and want of population. 8. Place] 
RV ' room.' 10. Bath] about 8 gallons. And 
the seed, etc.] RV i and a homer of seed 
shall yield but an ephah.' An ephah is the 
tenth part of a homer, which was 10 or 12 
bushels (Ezk 45 n ). 

II. That continue until night] RV 'thai 
tarry late into the night.' 12. Regard not, 
etc.] i.e. have no regard for the working of the 
Lord's will in the events of history. 13. Are 
gone into captivity] an example of the l pro 
phetic perfect.' The future is regarded as po 
certain that it is described as past. 14. Heir 
Heb. Sheol, i.e. the place of departed spirits, 
RM ' the grave ' : cp. Gn37 35 . 15. Cp. 2 !) > i: . 

17. After their manner] RV ' as in their 
pasture.' So desolate will the cities be. 

Strangers] RM ' wanderers.' The meaning 
is that nomad tribes wander over the land al 
pleasure. 

18. The people have chained themseh 

sin like beasts of burden. 19. They scoff at 
the declared judgments of God. 20. The per- 
\ erting of all moral distinctions. 23. Briber} 
and injustice. 

25-30. The position of these vv. is doubtful. 
Very probably they should be connected with 
the prophecy, 9 8 -10 4 . In that section the 
closing words of v. 25 occur four times as a 
sort of refrain. 



416 



5.26 



ISAIAH 



7. 



26. Lift up an ensign] i.e. as a signal to 
muster them : ep. 1 1 10 18 3 49 22 62 «>. Nations] 
i.e. those under the dominion of the Assyrian 
king and serving in his army. Hiss] The 
metaphor is from collecting a swarm of bees 
(7 18 ). 30. They shall roar against them] i.e. 
the enemies against God's people. 

CHAPTER 6 
The Prophet's Call 

This c, which recounts the prophet's call 
and commission, would stand first in a chrono- 
logical arrangement of the book. The opening 
words remind us of the vision of Micaiah 
(1K22 19 ), and we should compare the visions 
of Jeremiah and Ezekiel which inaugurated 
their prophetic activity. In St. John's vision 
(Rev 4) the same anthem, ' Holy, holy, holy,' is 
sung by the six- winged living creatures round 
about the throne. Isaiah's vision foreshadows 
such leading elements of his thought as, (1) the 
majesty of God, (2) the uncleanness of the 
people, (3) his conviction that he had a divine 
message for them, (4) their stubbornness and 
heedlessness, (5) the necessity of judgment, 
(6) the idea of the remnant. 

1-4. Isaiah's vision of Jehovah enthroned 
and the worship of heaven. 5-7. He confesses 
his sin and is absolved. 8-13. He receives his 
prophetic commission. 

1. The year that king Uzziah died] 740 B.C. 
See Intro. The prophet, when meditating 
perhaps on the condition of the nation and 
its gloomy prospects, is favoured with a vision 
of the glory of God. Train] i.e. the skirts 
(RM) of his royal robes. 

2. Above it] RV 'above him.' The sera- 
phims] here only in OT. the word denotes 
supernatural beings. It is derived from the 
verb ' to burn,' and may simply indicate the 
fiery or glowing appearance of Jehovah's 
attendant angels (Ezkl 13 > 14 ). Elsewhere, how- 
ever, the same word stands for venomous ser- 
pents (Nu21 6 Isal4 29 30 6 ), and it may here be 
intended to convey the meaning that the 
guardians of Jehovah's throne are of serpentine 
form. This is scarcely borne out by the con- 
text (vv. 6, 7), though in Ezekiel's vision of 
heaven animal forms are introduced (Ezk 1 10 .) 

Covered his face] in reverence. 

3. Holy, holy, holy] The threefold repetition 
denotes emphasis or intensity (Jer7 4 ). It is 
significant that the title of Jehovah most 
characteristic of Isaiah's prophecies is ' the 
Holy One of Israel.' In the light of later 
revelation Christians have not unnaturally seen 
here a foreshadowing of the Holy Trinity : 
cp. Rev4 8 . 4. The posts of the door moved] 
RV ' the foundations of the thresholds were 
moved.' Smoke] a symbol of the divine 
presence, as in Ex 1 9 9 » 18 1 K 8 10 > n . 

5. Lips] the pure praises of the seraphim 



made Isaiah think by contrast of his own sins 
of the lips. For mine eyes have seen, etc.] No 
man could see God and live (Ex 33 20 ). 6. Live 
coal] Fire is the symbol of purification : cp. 
Mal3 2 Mt3H. 8. 'For us] the plural in the 
mouth of God as in Gn 1 ™ 3 22 1 1 *. Jehovah 
consults with the angels around His throne ; 
similarly in Micaiah's vision (1K22 19 > 20 : cp. 

Ps897). 

10. The result of the prophet's preaching 
described as though it were the purpose. Most 
of his hearers will stubbornly reject his message, 
with the result that they will become dead to 
all impressions. The heart] regarded by the 
Hebrews as the seat of the understanding : 
cp. Hos7 n . Convert] RV 'turn again.' 

11, 12. Isaiah feels that such a state of 
things cannot be allowed to continue, and is 
assured that Jehovah will interpose with a 
terrible judgment of war and exile. 12. There 
be a great forsaking] RV ' the forsaken places 
be many.' 

13. RV ' And if there be yet a tenth in it, 
it shall again be eaten up : as a terebinth, and 
as an oak, whose stock remaineth, when they 
are felled ; so the holy seed is the stock there- 
of.' The meaning is that the coming judgment 
is not a single one but a series. Yet as when 
an evergreen tree is cut down the stump 
remains from which new shoots may grow, so 
there will be a faithful remnant of Israel left, 
to be the germ of a renewed people. This 
doctrine of the remnant is characteristic of 
Isaiah: cp. 4 3 7 3 10 2 0> 2 i. 

CHAPTERS 71-97 
The Syro-Ephraimite Invasion 
The group of prophecies contained in this 
section belongs to the reign of Ahaz, when 
Judah was threatened by the allied forces of 
Syria and Israel (7 l 2K15 37 I6 5 - 9 2Ch28 5 " 15 ). 
With the reign of Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian 
empire entered on a new epoch, that monarch 
aiming at bringing the whole of W. Asia under 
his sway. With a view to resisting the As- 
syrian advance and preserving their independ- 
ence, Rezin, of Syria, and Pekah, of Israel, 
formed an alliance, and their war against Ahaz 
was apparently undertaken in order to force 
Judah to join the coalition, the immediate 
object of the invaders being to dethrone Ahaz 
and set over the kingdom one who would be 
willing to favour their projects (7 6 ). Isaiah 
foresaw that Syria and Israel were doomed to 
fall before the Assyrian power, and, therefore, 
exhorts to calmness and confidence in Jehovah 
(7 4 > 8 > 16 8 4 ). Ahaz, on the other hand, was set 
upon seeking aid from Tiglath-pileser, a policy 
which Isaiah reprobated as indicating want of 
trust in Jehovah, and as certain to lay Judah 
also open to disaster from Assyrian inroads 

(717-25). 



27 



417 



7.1 



ISAIAH 



7.16 



C. 7. 1, 2. The occasion of the prophecies 
following. 3-9. In view of the panic caused 
by the Syro-Israelite invasion, Isaiah is sent 
to the king with a message of encouragement 
(10-16), which is confirmed by the sign of 
Immanuel. 17-25. The disastrous conse- 
quences of the policy of seeking aid from 
Assyria foretold. 

C. 8. 1-4. The speedy ruin of Syria and 
Israel foretold by the sign of Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz. 5-8. The Syrian invasion of Judah 
foretold. 9-15. The nations' fear in the present 
crisis contrasted with the assurance that should 
spring from trust in Jehovah. 16-20. Isaiah's 
own confidence in his message. 21-C. 9. 7. The 
coming calamity and the bright future that 
lies beyond. Those parts of the land which 
first suffered from the Assyrian shall be corre- 
spondingly glorified, for the Messiah shall 
appear and the kingdom of David shall be 
established on an indestructible foundation. 

CHAPTEE 7 

1-16. Isaiah assures Ahaz by a sign that 
Judah will be delivered from Syria and Israel. 

1. See prefatory note to the section. 

2. Ephraim] the popular name for the 
northern kingdom (9 8 > 9 ). His heart was 
moved] i.e. the heart of king Ahaz, because 
of the formidable confederacy against him. 
Serious reverses suffered by Judah at this time 
are recorded in 2 Ch 28 5-15 . 

3. Shear-jashub] i.e. ' a remnant shall re- 
turn.' Already in the reign of Ahaz the 
prophet had summed up the characteristic 
feature of his teaching (see on 6 13 ) in a 
symbolic name given to his son. Similarly 
he called another son Maher-shalal-hash-baz 
(' spoil speedeth. prey hasteth ') that he might 
impressively indicate the speedy spoliation of 
Syria and Israel (8 3 > 4 ). Thus the prophet and 
his family were for signs to the people (8 18 ). 
There is a special significance in the presence 
of Shear-jashub at this meeting of Isaiah with 
king Ahaz. The prophet has to foretell inva- 
sion and spoliation of Judah by the Assyrians 
(v. 20), but the presence of Shear-jashub gives 
assurance that a remnant shall return. The 
conduit] The king's object doubtless was to 
stop the waters outside the walls of the city 
(2Ch32 8 ), so that the enemy, in the siege that 
was imminent, might be without supply of 
water. Upper pool] probably the same as the 
upper watercourse of Gihon on the W. of Jeru- 
salem (2Ch32 80 ). A lower pool is mentioned 
in 22». 

4. Neither be fainthearted, etc.] RV 'let 
not thine heaH be faint because of these two 
tails of smoking firebrands.' The prophel 
regards them as no more than expiring torches. 

6. Tabeal] the name is Syrian, not Hebrew : 
see prefatory note. 



8. Within threescore, etc.] We should prob- 
ably regard this prophecy as fulfilled when 
the power of the northern kingdom was finally 
broken by the importation of foreigners under 
Esarhaddon (Ezr4 2 ). On account of the 
manner in which this prediction interrupts the 
parallelism, some modern scholars regard it as 
an addition by a later editor. 

9. The need of faith is emphasised ; without 
it there is no security. 

11. Ask thee a sign] to prove that he may 
trust in Jehovah's promise. Ahaz's choice 
should be unlimited, he might ask a sign in 
heaven or from the nether world. 

12. Neither will I tempt, etc.] Ahaz gives 
utterance to a sound principle (Dt6 16 ). But 
Jehovah had offered a sign, and to refuse it 
showed distrust of God. Ahaz had already 
made up his mind to the Assyrian alliance and 
cloaks his self-will with the language of faith. 

13. The prophet's indignation. 

14. A virgin] The Hebrew word is not the 
distinctive one for virginity, but denotes rather 
one-of maturing and marriageable age : cp. e.g. 
Gn 24 43 Ex 2 8 . In the first place, this prophecy 
must have been intended by Isaiah as a sign 
of encouragement to Ahaz — before a child, 
shortly to be born, could arrive at years of 
observation the enemies of Judah would be 
brought to nought. At the same time, it is 
evident that the child is no ordinary one, from 
the way in which the prophet refers to him as 
Lord of the land (8 8 ), and from the titles 
given to him in 9 6 . The child is, in fact, the 
Messiah, whose advent Isaiah seems to have 
expected in the near future in connexion 
with the Assyrian invasion (9 1-7 1 1 1 * 9 ). The 
prophet's anticipations were realised, but in a 
manner far surpassing his expectations, in the 
birth of our Lord. 

Immanuel] i.e. l God is with us ' (8 10 ). The 
child whom the prophet has in mind received 
this symbolic name as being a pledge of God's 
presence with His people. Christ, the true 
Son of David, is in the highest conceivable 
sense Immanuel. The sign given by Isaiah is 
not concerned with the manner of the child's 
birth, but rather connected with his name Im- 
manuel. Accordingly in Mt 1 - 3 the emphasis 
is upon the name. 

15. Butter (RM 'curds') and honey] i.e. 
simple pastoral products, not bread and meat. 
because the land has gone out of cultivation : 
the ' honey ' was probably wild honey. That 
privation is implied is clear from the context 
(w. 20-22). That he may know] so some 
ancient versions, but better, 'when he knoweth' 
(RV), or l till he know.' 

16. Though the child about to be born must 
in his early years endure privation, yet before 
he comes to years of discretion Judah's present 
enemies shall be brought to nought. The 



418 



7. 17 



ISAIAH 



8. 13 



land, etc.] RV ' the land whose two kings 
thou abhorrest ' (i.e. ' fearest horribly ') ' shall 
be forsaken.' 

17-25. The disastrous consequences of any 
alliance between Judah and Assyria foretold. 

17-19. Isaiah foresees that Judah will be 
involved in the struggle between Egypt and 
Assyria and will be invaded by both powers, 
their armies penetrating everywhere like 
swarms of insects. 

17. Ephraim departed] alluding to the dis- 
ruption of the kingdom in Rehoboam's reign. 
Since Ephraim was the most powerful of the 
seceding tribes the northern kingdom was 
called by its name (v. 2 ; 9 8 > 9 ). 

18. Hiss] see 5 26 . 

19. Desolate] RV 'rugged.' Bushes] RV 
' pastures.' 

20. A razor that is hired] The reference is 
to Ahaz's policy of calling in the aid of Tiglath- 
pileser. Retribution would come through that 
very power on which Ahaz relied, and the land 
would be laid bare. 

21-25. A pastoral life will be the only 
possible one, because the land is laid waste, 
and where vineyards once flourished men 
will hunt wild beasts in the thickets, or seek 
pasturage for their cattle. 

22. The v. means there will be curds and 
wild honey, and nothing else. 

23. Every place, etc.] RV ' every place, 
where there were a thousand vines at a thou- 
sand silverlings, shall even be for briers and 
thorns.' Silverlings] i.e. pieces of silver, 
shekels ; 1,000 shekels would be an average 
price. 

25. RV ' And all the hills that were digged 
with the mattock, thou shalt not come thither 
for fear of briers and thorns.' Vines were 
usually grown on terraces on the hills of 
Palestine. Lesser cattle] RV ' sheep.' 

CHAPTER 8 

1. Take, etc.] read ' Take thee a great 
tablet, and write upon it with the pen of a 
man, Maher-shalal-hash-baz.' A man's pen] 
i.e. such as a common man would use 
for writing in large characters that all 
might undertsand the words. Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz] i.e. ' The spoil speedeth, the prey 
hasteth.' The inscription intimated the speedy 
spoliation of Syria and Israel (v. 4). 

2. And I took] RV ' And I will take,' the 
speaker being Jehovah as in v. 1. Witnesses] 
who would be able when the fulfilment came 
to testify that the prophecy had been delivered. 

3. The prophetess] i.e. the prophet's wife. 
Call his name] see on 7 3 . 4. This 

prophecy was fulfilled, Damascus being cap- 
tured by the Assyrians in 732 B.C., and Samaria 
ten years later: cp. 10 9 . 

6. This people] i.e. the Ten Tribes (re- 



ferred to as ' this people ' again in 9 16 ), who 
refused the mild rule of the House of David, 
and, having set up their own king, have allied 
themselves with Rezin. The waters of Shi- 
loah] The gently-flowing stream that issued 
from Zion near the sanctuary (Ps46 4 ) sym- 
bolises the divinely-appointed government of 
the House of David, and is contrasted in the 
next v. with the wide flood of Euphrates, 
symbolising the devastating power of Assyria, 
which within a short period overthrew the 
kingdoms of Israel and Syria (2K16 9 18 9 > 10 ), 
as Isaiah repeatedly foretold : cp. 7 8 > 16 . 

7. The river] i.e. as elsewhere, the 
Euphrates (Josh 24 2 ) ; denoted in RV by a 
capital R. 

8. Pass through] RV ' sweep onward into.' 
To the neck] The head, therefore, will 

escape. So Isaiah regularly indicates the 
preservation of a remnant in the judgments 
that are coming upon the nation. The stretch- 
ing out, etc.] The image is suddenly changed 
from that of a devastating flood to that of a 
bird of prey swooping with wings outspread. 

O Immanuel] The country thus threatened 
is the land to which the divine pledge has been 
given and embodied in the child Immanuel 
(714-16). At the thought the prophet is filled 
with confidence in the protection of Jehovah; 
hence the triumphant strain of defiance in 
which he addresses the invaders in the vv. 
that follow. 

9, 10. Alliances formed against God's people 
must end in disaster and hostile purposes must 
fail, for ' Grod is with us.' 9. People] RV 
1 peoples.' Gird yourselves] i.e. for warfare. 

10. God is with us] alluding to the signi- 
ficance of the name Immanuel (v. 8, cp. 7 14 ). 

11, 12. The prophet has been divinely 
warned not to show the unreasoning fear of 
the Syro-Ephraimite alliance which the men 
of Judah exhibit. 

11. With a strong hand] In Heb. phrase- 
ology the coming of prophetic inspiration is 
spoken of anthropomorphically as seizure by the 
hand of Jehovah (2K315 Ezkl 3 322 8i 37 1). 

12. A confederacy] alluding to the alliance 
between Israel and Syria, which caused so 
much fear in Judah (7 2 ). The same word is, 
however, elsewhere rendered ' conspiracy ' or 
'treason' (2K17* 2Ch23i3) : so RV 'con- 
spiracy ' here. In that case the allusion would 
be to the cry of ' Conspiracy ! ' which, as some 
suppose, was raised against Isaiah and his fol- 
lowers by those in Judah who opposed the 
line of policy he advocated, and favoured 
Ahaz's project of alliance with Assyria. Simi- 
larly, the political opponents of Jeremiah at- 
tempted to discredit his teaching by accusing 
him of treachery against his country (Jer37 13 ). 

13. The meaning is, l recognise Jehovah in 
His true character as the all-holy One ' (so He 



419 



8. 14 



ISAIAH 



9.3 



had revealed Himself to the prophet, 6 3 ), ' and 
stand in awe of Him accordingly.' 

14. Sanctuary] The secondary meaning of 
' refuge ' is here the prominent one (1 K 1 50 

228). 

Both the houses] i.e. the two kingdoms of 
Judah and Israel. Every revelation of God 
puts men on their trial and sifts them : to 
those who accept it in faith and turn to Him 
it means deliverance, but those who reject it 
bring judgment on themselves. This was seen 
in God's revelation of Himself in Christ ; to 
those who accepted Him He gave power to 
become sons of God (Jn 1 12 ). He came to 
save the world (Jnl2 47 ) ; yet it may also be 
said that for judgment He came into the world 
(Jn9 39 ), because those who received Him not 
brought judgment on themselves, and found 
Him to be a rock of offence. Thus Isaiah's 
words are quoted in NT. with a Christian 
application (Mt 2 1 ^ Ro 9 33 1 Pet 2 ?> S). 

15. Many among them shall stumble] RY 
' many shall stumble thereon.' 

16. Bind up] i.e. tie up the parchment roll 
on which the prophet's teaching has been 
written, and lay it aside to be consulted later. 

The testimony] i.e. the inspired admonition 
which the prophet has just delivered. The 
law] not referring to the written law of God, 
but used in the wide sense of ' instruction ' or 
' teaching ' (RM) : the inspired teaching given 
by the prophet himself (cp. 1 10 5 24 30 9 ), which 
he commits to writing and delivers to his 
disciples. 

18. The ground of the confidence just ex- 
pressed. The prophet and his children are by 
their names Isaiah (salvation of Jehovah), 
Shear- jashub (a remnant shall return, 7 3 ), and 
Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8 3 ), pledges of a 
brighter future in fulfilment of the prophet's 
words. Wonders] i.e. omens : cp. Ezkl2 6 > n 
2424,27 Zech3 8 . This v. is quoted in NT., 
Heb2 13 , without regard to its original con- 
text, but the writer simply uses it there that 
he may express in scriptural terms the truth 
of the community of nature between Christ 
and His people. 

1 9. Seek unto] i.e. with a view of consulting 
as an oracle, despairing of other help. Familiar 
spirits] The forms of necromancy referred to 
are forbidden in DtlH 11 . and the nature of 
the practices reprobated is well illustrated by 
ili. famous example of the witch of Endor 
( 1 SJHTf.). Peep] i.e. 'chirp' (RV) as a bird 
(lo 11 ): referring t<> the thin and feeble voice 
of ghosts from Sheol (29 4 ). For the living to 
the dead] RV ' on behalf of the living should 
tiny sick unto the dead V ' 

20. The law. . the testimony] i.e. Isaiah's 
own beaching, which, by his direction, had been 
written down and carefully preserved (v. 16). 

If they speak not, etc.] The meaning seems 



to be, 'If they speak not according to this 
word ' (viz. ' to the law and to the testimony ') 
' surely there is no morning for them ' (RV) : 
i.e. the only hope of a brighter dawn lies in 
being guided by Isaiah's teaching. But an- 
other rendering is possible, ' Surely according 
to this word shall they speak for whom there 
is no morning ' (RM), i.e. they will recognise 
too late the value of the principles inculcated 
by Isaiah. 

21. Curse their king, etc.] RV ' curse by 
their king and by their God.' The expression 
is the same as in 1S17 43 . 22. Dimness, etc.] 
RV ' gloom of anguish ; and into thick dark- 
ness they shall be driven away.' Note the 
close connexion with c. 9, where a brighter 
future is predicted. 

CHAPTER 9i-7 

1 . R V ' But there shall be no gloom to her 
that was in anguish. In the former time he 
brought into contempt the land of Zebulun 
and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter 
time hath he made it glorious, by the way of 
the sea, beyond Jordan, Galilee of the nations.' 
By the contempt brought upon the land of 
Zebulun and Naphtali the prophet signifies 
the spoiling of the country and deportation 
of the inhabitants by Tiglath-pileser (narrated 
2 K 15 29 ). Galilee of the nations] lit. ' the cir- 
cuit,' or ' district of the nations.' The region 
indicated lay in the extreme N. of Naphtali and 
received its name, probably, from the inter- 
mixture in that locality of Israelites with the 
former inhabitants. The term GalU later be- 
came the proper name Galilee. 

2. Walked in darkness] as described in 
821,22 Have seen] The light of the new age to 
which the prophet looked forward was of course 
in the future, but to his vision it is so assured 
that he describes it as having already dawned. 
Such use of the past tense (prophetic perfect) 
is frequent in the prophetic writings. Dwell] 
RV ' dwelt ' : the tense being parallel to 
' walked ' in the preceding clause. 

Vv. 1, 2 are referred to in Mt4 15 > 16 as ful- 
filled in our Lord's Galilean ministry. We 
need not suppose that Isaiah had this distinctly 
in mind. He only speaks in these verses in 
general terms of the light of the new and 
glorious age shining upon that district which 
should be the first to suffer the affliction of con 
quest and captivity. When Christ, the true Sun 
of Righteousness, illumined that very same dis- 
trict it was natural that the Evangelist should 
see the ultimate fulfilment of the prophecy 
which Isaiah, unconscious of the wonderful 
fulfilment which awaited his words, had 
uttered. 

3. And not increased the joy] So Heb. 
written text, ancient Greek versions and Vulg. 
But Heb. traditional reading, Syr., and LXX 



420 



9. 4 



ISAIAH 



9. 11 



give k increased the joy to it,' RV ' increased 
their joy ' ; and this reading is demanded by the 
context, where figures are multiplied to indicate 
excessive joy. The past tenses (prophetic 
perfect, see v. 2) are again used to describe 
what is yet in the future. Before thee] appear- 
ing as worshippers before Jehovah in His 
sanctuary (Dt 12 !2). 

4. Staff of his shoulder] i.e. with which he is 
beaten by the taskmaster. The dominion of 
Assyria shall be broken. As in the day of 
Midian] referring to the memorable- victory of 
Gideon (Jg 7, 8). 

5. Read, ' For all the armour of the armed 
man in the tumult, and the garments rolled in 
blood, shall be for burning, for fuel of fire.' 
After the great victory over the oppressor the 
weapons of war are burnt (Ezk 39 9 ) as a pre- 
lude to the era of peace which is to follow. 

6. From a general description of the future 
reign of peace the prophet goes on to picture 
the king upon whom it depends, and whom he 
apparently identifies with the child of 7 14 . 
Then he proceeds to indicate the features of 
his rule by a series of majestic titles. Wonder- 
ful, Counsellor] RM ' Wonderful Counsellor,' 
or 'Wonder-Counsellor.' The title implies 
that the future king's rule shall be guided by a 
divinely-inspired wisdom (ll 2 " 4 ) which shall 
command the awe with which men regard the 
counsel of G-od. The word ' wonderful ' (with 
its cognates) is constantly used of the divine 
action (Exl5 n Jgl3 19 Psll8 23 ), and is 
applied to the divine name ( Jgl3 18 ). The 
mighty God] The word ' God ' has been ex- 
plained by some in the sense of ' ruler ' or 
' king.' The plural of the same word is some- 
times so employed (Ex 21 6 Ps 82 M). Isaiah, 
however, here uses the singular, and directly 
applies the very same title to Jehovah else- 
where (10 21 ; cp. Dt 10 " Jer 32 18). It should 
be noted also, (1) that the significance of the 
word ' God ' (El) as a title of Jehovah was at 
this time in the prophet's thoughts in the name 
Immanu-El ; and (2) the titles that precede 
and follow this one seem to have a mysterious 
divine significance. For such direct ascription 
of a divine title to the Messianic King the 
nearest parallel is Ps45 6 : cp. Zechl2 8 1 Ch 
29 23 . The everlasting Father] Father because 
of the protecting care exercised by him over 
his people. Everlasting because his kingdom 
is to be for ever (v. 7). Prince of Peace] 
peace being regarded as a prominent feature 
of that great future (2 2 "4) which the Messiah 
is to inaugurate (Mic 5 5 Zech 9 10 ). 

7. David] The mention of David implies 
that the ideal king is to be of the lineage of 
David. The v. might be explained as a pro- 
mise that the dynasty of the great king whom 
the prophet has in mind should reign in undis- 
puted possession of the kingdom, and should 



not fail. The prophecy would in that case be 
parallel to those earlier ones which promise a 
lasting dominion to the House of David (2S 
7 12-I6 Hos3 5 AmO 11 ); but the title, 'Ever- 
lasting Father,' which has just preceded, makes 
it more likely that the promise is one of per- 
sonal sovereignty to the individual king of 
whom the prophet is thinking. To order it, 
and to establish it] RV ' to establish it, and to 
uphold it.' 

Justice] RV ' righteousness.' The zeal, etc.] 
the jealous love of God for His people is a 
guarantee of this. 

CHAPTERS 98-104 

Divine Judgments on the Kingdom of 

Israel 

This section relates throughout to the 
kingdom of Israel. It belongs to the same 
period as the chs. immediately preceding, and 
treats of the ruin which Isaiah foresaw would 
shortly overtake the kingdom of the Ten 
Tribes: cp. 7 16 8 4 . The prophet traces the 
fall of Israel to the moral and social condition 
of its people. His prophecy was speedily 
fulfilled in the conquest of Syria and Israel by 
the Assyrian armies. The prophecy falls into 
four parts, each closing with the refrain, 'For 
all this his anger is not turned away, but his 
hand is stretched out still.' As the same 
phrase occurs in 5 25 , many commentators are 
of opinion that the short section 5 25 " 30 is con- 
nected in date and subject with this prophecy. 

C. 9. 8-21. Because of its pride and self- 
confidence foes are stirred up against Israel on 
all hands, and sudden calamity shall over- 
take it, followed by internal anarchy. 

C. 10. 1-4. The kingdom being hopelessly 
corrupt cannot stand when attacked. 

CHAPTER 9 (continued) 

8. Jacob . . Israel] Both names here stand 
for the northern kingdom, as is made clear by 
what follows in the next v. 9. Shall know] 
i.e. shall be taught by experience (Nul4 34 ). 

10. If the language is to be understood 
literally, the allusion is to the way in which 
the people set themselves to repair, and more 
than make up for, the devastation caused by 
invasion. But it is more likely that the pro- 
phet refers in a figure to the frequent changes 
of dynasty in the N. kingdom ; no sooner is 
one dynasty overthrown than another rises up 
to take its place in vain self-confidence. This 
interpretation is suggested by the word ' we 
will change,' which literally signifies, ' we will 
make cedars to succeed.' The Arabic Caliph, 
meaning successor (of the prophet Mohammed), 
is from the same Semitic root. 

11. The adversaries of Rezin] Perhaps we 
should read (with some Heb. MSS) ' the princes 
of Rezin ' ; the meaning would then be that 



421 



9. 12 



ISAIAH 



10. 14 



the Syrian allies of Israel (7 1 * 2 ) will turn 
against it. This suits the context, for we 
read in the next v. the Syrians before. Join his 
enemies together] RV { stir up his enemies.' 

12. Before] RM ' on the east.' Behind] 
RM ' on the west.' The point is that Israel 
is attacked on all hands. 

14. Branch] RV k palm branch ' : ' palm- 
branch and rush ' — a proverbial expression sig- 
nifying high and low (19 15 ). 

15. Explanatory of the metaphorical lan- 
guage in v. 14 : cp. vv. 20, 21. 

18. Briers and thorns] figuratively put for 
evil men (2S23 6 ). 19. Darkened] RV 
'burnt up.' 20. He shall] RV 'one shall': 
not to be taken literally as indicating the ap- 
proach of famine, but a figurative prophecy of 
the ruin of the nation through anarchy and 
civil strife, as is made clear by the first part 
of v. 21. 

C. 10. 1. And that write, etc.] RY ' and to 
the writers that write perverseness,' referring 
to the registering of unjust and oppressive legal 
decisions by the scribes. There is thus a 
double reference (a) to unjust legislation, and(&) 
to unjust administrations of the law. 3. Glory] 
i.e. wealth and possessions, in which the people 
take pride. See the same word in the same 
sense Gn31 1 . 

4. Without me they shall bow down] 
rather, RY ' except they bow down,' or 
' they shall only bow down.' Ironical — men's 
only safety will be with the wretched train 
of captives, or beneath the corpses on the 
battle-field. 

CHAPTERS 10^-126 
The Assyrian Invasion and its Sequel 
This is one of the finest of Isaiah's prophe- 
cies. The subject is the advance against 
Jerusalem of the arrogant Assyrian conqueror, 
who meets with a sudden check and is foiled 
when his triumph is apparently secure. Then 
with Jehovah's interposition for the deliver- 
ance of Zion is connected a forecast of the 
reign of the Messianic king (ll 1 - 10 ). The 
occasion to which the prophecy probably refers 
is Sennacherib's famous invasion in the reign 
of Hezekiah, 701 B.C. (36, 37 2 KlH^-lO^), 
but some scholars place it earlier, in the time 
of the preceding Assyrian king, Sargon. The 
cities referred to in 10 8 were captured between 
740 and 717 B.C., so tliat the Assyrian king's 
boas! must at least l>e Later than 717 B.C. It 
may be true that the line of march which 

Sennacherib followed was not identical with 
that which the prophet represents the invader 
as taking in 1028-82. but Isaiah speaks before 
the event, and naturally thinks of the As- 
syrians as approaching Jerusalem by the usual 
route Prom 1 lie X.: he is drawing a vivid 
imaginative picture of the threatening danger, 



and expresses his confident expectation of 
a wonderful deliverance through a sudden 
discomfiture of the foe (10^-19, 33, 84). The 
same remarkable anticipation is a feature of 
Isaiah's other utterances at this crisis (14 25 
1713.14 33^ 376,7,29-35^ an( i j t received a start- 
ling fulfilment (37 36, 37). 

C. 10. 5-1 1. The Assyrian, though proud 
of his conquests, is but the instrument of 
divine punishment, 12-19. an d when God's 
purposes have been accomplished through him 
he shall be punished for his pride. 

20-27. The faithful remnant of God's people, 
therefore, need not fear. 28-34. Though his 
advance towards Jerusalem seems irresistible, 
the Assyrian will meet with a sudden 
discomfiture. 

C. 11. 1-10. The future king of David's 
line and the nature of his kingdom. 

11-16. God's people shall be restored to 
their own land and re-united. 

C. 12. Two hymns of the redeemed. 1-3. A 
hymn of joy in the deliverance Jehovah has 
wrought. 4-6. A hymn of praise for God's 
mighty deeds, which have manifested His glory 
to all the world. 

CHAPTER 105-34 

5. And the staff in their hand] RV ' the 
staff in whose hand ' : Jehovah speaks, declar- 
ing the Assyrian the minister of His wrath. 

6. Hypocritical] RY l profane.' Nation . . 
people] not merely referring to Judah, but to 
be understood generally : the Assyrian has 
been commissioned in the divine providence to 
punish godless nations. Similarly in later 
history Christians recognised Attila as ' the 
scourge of God.' 

7-1 1. The spirit of the Assyrian is re- 
presented ; he has no idea of his mission, but 
is fired by ambition and pride of conquest. 

8. Altogether] RV l all of them.' 9. The 
places named were all captured by the 
Assyrians under Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, 
or Sargon ; Calno (a Chaldean city, cp. Gn 10 10 ) 
in 738 B.C., Carchemish (on the W. bank of 
the Euphrates) in 717 ; Hamath (on the 
Orontes, in early times the Hivite capital) in 
720 ; Arpad (near Hamath, with which it is 
always coupled in OT.) in 740 : Samaria 
(capital of Israel) in 722 ; Damascus (capital 
of Syria) in 732. The mention of the last 
two cities amongst the Assyrian conquests 
shows that at this time Isaiah's prophecy 
in 8 4 had been fulfilled. 

10, 11 The Assyrian's argument is — how 
can Jerusalem, with fewer gods to protect it. 
hope to hold out successfully ? 

12. Work] i.e. of judgment, or punishment. 

13. People] RV ' peoples.' I have put down] 
RV k I have brought down as a valiant man 
them that sit on thrones. 1 14. The helplessness 



422 



10. 15 



ISAIAH 



11. 6 



of the world before the Assyrians is vividly 
imaged. Left] RY 'forsaken.' Peeped] RY 
' chirped ' : cp. 8 19 . 

15. The prophet now speaks in indignant 
retort to the vain-glorious boasting of the 
Assyrian ; how can he, being but an instrument 
of providence, exalt himself against Jehovah ? 

As if the rod, etc.] RV 'as if a rod should 
shake them that lift it up, or as if a staff 
should lift up him that is not wood.' 

16. The two figures of famine and fire are 
used to express the destruction of the Assyrian 
host. 17. The light of Israel] i.e. Jehovah, who, 
while He gives light to His own people, at the 
same time consumes their enemies (29 6 > 7 30 27 
33 u ). In one day] Isaiah anticipates a sudden 
catastrophe for the Assyrians (vv. 32-34). 

18. A standardbearer fainteth] RY ' a sick 
man pineth away.' 19. Rest] RY 'remnant' 
(of the Assyrian armies). 

20-23. The divine judgment will have a 
purifying effect on Judah ; a remnant shall 
escape (l 9 6 13 ) who shall be truly devoted 
to Jehovah. 

20. Upon him that smote them] i.e. the 
Assyrian, on whose help Ahaz relied (7 20 ). 

21. Characteristic teaching of Isaiah, which 
he had embodied in the symbolic name Shear- 
jashub (' a remnant shall return '), given to 
his son (7 3 ). It is noteworthy that in this 
same verse there occurs also the divine title 
' Mighty God,' which the prophet had ascribed 
to the Messianic king (9 6 ). 22. Yet a rem- 
nant] RY ' only a remnant.' The consumption, 
etc.] RY ' a consumption ' (i.e. judgment) ' is 
determined, overflowing with righteousness.' 

24. He shall smite, etc.] RY ' though he 
smite,' etc. After the manner, etc.] alluding 
to the oppressive cruelty of Pharaoh. 

25. Cease] RY 'be accomplished.' God's 
indignation against His people will be appeased 
after their punishment, and His anger will 
then turn to the destruction of their enemies. 

26. Scourge for him] i.e. for the Assyrian. 
According to] RY ' as in.' The slaughter of 
Midian is also referred to as a typical deliver- 
ance in 9 4 . His rod] i.e. Jehovah's, contrasted 
with the Assyrian oppressor's rod (v. 24). As 
the Egyptian oppression was followed by the 
exodus, so the Assyrian oppression is to be 
succeeded by a similarly striking deliverance. 

27. Because of the anointing] i.e. because of 
the anointed king of David's house to which 
God has promised a lasting kingdom. But RY 
' by reason of fatness.' A new metaphor. 
Judah is compared to a bullock which grows 
so fat and strong that a yoke can no longer 
be imposed upon it. A conjectural emenda- 
tion by Robertson Smith makes the last sen- 
tence of this v. read, ' There cometh up from 
the north the destroyer.' 

28-32. The prophet reverts to the present. 



The Assyrian advance and consequent panic 
vividly portrayed. 

28. The towns mentioned are all to the N. of 
Jerusalem. Passed to] RY ' passed through.' 

Hath laid up, etc.] RY ' layeth up his bag- 
gage ': cp. 1S17 20 . Carriage is used in AY 
for ' things carried.' 29. Passage] RY ' pass.' 

30. Cause it to be heard, etc.] RY ' hearken, 
Laishah,' viz. to the noise of the approaching 
armies. O poor Anathoth] RM ' Answer her, 
O Anathoth.' 31. Is removed] RY 'is a fugi- 
tive.' Gather themselves to flee] rather, ' save 
their households by flight' : cp. Ex9 19 . 

32-34. Arrived within sight of Jerusalem, 
and threatening the city, the Assyrian meets 
with sudden disaster. 

32. RY ' This very day shall he halt at 
Nob, he shaketh his hand at the mount.' etc. 

33. Haughty, etc.] RY 'lofty shall be 
brought low.' 34. The figure is the same 
as in vv. 17-19. The Assyrians are to fall 
like a forest that is hewn down. Note close 
connexion with c. 11. 

CHAPTER 11 

1. Rod out of the stem] RY ' shoot out of 
the stock,' implying that the tree has been cut 
down. The Assyrians have been compared 
in the vv. preceding to cedars, which when 
felled throw out no fresh suckers ; now the 
house of David is likened to an oak whose life 
remains in it after it has been cut down 
(6 13 ). From the royal family of Judah, 
though it may seem ruined, is to spring the 
ideal Ruler in the future. It has been already 
implied (9 7 ), and is here expressly stated, that 
the Messiah is to be of the house of David 
(Mic5 2 ). 

2. Leaving the figure Isaiah here indicates 
the character of the future Ruler. The gifts 
of the divine Spirit bestowed upon Him are 
arranged in three pairs, the first pair indicating 
perfection of intellectual endowment, the 
second pair full possession of a ruler's practical 
qualities, and the third referring to the religious 
spirit which is to crown and direct all other 
gifts. 

3. Make him of quick understanding] RY 
' his delight shall be in the fear of Jehovah,' 
i.e. when He sees it in others. Not judge, 
etc.] i.e. by appearances or hearsay. 4. The 
ideal Ruler combines mercy and judgment 
(PslOl 1 ). With the rod of his mouth] The 
power ascribed to the word of Messiah is a strik- 
ing feature (49 2 Zech 9 10 ), and suggests a 
superhuman personality (Hos6 5 ). 5. The 
girdle] stands for readiness for action — He 
shall be always ready for righteousness and 
faithfulness. 

6. From the person and character of the 
Ruler Isaiah now passes on to the effects of 
His rule. Evil having been eradicated from 



423 



11. 8 



ISAIAH 



13. 2 



human society, there will be a corresponding 
regeneration of the rest of creation (65 25 
Ro8 19f -). 8. Cockatrice] RV 'basilisk,' or 
' adder ' (RM) : probably the great yellow 
viper common in Palestine. q. My holy 
mountain] i.e. Zion wonderfully transformed 
according to the prophecy in 2 2 (Zechl4 10 > n ). 

10. RV k And it shall come to pass in that 
day, that the root of Jesse, which standeth for 
an ensign of the people, unto him shall the 
nations seek.' Root of Jesse] the same as the 
shoot growing from the root (v. 1). The great 
scion of the house of David is not only to be 
king of Israel, but the nations of the world 
shall rally to him. Seek] i.e. resort, a word 
specially used of resorting for prayer (55 6 ) or 
of consulting oracles (8 19 19 3 ). Rest] i.e. 
resting-place : referring to Jerusalem, the seat 
of the royal house. 

11. Next the prophet speaks of the restora- 
tion of the dispersed Israelites from their exile 
in the various kingdoms by which Judah was 
surrounded. The second time] The first time 
was at the Mosaic exodus. Recover] RM 
'purchase' : cp. Exl5 16 . Pathros] upper, or 
southern, Egypt. Cush] Ethiopia, still further 
S. (18 1 37 9 ). Elam] the country at the head 
of the Persian Gulf. Shinar] i.e. Babylonia. 

Hamath] see on 10 9 . Islands of the sea] 
a phrase found here only in chs. 1-39, but 
several times in chs. 40-66. It denotes the 
islands of, and lands bordering upon, the 
Mediterranean Sea, and sometimes stands for 
distant countries generally. 

13. A further feature of Messiah's sign. 
The bitter feeling between the N. kingdom and 
Judah (9 21 ) shall cease. The adversaries of] 
RV ' they that vex.' 

14. The reunited people will be victorious 
over their old enemies, the tribes immediately 
surrounding Palestine. Shoulders] ' shoulder,' 
i.e. side or border, as in Josh 15 8 > 10 > n . Them 
of the east] lit. ' the children of the east,' i.e. 
the Bedouin Arabs : Jg63 2Ch21W 

15. 16. Isaiah pictures a miraculous deliver- 
ance of the exiles parallel to the former de- 
liverance from Egypt. The tongue, etc.] i.e. 
the Gulf of Akaba. Tongue is used for an arm 
of the sea as in Josh 1 5 2 18 19 . The river] i.e. 
Euphrates. In the seven] RV 'into seven.' 

An highway] i.e. a raised road such as 
Eastern monarchs made for the passage of 
their armies (1 9 ™ 49 n ). It was] RV ' there 
was.' 

CHAPTER 12 
1. The thanksgiving that now follows is 
the counterpart of bhe hymn of praise Bung 
after bhe passage of the Red Sea (Ex 15), and 
is partly based upon it. Borne scholars doubt 
its [saianic authorship and date it after tlic 
return from exile. 



3. Draw water] Under a figure it is indi- 
cated that there shall be a continual supply of 
divine protection and deliverance. Or, if we 
follow the Talmud, there may be an allusion 
to the ceremonial of the Feast of Tabernacles, 
on the last day of which water was drawn 
from the pool of Siloam by the priests and 
poured at the altar of burnt-offering (see 
Jn7 37 ). 5. He hath done excellent things] 
from Exl5 2 , ' triumphed gloriously,' the same 
word. This is known] RV 'let this be 
known.' 

CHAPTERS 131-UM 
The Judgment of Babylon and its King 

This is the first of a series of prophecies 
dealing mainly with foreign nations. Its 
subject is Babylon, where the Jews are repre- 
sented as undergoing exile, from which they 
are about to be delivered (14 i" 3 ) owing to the 
capture of Babylon by the Medes (13 W). The 
historical setting of the prophecy is thus much 
later than the age of Isaiah, in whose time the 
Assyrians were the great enemies of God's 
people. On this ground most modern scholars 
regard this section as non-Isaianic, and date 
it during the Babylonian exile. As the Medes 
alone (not Cyrus and the Persians) are men- 
tioned as the instruments used by God in the 
deliverance of His people, the prophecy must 
be dated before 549 B.C., the year in which 
Cyrus overthrew the Medes, who afterwards 
were united with him in the conquest of 
Babylon (538 b.c). 

C. 13. I. Title prefixed to the section. 

2-18. Hostile hosts are mustered to carry 
out Jehovah's purpose of judgment against 
Babylon, 19-22. with the result that it shall 
be utterly desolate. 

C. 14. 1-3. The deliverance of captive 
Israel. 

4-20. A song of triumph over the king of 
Babylon. 1st scene : Hades, where the spirit 
of the vain-glorious monarch is brought low 
(4-15). 2nd scene : The battle-field, where 
his dishonoured corpse lies with the slain 
(16-20). 21-23. The completeness of Baby- 
lon's overthrow. 

CHAPTER 13 

1. Burden] The corresponding verb means 
' to lift up ' (a) a load, (6) the voice (cp. 3 7 
42 ' 2 - u ), used of Balaam lifting up his voice 
in oracular utterance (Nu 24 3 ' 15 > 23 ). Hence 
the noun signifies an utterance, or oracle (e.g. 
2K9 25 ), and is often prefixed, as here, to 
prophetic utterances (Zechi) 1 12 1 ProvSl 1 ). 
Since it is often applied to threatening utter- 
ances, the meaning of 'burden' is also suitable. 
In Jer23 w there is a play on the two mean- 
ings of the word. 

2. Banner] R V l ensign,' i.e. a signal for the 



424 



13. 3 



ISAIAH 



14. 19 



mustering of distant armies (5 26 ). High] RV 
'bare,' i.e. without trees ; upon such a mountain 
the signal would be clearly seen. Unto them] 
i.e. the people whom the prophet has in mind, 
though they have not yet been mentioned. 

Shake the hand] the threatening gesture of 
besiegers (10 32 ). 3. Sanctified ones] RV ' con- 
secrated ones,' i.e. warriors. The thought 
may be that the war is a holy one, Babylon's 
destroyers being the ministers of Jehovah's 
vengeance. 

4. The prophet hears the noise of the 
armies assembling at the signal (v. 2). Of the 
battle] RV ' for the battle.' 

6. The Almighty] Heb. Shaddai, a name of 
God frequent in the Pentateuch, and belong- 
to the pre-Mosaic revelation (Ex6 3 ) ; it is not 
often found in the prophets, and when it 
occurs the severe and awful aspect of the 
divine nature is the more prominent one (Joel 
li5Ezkl24 105). 

8. As flames] RV ' faces of flame,' i.e. 
flushed with agitation. 

10. The day of Jehovah is accompanied by 
signs in the heavens as in Joel 2 10 > 31 3 15 Zeph 
1 14 > 15 . Such language need not be understood 
literally, but vividly expresses a time of terror 
and dismay. 12. Precious] RV 'rare'; the 
slaughter will be so great that few men will 
be left (246). ' Golden wedge] RV 'pure 
gold' ; the gold of Ophir was most esteemed. 

13. See a similar description Hag2 6 . The 
prophets are carried in thought beyond the 
particular political convulsion in view to the 
final overthrow of all that is hostile to 
God. 

14. RV ' And it shall come to pass that as,' 
etc. That no man taketh up] i.e. without a 
shepherd. They shall . . turn] i.e. the settlers 
in Babylon, either taken captive from other 
countries, or resorting thither for trade (Jer 
50 16 ), will, on the overthrow of the city, dis- 
perse to their own lands. 15. The reason for 
the hurried flight of v. 14 ; the fall of the city 
will be accompanied by indiscriminate slaughter. 

Joined unto them~\ i.e. by colonisation. But 
RV ' taken,' not having been able to make good 
his escape. 16. The atrocities referred to 
frequently accompanied the sack of a city 
(2K8i2Hos 10i*13i«). 

17. The invaders of Babylon are here first 
mentioned by name, though the prophet has 
had them in mind from v. 2. The Medes had 
settled in the district SW. of the Caspian Sea, 
and are mentioned in Assyrian annals from 
Sargon's time onwards (cp. 2K17 6 18 n ) : see 
intro. to this section. Shall not regard] i.e. 
they are not to be turned aside by bribes. 

18. Bows] The Medes were noted archers 
(Jer 51 n ). 19. Excellency] RV ' pride.' 

20. Make their fold] RV ' make their flocks 
to lie down.' A more terrible desolation 



awaits Babylon than that which had been fore- 
told for Judah (7 21, 25). 

21. Doleful creatures] probably owls. Owls] 
RV l ostriches.' Satyrs] i.e. uncanny creatures, 
or demons (so Targum, LXX, and Syr.), such 
as were thought by the Jews to haunt ruins 
and desert places : cp. Lk 1 1 2 *. But as the 
other names in the context stand for animals 
many prefer to render, 'he-goats' (RM, Vulg.). 

22. The wild . . houses] RV l wolves shall 
cry in their castles.' Dragons] RV ' jackals.' 

The anticipation of the utter ruin of Baby- 
lon has been literally fulfilled. In 538 B.C. 
it was captured by the Medes and Persians 
under Cyrus ; and, though its glory lingered 
for a time, it died away before the beginning 
of the Christian era, and Babylon is now, and 
has long been, only a heap of ruins. 

CHAPTER 14 

1. Strangers] The thought of the voluntary 
adhesion of strangers is prominent in the later 
chapters of the book (44 5 55 5 60 5 ). 

2. People] RV ' peoples.' Similar anticipa- 
tions are* found in 49 22 60 10 61 5 : these were 
in some measure fulfilled in the time of Ezra : 
Ezrli-* 6 7 > 8 . 

4. Proverb] RV 'parable' (Hab26), or 
' taunting-song.' The King] Nabonidus was 
king of Babylon from 555 till its fall 549 
B.C. Golden city] rather, RM, v exactress.' or 
' raging one.' 7. The nations rejoice in the 
peace which follows the fall of their oppressor. 

9. The spirit of the dead king of Babylon 
is greeted by the shades in Hades. The dead] 
lit. ' feeble ones ' ; the word is used in Heb. 
for disembodied spirits (Ps88 10 ). It hath 
raised, etc.] In Hades the dead monarchs are 
conceived as retaining some shadow of their 
former greatness: cp. Ezk32 21 . 11. The 
grave] RV ' hell,' as in v. 9 ; i.e. Hades. 

12. The fall of the mighty king is compared, 
first, to the fall of the bright star of dawn from 
the sky, then, by a sudden change of figure, to 
the felling of a great tree. Lucifer] RV ' day- 
star.' Weaken] RV ' lay low.' 

13. The arrogant self -deification here put 
into the mouth of the Babylonian king finds a 
parallel in some of the Assyrian inscriptions. 

Mount, etc.] not Zion, as many ancient 
commentators explain, comparing Ps48 2 , but 
the mount in the far N. where the gods are 
imagined to reside — the Babylonian Olympus : 
cp. Ezk28 12 -i*. Sides] RV ' uttermost parts,' 
and so in v. 15. 

16. The scene now shifts to the battle-field, 
where men gaze upon the dishonoured corpse 
of the dead king. 18. Lie] RV ' sleep.' In 
his own house] i.e. in a tomb of his own. 

19. An abominable branch] i.e. a blighted 
branch cut off from a tree and left to rot upon 
the ground. Atid as the raiment . . slain] RV 



425 



14. 20 



ISAIAH 



15. 



! clothed with the slain.' The king's corpse 
lies under heaps of the slain on the field of 
defeat. The stones of the pit] referring to 
stones flung together in a hastily -made grave 
on the battle-field. 

20. Shalt not be joined, etc. ] To be excluded 
from burial was the extremest disgrace for a 
king: Jer22i9 2Ch2120 2425. With them] 
i.e. the honourably buried kings (v. 18). 

Shall . . renowned] RV ' shall not be named 
for ever ' ; a similar curse is pronounced on 
Jehoiachin (Jer22 30 ). The taunt-song ends 
with this verse, and in vv. 21-23 the prophet 
speaks in his own person. 

2i. With cities] as emblems of their domi- 
nion. 22. Nephew] RV ' son's son.' 

23. Pools of water] The works of irrigation 
connected with the Euphrates being destroyed 
the land would become a morass. This, in fact, 
happened after the conquest of Babylon by 
Cyrus. 

CHAPTER 1424-27 

The Destruction of the Power of 
Assyria 

A short section belonging to the same period 
as 10 5 -126 (cp. v. 25 with 10 27 ) ; the subject 
is the overthrow of the Assyrian invader, and 
the prophecy was literally fulfilled in the de- 
struction of Sennacherib's army. 

24-27. It is Jehovah's sworn and unalterable 
purpose to destroy the Assyrian power, that 
his burdensome rule over Judah and the nations 
may cease. 

25. Upon my mountains] i.e. the mountains 
of Judah (49 n 65 9 ). 26. All the nations] 
Jehovah's merciful purpose embraces not only 
His own people, but the nations generally. 

CHAPTER 1428-32 
Warning to the Philistines 

This prophecy is assigned, in the title pre- 
fixed to it, to the year that king Ahaz died 
(728 B.C.). The Philistines are represented as 
exulting over the death of their oppressor, but 
are warned that their joy is premature, for worse 
times are in store for them. The oppressor 
of Philistia referred to may be (1) Ahaz, 
whose death may have formed the occasion of 
the utterance, or, more probably, (2) Tiglath- 
pileser, whose ally Ahaz had been ; in that case 
Sargon and Sennacherib are indicated by the 
cockatrice and fiery serpent (v. 29), each one 
proving more terrible and formidable to the 
nations of Western Asia than his predecessor. 

The joy of Philistia is premature, for, 
though apparently broken, the Assyrian power 
will recover and become more formidable than 
before (v. 29) While .1 udah escapes, Philistia 

will sutler from famine ami BWOrd (30). and 
the smoke on the horizon already marks the 

invader's approach (31). Philistine ambas 



sadors arrived in Judah to arrange a defensive 
alliance ; the prophet's answer is an expression 
of confidence in Jehovah, who has promised 
safety to Zion (32). 

29. Thou, whole Palestina] RV ' Philistia. 
all of thee.' Rod of him, etc.] RV 'rod that 
smote.' The rod symbolises the Assyrian 
power, as in 10 24. Serpent's root, etc.] Each 
species mentioned is more deadly than the 
preceding, the fiery serpent being the worst of 
all (30 6 Nu21 6 ) ; the serpent also symbolises 
Assyria in 27 1 . 

30. Firstborn of the poor] i.e. the very poor, 
those inheriting a double portion (Dt21 17 ) of 
poverty. The reference is to the people of 
Judah, who, though afflicted, shall escape, 
whereas of the Philistines will be left no 
remnant to return. 31. Thou . . dissolved] 
RV ' thou art melted away, O Philistia, all of 
thee.' The north] the way by which the in- 
vader would naturally approach. Shall be 
alone in] RV ' standeth aloof at.' The mean- 
ing is that no soldier is missing from the ranks 
of the enemy. 32. Trust] RV ' take refuge.' 

CHAPTERS 15, 16 

Moab's Calamity and the Way of Escape 
This section consists of two parts : (a ) 
lS 1 -^ 12 , a prophecy announcing that a great 
disaster is about to fall upon Moab, and (I) 
16 13 > 14 , a short appendix in which Isaiah affirms 
the speedy fulfilment of the foregoing prophecy. 
The first part is not necessarily by Isaiah, and 
may have been uttered earlier than his time : 
much of it is also quoted by Jeremiah (48 1 " 4T ). 
Cp. 2 2-4 , where there is reason to suppose that 
an earlier prophecy has been used by both 
Isaiah and Micah. The Moabites inhabited the 
elevated land E. of the Dead Sea, and though 
a people related by blood to Israel, the mutual 
relations of the two nations were hostile from 
the time of Saul onwards. Saul fought against 
them (1S14 47 ), and David overcame them 
(2S8 2 ). Ahab oppressed them and exacted 
tribute (2K3 4 , confirmed by king Mesha of 
Moab in the inscription known as the Moabite 
Stone) ; but after his death the Moabites threw 
off the Israelite yoke (2K1 1 3 5 , Moabite Stone), 
and Jehoram's efforts to maintain his authority 
over them were ineffectual (2K3 (; ' 27 ). The 
exact date of the prophecy is uncertain, but the 
enemy who will inflict the coming calamity 
upon Moab is the Assyrian king, either Sargon 
or Sennacherib, referred to, perhaps, in \-> 
under the figure of a lion. 

C. 15. 1-9. Calamity is imminent for Moah 
the terror and flight of her people. 

C. 16. 1-5. A condition of safety indicated. 
Let Moab acknowledge the suzerainty of Judah 
(vv. i-3); Zion will shelter her fugitives (4). 
for to Zion the promise of the Messianic kin^ 
has been given (5). 6-12. Moab's proud spirit 



12H 



15. 1 



ISAIAH 



16. 14 



prevents her from accepting the condition. 
Desolation therefore awaits her land. 13, 14. 
The above prophecy had been delivered at an 
earlier period. Isaiah affirms that it shall 
speedily be fulfilled. 

CHAPTER 15 

1. Burden] see on 13 1 . Because .. night] 
RV ' For in a night.' Ar of Moab] i.e. city 
of Moab. The capital (Nu22 36 Josh 13 16 ) is 
doubtless meant. The places referred to in 
the c. are in Moabite territory. Silence] RV 
' nought.' Kir] probably Kerak, a fortress on 
the Dead Sea. 2. He is gone, etc.] i.e. the 
Moabite people. Bajith] ' the house,' i.e. the 
temple of the Moabite deity, Chemosh. Dibon] 
here the Moabite Stone, with inscription by 
king Mesha (2 K3 4 ), was found in 1869. Nebo] 
not the mountain (Dt34 1 ), but a Moabite city 
in its vicinity, thought to be called after the 
deity of the same name. Baldness, etc.] in 
token of mourning. Heshbon, Elealeh] neigh- 
bouring hill-towns of Moab. 

4. His life, etc.] RY ' his soul trembleth 
within him.' 

5. Fugitives] RV ' her nobles.' An heifer 
of three years old] i.e. not broken in : imply- 
ing that the place was hitherto impregnable. 
Places are thus sometimes compared to animals 
( Jer 46 20 Hos 4 16 10 n ). Most modern scholars, 
however, understand the words as a proper 
name ; to Eglath-shelishiyah ' (RV). Mounting 
up] RV ' ascent ' : the prophet sees the ascent 
of Luhith crowded with weeping fugitives. 

6. Shall be desolate] because they have been 
stopped at the source (2 K 3 19 ' 25 ). Hay . . grass] 
RV ' grass . . tender grass.' 7. The brook of the 
willows] Evidently mentioned as the boundary 
of the land and generally identified with the 
brook Zered (Nu21i 2 Dt2i3). The fugitives 
are pictured as carrying their possessions to the 
border for safety. 8. The cry] i.e. of destruc- 
tion (v. 5). No part of the land escapes. 9. The 
waters of Dimon] i.e. the Arnon. Dimon is 
probably a symbolical variation for Dibon, 
adopted because the sound of it suggests blood 
(dam). Lions] perhaps to be understood liter- 
ally (2 K17 25 ), or it may stand metaphorically 
for invading foes : Jer 4 7 5 6 . 

CHAPTER 16 

1. RV ' Send ye the lambs for the ruler of 
the land from Sela which is toward the wil- 
derness,' etc. Mesha, king of Moab, had ren- 
dered to Israel tribute of lambs and rams 
(2 K3 4 ). The prophet here bids the Moabites 
send tribute to Judah and thus secure pro- 
tection by renewing their allegiance to G-od's 
people ; or perhaps in this v. the Moabite chiefs 
are pictured as exhorting one another to this 
step. From Sela] in Edom, where the fugitive 
Moabites have taken refuge. 2. Timid and 



not knowing which way to take, the people 
are gathered at the Arnon preparatory to 
migrating. 

3. An appeal from the Moabites to Zion 
that she will interpose and shelter the fugi- 
tives. Take counsel] 'bring counsel,' i.e. give 
us advice. Execute judgment] ' make a de- 
cision,' by interposing between us and our 
oppressors. 

4. The appeal to Zion continued. Read, 
' Let mine outcasts dwell with thee (Zion) ; 
as for Moab, be thou (Judah) a covert,' etc. 
The reason follows why safety may be sought 
at Zion — because of the peace to be enjoyed 
there under the rule of the Messianic king 
(v. 5), the establishment of whose kingdom is, 
in the prophet's view, to follow upon the de- 
struction of the Assyrians. 5. Hasting right- 
eousness] RV ' swift to do righteousness ' : 
cp. 114.5. 

6. The pride] which prevented Moab from 
accepting conditions : the same national fail- 
ing is alluded to 25 n (cp. Zeph28). But his 
lies, etc.] RV ' his boastings are nought.' 

7. Foundations] RV ' raisin-cakes ' : cp. 
HosS 1 . The trade in these would cease 
through the desolation of the vineyards. 

Kir-hareseth] named in 2K3 25 as a strong 
fortress. 

8. The lords, etc.] RM 'her choice plants 
did break down the lords of nations,' alluding 
to the strength of the wine of Sibmah. 

Principal] RV ' choice.' Are come . . 
through . . are stretched out, they are gone 
over] RV ' reached . . into . . were spread 
abroad, they passed.' The words describe the 
area over which the cultivation of the vine 
extended in Moab, but which is now desolate; 
or perhaps the language used in this v. may 
be used figuratively to express the wide extent 
of Moabite influence : cp. Ps80 8f -, etc. 

9. With the weeping of Jazer] i.e. with 
sorrow as genuine as that of the Moabites 
themselves. For the shouting, etc.] R V ' for 
upon thy summer fruits and upon thy harvest 
the battle shout is fallen.' 11. My bowels] 
regarded as the seat of trhe emotions (Jer 31 20 ). 
The speaker is probably Jehovah, as in v. 10 
(6315). 

12. RV ' And it shall come to pass, when 
Moab presenteth himself, when he wearieth 
himself upon the high place, and shall come 
to his sanctuary to pray, that he shall not 
prevail.' The allusion is to the worship of 
the national deity, Chemosh. 

13. Since that time] RV 'in time past.' 
The expression may denote a previous time in 
the speaker's life (2S15 34 ), or a more distant 
past (44 8 ). 

14. The years of an hireling] i.e. definitely 
reckoned, with no grace allowed. Feeble] 
RV ' of no account.' 



427 



17. 1 



ISAIAH 



18.2 



CHAPTER 17 111 
Judgment on Syrja and Israel 

This section is headed, ' oracle concerning 
Damascus,' but its subject is in fact wider ; 
it treats of the impending ruin not only of 
Syria, but also of Ephraim, i.e. the kingdom of 
Israel (v. 3). This connexion of Ephraim with 
Syria is best explained by the alliance of the 
two kingdoms against Judah (7 1 ' 2 ). Isaiah 
here teaches (as in 7 16 8 4 ) that they will both 
be completely overthrown, an anticipation 
which was literally fulfilled (10 9 2K15 29 169). 
The date of this prophecy would thus be sub- 
sequent to the formation of the Syro-Ephraim- 
ite alliance (i.e. the reign of Jotham in Judah, 
2 K 1 5 3T ), and some time before the capture of 
Damascus by the Assyrians (732 B.C.). 

1-3. The imminent ruin of Damascus, in 
which Israel also will be involved. 4-6. The 
state to which Israel will be reduced figur- 
atively set forth. 7, 8. The spiritual effect of 
the chastisement. 9-1 1. The cause of it — 
desertion of Jehovah for foreign deities, who 
cannot help in the day of calamity. 

1. Burden] see on 13 1 . 2. The cities of 
Aroer] This Aroer is probably the one in Gad 
(Josh 13 25 ), and the reference is to the cities 
belonging to the kingdom of Israel on the E. 
of Jordan. Some ancient versions, however, 
read, ' the cities are forsaken for ever.' 3. And 
the remnant, etc.] EM ' and the remnant of 
Syria shall be as,' etc. As the glory] ex- 
plained in vv. 4-6, where it is shown that the 
glory of Israel shall pass away. 

4-6. By three separate figures the gloomy 
prospects of Israel are set forth : (a) that of 
an emaciated body, v. 4 ; (b) that of a harvest 
field that is reaped, v. 5 ; (c) that of vines or 
olives when the fruit is gathered, v. 6. The 
teaching is characteristic of Isaiah, for the 
figures imply that for Israel, as for Judah (4 3 
6 13 7 3 ) there shall be a remnant. 5. As he 
that gathereth] RV ' as when one gleaneth.' 

Valley of Rephaim] SW. of Jerusalem 
(Josh 15 8 ). 

8. Groves] Heb. Aaherim (BY). These were 
symbols of the Canaanite goddess Asherah. 
The symbol seems to have been a pole, tree- 
trunk, or carved pillar (Dtl6 21 2K21?), 
erected near an altar (Jg6 2s ). Images] RV 
' Bun -images, 1 pillars dedicated to the sun-god. 

9. As a forsaken, etc.] RV ' as the forsaken 
places in the wood and on the mountain top, 
which were forsaken from before the children 
of Israel/ LXX. however, reads, 'forsaken 
places of the Amorites and the Hivites which 
\\( re forsaken,' etc. The sense is that Israel 
shall be punished with a desolation like that 
which the former inhabitants experienced at 
the hands of the Israelites. 10. Rock] a title 
«»f Jehovah (:i( )-"•' l)t 32 ■»). Shalt thou plant. . 



shalt set] RV ' plantest . . set-test.' This is a 
metaphor of the foreign worships so carefully 
introduced. 

CHAPTER 1712- 1 * 

Discomfiture of the Assyrians 

A short prophecy, in which Isaiah foretells 

sudden disaster for the Assyrian invaders ; it 

is parallel to 14 24 " 27 , and belongs to the same 

period. 

12-13. The Assyrian hosts advance against 
Judah, but are suddenly dispersed in a single 
night. 

12. Read, ' Ah, the uproar of many peoples, 
which roar like the roaring of the seas ; and 
the rushing,' etc. Many people] The Assyrian 
army was recruited from many nations. 

13. Rolling thing] RV k whirling dust ': cp. 
Ps83!3. 14. Specially fulfilled in the de- 
struction of Sennacherib's army (37 36 ). 

CHAPTER 18 
Ethiopia Reassured 

Isaiah here addresses the Ethiopians, who. 
agitated at the advance of the Assyrians west- 
ward, were sending ambassadors to other 
states to organise resistance. He foretells 
the sudden overthrow of the Assyrians, as in 
10 28-34 14 24-27 17 12-14 . an d this prophecy should 
accordingly be grouped with those, as relating 
to Sennacherib's great invasion in the reign of 
Hezekiah, 701 B.C. 

1-3. The Ethiopians need not be anxious, 
but are bidden, with all nations, to watch. 

4-6. For Jehovah will interpose and utterly 
ruin the Assyrian plans. 7. On witnessing 
the deliverance, Ethiopia will render homage 
to Jehovah. 

1. RV 4 Ah, the land of the rustling of 
wings,' probably alluding to the buzzing 
swarms of flies characteristic of Ethiopia 
(the land between the Upper Nile and the 
Red Sea and Arabian Gulf), but some see a 
reference to the disk with wings, which appears 
in ancient Egyptian paintings as a symbol of 
Ethiopian sovereignty. 

2. Vessels of bulrushes] i.e. made of papy- 
rus, such as are still in use on the Nile. Omit 
saying and understand the exhortation Go ye, 
etc., as addressed by the prophet to the Ethio- 
pian ambassadors, bidding them return home 
and prepare their nation, not for war, but to 
be spectators (v. 3) of what follows. A nation 
scattered, etc.] AV implies that the reference 
is to Judah ; but we should doubtless take it 
as referring to the Ethiopians, and read, ' a 
nation tall and smooth . . that meteth out and 
treadeth down, whose land the rivers divide ' 
(RV). Notice in all these short prophecies 
the familiarity of Isaiah, not only with the 
physical features of the different countries, but 
with their national characteristics : cp. 16 G 19. 



428 



18. 4 



ISAIAH 



4. The v. vividly depicts the calmness of 
Jehovah in contrast to the unrest amongst the 
nations. Like . . herbs] RM ' when there is 
clear heat in sunshine.' 5. When the bud . . 
flower] RY ' when the blossom is over and 
the flower becometh a ripening grape.' The 
Assyrian plans are maturing (under apparently 
favourable conditions, v. 4), but just as they 
become ripe they are suddenly marred. The 
sudden overthrow of the Assyrians is similarly 
foretold, 10 1T 14 - 5 17 13 . 6. Leaving the figure, 
the prophet refers to the corpses of the slain. 

7. A people scattered] Correct the rendering 



as m v. z. 



CHAPTER 19 



The Judgment on Egypt 

A prophecy concerning Egypt, probably 
belonging to the same period as c. 18, and 
designed to show the speedy collapse of 
Egypt's power, on which a strong political 
party in Judah in Hezekiah's reign had placed 
their hopes (see Intro.). Sargon defeated the 
Egyptians at Raphia in 720 B.C., and the 
prophet in vv. 2, 3 may refer to the anarchy 
and confusion consequent upon that overthrow. 
At any rate, he shows a remarkable acquaint- 
ance both with the country and the people of 
Egypt. 

1-10. The impending calamity of Egypt. 

11-15. Its helplessness at the crisis. 

16-25. The outcome of the judgment : (a) 
a state of terror (16, 17) ; (&) recognition of 
Jehovah (18-22) ; (c) followed by a call to 
share the blessings of G-od's chosen people 
(23-25). 

I. Burden] see on 13 1 . Rideth] cp. Ps 
18 MO. The strength of Egypt is broken at 
Jehovah's approach. 2. Civil war rages be- 
tween the petty princes of lower Egypt. 

4. The Assyrian monarch Sargon may be 
the cruel lord in the prophet's thoughts ; he 
defeated the Egyptians more than once (720, 

711, B.C.). 

6. RV ' And the rivers shall stink ; the 
streams of Egypt shall be minished and 
dried up.' 7. RY ' The meadows by the Nile, 
by the brink of the Nile,' etc. 8. With the 
failure of the river the occupation of the 
fishermen will be gone. Brooks] RY ' Nile.' 

9. Networks] RY 'white cloth.' 10. RY 
' And her pillars shall be broken in pieces, all 
they that work for hire shall be grieved in 
soul.' Pillars] i.e. the foundations of society 
(Psll 3 ), or principal men (Gal 2 9). 

II. Zoan] or Tanis, in the Delta. 12. The 
first proof of their folly ; they cannot foresee 
the future. 13. A second proof, by ill-judged 
counsel they have brought about disaster. 

Noph] i.e. Memphis, a chief city of Lower 
Egypt. Stay] RY ' corner stone ' : cp. Zech 
10 4 . 15. Branch] RY 'palm branch': cp. 



9 14 ; the expressions in the v. are figurative of 
all classes of society. 16. In that day] the 
Day of God's judgment. 17. Egypt is filled 
with terror at the mention of Judah, because 
of Judah's God. 

18. Five] a small number. Language of 
Canaan] Hebrew. Swear] i.e. swear alle- 
giance. Shall be called] as deserving the 
name (1 26 ). 

City of destruction] i.e. Heliopolis, the city 
of the sun (Ir-hacheres), but by a slight change 
in one letter (Ir-haheres), the prophet sym- 
bolically indicates its fate — the place where the 
sun was worshipped will be destroyed. Some- 
what similarly Beth-El (' house of God ') is 
written Beth-Aven (' house of nought '), Hos 
4 15 , and Bosheth (' shame ') stands for Baal 
(Jerllis). 

19. There will be visible signs of Egypt's 
allegiance to Jehovah. Pillar] or obelisk, such 
as were common in Egypt ; the mark of a 
holy place. 

20-22. Isaiah looks forward to a time when, 
instead of Egypt exercising an evil influence 
over the destiny of -Judah, Judah shall be the 
means of spiritual blessing to Egypt. 

23-25. The prophet in rapt vision sees the 
historic and traditional enemies of his nation 
joined with it in membership of one holy 
people of God, where all share equal privilege. 
A like wonderful catholic and missionary spirit 
is shown in Ps87. 

Like Isaiah's other pictures of the ideal 
future, this prophecy (vv. 20-25) yet awaits its 
complete fulfilment. We may, however, trace 
partial and, as it were, preparatory fulfilments 
(a) in the influence of the Persian monarchy, 
which succeeded the Assyrian empire and did 
much for the spread of monotheism in the 
world. Cyrus himself, in his proclamations, 
recognised Jehovah as the God of heaven 
(Ezr 1 2 ) ; (b) the Jewish exiles in Egypt acted 
as leaven, and under the Ptolemies the Hebrew 
Scriptures were translated into Greek. Thus, 
in a wonderful manner was the way prepared 
for the extension of the gospel of Christ, and 
the bringing of the nations to the knowledge 
of the true God. 

CHAPTER 20 

Egypt's Captivity symbolised 
This c. is assigned in the title to the time 
when Sargon besieged Ashdod (711 B.C.). The 
Philistine city was at that time the centre of 
revolt. Sargon interposed and set up a new 
king, but the people were dissatisfied and sub- 
stituted another ; the siege and capture of 
Ashdod by the Assyrians followed. It seems 
that the Palestinian peoples who revolted 
against Assyria relied upon the support of 
Egypt. Isaiah, by putting on captive's garb, 
and walking the streets of Jerusalem for three 



429 



20. % 



ISAIAH 



21. 16 



years, indicates in a striking manner the vanity 
of their expectations. 

2-6. Isaiah's striking action intended to 
symbolise the captivity of Egypt and Ethiopia, 
which would confound those who looked to 
them for aid. 

i. Tartan] rather, ' the Tartan ': the official 
title of the Assyrian commander-in-chief (2 K 
18 17 ). Sargon] The only known mention of 
this monarch until modern times. Inscriptions 
have now thrown much light on his reign. He 
followed Shalmaneser (2K18 9 ) 722 B.C. and 
reigned till 705, when he was succeeded by 
Sennacherib. 

2. Sackcloth] such as prophets sometimes 
wore (2K1 8 Zechl3 4 ). Naked, etc.] i.e. in 
the guise of a captive. Not only by word, but 
by action calculated to arrest attention, Isaiah 
strove to impress his message. Such symbolic 
actions were frequently performed by the pro- 
phets (1K1130 Jerl9i f - 272). 4 . The pro- 
phet's strange action explained. 6. Isle] RV 
' coast-land,' referring especially to Philistia, 
which had been foremost in the revolt against 
Assyria. Flee] RV ' fled.' 

CHAPTER 21110 
Vision of Babylon's Fall 
The subject of this section is the siege of 
Babylon, and the dismay with which the pro- 
phet receives tidings of its fall. The siege 
referred to can scarcely be the one at the close 
of the exile, as is maintained by many scholars, 
because (a) the prophet is much depressed at 
the thought of Babylon's fall, which he fore- 
sees will involve calamity for Judah (vv. 2-4, 
10) ; (&) distance from Babylon is presupposed 
(vv. 6-9) ; and (c) Assyrian researches have 
revealed three earlier sieges, in 710 by Sargon, 
and in 703 and 696 by Sennacherib. In 710 
and 703 the king of Babylon was Merodach- 
Baladan, who sent an embassy to Hezekiah 
(391), and whose immediate interests were 
identical with those of Hezekiah with whom 
he desired an alliance. This would account 
for the depression in this prophecy ; in the 
capture of Babylon by the Assyrians, Isaiah 
sees a warning of the fate that may overtake 
Judah (v. 10). The prophecy accordingly may 
be dated either after 710 or 703. 

1-5. The prophet is filled with terror at a 
vision of the fall of Babylon. 6-9. To the 
expectant prophet tidings of its fall is brought 
by a travelling caravan. 10. His dismay be- 
cause of the suffering involved for Judah. 

1. Burden] see 13 1 . Desert of the sea] i.e. 
Babylonia: sea refers to the Euphrates, the 
word being used in Hebrew of a large river, 
;is in I'.i ' of the Nile. South] the technical 
name for the B. of Judah, a region specially 
liable to tempests: .lerl 11 -i 3 Hosl3 ir 'Zech9 14 . 

It cometh] i.e. the tidings conveyed in the 



prophet's vision. 2. Treacherous dealer] i.e. 
the Assyrian (33 1). Go up, etc.] the command 
of the Assyrian to the tributaries serving in 
his army. Sighing thereof] i.e. caused by 
Babylon. 

5. Prepare . . drink] read these verbs as 
present indicative, k they prepare,' etc. ; the 
Babylonian feast is at its height when the cry 
to arms is raised. Anoint the shield] Leather 
shields were greased before going to battle 
that the weapons of the enemy might glide off. 

6. The prophet himself is the watchman. 

7. KY ' And when he seeth a troop, horse- 
men in pairs, a troop of asses, a troop of 
camels, he shall hearken,' etc. 8. RV i cried 
as a lion.' 9. Just as he groans aloud in im- 
patience, he sees a company approaching, and 
recognises that they are the bearers of the 
expected tidings. 

10. Referring to Judah which has suffered 
much from the Assyrian invader already (10 5 ). 
The news of this fresh Assyrian victory over 
Babylon is distasteful, but the prophet must 
deliver his message. 

CHAPTER 2IH.12 
The Fate of Edom 
An oracle concerning Edom, here symbolic- 
ally called Dumah (' silence '), because of the 
silence and desolation in store for it. The 
prophecy, like that which follows, refers to a 
time when the peoples concerned were in 
danger, probably from the Assyrians ; and, as 
Sargon was waging war in these districts both 
in 720 and 711 B.C., the two prophecies may 
be referred to either of these years. 

11, 12. To the enquiring Edomites the pro- 
phet gives enigmatic answer — while the im- 
mediate future looks bright, calamity is im- 
pending. 

11. Seir] another name for Edom (Gn36 8 
Dt2i 2 ). I2 . If ye will, etc.] suggesting the 
possibility of there being another answer at 
another time. 

CHAPTER 211317 
Judgment upon Arabia 

This section concerns the N. Arabian tribes. 
For the occasion see prefatory note on 21 n » 12 . 

13-17. Owing to the incursions of the As 
Syrians the Dedanite caravans must take fco 
flight, and other Arabian tribes shall share 
their fate. 

13. In the forest, etc.] The trading caravans 
must turn from their route and hide themselves 
because of the invasion. Arabia] in OT. de- 
notes the N. part of what we call Arabia. 

Dedanim] a tribe dwelling near Edom (Ezk 
27 16 ). 14. The Edomites (inhabitants of.. 
Tema) succour the fugitives. Prevented, etc 
RV <lid meet the fugitives with their bread. 

16. According to the years, etc.] see 16 14 . 



430 



21. 17 



ISAIAH 



22. 25 



Kedar] a general name for the tribes of N. 
Arabia (Ps 120 5). 

17. The forecast was fulfilled in the victories 
over the Arabian tribes by Sargon and Sen- 
nacherib, as related in their inscriptions. 

CHAPTER 22114 
Jerusalem Rebuked 

A severe rebuke of the conduct of the 
people of Jerusalem in a time of calamity. 
The crisis refered to cannot be certainly 
identified. The difficulty in assigning the 
passage to Sennacherib's invasion (701 B.C.) is 
that other prophecies relating to it are marked 
by encouragement, not, as here, by a tone 
of rebuke. Perhaps the present prophecy 
should be dated 711, the time of Sargon's 
invasion. 

1-7. The unworthy behaviour of the people 
of Jerusalem when attack is imminent. 

8-1 1. Every measure is taken for defence 
except to turn to Jehovah. 12-14. Instead of 
mourning, they give themselves to reckless 
revelry. Such conduct must bring destruction 
as its punishment. 

1. Valley of vision] This expression in the 
title is evidently taken from v. 5. It is 
generally understood to signify Jerusalem. 

Housetops] the natural place of concourse 
(Jg 16 2T ). The city is apparently en fete (v. 13). 

2. The joy is the forced gaiety of despair 
(v. 13). Slain] It is implied that they have 
died through famine. 3. Which . . far] RV 
' they fled afar off.' 4. Daughter] poetical 
personification of the people (10 32 ). 5. By the 
Lord] RV ' from the Lord.' Valley of vision] 
Jerusalem may be so designated as being the 

; home of prophetic vision. 6. Elam . . Kir] 
peoples who furnished auxiliaries to the 
Assyrian army. Uncovered] took off its case 
in preparation for battle. 7. Shall be . . shall 
set] RV ' were . . set.' 

8. Discovered, etc.] RV ' took away the cover- 

1 ing,' which concealed the danger from the 
people's eyes. Thou didst look] The people 
of Judah are addressed. Instead of looking 
to Jehovah for help, they rely wholly on 
their material resources. House of the forest] 

! i.e. the house of the forest of Lebanon (1 K7 2 

: 10 1 7 ), part of Solomon's palace, used as an 
armoury. 9. Seen] i.e. inspected. Vv. 9, 10 
refer to hasty measures taken for defence. 
Gathered together, etc.] to secure a supply 

1 during the siege. 10. Numbered] to see what 
material could be spared for strengthening the 
fortifications. 11. Ditch] RV ' reservoir." 
The old pool] probably the pool of Siloam. 
The maker thereof] RV ' him that hath done 
this,' i.e. G-od who has brought this trouble 
upon them. 

12. Weeping;] the outward tokens of 
national repentance. 13. The reckless enjoy- 



ment of the despairing people, who urged the 
shortness of the time that remained to them 
as an excuse for their excesses. Let us eat, 
etc.] the argument of men who believed in no 
hereafter (1 Cor 15 32). 

CHAPTER 2215-25 
Denunciation of Shebna 

This section contains Isaiah's only invective 
against an individual. He denounces Shebna, 
the king's chief minister, who may have been 
a leader of the party which favoured alliance 
with Egypt. The prophecy was delivered 
before Sennacherib's invasion (701 B.C.), 
because at that time we read that Eliakim held 
the office Isaiah here promises him, while 
Shebna occupied a subordinate position 
(363 372). 

15-25. The deposition of Shebna. The 
elevation of Eliakim. 

15. Over the house] i.e. steward of the 
royal palace, a very high office sometimes held 
by a king's son (2 Ch26 2 i). 16. What hast] 
RV ' what doest.' Shebna was apparently a 
foreigner, who ostentatiously presumed to 
treat Jerusalem as his native place. A sepul- 
chre] Kings and great men in the East used 
to prepare their tombs in their life -time. 

17. Carry, etc.] RV ' hurl thee away vio- 
lently as a strong man, yea he will wrap thee 
up closely.' 18. Large country] i.e. a broad 
land, where it may roll on and on and not 
return. There the chariots, etc.] RV ' there 
shall be the chariots of thy glory, thou shame 
of thy lord's house.' The chariots are another 
feature of Shebna's ostentation. 19. I will 
. . shall he] Though the person is changed, the 
subject is the same (viz. Jehovah) in both 
clauses. Such changes of person are common 
in Hebrew (129 10 12). 

22. The key] the symbol of the office. The 
v. shows the powerful influence exercised by 
this official. He had the right of admitting 
to, or excluding from, the king's presence. 
This is symbolically applied to Christ (Rev 3 7 ). 

23, 24. The office of Eliakim is to be firmly 
established. His family will rest upon him, 
and all kinds of dependents cluster round him. 
Eliakim means 'G-od establishes.' 25. The 
burden, etc.] i.e. the vessels hanging upon the 
nail ; figuratively put for the dependents upon 
a great man. 

25. Perhaps the prophet may revert in 
thought to the fall of Shebna, but the con- 
tinuation of the figure of the nail seems to 
point to Eliakim, whose fall, if he abused his 
power, would involve the ruin of his depend- 
ents. Neither the promises nor the denuncia- 
tions of the prophecy need be considered as 
absolute, but rather conditional. Eliakim did 
indeed succeed to Shebna's office (see pre- 
fatory note), but we do not know that Shebna 



431 



23. 1 



ISAIAH 



24 



suffered the penalty of exile (v. 18) ; this may 
have been averted by repentance. 

CHAPTER 23 

The Doom of Tyke 

Tyre was a great mercantile centre of the 
ancient world, and at the time of the Hebrew 
monarchy chief state of Phoenicia, the parent 
of many colonies, and mistress of the Mediter- 
ranean. It is uncertain what siege of Tyre is 
here referred to ; but see on v. 13. 

1-5. The news of the fall of Tyre is spread. 
6-9. Tyre must take refuge in her distant 
colonies, for her doom is purposed by Jehovah. 
10-14. But even her colonies will afford no 
refuge, for the power of Phoenicia will be al- 
together broken. The fate of Chaldea serves as 
a warning of coming desolation. 15-18. After 
seventy years Tyre shall recover her com- 
mercial prosperity, but her gains shall be con- 
secrated to Jehovah's service. 

1. Homeward-bound ships are greeted at 
Chittim (Cyprus) with the news that Tyre has 
fallen. Ships of Tarshish] Tarshish is pro- 
bably Tartessus, in Spain ; the expression 
denotes deep-sea ships. 2. Isle] l coastland,' 
i.e. of Phoenicia. 3. Sihor] i.e ' black,' a name 
for the Nile (Jer 2 18). River] EV 'Nile.' Tyre 
reaped large revenues from Egypt by carrying 



her corn. 



is] RY 



was . . was. 



4. Strength] stronghold, i.e Tyre. Saying, 
etc.] The once busy quays are deserted, and 
the prophet pictures the city as a bereaved 
mother mourning her children. 5. RY ' When 
the report cometh to Egypt they shall be 
sorely pained.' 

6. Tarshish] Tartessus, in Spain. The 
Tyrians are bidden to seek refuge in their 
western colonies on the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean. Of these Phoenician colonies Car- 
thage was the most famous. 7. Her own, etc.] 
RY ' whose feet carried her.' 8. Taken this 
counsel] RY ' purposed this.' Crowning city] 
alluding to the many dependent kings in her 
colonies. 

10. A river] RY ' the Nile.' There . . 
strength] ' There is no girdle about thee any 
more. 1 The Tyrian colonies, released from all 
restraint, throw off allegiance. 11. Against 
. . city] RY ' concerning Canaan.' i.e. Phoenicia. 

12. Oppressed] or k defiled.' Tyre was no 
longer a virgin citadel. Passover to Chittim] 
Fligh.1 to Cyprus would not secure safety from 
Assyria. 

13. This people, etc.] According to AY ren- 
dering, this v. describes the consolidation 
of the Chaldeans into a nation by the .W\ 
rians. There is, however, no other record of 
this, and it is better to read, ' This people is 
no more ; the Assyriai] hath appointed it for 
the beasta of the wilderness ' (i.e. made it 
desolate): 'they set up their towers' (siege- 



towers), ' they overthrew the palaces thereof ; 
he made it a ruin ' (RY). The fate of the 
Chaldeans at the hand of the Assyrians is 
quoted as a warning for Tyre. Babylon, the 
Chaldean capital, was taken by the Assyrians 
in 710 and 703 B.C. (see on 21 1-10). The present 
prophecy accordingly should be dated between 
one or other of those years and Sennacherib's 
invasion of W. Asia (701). 14. Strength] 
RY ' stronghold.' 

15. Seventy] perhaps a symbolic number for 
a long period. According to, etc.] i.e. with- 
out revolution or change. 16. The v. is 
figurative of Tyre seeking to renew her com- 
merce. 17. Figurative of her restored traffic. 

18. The old occupation will be renewed, 
but purged of its worldliness. 

CHAPTERS 24-27 
The coming Judgment and establish- 
ment of Jehovah's Kingdom 

The subject is the overthrow of a power 
hostile to God's people, with a description of 
the deliverance of the Jews and their future 
glory. The hostile power is not named, and 
the tone of the whole prophecy is so general 
that it is impossible to assign it to any occa- 
sion. With the anticipated overthrow of the 
enemy the prophet associates in thought 
Jehovah's final judgment of the world. Most 
modern scholars assign this whole section to 
a date later than the age of Isaiah, urging 
that (a) Isaiah's time does not afford a suit- 
able occasion, (&) the literary style is unlike 
Isaiah's, and (c) some of the thoughts an 
characteristic of a later age, e.g. the concep- 
tion of guardian spirits of earthly kingdoms 
(24 21 ), and the anticipation of a resurrection 
of God's people from the dead (26 19 ). In 
these particulars the section exhibits affinity 
with the book of Daniel (Dan 10 13 12 V-'). 
The wide and general expressions used in 
these chs. make it easier to apply the im- 
portant spiritual teaching contained in them 
to God's people in every age. 

C. 24. 1-12. The imminent judgment 
caused by man's guilt. 13-15. The result — 
the remnant praise Jehovah. 16-23. The 
judgments that precede the establishment of 
Jehovah's kingdom. 

C. 25. 1-5. The hymn of those delivered 
when Jehovah's kingdom is set up. 6-8. The 
blessings of which Zion shall then be tin- 
centre. 9-12. The thanksgiving of the re- 
deemed for the fall of Moab. 

C. 26. 1-4. Another hymn of the re 
deemed. 5, 6. The ground of this thanks 
giving, the overthrow of the hostile city. 
7-14. Jehovah's judgments teach the world 
righteousness and destroy oppression. 15-21. 
The wonderful revival of God's people. 

C. 27. 1-6. Jehovah's care for His people 



432 



24.2 



ISAIAH 



26. 19 



7-1 1. Their sufferings are due to their own 
sin and folly. 12, 13. But restoration awaits 
them. 

CHAPTER 24 

2. All class distinctions are obliterated and 
confused. 5. Defiled] i.e. desecrated by blood- 
shed (Nu35 33 ). Everlasting covenant] The 
phrase seems to allude to G-n 9 16 , the covenant 
with Noah and his sons. The bloodshed, upon 
which the great world-empires were founded, 
was a violation of this primitive covenant. 

7-9. The meaning is that every form of 
enjoyment has ceased. 10. Confusion] or, 
k chaos ' (Gn 1 2 ), so called because of the 
desolation awaiting it. No man, etc.] the 
entrance being blocked with ruins. 1 1. Crying 
for, etc.] i.e. ' because of ' wine, the vintage 
having failed (Joel 1 5 ). 

13. When . . people] RV ' For . . peoples.' 
Omit 'there shall be.' 14. They] i.e. the 
escaped remnant, figuratively described in 
v. 13 : cp. 17 6 . The majesty] as shown in 
their deliverance. They shall cry . . from the 
sea] i.e. the dispersed remnant shall raise 
their cry of praise from the far West. The 
sea, as usual, denotes the Mediterranean. 

15. Fires] RV 'east.' Songs of praise 
arise both in E. and W. (the isles). 

16. Glory, etc.] i.e. splendid is the lot of the 
righteous. My leanness, etc.] RV ' I pine away, 
I pine away, woe is me ! ' Songs of joy are 
premature ; the barbarian has yet to complete 
the desolation. 17 f. The desolation yet to 
come. 18. Windows, etc.] a judgment like 
the deluge (G-n7 n ). 20. Removed, etc.] 
RV ' moved to and fro like a hut.' 

21. Host, etc.] i.e. the guardian spirits of 
the nations (Dan 10 13 12 1 ), who are responsible 
for their respective nations, and whose fate is 
bound up with theirs. 22. Visited] i.e. favour- 
ably, and set free. 23. The prophet has 
passed in thought to the final convulsion of 
nature, and the manifestation of Jehovah's 
kingdom in all its glory. 

CHAPTER 25 

1. Thy counsels, etc.] RV ' even counsels of 
old ' (i.e. formed of old) ' in faithfulness and 
truth.' 2. A city] viz. the one that oppressed 
G-od's people (24 10 ). Strangers] aliens from 
God's covenant people (l 7 ). 3. The hostile 
power is not utterly destroyed ; its remnant 
acknowledges Jehovah. 4. Strength] RV 
k stronghold.' 5. As the heat] i.e. as heat is 
assuaged by the shadow of a cloud. Branch] 
RV ' song ' ; viz. of triumph. 

6. The temporal and spiritual blessings 
which the rule of Jehovah will bring to man- 
kind. This mountain] i.e. Zion (2 1 . 2 ). Fat 
things] i.e. of flesh, offered in sacrifice. On 
the lees] left on the lees to heighten the 



flavour. 7. Covering] Covering the face was 
a token of mourning for the dead (2S19 4 ) ; 
the taking away of the veil or covering is 
symbolically put for the destruction of death 
(v. 8). 8. In victory] so some early Gk. 
versions and St. Paul in quoting this passage 
(1 Cor 15 54 ). Heb. text has ' for ever ' (RV). 

Will wipe, etc.] quoted Rev7 17 21 4. 

Rebuke] RV 'reproach.' 

10. Hand] protecting hand. Under him] 
RV ' in his place,' where he stands. Moab is 
here mentioned as being a proud (c. 16) and 
hostile power, a typical enemy. For the 
dunghill] RV ' in the waters of the dunghill.' 

11. He shall spread] i.e. Moab, who vainly 
endeavours to save himself. He shall bring] 
i.e. Jehovah. Spoils] RV ' craft.' 

CHAPTER 26 

1. Salvation, etc.] the assurance of divine 
protection takes the place of material bul- 
warks. 

4. Everlasting strength] RM ' a rock of 
ages.' Rock is applied as a title to God (30 29 
Dt32 4 ). 5. Lofty city] the power hostile to 
God's people (24 W). 

7. Uprightness] ' straightness,' implying 
freedom from impediment. Weigh] RV 
' direct.' 8. In the way of thy judgments] 
i.e. in the way which God, by His judgments 
or decrees, set out for His people to walk 
in. The context (v. 7) shows this to be the 
meaning. Thy name] i.e. the manifestation 
pf thyself. The remembrance of thee] RV 
' thy memorial,' a synonym for ' name ' : 
Ex3 15 . 9. Night] the season of meditation 
(Ps44). 

10. Carries on the thought of v. 9. God's 
judgments are necessary, because His favour 
is ineffectual. 11. But they shall see, etc.] 
RV 'but they' (the adversaries) 'shall see 
thy zeal for the people' (Israel : cp. 63 15f -) 
' and be ashamed ; yea, fire shall devour thine 
adversaries.' 

12. In us] RV 'for us.' 13. Other lords] 
the oppressors of Israel. Perhaps the pro- 
phet also has in mind the deities in whose 
name they professed to act. Make mention, 
etc.] i.e. celebrate Thy name in praise. 14. 
They are dead] i.e. the oppressors. 15. The 
nation] i.e. Israel. Thou hadst, etc.] RV 
' thou hast enlarged all the borders of the 
land.' 18. The fruitlessness of human effort. 

Fallen] i.e. been born. 

19. Thy dead . . arise] RV ' Thy dead shall 
live ; my dead bodies shall arise.' The pro- 
nouns ' thy ' and ' my ' both refer to Israel. 
The passage seems to imply that for God's 
people, as opposed to the heathen (v. 14), the 
prophet expected a literal resurrection. Some 
think, however, that a national restoration, 
surpassing all expectation, is set forth under 



28 



433 



26. 20 



ISAIAH 



28. 16 



the figure of resurrection from the dead, as in 
Hos62 Ezk37i-io. Herbs] RM 'light': i.e. 
morning dew (Ps 1 10 3 ). 20. Israel may retire 
and be secure, while the divine judgments 
pass by. 21. Disclose her blood] so that it 
may cry for vengeance (Gn4 10 » n ). 

CHAPTER 27 

i. The powers hostile to God's people are 
here symbolically represented as monsters. 
Leviathan the piercing (RY ' swift ') serpent 
perhaps stands for Assyria, watered by the 
rapid Tigris, and ' leviathan the crooked ser- 
pent ' (RV) for Babylon, whose river was the 
winding Euphrates. The dragon] crocodile, 
i.e. Egypt, as in 51 9 . 

2. Sing ye, etc.] RY ' a vineyard of wine, 
sing ye unto it.' The vineyard is God's people 
(c. 5); the song begins at v. 3. 4. Who would, 
etc.] RY ' would that the briers and thorns 
were against me.' Go through] RY ' march 
upon.' God's anger against his vineyard has 
ceased, and He will now turn against their 
enemies, figuratively represented as briers and 
thorns (9 18 10 17 ). 5. A gracious overture 
even to God's enemies. 6. He shall cause] 
RY ' In days to come shall Jacob take root ' ; 
the image of the vineyard continued. 

7. Hath Jehovah smitten Israel as he smote 
their oppressors ? Is Israel slain according 
to the slaughter of those slain by Jehovah ? 
The implied answer is No. 8. When, etc.] 
RY ' when thou sendest her away thou dost 
contend with her ; he hath removed her with 
his rough blast,' etc. Israel has been smitten 
bat only in measure. 

9. The sense is that Israel's sin will be 
purged on condition that it rejects all idolatry. 
The fruit] RY ' the fruit of taking away ' : i.e. 
the result or proof of contrition required as 
;i condition of taking away. Groves and 
images] RY ' Asherim and sun-images ' : see 
IT 8 . Not stand up] RY 1 rise no more.' 10. De- 
fenced city] i.e. of the enemies (as in 25 2 ). 
Some, however, understand Jerusalem, which 
must for a season be desolate. II. It] i.e. Israel. 

12. Beat off] RY 'beat off the fruit' as 
from olive trees (Dt 24'-'°). The ingathering 
of exiled Israel compared to a fruit harvest. 
River] RY 'River,' i.e. Euphrates. Stream 
of Egypt] the st renin dividing Palestine from 
Egypt (I KK 11 '). 13. Trumpet] summoning 
the sacred assembly ( \n 10 l "" 1 ). 

CHAPTERS 28-33 
W LRNINGS TO .J l I > \ 1 1 

These el is. refer to the state of affairs 
during the reign of Hezekiah, when Palestine 
was threatened by Assyria, and an influential 
party in Judah Favoured resistance, reiving on 
the support of Egypl : a line of policy con- 
fidently opposed by Isaiah. 



CHAPTER 28 

This c. must be assigned (v. 1) to a date 
prior to the capture of Samaria by the 
Assyrians (722 B.C.) and fall of the northern 
kingdom. 

1-6. Samaria's luxury and self-indulgence 
pave the way to ruin. 7-10. Judah likewise 
is given up to indulgence and heeds not the 
prophet's warning. 11-13. Therefore Jehovah 
will teach the people by means of foreign 
invasion and disaster. 14-22. Judah's safety 
lies not in faithless diplomacy, but in trust 
in Jehovah. 23-29. A parable of Jehovah's 
way of working, drawn from the action of the 
husbandman, who conducts his operations in 
accordance with a wise plan. 

I. RY 'Woe to the crown of pride of the 
drunkards of Ephraim, and to the fading flower 
of his glorious beauty which is on the head,' 
etc. The city of Samaria crowning its fair 
valley is destined to fade and pass away like 
the flower-garlands of her revellers. 2. A 
mighty . . one] viz. the Assyrian, Jehovah's 
agent. 4. Hasty fruit] RY k first-ripe fig ' : a 
delicacy eagerly devoured. 5. In place of the 
false glory destined to perish, Jehovah is to be 
a true glory for the faithful remnant. 6. True 
administration of justice within, and strength 
to repel the invader. Turn, etc.] RY ' turn 
back the battle at the gate.' 

7. They also] the men of Judah. They 
err in vision, etc.] They are drunk when en- 
gaged in the sacred duties of their office ; the 
tables they have just left prove it (v. 8). 

9. They mock the prophet ; his teaching is 
only fit for babes ! 10. The people's mockery 
continued. Must be] RY ' is.' Precept . . 
line] The words in Heb. are monosyllables, 
such as would be used in teaching little 
children. 

II. Isaiah's retort, Jehovah will teach them 
through a foreign invader. RY ' Nay, but by 
men of strange lips and with another tongue,' 
etc. 12. This is the rest, etc.] cp. 30 15 . Je- 
hovah through His prophet had pointed out 
the way of peace and recovery for the nation 
that already under Ahaz had suffered much 
through foreign alliance. But the politicians 
of Judah were without patient trust in Jehovah, 
and were preparing further trouble by seeking 
alliance with Egypt. 13. RV 'Therefore shall 
the word of the LORD be unto them,' etc. The 
teaching they refused will prove a burden and 
a stumblingbhx k. 

15. Made a covenant] they thought that by 
their policy they had. as it were, bought off 
death and Hades — made themselves secure. 

Lies, etc.] Though the words are put into 
the mouth of the politicians, the point of view 
is the prophet's. 

16. Zion] as being Jehovah's foundation, 
34 



28. 17 



ISAIAH 



30. 



shall stand firm. The imagery was suggested 
by the large stones of the Temple. Shall not 
make haste] i.e. hasten hither and 'thither to 
seek security by alliances (e.g. with Egypt), 
but may wait confidently on Jehovah. The 
Apostles saw the ultimate spiritual fulfilment 
of Isaiah's words in the person of Christ 
(Eph2 2 ° 1 Pet 2 6,7). 

17. RY ' Judgment also will I make the line 
and righteousness the plummet.' Righteous- 
ness is the standard by which Jehovah will try 
conduct. The sense of what follows is that 
the false refuges and alliances (v. 18), by which 
men seek to secure themselves, will be swept 
away. 19. From .. forth] RY 'As often as 
it passeth through.' A vexation, etc.] RY 
' nought but terror to understand the message,' 
which they before rejected (vv. 12, 13); it is 
now nothing but terrifying rumours. 20. De- 
picts in an expressive figure the failure ending 
in restless discomfort and distress, towards 
which the policy of the dominant party is 
tending. 

21. Perazim . . Gibeon] referring to David's 
victories over the Philistines (2 S 5 20 1 Ch 14 W). 
Then God interposed on behalf of His people, 
His strange work is His work of judgment 
against them. 22. Their scornful attitude will 
only lead to heavier foreign oppression. Lest 
your bands] They are acting in such a way as 
to fix the Assyrian yoke more firmly upon 
Judah, and render it more galling. Consump- 
tion] RY k consummation' : see 10 22 > 23 . 

24. The implied answer is No ; he doth not 
do these things continually. 25. Fitches] (i.e. 
fennel-seed) and cummin were the smallest and 
most delicate seeds. Cast in, etc.] RY ' put 
in the wheat in rows, and the barley in the 
appointed place, and the spelt in the border 
thereof.' 28. ' Is bread corn crushed ? Nay, 
he . . and though the wheel of his cart and his 
horses scatter it. he doth not grind it.' 

29. Working'] RY 'wisdom.' 

In w. 24-29 the skill of the agriculturalist 
in varying his operations is treated as a re- 
flexion and parable of the divine wisdom. 
Delicate grains are threshed but not crushed 
so heavily as to spoil them (vv. 27, 28) ; so Je- 
hovah's judgments are not for destruction, but 
to prepare men for their great destiny. 

CHAPTER 29 

This c. and the three which follow and com 
plete the section, evidently belong to the very 
eve of Sennacherib's invasion of Judah in 
701 B.C. 

1-8. Jerusalem is besieged and at the last 
extremity, but the enemy shall be suddenly 
discomfited. 9-24. Judah's infatuation at this 
crisis, contrasted with the very different and 
teachable spirit that shall mark its future. 

1. RY ' Ho Ariel.' Ariel is a symbolic 



name for Jerusalem, meaning either (1) lion of 
God, i.e. hero (2S23 20 ), the lion being the 
symbol of Judah ; or (2) altar-hearth of God. 

Dwelt] RY ' encamped.' Add ye, etc.] The 
meaning is that when the new year succeeds 
that which is now running its course, and the 
cycle of feasts has been completed, Jehovah 
will bring distress upon Jerusalem. Let them, 
etc.] RY ' let the feasts come round.' 2. And 
it shall . . Ariel] RM k Yet it shall be,' etc. In 
spite of all, the name shall not be falsified. 
Jehovah will protect His sanctuary as indicated 
in w. 6-8. 4. Out of the dust] so deep will 
be her humiliation. Thy voice, etc.] cp. 8 19 . 

5-8. As in other prophecies of the same 
period, Isaiah foretells sudden and over- 
whelming disaster for the enemy (37 36 ). 

5. Strangers] RY l foes.' 7. Multitude . . 
nations] The Assyrian army was recruited 
from many nations. Munition] RY ' strong 
hold.' 

9 f . Here the prophet sets out the sins which 
brought upon Judah the punishment of in- 
vasion. Stay . . cry] RM ' Be ye amazed and 
wonder ; blind yourselves and be blind.' 

10. Hath closed, etc.] RY ' hath closed your 
eyes, the prophets ; and your heads, the seers, 
hath he covered.' Even the prophets, who 
ought to be the nation's watchmen (cp. 21 8 ), 
share the general infatuation. 

13. The service of Jehovah is merely formal. 
Their fear, etc.] RM 'their fear of me is a 

commandment of men, learned by rote.' 

14. Marvellous] because Jehovah acts con- 
trary to expectation against His people (28 21 ). 

15. The politicians who sought alliance with 
Egypt endeavoured to conceal their project. 

16. Surely, your turning, etc.] RM ' your 
perversity ! Shall the potter be counted as 
clay ? ' The potter stands for Jehovah, whom 
the politicians of Judah ignored in their 
schemes. 

17. The future change in the aspect of 
affairs is expressed under the figure of physical 
transformation. 18. Reversal of vv. 10-12. 

20. Terrible one] the foe without. The 
scorner] within (28 14 ). 21. For a word] RY 
' in a cause ' : i.e. a case brought for judgment. 

Reproveth] pleadeth ; the reference is to 
the corrupt rulers who attempt to silence those 
that plead for justice. The gate] the place of 
judgment. 23. There are alternative inter- 
pretations : (1) when the nation sees fresh 
generations growing up under the divine favour, 
it will serve God more perfectly ; (2) when 
his children see the work of My hands, etc. 

CHAPTER 30 

1-7. The Egyptian alliance is profitless. 
8-1 1. The perversity of Judah, 12-17. an( ^ 
its disastrous consequences. 18-26. There is 
a glorious prospect for the repentant people. 



435 



30. 1 



ISAIAH 



S2. 1% 



27-33. But first Jehovah will destroy the 
Assyrian. 

1. Cover, etc.] seek pretence to conceal 
their designs (29 15 ). 4. Were . . came] RY 
' are . . come ' : the ambassadors of Judah go 
from place to place in Egypt seeking aid. 

Zoan (Gk. Tanis) and Hanes (Gk. Hera- 
cleopolis) were both cities in the Delta of the 
Nile. 5. Were all] RY 'shall all be.' A 
people] Egypt. 

6. The burden . . south] a title prefixed to 
the short utterance, vv. 6, 7. Burden] see 13 1 . 

South] Negeb, i.e. the desert tract S. of Judah 
on the way to Egypt. The v. pictures the 
journey of the Judaean ambassadors through a 
district infested with dangerous beasts, their 
camels and asses laden with presents, where- 
with they hope to purchase Egypt's aid. 

7. This] i.e. Jerusalem (according to AY), 
who, instead of thus seeking foreign aid, ought 
to rest confident in Jehovah's protection (v. 15). 
But more probably the reference is to Egypt. 
' Therefore have I called her Rahab that sitteth 
still ' (RY), i.e. is inactive in the day when help 
is expected from her (36 6 ). ' Rahab ' (' pride ') : 
a symbolic name for Egypt, as in 51 9 . 

8. Write it] i.e. the foregoing prophecy or 
the name Rahab (8 1 ). Table] RY ' tablet.' 

9. The law] i.e. oral instruction given 
through the prophet (8 1(5 ). 13. This iniquity] 
i.e. disregard of Isaiah's admonition and re- 
liance on Egypt is a symptom of ruin, like the 
bulging of a wall on the point of falling. 

15. In returning, etc.] i.e. in giving up your 
restless trust in man and calmly relying upon 
Jehovah. 16. It was the reputation of its 
cavalry especially that made Egypt so desir- 
able an ally (36 9 ). 17. One thousand, etc.] 
the words indicate the complete rout (Lv 26 8 ). 

Beacon . . ensign] striking symbols of 
solitariness. 

18. Wait] The above threatenings are con- 
ditional, Jehovah will wait to give them an 
opportunity of repentance. Of judgment] and 
therefore not unduly severe. 20. Removed . . 
corner] RY ' hidden ' ; the prophets will not 
need to hide themselves but will be publicly 
recognised. 22. The altered frame of mind 
manifested in destruction of idols. Cover- 
ing . . ornament] RY ' overlaying . . plating.' 

23-26. tremt of the corresponding change 
in nature which shall mark the ideal future 
(4 2). 24. Clean] 'salted.' Even the cattle 
shall not lack earefrlly prepared and seasoned 
provender. 25. Slaughter] i.e. of the Assyrians. 

Towers] siege-towers. 26. Breach] RY 
'hurt. 1 

27. Reverts to the more immediate future, 
the judgment on the Assyrians which is pre- 
paratory to the great future. The name] 
practically equivalent to 'the manifestation. ' 

And . . heavy] l{V 'and in thick risingsmoke,' 



smoke being a symbol of anger. 28. With . . 
vanity] i.e. the sifting will reduce them to 
nothingness. 29. Ye] i.e. God's own people. 

Mighty One] RY l Rock ' implies that Jehovah 
is the strength of His people. 30. Voice] the 
thunder. Jehovah's wrath is figured as a 
storm. Scattering] RY ' a blast.' 

31. Beaten down] RY 'broken in pieces." 

Which smote] see 10 24 . 32. And . . pass] 
RM ' And every stroke of doom.' With tabrets, 
etc.] i.e. with songs of exultation on the part 
of God's people. With it] RY ' with them.' 

33. The destruction of the Assyrian set forth 
under the image of a funeral pyre. Tophet] ' a 
Tophet,' i.e. a place of burning. The name 
was given to the valley of Hinnom, where, 
previous to Hezekiah's accession, sacrifices were 
offered by fire (2 K 16 3). The breath, etc.] It 
is here indicated as elsewhere (cp. 31 8 ) that the 
destruction of the Assyrians shall not be 
brought about by human agency. 

CHAPTER 31 

1-5. Judah should trust not in Egypt, but 
in Jehovah. 6-9. The wonderful deliverance 
from the Assyrian. 

1. See 30 16 . 2. Somewhat sarcastic ; Je- 
hovah is wise, as well as the politicians of 
Judah. Evil] i.e. calamity. 5. Flying] i.e. 
hovering over the nest to protect it. Passing 
over] an allusion to the Passover, the same 
word being used. 

6. The children, etc.] RY ' ye have deeply 
revolted, children of Israel.' 8. The Assy- 
rian's fall will be brought about by no human 
agency. For the fulfilment see 37 36 . Be dis- 
comfited] RY ' become tributary.' 9. And he 
shall, etc.] RY ' and his rock ' (i.e. strength) 
1 shall pass away by reason of terror.' Ensign] 
the word denotes a standard, or signal, forming 
the rallying point of an army. In this con- 
text the signal is for the gathering of the foes 
of the Assyrian. Whose fire] see 10 16 > 17 . 
The presence of Jehovah is as a consuming 
fire to His enemies. 

CHAPTER 32 

1-8. Characteristics of the future age. 9-14. 
A warning of coming desolation to the over- 
confident people. 15-20. Afterwards shall be 
a peaceful and prosperous future. 

1. The ideal future. 2. Men will defend 
and protect their inferiors instead of oppressing 
them. 3. Cp. 29 18 . 5f. Moral confusion shall 
cease ; men shall be taken at their true value, 
their character being clearly seen in their 
actions. 6. Hypocrisy] RY ' profaneness.' 

8. By . . stand] RV k in liberal things shall 
he continue.' 

9-14. Cp. 3 16 " 26 . 10. Many . . years] RM 
• Days above a year.' i.e. in little more than a 
year. 12. Lament . . teats] RY ' smite upon 



436 



m. 14 



ISAIAH 



34. 17 



the breasts,' a gesture of despairing lamenta- 
tion over the desolated vineyards. 14. Multi- 
tude . . city] RY ' populous city.' 

15. A limit is set to the desolation. A 
bright future is in store, when the outward 
transformation of the country will correspond 
with the moral reformation (v. 16). This 
change alike in man and in nature is attributed 
to an outpouring of the divine and life-giving 
spirit. 19. When] RY 'but' : a judgment is 
to precede the time of peace just described. 

Coming, etc.] RY ' in the downfall of the 
forest,' i.e. of the Assyrian. The city] Jerusa- 
lem too must be humbled. 20. Refers to the 
bright future again, when the land shortly to 
be desolate (vv. 13, 14) shall be fully culti- 
vated. Beside all waters] for the land will be 
everywhere irrigated (30 25 ). 

CHAPTER 33 

1 -1 2. The deliverance of Jerusalem from 
the invader. 13-24. The consequences of the 
interposition of Jehovah for those that dwell 
in the city. 

1. The Assyrian is addressed. That spoilest, 
etc.] may mean, (1) that the Assyrian attacked 
Judah without provocation, or (2) that he has 
so far spoiled other nations unchecked. 

2. Their arm] viz. Jerusalem's defenders'. 

3. Disaster overtakes the enemy. People . . 
nations] refer to the various races subject to 
Sennacherib and serving in his army. 

4. As . . upon them] RY ' as locusts leap 
shall they leap upon it ' : the people of Jeru- 
salem seizing the spoil compared to insects 
devastating the fields. 

6. Thy times . . his treasure] The pronoun 
in each clause refers to the people of Judah. 
In the last clause there may be an implied 
rebuke of the tendency of Hezekiah to trust 
in his material treasure (cp. 39 2 , etc.). 

7. Ambassadors of peace] i.e. sent to obtain 
peace. The reference is to Hezekiah's in- 
effectual embassy to Sennacherib at Lachish 
(2K18 14 - 16 ). 8, 9. describe the country 
ravaged by the invader. Broken the covenant] 
cp. 2K18 14 . II, 12. set forth figuratively 
the destruction of the Assyrian army. 

14. Jehovah's interposition strikes terror to 
the unworthy in Zion. Fire . . burnings] i.e. 
God, who is a consuming fire (30 33 31 9 ). 

15, 16. The righteous finds in the manifes- 
tation of Jehovah his protection. 17. The 
king] i.e. the reigning king of Judah, 
Hezekiah. In his beauty] no longer in sack- 
cloth (37 1 ). The land., off] RY 'a far- 
stretching land,' no longer hemmed in by foes. 

18. Meditate] i.e. muse upon it as something 
past. Where . . receiver] RY ' where is he 
that counted, where is he that weighed ? ' The 
Assyrian officials before whom the people had 
to appear with their tribute will be no more. 



19. The common language of Syria and 
Assyria was Aramaic, which, though a Semitic 
tongue, was unintelligible to the ordinary 
Hebrew-speaking Israelite : cp. 28 n 36 n . 

20. Zion likened to a tent which nothing 
can root up. 21. The image is changed to 
that of a city encircled by a protecting stream : 
cp. Ps 46 4 Nah 3 8 . 23. Reverts to the present. 
Zion is like a shattered ship. Nevertheless 
the spoil from her foes will be so great that 
even cripples take their share. 

CHAPTERS 34, 35 

Sentence on the Nations. Blessings 
in store for God's People 

These chs. are now generally considered 
non-Isaianic and referred to the period of the 
exile, on two grounds : (a) the literary style is 
unlike Isaiah's, (b) The strong feeling against 
Edom points to a date subsequent to the 
capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
when the Edomites exulted in the city's fall 
and sided against the Jews, conduct which 
provoked bitter resentment (Obad vv. 10-16 
Lam 4 21, 22 p s 137 7). 

C. 34. 1-4. The judgment upon the 
nations, 5-17. and upon Edom in particular. 

C. 35. The blessings in store for G-od's 
redeemed people. 

CHAPTER 34 

4. Cp. 13io. 5. Shall be bathed] RY < hath 
drunk its fill.' Idumea] RY ' Edom.' 

6. Bozrah] a strongly fortified city of Edom 
(63 1 Ami 12 Jer49 13 ). See the same imagery 
Jer46 10 . The men slain by divine vengeance 
are compared to beasts offered in sacrifice. 

7. Unicorns] RY ' wild-oxen.' Come down] 
i.e. to the shambles. 8. Controversy] 'quarrel.' 
The calamity of Edom is a punishment from 
Jehovah for its hostility to Zion. 

9, 10. Imagery suggested by the fate of 
Sodom and G-omorrah (Jer 49 18 ), and by the 
volcanic character of the land of Edom. 

11-15. A graphic picture of a desolate land 
haunted by wild and uncanny creatures. 

11. Cormorant . . bittern] RY 'pelican . . 
porcupine.' Stones] RY 'plummet,' implying 
that the work of destruction will be as thorough 
as that of building generally is. Confusion . . 
emptiness] The words are those of Gnl 2 , and 
suggest a return to primeval chaos. 

13. Dragons. . owls] RY 'jackals . . os- 
triches ' : cp. 13 21, 22. I4> wild . . islands] RY 
' wolves ' (1322). Satyr] see on 13 21. Screech 
owl] Heb. Lilith, the name of a night-demon 
or vampire; RY ' night-monster.' 15. Great 
owl] RY ' arrowsnake.' 16. Seek, etc.] An 
invitation to future generations to compare 
the event with the prediction, and note its 
precise fulfilment. Fail] RY ' be missing.' 

17. Grod, who assigns to nations their 



437 



35. 1 



ISAIAH 



38. 



territories (Ac 1 7 26 ), has allotted Edom to the 
desert creatures for ever. 

CHAPTER 35 

I. While Edom becomes a desert, for God's 
people, on the other hand, the desert places 
burst into bloom, the fairest parts of Palestine 
sharing their fertile beauty with the waste 
places (v. 2). 

7. Parched ground] RM ' mirage ' : this 
which so often deceives travellers in the desert 
will become a real lake. 

Dragons] RV ' jackals.' 8. An highway] 
by which the exiles may return through the 
desert. 9. Cp.51 11 . 

CHAPTERS 36, 37 

The Invasion of Sennacherib 
An account of Sennacherib's invasion of 
Judah (701 B.C.) and its sudden termination. 
The narrative is closely parallel to that of 
2K18 13 -19 3,r (where see notes), from which 
it was probably taken, and added to this book 
by a compiler because of its bearing on the 
prophetic activity of Isaiah. 

C. 36. 1-3. The mission of the Rabshakeh 
from Sennacherib to Jerusalem. 4-10. The 
Rabshakeh's first speech — the folly of resist- 
ance, relying either upon Egypt, or upon 
Jehovah. 11-20. The Rabshakeh's second 
speech — the fall of Jerusalem certain, favour- 
able terms offered in case of surrender. 
21, 22. The Rabshakeh's words are reported 
to Hezekiah. 

C. 37. 1-7. Hezekiah sends a deputation 
to Isaiah, who in reply foretells the retreat 
of the enemy. 8-13. Sennacherib's second 
embassy to Jerusalem — trust in Jehovah will 
not avail to save the city. 14-20. Heze- 
kiah's prayer to Jehovah to vindicate Himself. 
21-35. The answer through Isaiah — the 
Assyrian is Jehovah's instrument, under His 
control, and shall be turned back from Jeru- 
salem. 36-38. The fulfilment of Isaiah's 
words. 

CHAPTER 36 

1. In the fourteenth year] The chronology is 

difficult. Fi 1 38 1 .">'.> ' we might conclude 

that Hezekiah's sickness and the Babylonian 
embassy followed Sennacherib's invasion, 
whereas chs. 38 and 39 chronologically must 
precede chs. 36, 37. Samaria fell in 722, 
Hezekiah's 6th year (2 K 18 '") ; Sennacherib's 
invasion of Judah was in 701, which would 
therefore be Bezekiah's 27th year. The date 
1 Ith year here given musl then be an error. 
Hezekiah reigned in all 29 years; 15 addition:! I 

years were promised in his sickness ( 38 ■'). which 

accordingly musl have befallen him in his 14th 
pear It looks as though the note of time in 
this v. originally applied to c. 38, where it 



would be accurate, but has by the compiler 
been transposed to the commencement of this 
historical appendix to Isaiah's prophecies. 

2. Rabshakeh] is a title, ' the Rabshakeh,' 
i.e. chief officer, or cupbearer. 6. Broken] 
RV ' bruised.' Pharaoh] This was Tirhakah, 
of the Ethiopian dynasty (37 9 ). 7. The allu- 
sion is to Hezekiah's reformation ; the reduction 
of the number of shrines would seem to a 
heathen to dishonour the national god. 

19. Cp. 109-n. 

CHAPTER 37 

7. Send . . him] RV ' put a spirit in him.' 
22. Virgin] the figure as in 23 12 . 

24. Sides] RV ' innermost parts.' The 
height . . Carmel] RV 'his farthest height, the 
forest of his fruitful field.' 

25. Digged] Deserts cannot impede his 
march, for he digs wells there. Have I dried, 
etc.] RV k will I dry up all the rivers of Egypt ' : 
the Assyrian boasts that he will pass on to 
conquer Egypt. 26. Jehovah is here the 
speaker. Done . . formed it] Referring to the 
ordering of events in the divine providence. 

That thou, etc.] The Assjnrian is Jehovah's 
instrument. 28. Abode] RV ' sitting down.' 

29. My hook] Assyrian sculptures represent 
both captives and beasts as led in this way. 
Jehovah will treat the Assyrian as His cap- 
tive, or as a beast which must be tamed and 
restrained. 

30. A sign given to the people of Judah 
that the Assyrian shall not return. This year, 
the year of the invasion, since the harvest has 
been destroyed they must eat the aftergrowth. 
Since they have not been able to sow this year, 
next year they must depend upon what grows 
of itself, but the year after they will be able 
to sow and reap freely, for the land will be 
free from enemies. 

33~35- Another short utterance repeating 
the promise of deliverance. 36. The striking 
fulfilment of Isaiah's words. The angel] The 
expression points to pestilence as the instru- 
ment of the Assyrians' overthrow (1 Ch 21 14 - u 
p s 78 49, 50). 38. The death of Sennacherib 
took place in G81b.c, so that it did not im- 
mediately follow the discomfiture of his army. 

With the sword] in fulfilment of Isaiah's 
words (v. 7). 

CHAPTER 38 
Sickness and Recovery of Hezekiah, 

Continuation of the historical appendix to 
Isaiah's prophecies. The c. is parallel to 2 K 
20 1 " 11 (where see notes), but contains a con 
siderahle addition in the shape of Hezekiah's 
song of thanksgiving upon his recovery. 
Chronologically this c. precedes 36 and 37: 
sec on 36 '. 

1-8. To Hezekiah in his sickness Isaiah 



438 



38. 1 



ISAIAH 



40. 



promises 15 more years of life, and confirms 
the promise by a sign. 9-20. Hezekiah's song 
of thanksgiving. 21, 22. The remedy for the 
king's disease was suggested by Isaiah, and 
the sign was given at the king's request. 

1. Thus saith, etc.] The passage affords a 
striking illustration of the conditional nature 
of prophetic utterance, for at Hezekiah's inter- 
cession the sentence was revoked. 5. Fifteen 
years] Hezekiah's sickness therefore befell him 
in his 14th year (714) : see on 36 1 . Though 
some long time before Sennacherib's great in- 
vasion, danger was already apprehended from 
Assyria (v. 6). 8. The account in 2K20 8 " 11 
is fuller. Degrees . . sun dial] R V ' steps . . 
steps.' Some kind of clock is evidently indi- 
cated, probably a pillar standing upon steps 
and casting a shadow in such a way that a 
particular portion of time was represented by 
a step. 

10. Cutting off] RY 'noontide.' 11. See 
the LORD] Hezekiah is probably thinking of 
the Temple worship. The v. illustrates the 
gloomy conception of the Hebrews as to the 
state of man after death : cp. v. 18. 12. Cut 
off] RY l rolled up.' With pining sickness] 
RV k from the loom.' From day . . night] i.e. 
in one day. The words refer to the swiftness 
with which the end comes, not to prolongation 
of suffering. 13. I reckoned . . lion] RY ' I 
quieted myself until morning ; as a lion,' etc. 

14. Mourn] i.e. moan, referring to the 
sound made by the dove. Undertake for me] 
RY ' be thou my surety ' : Gn43 9 44^2. 

15. Softly] RM l as in solemn procession' 
(Ps424). In] RY ' because of .' 16. By these 
things] i.e. the word of God and the action of 
His providence. The reference is to the first 
part of v. 15: cp. Dt8 3 Mt4*. So wilt thou] 
RY 'wherefore.' 17. Behold .. bitterness] 
RY ' Behold it was for my peace that I had,' 
etc. He sees on looking back that the chas- 
tisement had been for his good. My sins] 
God's favour in restoration to health is viewed 
as a sign of forgiveness. 

CHAPTER 39 
Alliance with Babylon denounced 
Conclusion of the historical appendix. The 
c. belongs to the period when Merodach-Bala- 
dan of Babylon was making efforts to bring 
the various peoples of W. Asia into alliance 
against the common enemy, the king of As- 
syria (at this time Sargon, 20 1 ). The arrange- 
ment of such alliance with Hezekiah was, 
doubtless, the object of the embassy, and this 
explains Hezekiah's gladness and exhibition of 
his resources (v. 2). Congratulation to the 
king of Judah on his recovery, and enquiry 
into the astronomical marvel at Jerusalem 
(38 8 ) formed pretexts for the embassy (v. 1 ; 
2 K 20 12 2 Ch 32 31). 



1, 2. The embassy from Babylon. 3-8. Isaiah 
rebukes the king and foretells captivity in 
Babylon. 

5 f . Isaiah consistently opposes reliance 
upon a human ally in place of trust in Jeho- 
vah. 6, 7. A remarkable prophecy of cap- 
tivity in Babylon, though the Assyrians were 
the foe which at this time threatened Judah. 

7. Thy sons] fulfilled in the captivity of 
Manasseh (2 Ch 33 n ), and later in the fate of 
Jehoiachin (2K25 27 )- 8. Truth] i.e. stability 
(Jerl4i3). 

With words of pious resignation Hezekiah 
acquiesces in the will of Jehovah (cp. 1 S 3 18 ), 
then in the words that follow — For there shall 
be peace, etc. — he expresses his thankfulness 
that the punishment has been postponed. The 
prediction of the captivity of the royal house 
must have been a great blow to Hezekiah, 
especially so since the Hebrews firmly held 
the principle of the solidarity of the forefather 
and his posterity. The postponement of the 
blow was a divine mercy and token of God's 
favour, for which Hezekiah did well to be 
thankful. It is quite unnecessary to read a 
tone of selfishness into his utterance ; on the 
contrary, his spirit at this time seemed rather 
to have been one of humble contrition 
(2Ch3226). 

CHAPTERS 40-66 
Israel's Restoration from Exile in 

Babylon 
On the authorship and date of these chs. see 
Intro. According to their subject matter, they 
fall naturally into three divisions of almost 
equal length (chs. 40-48, 49-57, and 58-66), 
the close of each division being marked by an 
intimation that the wicked shall not share in 
the blessings promised to God's people. 

§ 1. CHAPTERS 40-48 
The hope of return is grounded by the 
prophet upon the fact that Jehovah is the only 
God, the Creator and Ruler of all things, the 
Disposer of the fate of nations, who guides 
the course of history according to His will. 
The tone of this section is argumentative, the 
respective claims of Jehovah and of the heathen 
gods being discussed as in a court of justice. 
The object of the argument is to encourage 
the Jews in their exile by showing that, since 
Jehovah is thus supreme, no obstacles will be 
able to interfere with the restoration to their 
own land which He has promised. With fine 
irony the prophet exhibits the infatuation of 
idol-makers and idol-worshippers ; proving 
that, while the idols are senseless blocks and 
less than nothing (40 17 ), Jehovah is Lord of 
the world and controls all things. The Israel- 
ites can testify to His power, because through 
His prophets He has told them of things be- 



439 



40. 1 



ISAIAH 



41. 8 



fore they came to pass. Jehovah is, therefore, 
set forth as the deliverer of His people. But 
in the carrying out of His purposes He employs 
agents : (a) Cyrus, who is commissioned as His 
shepherd (44 28 ), His anointed (45 *), to perform 
all His pleasure in the overthrow of Babylon 
and deliverance of the Israelites from their 
exile ; (b) the nation of Israel, which has its 
own work to do in the furthering of Jehovah's 
purposes. The title ' servant of Jehovah,' 
hitherto applied to individuals, is in these chs. 
(418 441,2,21 4820) applied to the nation in its 
corporate capacity : perhaps also, though less 
directly, to the faithful Jews within the nation 
(42 1-7,18 438,10) on w hom would devolve the 
fulfilment of God's will. The name implies, in 
the first place, the fact of the nation's election 
by Jehovah (48 8f -), and further the truth that 
Israel has a mission in the world, viz. to 
bring the knowledge of true religion to the 
Gentiles, and be a means of universal blessing 
(42 i f -). 

CHAPTER 40 
The Proclamation of Deliverance 

1, 2. The theme of the prophecies following: 
the period of Zion's trouble and affliction is 
over. 3-26. Celestial voices give the message 
of restoration to God's people, who are en- 
couraged by the thought of His infinite power. 
27-31. Trust in Jehovah is, therefore, the 
source of true strength. 

2. Warfare] RM l time of service,' i.e. en- 
forced service and hardship : cp. Job 7 1 . Double] 
i.e. double (ample) penalty (Jerl7 18 ), in the 
sufferings of the exile. 

3-5. A first voice enjoins preparation for the 
progress of the great King, who will bring back 
His people from exile. 3. Crieth, etc.] RY 
' crieth, Prepare ye in the wilderness.' The 
passage was understood by the Baptist as pro- 
phetic of his own mission ( Jn 1 23 ), and is so 
taken by the Evangelists (Mt3 3 and parallels). 

4. This imagery is from the practice of East- 
ern monarchs, who thus made roads for the 
passage of their armies. 5. Shall see] shall see 
Jehovah's glorious deeds for His people, and 
acknowledge Him. 

6-8. The message of the second voice. 
Human things must decay : Israel's oppressors 
are mortal, but Jehovah's promise is sure. 6. He 
said] i.e. the prophet himself ; then in the words 
following, in reply to his question, a message is 
put into his mouth. 7. Spirit] R V ' breath,' or 
wind. 

9-1 1. The third voice — the good tidings 
broughl t<> /ion thai .Jehovah is approaching 
in triumph, bringing back Sis people. 9. Read, 

• () thou lh.it Idlest good tidings to /ion . . <> 

thou ttiat idlest good tidings to Jerusalem. 1 
'Thou that tellesl 1^ teiii.iu Heb. The prophel 
in spirit sees a maiden, or a company of women 



(Ps68 n ), bringing the news. 10. His reward, 
etc.] The figure is that of a conqueror bringing 
the spoils of war. His work] RY l recom- 
pense,' his redeemed people regarded as the 
prize of war. 11. The v. indicates in a figure 
the tender care with which God will support 
His people on their journey home. Are with 
young] RY ' give suck.' 

12-26. The prophet's object is to show the 
power of Jehovah to deliver the people from 
captivity. He emphasises two thoughts : (a) 
the wonderful order and proportion in the 
universe show His infinite power and wisdom 
(vv. 12-17), and (6) no representation can be 
made of Him. How futile are the idols that 
men make ! (vv. 18-20). 

20. RY ' He that is too impoverished for 
sicch an oblation,' etc. 24. Shall not] read 
the tenses as past (RY). The v. expresses 
the transitory character of earthly powers in 
the sight of Jehovah. 26. Faileth] is missing. 

27. The foregoing argument is addressed 
to a people who had suffered so long, that 
they thought God had forgotten them, and 
were despondent. 

CHAPTER 41 
Cyrus God's Agent 

1-7. Jehovah and the gods of the heathen 
compared as in a court of judgment. Jehovah 
has raised up Cyrus and given him victory, 
in order to carry out His good purposes, while 
the heathen gods are powerless to affect the 
course of events. 8-20. A digression : the 
events which bring terror to the nations bring 
deliverance to Israel. 21-29. Comparison of 
Jehovah with the gods of the heathen con- 
tinued. 

1. The heathen nations lately conquered 
by Cyrus are called to plead their case as in 
a law-court. 

2-4. The evidence produced on Jehovah's 
side. It is He who has called Cyrus to his 
career of conquest in fulfilment of His own 
purpose. 2. Who raised up, etc.] RV ' Who 
hath raised up one from the east, whom he 
calleth in righteousness to his foot,' i.e. to 
accompany Him. The one thus raised up is 
Cyrus : cp. 44 ' 28 46 n . He is called in righteous- 
ness by Jehovah, i.e. in fidelity to His covenanl 
promises, which are to be realised through 
Cyrus. See the same thought, 42 6 4. r > 13 . 

5-7. The heathen, alarmed by Cyrus's suc- 
cesses, make alliances for mutual support, and 
attempt to avert disaster by manufacturing or 
repairing idols. 7. Saying 1 , etc.] RY 'saying 
of the soldering, It is good. 1 

8-10. Israel, on the other hand, descended 
Prom the patriarchs, God's chosen people, need 
have no Pear. 

8. Servant] with a special mission, as will 
hereafter appear. But here the emphasis is 



440 



41.9 



ISAIAH 



43. 10 



on what God does for Israel, not on what 
Israel does for God. Friend] cp. 2Ch20 7 
Jas 2 23 . ' The friend of God ' is still the usual 
title of Abraham in the East. 9. Chief men] 
RY ' corners.' 10. My righteousness] i.e. 
faithfulness to My purpose as declared in My 
promises (see v. 2). 11-14. It i s impossible 
that the servant thus chosen and honoured 
can be cast off (oppressed for ever). 

15-16. With Jehovah's aid Israel shall be- 
come terrible to its foes. 

17-20. Jehovah will make easy their return 
through the desert, exchanging their misery 
and need for plenty and happiness, that man 
may acknowledge Him. 18. High places] 
RY ' bare heights.' 19. Shittah] RY 'acacia.' 

21. The v. reverts to the scene of the court 
of judgment (v. 1). 22, 23. A challenge to 
heathen gods to foretell the future, to do 
something or other to show that they exist. 

24. The case is summed up against them. 

25. Jehovah, on the other hand, has shown 
His power by raising up Cyrus. The north . . 
the rising of the sun] referring to the Medo- 
Persian empire. Princes] i.e. of Babylon, 
who hold Israel in bondage. 26, 27. While 
the heathen oracles have been dumb, Jehovah 
has promised restoration to Zion. 26. He is 
righteous] i.e. has been proved right by the 
fulfilment of His prophecy. 27. RY ' I first 
will say unto Zion,' etc. Behold them] the 
returning exiles. 28, 29. No reply is possible 
on the part of the heathen ; their gods are 
nought. 

CHAPTER 42 
The ideal Servant 

1-9. The characteristics and functions of 
Israel as the ideal Servant of Jehovah. 10-17. 
A song of praise to Jehovah. 18-25. The 
deficiencies of the actual Israel, considered as 
Jehovah's Servant. 

1. My servant] On the conception of these 
chs. see Intro. Judgment] or 'right.' The 
Servant's office is to teach the world true reli- 
gion. 2, 3. He will not be ostentatious nor 
unduly severe. How Christ corresponded to 
the ideal is noted in Mtl2 17 " 21 3. Smoking 
flax] RM ' dimly-burning wick.' Unto truth] 
RY ' in truth.' 

4. The v. implies that the Servant's work 
will be attended with difficulty, which he will 
face and overcome. Set judgment] established 
true religion. 

6. Two purposes of the Servant's call indi- 
dicated, (a) to be the embodiment of a new 
covenant with Israel (the people), (b) to be the 
instrument of a revelation to the Gentiles. 

In righteousness] i.e. in faithfulness to My 
purpose as declared in My promises (41 2 > 10 
45 13 ). 7. The thought of enlightenment con- 
tinued, the imagery being suggested by the 



condition of the Jews in exile. 8, 9. A re- 
turn to the thought of Jehovah's superiority 
to heathen gods. He shows His control of 
events by foretelling them. 11. Kedar] the 
tribes of Arabia. The rock] RY ' Sela,' the 
rock-city of Edom. 

13-17. The vv. refer to the coming deliver- 
ance : in vv. 14 f. the speaker is Jehovah. 

13. Jealousy] on behalf of His people : cp. 
9 7 . 14. Holden my peace] leaving prayers 
unanswered (Ps 28 x Habl 13 ). Refrained my- 
self] not interposing by miracles or mighty 
acts. During the period of the exile there 
had been no divine interposition on behalf of 
Israel. Destroy and devour] RY ' gasp and 
pant.' 15, 16. The difficulties in the way of 
the returning exiles will disappear. 

18-20. Israel, though called to be Jehovah's 
Servant, cannot comprehend His message given 
through the prophet. Note the contrast to 
the ideal Servant (vv. 1-4), which suggests 
that, in the end, the Servant will be an Israel 
within Israel. 1 9. Perfect] R Y ' at peace with 
me.' 20. Opening the ears] RY ' his ears are 
open.' 21. RY ' It pleased the Lokd, for 
his righteousness' sake, to magnify,' etc. In 
accordance with His purpose, Jehovah had sent 
prophetic teachers : their teaching had been 
great and glorious, both in itself and in its ful- 
filment. The law] RM ' the teaching,' given 
through His prophets. Jehovah, on His part, 
graciously taught His people, but their insen- 
sibility (vv. 18-20) has brought them to their 
present condition of misery and exile (vv. 22- 
25). 23. Who among you, etc.] i.e. who will 
learn the lesson of the past ? 

CHAPTER 43 

The Mission of Iskael 
1-21. The dispersed Israelites shall be ran- 
somed and restored. They are witnesses before 
the world that Jehovah is the true God. A 
second and more wonderful exodus is in store 
for Israel. 22-28. This deliverance is not a 
return for service rendered to God, but a free 
gift. 

1. But now] In contrast to the wrath poured 
upon Israel (42 24 > 25 ) God will manifest His 
redeeming love. 3. Egypt, etc.] The mean- 
ing is that these nations shall take the place 
of Israel as vassals. Jehovah is willing to 
give the richest lands as ransom for His people. 
4. Thou hast been] RY ' and hast been.' 
People] RY ' peoples.' 5, 6. Every nation 
where Israelites were dispersed must restore 
them to their home. 

8. Blind, etc.] see 42 18 . 9I Another judg- 
ment scene, similar to 41 21 . 9. The heathen 
are challenged to bring witnesses on behalf of 
their gods, that they can foretell the future. 

10-13. The Israelites themselves are Je- 
hovah's witnesses, proving in their experience 



441 



43. 14 



ISAIAH 



45.1 



that He alone is the Eternal, the Almighty, 
who can save and foretell the future. 

14. Babylon] Here for the first time the 
place of exile is named. Have . . nobles] RY 
1 will bring down all of them as fugitives, even 
the Chaldeans.' Whose cry, etc.] RY ' in the 
ships of their rejoicing. ' Babylonia was famous 
for its shipping ; ships belonging to it and 
other cities on the Persian Gulf are referred 
to in the earliest Babylonian legends. 

16, 17. The imagery for this second exodus 
is borrowed from the exodus from Egypt. 

18, 19. The mighty works of the past shall 
be forgotten, in view of a still greater deliver- 
ance : cp. Jer23 7 > 8 . 20. Dragons .. owls] 
RV ' jackals . . ostriches.' 

22-24. Israel's service has not been such as 
to deserve Jehovah's interposition. 23. Small 
cattle] Heb. ' lambs or kids ' (mg.). I have 
not caused, etc.] i.e. I have not laid too heavy 
burdens on you. 24. Sweet cane] from which 
anointing oil was prepared (Ex30 23 ). Thou 
hast made me to serve, etc.] i.e. I have had 
to endure. 

26. An invitation to produce any argument 
in defence of their conduct. 27, 28. Nothing 
can be urged ; they have sinned from the be- 
ginning of their national existence ; hence the 
calamity of the exile, which has made them an 
object of scorn to the world. 27. First father] 
Jacob: cp.v. 28. 28. Profaned, etc.] i.e. treated 
the chief priests (cp. 1 Ch24 5 ) as though they 
were ordinary unconsecrated men. During the 
exile their priestly functions were in abeyance. 

CHAPTER 44 
The Impotence of Idols 

1-23. The reproach of God's people shall 
be entirely removed. Jehovah the Eternal, 
who rules the events of history, contrasted 
with the futile gods of the heathen. 24-28. 
This great Jehovah "pledges the restoration of 
His people through Cyrus. 

2. Jesurun] i.e. ' upright,' a symbolic name 
of Israel (Dt32 15 ), indicating its ideal char- 
acter. Fear not] i.e. on account of past failure 
and apparent inability to realise the future 
which God sets before you. 3. Cp. 43 20 . 

5. The meaning is that the nations of the 
world will count it an honour to associate 
themselves with Israel and be reckoned as the 
Lord's people. Subscribe, etc.] i.e. sign him- 
self as the Lord's. Surname himself] as with 
a title of honour. 

6. Cp. I.;" I; . His redeemer] i.e. the de- 
liverer of Israel. 7. A challenge to others to 
foretell the future, as Jehovah does by His 
prophet (II'). RM 'And who. as 1. can 
proclaim ? let him declare it,' etc. 8. From 
that time] RV 'of old.' My witnesses] Bee 
48 |n '•'. No God j RV « no Rock.' Rock, as 
b title of Cod (ep. 17 1,J Dt32*»iM8) } expresses 



the permanent strength and protection He 
affords. 

8-20. The folly of idolaters exposed. 

9. They are their own, etc.] RY ' their own 
witnesses see not,' i.e. the witnesses on behalf 
of the idols (the heathen), as opposed to Je- 
hovah's witnesses (the Jews), v. 8. 11. All 
his fellows] RM 'all that join themselves 
thereto.' They are of men] i.e. of human 
origin, and, therefore, cannot make God. Read, 
' The smith sharpeneth a tool and worketh,' 
etc. (RM). 12. Description of the making of 
a metal idol. The maker is frail man. 

13, etc. Description of the making of a 
wooden idol. A line] RY ' a pencil/ Fitteth] 
RY ' shapeth.' 14. The v. describes the choos- 
ing of the wood, and the planting of the tree, 
for making an idol. Cypress . . ash] R Y ' holm 
tree . . fir.' Strengthened] i.e. carefully tends 
its growth, or chooses, selects. 15-17. The 
uses to which the tree is put. Part is used for 
human purposes, part to make a god. 

18-20. Idolaters are so infatuated that they 
do not see the contradiction involved in such 
conduct. 

21-23. A contrast. Jehovah will show His 
power and graciousness in the deliverance of 
His people. 22. A cloud] which soon dis- 
perses. 24. He is supreme over all things. 

By myself] RY ' who is with me ? ' implying 
that Jehovah alone does these things. 25. He 
frustrates false prophets, but pledges Himself 
to fulfil the predictions of His own prophets 
as to the restoration of Jerusalem (vv. 26-28). 

26. Servant] here a synonym for ' prophet ' : 
cp. 20 3 . Messengers] the prophets generally. 

27. The allusion is to the drying up, (a) 
of the waters which would impede the re- 
turning exiles, or (b) of the waters wliich 
protected Babylon (Jer50 38 51 36 ). Cyrus, in 
fact, entered Babylon by diverting the Euphra- 
tes from its usual channel and marching by 
the river bed. 

28. As the Assyrian was Jehovah's appoint- 
ed instrument for the chastisement of His 
people (10 5f -), so Cyrus is singled out as His 
instrument for their restoration. Even saying, 
etc.] literally fulfilled in the decree of Cyrus 
(Ezrli f - 2 Ch 36 22, 23). 

CHAPTER 45 
The Meaning of the Conquests of Cybus 

1-13. The conquests of Cyrus arc ordained 
by Jehovah for His purposes. Let no1 [srael 
criticise the manner of its deliverance. 14-17* 
Great honour awaits Israel. 18-25. All the 
world shall recognise Jehovah's righteousness 
and power. 

1. His anointed] as being consecrated to 
carry out the purposes of Jehovah, i.e. to 
release Israel from Babylon. This is the 
only place where a non-Israelite king is so 



442 



45. 2 



ISAIAH 



48. 1 



entitled. Somewhat similarly Nebuchadnezzar 
is called Jehovah's servant (Jer 27 6 43 10 ). 

Whose right hand I have holden] cp. 41 13 . 

Loose the loins] lit. ' ungird,' i.e. disarm. 

The two leaved gates] i.e. of the cities which 
Cyrus attacks. 

2. Crooked . . straight] RV ' rugged . . plain.' 

3. Treasures] referring primarily to the vast 
wealth of Babylon : cp. Jer51 13 . Cyrus also 
captured Sardis with the riches of Croesus 
(Herod. I, 84). 4. Surnamed] i.e.- given an 
honourable title, referring to ' Anointed ' 
(v. 1), or to 'shepherd' (44 28 ). 5. Though 
thou hast] better, ' when thou didst not know 
me,' i.e. before thy birth : cp. 49 1 . Or it may 
mean, before thou didst acknowledge me: cp. 
Ezr 1 !> 2 . 7. Evil] not moral evil, but mis- 
fortune or calamity, the opposite of peace. 

8. Righteousness] i.e. fidelity to promises : 
so also v. 13. 

9f. A possible objection is now met from 
Israelites dissatisfied, either with the nationality 
of the deliverer (a Gentile instead of a prince of 
the House of David), or with the tardy approach 
of the deliverance. Let . . potsherd] RY ' a 
potsherd among the potsherds of the earth ! ' 

11. Ask, etc.] Read as interrogative, ' Will 
ye ask . . will ye command me ? ' 13. Him] 
i.e. Cyrus. Will Israel venture to dictate to 
Jehovah what He shall ordain for His people ? 

14. The nations shall come to acknowledge 
the God of Israel. 15. An exclamation of 
wonder on the prophet's part at the unsearch- 
able ways of God. Some have understood the 
words as an expression of the wondering adora- 
tion of the nations. Hidest] refers to the 
period of the exile, when Jehovah seemed not 
to hear the prayers of His people nor to help 
them. 19. Not., in secret] Jehovah had 
plainly foretold the future, so that men might 
compare the prophecy with the event. I said 
not . . Seek ye me in vain] Israel's hopes will 
not be disappointed. 

21. A challenge to the idolaters, Jehovah 
is the only God who can fulfil His prophecies ; 
therefore shall all the nations acknowledge 
Him (vv. 22, 23). 23. The religion of Israel 
is to become the religion of the whole world. 
This anticipation finds its fulfilment in the 
Christian dispensation, and thus St. Paul ap- 
plies the latter part of the v. to Christ in Phil 
210,11. 24. Read, 'Only in the Lord, shall 
one say unto me, is righteousness and strength.' 

25. Be justified] lit. ' be righteous.' 

CHAPTER 46 

The Contrast between Jehovah and 

the Deities of Babylon 
1, 2. The idols of Babylon will be borne 
away by the conquerors amongst the spoil, the 
gods being powerless to save their images. 
1. Bel] the chief Babylonian deity (Jer 50 2 ). 



Boweth . . stoopeth] before the conqueror. 

Nebo] son of Bel, the Babylonian Mercury. 
The name means 're vealer.' Your carriages, 
etc.] RV ' the things that ye carried about in 
processions are made a load,' of spoil for the 
conquerors: see on 10 28 . 3, 4. So far from 
being thus ignominiously carried about, Jeho- 
vah, on the other hand, carries His people. 

5-7. The argument against idolatry renewed 
(40i8f. 44 9 f.). 

8 f . These vv. are addressed to those amongst 
the Jews who were inclined to object to God's 
manner of deliverance (cp. 45 9 ); they are 
bidden to remember the things He has done 
for His people in the past (v. 9), and how He 
has shown by prophecy that He orders events 
according to His purpose (v. 10); they may 
accordingly rely on the fulfilment of the 
prophecies concerning Cyrus (v. 11). 11. A 
ravenous bird] i.e. Cyrus. The conqueror is 
compared to a bird of prey as in Jer 49 22 Ezk 
17 3 . The image is the more appropriate, 
because the standard of Cyrus was a golden 
eagle. 12. Stouthearted] i.e. stubborn. 

CHAPTER 47 

An Ode on the Humiliation op 

Babylon 

1-15* The coming calamity. The reason of 
Babylon's fall. Her helplessness to avert it. 

2. Grind] i.e. as a slave (Ex ll 5 ). 

Uncover, etc.] RY ' remove thy veil, strip 
off the train, uncover the leg.' The over- 
throw of the city is set forth under the figure 
of a maiden carried away into slavery. Pass 
over] on the way to exile. 3. Will not meet, 
etc.] RY 'will accept no man,' i.e. none shall 
be spared. 

6. Babylon is to be thus punished because, 
when the Jewish exiles were in her power, she 
had treated them cruelly (Zech 1 15 ), and in her 
false security she acted as though irresponsible 
(vv. 7, 8). Polluted] i.e. treated as common, 
RY ' profaned.' 9. Perfection for] ' full mea- 
sure in spite of.' Sorceries] Babylon was 
renowned in the ancient world for astrology, 
and for the practice of all kinds of magic. 

11. From whence it riseth] RM 'how to 
charm it away.' 12. Stand . . with] i.e. per- 
sist in. 13. See on v. 9. 14. There shall not 
be] ' it shall not be,' i.e. it will not be like a fire 
on the hearth, but a devouring conflagration. 

CHAPTER 48 

Let the Exiles trust in Jehovah, and 

come out of Babylon 

i-ii. Jehovah's purpose will be executed, 

but not for Israel's merit. 12-22. Let Israel 

recognise His leading in the course of history, 

and learn to obey Him. 

1. The prophet here addresses those whose 
professions of allegiance to Jehovah are hollow 



443 



48. 3 



ISAIAH 



49. 



(46 8 ), and who in the land of exile had in their 
hearts apostatised : cp. 42 17 . Come . . waters] 
i.e. are descended from Judah (Ps68 26 ). 

3-5. Events of their history had been fore- 
told by Jehovah long before they happened, 
lest in their perversity they should attribute 
them to their false gods. 

6-8. But now the things Jehovah purposes 
are declared on the eve of the event, lest in 
their presumption they should say that they 
knew them before. 

6. I have shewed] RM 'I shew.' 7. Before, 
etc.] RV k and before this day thou heardest 
them not.' 8. Yea, from, etc.] RV ' yea, from 
of old thine ear,' etc. 10. Read, ' not as silver' 
(R V). So severe a refining (Ps 12 6 ) would have 
meant the destruction of Israel. Chosen] RM 
'tried.' n. Do it] i.e. execute My purpose. 

13. Spanned] RV'stretchedout.' 14. Achal- 
lenge to the heathen, as in 43 9 . 14, 15. Loved 
him . . called him] i.e. Cyrus : cp. 44 28 45 1 . 

16. Jehovah, unlike the idols (v. 14), declared 
the future unambiguously. And now] i.e. now 
that the crisis is at hand the Lord has sent His 
prophet with the message of deliverance. 

18, 19. Hadst hearkened . . had been as] This 
is the literal rendering, but the passage may be 
a promise for the future, ' that thou wouldst 
hearken . . shall be.' 19. Thy seed, etc.] Old 
promises would have been realised (Gn 22 17 ). 

20. The exiles are bidden to prepare to leave 
Babylon. 21. The imagery is from the former 
exodus from Egypt. 22. Those who are un- 
faithful cannot share the promised peace. The 
words are repeated almost exactly at 57 21 . 

§ 2. CHAPTERS 49-57 

This section is not so argumentative in tone 
as the last. Its distinguishing feature is the 
development of the prophet's teaching concern- 
ing the Servant of Jehovah. The conception 
seems to arise, as has been noted, with the 
nation considered collectively as a Servant of 
God (4 1 8. 9 44 1. 2 . 21 45 4 ). So long as the atti- 
tude and work of God in relation to the nation 
are solely in view, there is no limitation of the 
idea ; but when the nation's work and attitude 
to Him and the fulfilment of His purposes 
come to be considered, the Servant of God 
m. ins to take on a narrower sense. The actual 
Israel, with its many shortcomings — its blind- 
ness to the truth, its deafness to God's message 
— gives way to those more select souls — a part 
only of the people — through whom the duties 
and destiny of the nation will be fulfilled. At 
the same time, it is clear that the idea pusses 
on t<> an individual distinct from the nation 
( t'.i ■'■ •' '). in whom are concentrated all the attri- 
butes of the ideal nation, and who shall realise 
all thai [graft] was intended to be. Hischaracter 
and office are thus delineated : (a) He is pre- 
pared by Jehovah from the womb for His life- 



work (49 !> 2 ) ; (b) He is endowed with the Divine 
Spirit (42 *) ; (c) He is not ostentatious or un- 
duly severe (42 2 . 3 ) ; (cl) He is to be the embodi- 
ment of a New Covenant between Jehovah and 
His people (426 498); (e) and to teach all 
nations true religion (42 1. 6 49 6 ) ; (f) but most 
remarkable of all, and especially characteristic 
of this division of the book, are the passages 
which intimate that this great work is only to 
be accomplished through humiliation, suffering, 
and death, issuing in a new and glorious life. 
The first hint that the Servant's work is to be 
carried on in face of difficulty and discourage- 
ment is found in 42 4 . His exposure to insult 
and contumely in the exercise of His mission 
is expressly indicated in 50 6 ; then follows 
(52 13 -53) a section entirely devoted to the sub- 
ject, in which the prominent features are the 
Servant's gentleness and patience under afflic- 
tion, the vicarious nature of His sufferings, 
which are not endured on His own account, but 
for the sins of His people, and the intimation 
that after pain and death there awaits Him new 
life full of joy in the contemplation of the suc- 
cess of His work. The correspondence, even in 
detail, with the Passion of Jesus Christ cannot 
fail to arrest attention. The way in which the 
Servant is despised and misunderstood by His 
contemporaries (53 3 ), His patience and silence 
before His accusers (53 7 ), and His association 
with malefactors in His death (53 9 ) : these read 
like a description of what happened in the case 
of our Lord. How far the prophet understood 
the meaning of his own words it is difficult to 
say. No doubt he was thinking at the outset 
of the faithful core of Israel as being Jehovah's 
Servant with a great mission to accomplish, 
and the experience of the exile showed him that 
this great work for the whole world was only 
to be wrought through contumely and suffer- 
ing ; yet Jehovah sometimes spake ' with a 
strong hand' (Ezk3 14 ), and we can scarcely 
doubt that the Divine Spirit in these wonderful 
passages through the prophet foreshadowed 
the things that should be suffered and accom- 
plished by the perfect Servant of God, the 
embodiment of Israel's splendid ideal, our 
Lord Jesus Christ. 

CHAPTERS 49, 50 
The Servant of Jehovah 

C. 49. 1-13. The Servant of Jehovah tells 
of His call and mission. Jehovah confirms tin 
confidence of His servant. 14-26. Objections 
arising from little faith answered : (a) it can- 
not be that Zion is forgotten by Jehovah, as 
she thought (vv. 14-23) ; (b) the grasp of 
the captors is not too strong for Jehovah to 
release His people (vv. 24-26). 

C. 50. I— 11. The people's banishment is 
not by Jehovah's will, and He is able to de- 
liver them. The Servant of Jehovah declares 



444 



49.1 



ISAIAH 



51.6 



the conditions of his work. The prophet's the terrible one ' (Yulg., Syr., RM). 26. Feed, 



comment on the Servant's words. 

CHAPTER 49 

1. The speaker is the Servant of Jehovah. 
From the womb] The thought is that of pre- 
destined creation, as in Jer 1 5 Lk 1 15 Gal 1 15 . 

2. He is trained and protected by Jehovah. 

3. Though here identified with Israel as 
fulfilling its ideal, the Servant is yet a Person 
distinct from the nation, or perhaps a per- 
sonification of the pious core of the nation, 
who is to be the means of its restoration (v. 6). 

4. Though for a moment discouraged, the 
thought that God will vindicate the right and 
reward him reassures him. Work] RV ' re- 
compense.' 5. Though . . glorious] RV ' and 
that Israel be gathered unto Him ; for I am 
honourable.' 6. Cp. 42 6 . The Servant's 
mission is not limited to Israel. He is to 
proclaim a world-wide salvation. 

7. A promise to the nation now despised 
and in bondage that the highest honour is yet 
in store for it. And he shall choose] RV 
' who hath chosen.' 8. To establish, etc.] 
RV ' to raise up the land, to make them in- 
herit,' fulfilled in the first place in the work 
of Zerubbabel. Give thee for a covenant, etc.] 
see 42 6 . 9. Cp. 42 7 . High places] RV 'bare 
heights.' The prisoners] i.e. in Babylon. 

10, 11. The journey homeward shall be 
made easy for them. The language of v. 10 
is borrowed in Rev7 16 > 17 . 10. Heat] pro- 
perly, 'mirage' (35 ' r ). 12. From all quarters 
the returning exiles will come. Sinim stands 
for distant lands generally ; in the opinion of 
most scholars it strictly signifies China. 

16. Graven] refers to the custom of tattoo- 
ing, by which devotees often indicated their 
consecration to a deity. According to the 
prophet's bold figure, Jehovah is devoted to 
Jerusalem, and cannot use His hands without 
being reminded of her. 17. Children] LXX 
and Vulgate read, ' builders.' 

19. The land of thy destruction] RV ' thy 
land that hath been destroyed.' 20. The 
children . . other] RV ' the children of thy 
bereavement,' i.e. the children born in the 
days (of the exile) when Zion thought herself 
bereft of all her children. 

22. Arms] RV ' bosom.' A particular ful- 
filment of vv. 22, 23 may be traced in the 
favour shown by Persian monarchs to Jeru- 
salem after the return from the exile (Ezr 
11-4 61-15 711 Neh2!-9) ; a higher and spiritual 
fulfilment in the way in which princes in all 
lands have shown themselves patrons of the 
Church. 

24. An incredulous question on the part of 
despondent Israelites. Lawful (lit. ' righteous ') 
captive] i.e. captive taken from the righteous, 
or, adopting a slight emendation, ' captive of 



etc.] a figure expressing the destruction of 
Zion's enemies by mutual hostility (9 20 ). 

CHAPTER 50 

1. The children of Zion (49 20 > 21 ) are ad- 
dressed. Their servitude is not irrevocable ; 
Jehovah has not formally repudiated Zion 
(Dt24 1 ) ; nor, though they had to learn by 
discipline, can any creditors claim His people 
as slaves (2X4*) : cp. Jer 24 4-6 Ezk37. 

2, 3. The imagery is from the exodus 
from Egypt. 2. Wherefore . . answer] These 
clauses emphasise the hopelessness of Israel's 
case from a human point of view. Only 
the divine power could effect the deliverance 
of the exiles. 

4. The Servant of Jehovah is here the 
speaker (as in 49 i). He is taught by Jehovah, 
receiving the divine message each morning. 

To speak, etc.] RV ' to sustain with words 
him that is weary.' 5, 6. The Servant does 
not shrink from his mission in spite of the 
suffering and humiliation involved. 

7, 9. Being sustained by the strength of 
Jehovah, and therefore confident of victory, 
he is unflinching and challenges his adversaries. 

10, 11. Words addressed by the prophet to 
the Israelites ; let the faithful ones amongst 
the exiles trust in Jehovah (v. 10) ; as for 
those who resist Him and arm themselves 
against His prophets, their weapons shall recoil 
upon themselves (v. 11). 10. Read, ' . . ser- 
vant ? he that walketh in darkness and hath 
no light, let him trust,' etc. (RV). 

11. Sparks] RV 'firebrands.' 

CHAPTERS 51-5212 
The Hope of speedy Return for the 
Exiles 
C. 51. 1 -1 6. Encouragement from con- 
sideration of the past. Jehovah's purpose 
for His people is sure. Prayer for deliver- 
ance (based on the deliverance of the exodus). 
Jehovah in response reassures His people. 
17-23. The divine wrath, which was upon Jeru- 
salem, shall be turned against her oppressors. 
C. 52. 1-6. The glorious change in Zion's 
fortune. 7-12. The deliverance of the exiles 
imminent. 

CHAPTER 51 

I, 2. In the past God made Israel a great 
nation from a single ancestor, and that wonder- 
ful growth should be an encouragement to 
the righteous remnant now to believe in their 
restoration. _ 2. Alone] RV ' when he was but 
one,' i.e. childless. 

4. A law, etc.] through Israel, Jehovah 
purposes to reveal Himself to the nations 
(42i). 4> 5 . The people] RV 'peoples.' 

6. The v. contrasts the certainty of God's 



445 



51.8 



ISAIAH 



53.4 






purposes for His people with the transitory 
character of the visible world. 8. My right- 
eousness] i.e. as shown in faithfulness to My 
promises. 

9-1 1. An appeal from Israel to Jehovah 
that He will show His power as of old at the 
exodus, that the exiles may return triumph- 
antly to Zion. 9. Rahab] a symbolic name 
for Egypt, as in 30 7 KV. Dragon] standing 
for Egypt (Ps74is). 

12-16. God assures His people of their 
speedy deliverance. 13. As if .. ready] RV 
1 when he maketh ready.' 14. Read, ' He that 
is bowed down shall speedily be loosed, and 
he shall not die in the pit, neither shall his 
bread fail.' 

15. Divided, etc.] RY ' stirreth up the sea, 
that the waves thereof roar.' Jehovah rules 
in the world, and therefore has power to per- 
form His promise. 16. While vv. 12 f. are 
spoken to the Jewish exiles, the parallel 
between this passage and 49 2 suggests that 
the ideal Israel — Jehovah's Servant — is here 
addressed. 

17. Hast drunk] The prostrate condition 
of Jerusalem under the wrath of Jehovah is 
set forth under the figure of one stupefied 
and reeling owing to a deep draught. 19. By 
whom] RV ' how.' 20. A wild bull] RV ' an 
antelope ' : the figure denotes helplessness. 

21-23. Jehovah's wrath is now to be turned 
against Jerusalem's oppressors. 

CHAPTER 52112 

1, 2. Zion invited to array herself as a 
queen and sit enthroned, freed from the pre- 
sence of heathen foes, and with her children 
restored from captivity. 1. Thy strength] 
Strength returns to Zion when the Arm of 
Jehovah works within her (51 9 ). 3. Her 
captors paid no price, and therefore have no 
claim upon her. 4. The Assyrian oppressed] 
alluding to the sufferings of God's people at 
the hands of Sargon and Sennacherib. 

5. What have I] RV 'what do L' The 
argument is that the Egyptian and Assyrian 
oppressors were but temporary ; is there any 
reason why the Babylonian exile should be 
permanent ? Make . . howl] RV ' do howl.' 

Every day] RV 'all the day.' 6. Shall 
know my name] Owing to the exile men had 
doubted Jehovah's power (cp. v. 5, 'my 
name.. is blasphemed'), but in the ensuing 
deliverance Be will vindicate Himself, and 
His people shall know Him in His true 
character. 

7. Op. 40*. This and the following w. 
refer to fche return from the exile. 8. Watch- 
men] maj refer to prophets (cp. 21 ,; - ll - 1 '-' 56 '"). 
or to heavenly spirits (cp. Dan4 u ). Eye to 
eye] i.e. ns one looks into fche eye of his 
friend. 10. His holy arm] cp. 51°. 



11. No unclean thing] cp. v. 1. That bear 
the vessels, etc.] i.e. the priests and Levites, 
who are to carry back to Jerusalem for use in 
the restored Temple the sacred utensils, which 
Nebuchadnezzar had taken away to Babylon. 
See the fulfilment of this recorded in Ezr 
l 7 * 11 . 12. With haste, etc.] in contrast to 
the exodus from Egypt (Ex 12 39). 

Rereward] i.e. rearguard. 

CHAPTER 5213-5312 
The Suffering of Jehovah's Servant: 
its Meaning and Results 
See introductory note to chs. 49-57. 
C. 52. 13-15. The contrast between the 
Servant's humiliation and exaltation ; its 
effect upon the world. 

C. 53. 1 -1 2. The import of the Servant's 
suffering not understood. The vicarious nature 
and triumphant issue of the Servant's suffering. 

CHAPTER 5213-is 

13. Deal prudently] RV wisely.' The word 
implies success as the result of prudent plan ; 
it is used of David's behaviour (1 S18 14 >i 5 > 3 0). 

Exalted, etc.] The idea is repeated for 
emphasis. 

14. 15. At the Servant's exaltation, following 
upon his deep humiliation and suffering, the 
nations and their rulers are dumb with awe, 
and learn truth unknown before. This was 
fulfilled in the effect upon the world of the 
resurrection and exaltation of Christ following 
upon His passion. 

15. So corresponds to as (v. 14), the words 
his visage . . men being a parenthesis. Sprinkle] 
i.e. so as to cleanse (Pesh. ' he shall purify ') : 
or, read, ' startle ' (RM). 

CHAPTER 53 

1-3. The tenses are past (prophetic perfect), 
the future being viewed as already accomplished. 

1. The questions are asked by the prophet, 
and the implied answer is ' No one.' None or 
few received the divine message, or recognised 
the working of Jehovah's power in His Servant. 

Arm] cp. 51^5210. 

2. The people here speak. There was 
nothing in the servant's appearance to attract 
them. Shall grow] RV ' grew.' Before him] 
i.e. before God. Tender plant, etc.] not like 
a stately tree, but like a lowly plant, struggling 
in arid soil. So the human life of the Messiah 
was one of obscurity and humility. 

3. Sorrows . . grief] lit. ' pains . . sickness.' 
He was despised, etc.] literally fulfilled in 

the attitude of His contemporaries generallv 
towards our Lord : cp. Jnl™.n 848 924 1020. 
4-6. Though they thought him the object 
of Jehovah's wrath, he was in truth afflicted 
thai they might be delivered ; the penalty of 
their sin fell on him, instead of recoiling upon 



446 



53. 5 



ISAIAH 



55.3 



the transgressors. A remarkable prophecy of 
Christ, Himself sinless, suffering that men 
might be delivered from their sins and the 
penalty due to them. 

5. Chastisement of our peace] i.e. resulting 
in our peace. 

7. The v. expressively sets forth the meek- 
ness of the Messiah under persecution. See 
the literal fulfilment recorded in Mt26 63 
27 12 > 14 and parallel passages. 

8. Read, ' By oppression and judgment he 
was taken away ; and as for his generation, who 
among them considered that he was cut off,' 
etc. (RY) ; i.e. his persecution ended in death, 
but his contemporaries did not understand that 
this was for his people's transgressions, not for 
his own. The ignorance of those who crucified 
Christ (Ac 3" 13 2 ? 1 Cor 2 s ) is here fore- 
shadowed. 

9. He made . . because] R-V ' they made . . 
although.' Though himself guiltless, he was, 
in his end, associated with malefactors. Rich 
is parallel to wicked, and stands for the wrong- 
fully rich (Ps49 6 Provll^). The words 
received their fulfilment in detail in the cruci- 
fixion of Christ between two robbers. 

10. Yet it pleased] His sufferings were in 
accordance with the divine purpose (cp. Ac 2 23 
4 28 ). Offering for sin] lit. ' trespass-offering ' 
(Lv5 14f -)- Sin is an infringement of God's 
honour and rights, and the life of the Servant 
is the satisfaction paid for it. This sacrifice 
of the Servant is the condition (a) of spiritual 
parentage, (b) of continued life after death, 
and (c) of the fulfilment of his divine mission 
(49 5 > 6 ). The prophet here plainly teaches the 
atoning efficacy of the death of the Messiah, 
the accomplishment of His work through His 
sacrifice and His glorious after-life. 

11. His knowledge] i.e. either (a) the know- 
ledge which he possesses (cp. Jnl7 25 ), or (b) 
knowledge of him (cp. Jn 17 3 ). Justify many] 
RY ' make many righteous,' by delivering them 
from the guilt and consequences of their sins. 

12. Jehovah gives him victory as a great 
ruler of mankind because of his willing self- 
sacrifice. 

CHAPTERS 541-568 

Renewed Promises of Restoration 
C. 54. 1-6. Zion addressed as a woman 
whose period of barrenness and affliction is 
over ; the desolation and reproach of the exile 
are to be things of the past. 7-10. From His 
promise of mercy to Zion Jehovah will not go 
back. 1 1-17. The re -establishment of the city. 
Its security from enemies. 

C. 55. 1-7. The prophet invites mankind 
to those blessings which Jehovah has coven- 
anted ; and exhorts to put away obstacles to their 
enjoyment. 8-13. Jehovah's promise is sure, 
and great joy and glory await His people. 



C. 56. 1, 2. They that do right shall be 
rewarded. 3-8. In the restored Jerusalem 
the privileges of God's people shall be for all 
without distinction. 

CHAPTER 54 

I. Married wife] referring to the days of 
Jerusalem's prosperity. 2. The figure is 
that of a tent which must be enlarged to take 
in increasing numbers (33 20 ). The ultimate 
fulfilment is seen in the extension of the 
religion of Zion so as to embrace the nations 
in the Christian dispensation. 3. Break forth] 
RV 'spread abroad.' Make the desolate 
cities, etc.] (cp. 49 8 58 12 61 4 ) i.e. reoccupy 
cities which had suffered from Babylonian 
invasions. 

4. Shame of thy youth] i.e. desertion of 
Jehovah for other gods in her earlier history. 

Thy widowhood] the period of the exile, 
when Jehovah seemed to have forsaken her. 

5. Thine husband] and therefore faithful, 
even though Israel may be faithless. 6. Called 
thee] i.e. back again to take thy place as wife. 

When . . refused] RY ' when she is cast off.' 

7. A small moment] i.e. during the 70 years' 

exile in Babylon: cp. 26 20 . 8. In a little 

wrath] ' in overflowing wrath ' (RY), i.e. in 

transient outburst. 9. Referring to Gn9 n . 

10. Covenant .. peace] RM 'covenant of 
peace.' 

II. The restoration of Jerusalem. Fair 
colours] lit. ' antimony,' to set off their 
brilliancy : mentioned elsewhere as used for 
painting the eye-lids, to enhance the brilliancy 
of the eyes (2K9 3 ° RY). 12. Windows of 
agates] RY ' pinnacles of rubies.' See similar 
symbolism in connexion with the new Jerusa- 
lem, Tob 13 16 > 17 Rev 21^, etc. 13. The out- 
ward splendour is to be worthy of the citizens 
(Jer31 3 4). 

15. They shall surely] RY 'they may.' 
This refers to Zion's enemies. Not by me] 
i.e. not at Jehovah's bidding, as was the case 
with Sargon and Sennacherib, who were 
divinely appointed instruments of chastise- 
ment : cp. 10 5 37 26 . For thy sake] RY 
'because of thee.' 16. I have created, etc.] 
and therefore they cannot work against My 
will. 17. This is the heritage] viz. the dis- 
comfiture of their enemies. Righteousness i.e. 
justification in the eyes of the world through 
Jehovah's faithfulness to His promises. 

CHAPTER 55 

1. Waters . . wine . . milk] These stand 
figuratively, as the whole context shows, for 
spiritual blessings. 2. Wherefore, etc.] refers 
to the assiduous practice of idolatry, which 
had been Israel's besetting sin. 

3. Mercies] loving-kindnesses. The mean- 
ing is that Jehovah will, without fail, fulfil 



447 



55. 4 



ISAIAH 



57.8 



for His people the promises of loving-kindness 
made to David (Ps89 35 ). 4. Read, 'I gave 
him,' i.e. David. People] RV ' peoples.' 
David's successes gave him a position which 
made his religion known in the world, and 
thus he witnessed for Jehovah. 5. Israel 
shall similarly so testify that the nations shall 
turn to Jehovah. 6, 7. The exhortation 
shows that the promises given are conditional. 

8, 9. These vv. are especially addressed to 
those of the Israelites who were incredulous 
as to the possibility of restoration to their 
own land. 10, 11. As certainly as the elements 
fulfil their purposes, so will Jehovah fulfil 
His promise. 

12. With joy . . peace] not in haste or flight, 
as from Egypt. The passage describes the 
exodus from Babylon. All nature rejoices 
with God's people. 13. Cp. 35 * 4119. And 
it shall be, etc.] These words form an assur- 
ance that the state of things foretold in the 
clauses preceding shall surely come to pass 
and shall be permanent. 

CHAPTER 561-s 

1, 2. Further conditions to be observed 
that men may share in the approaching deliver- 
ance. 1. Keep ye . .justice] i.e. keep the law, 
and practise righteousness. 2. Layeth hold on] 
RV 'holdeth fast by.' Polluting] RV 'pro- 
faning.' 

3-7. The privileges of the people of God 
are open to all, even to those who think them- 
selves excluded by race, or by physical dis- 
ability (Dt23i). The sabbath appears to 
have been more strictly observed in the Baby- 
lonian period than it had been under the 
monarchy (Jerl7i9 f - Ezk20n f - Nehl3i 5f -). 

5. Place] RV ' memorial.' 7. People] RV 
' peoples.' The passage is referred to by our 
Lord at the cleansing of the Temple (Mt21 i3 ). 

8. Beside those, etc.] RV 'beside his own 
that are gathered.' 

CHAPTERS 569-5721 
The Idolatries of Israel 
It is difficult to determine the date of this 
section with certainty. Many scholars assign 
it, with the rest of chs. 40-66, to the period 
of the exile, or to a date after the return ; 
but some give it a pre-exilic date, on the 
following grounds : (a) The picture that is 
drawn of the self-indulgent and infatuated 
leaders of the nation (56 1°- 12 ) would, it is 
thought, apply more accurately to the period 
preceding the exile, than to the exile, (b) 
The idolatrous rites alluded to (57 5 " 9 ) are 
those practised in the later days of the Jewish 
monarchy, (c) 57 l implies persecution of the 
true servants of Jehovah, such as marked the 
reign of Manasseh. (d) The natural features 
in 57 5 > 6 are Palestinian, (e) The allusion in 



57 9 > 10 to seeking foreign alliances suits the 
days of the monarchy better than the exile 
period. Those who assign the section to the 
exile period maintain that the above reasoning 
is scarcely conclusive, because the writings of 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel show that heathen rites 
such as are here described prevailed right up 
to the exile, and the tendency to practise them 
no doubt was strong amongst the Jews 
generally during the exile : cp. 65 3 " 5 >n. 
Again, there were other and later persecutions 
than that under Manasseh ; and that the 
Jewish exiles were subject to persecution is 
shown by the case of Daniel and his friends. 
The Palestinian setting of the idolatrous 
sacrifices referred to may be accounted for 
by supposing that these are described as they 
had been practised by the nation in Palestine. 

Chs. 56 9 -i 2 -57 2 . Rebuke of the unworthy 
leaders of the nation. Israel is exposed to 
danger because the rulers are infatuated, 
self-seeking, self-indulgent, and careless of 
justice. 

C. 57. 3-10. Rebuke of those given to 
idolatry. A picture of the idolatrous rites in 
which they have indulged. 11- 14. Jehovah 
will not endure this, but will interpose. 15-21. 
He points the way of restoration through 
penitence. 

CHAPTER 56 9 

9. Israel pictured as a neglected and help- 
less flock, exposed to the attacks of wild beasts. 

CHAPTER 57 

2. The peace of the grave is better than the 
condition of unrest under their rulers (v. 1). 

Shall enter. . shall rest] RV ' entereth . . rest.' 

3. 5. Sons, etc.] i.e. descendants, perpetu- 
ating the character of their ancestors. Seed, 
etc.] i.e. through your idolatry violating the 
mystical union between Jehovah and His 
people: cp. Ezkl6 44 . 

4. Sport yourselves] implying that they 
find delight in the misfortune of the servants 
of Jehovah. 5. Enflaming] The word de- 
scribes the excitement attending the orgies 
which accompanied the celebration of heathen 
rites : cp. 1 K18 26 > 28 . Slaying, etc.] referring 
to human sacrifices practised under Ahaz and 
Manasseh (2 Ch283 2 K216). 

6. An allusion to stone-worship (Jer3 9 ). 
Large stones, such as those referred to, were 
fetiches of the Semitic races in early times, 
and were thought to be abodes of a deity : cp. 
the action of Jacob, Gn 28H-1 8 . Thy lot] where- 
as Jehovah was their true portion (JerlO 16 
Psl6«). Should. . these?] RV 'shall I be 
appeased for these things V ' 7. Thy bed] Idola- 
try is in OT. commonly figured as adultery 
(Ex34is Dt31™); hence bed is put for the 
place of idol-worship. 8. Remembrance] RV 



448 



57. 9 



ISAIAH 



59. 



Bttemorial,' i.e. idolatrous inscription, in place 
if the memorial of God's law (Dt6 9 ). 

9. The figure is that of a woman trying to 
attract admirers. Judah had coquetted with 
foreign kings, especially with the king of 
Assyria (2 K 1 6 7 > 10 ). Or perhaps for the king 
we should read ' Moloch ' ; the reference then 
is to idolatry, as in the preceding vv. 

Messengers] RV ' ambassadors.' Unto hell] 
i.e. Hades, put for the lowest abasement. 

10. In the greatness] RV ' with the length.' 
Hast found . . hand] RV ' didst find a quick- 
ening of thy strength,' i.e. Judah imagined 
her power increased by foreign alliances. 

- Grieved] RY 'faint.' 11. Of whom] i.e. 
heathen gods. Lied] in outwardly recognising 
Jehovah, while in heart faithless to Him. 

Of old] RV ' of long time.' 12. Ironical. 

And thy works, etc.] RV ' and as for thy 
works, they shall not profit thee.' 

13. Companies] RM 'rabble,' alluding to 
the numerous gods introduced. Vanity, etc.] 
RV ' a breath shall carry them away.' 14. Let 
all barriers to the return be removed. 

15. Jehovah remembers and will restore the 
•faithful among the exiles. 16. For the spirit 
should fail] i.e. mankind could not survive 
God's judgments. 17. God hid His face and 
I vas angry, in order to turn His people from 
'their sins. Covetousness] cp. Jer6 13 Am8 4 . 

18. His ways] of repentance. 19. I create, 
etc.] i.e. Jehovah gives men occasion to praise 
Him. Far off . . near] referring to the dis- 
persed Israelites, those far off from Jerusalem, 
and those near to it : cp. Dan 9 7 . 

§3. CHAPTERS 58-66 
The glorious Future of the Jewish 

Race 
This concluding group of chapters is chiefly 
distinguished by glowing pictures of the future 
of Jerusalem, when the Jews shall be restored 
to their land again. A glorious restoration is 
Ipromised (60 1 > 2 61 4 > 10 > n ), all nations are to be 
members of the restored city (60 3 ' 5 ), the glories 
1 of which are vividly pictured (60 6f -), the 
I crowning glory being the holiness of the 
citizens (60 21 ). The fulfilment of the prophet's 
'utterances may be traced in the spiritual glories 
of the new Jerusalem above, which is the 
mother of us all. 

C. 58. 1-7. Mere outward service of 
\ Jehovah is vain ; He desires mercy rather 
r han sacrifice. 8-12. They who thus serve Him 
I j "n a right spirit shall be wonderfully rewarded, 
\i\r\d shall restore Jerusalem ; 13, 14. as also 
■shall they who duly observe the sabbath. 

C. 59. 1. But why is Jehovah's help so 

long delayed ? 2-8. Because of the depravity 

|l )f the leaders of Israel, 9-1 5 a . and because of 

the sins of the people, which they recognise and 

confess. I5 b -2i. No human aid can suffice to 



right matters, but Jehovah will interpose to 
vindicate and deliver His oppressed people. 

C. 60. 1-9. Then shall the dispersed Israel- 
ites be gloriously restored. 10-13. Jerusalem 
shall be rebuilt with splendour, and 14-22. her 
people shall be dominant and prosperous. 

C. 61. 1-3. The prophet is commissioned 
to announce the restoration of exiled Israel. 
4-9. The rebuilding of Jerusalem and the 
coming glory of her people. 10-12. Jerusa- 
lem's song of praise. 

C. 62. 1-7. The great change that is im- 
minent in the fortunes of Jerusalem, and 
8-12. in the lot of her afflicted people. 

CHAPTER 58 

2. Did righteousness] i.e. kept the law. 
They are ready enough for the external re- 
quirements of religion. 3. The questions ex- 
press surprise that the fast is without effect. 

Find pleasure, etc.] render, ' carry on busi- 
ness and oppress all your labourers.' With all 
their professions of self-denial they are selfish. 

4. For strife] i.e. strife is the result of this 
formal fasting. Ye shall not, etc.] RV ' ye 
fast not this day so as to make your voice,' etc. 

5-7. Literal fasting is not here excluded, 
but the prophet declares its uselessness when 
divorced from the spirit of love. Our Lord 
in the Sermon on the Mount closely connects 
fasting and almsgiving (Mte 1 * 16 ). 6. The 
heavy burdens] RV 'the bands of the yoke.' 

8. Health] RV ' healing. 1 Thy righteous- 
ness] i.e. thy inward personal righteousness : 
cp. 1 27 ; or, perhaps, ' thy justification in the 
eyes of the world ' : cp. 54 W. Shall be thy 
rereward] i.e. shall protect thee. The allusion 
is to the exodus, when the visible manifestation 
of Jehovah's presence was a defence to the 
Israelites from the Egyptians pursuing in the 
rear (Ex 14 19 ). Rereward] i.e. rearguard. 

9. Yoke] i.e. of enforced or oppressive 
labour. Putting . . finger] i.e. in scorn. Vanity] 
RV ' wickedly.' 10. Draw out, etc.] i.e. supply 
to the hungry such things as thou thyself 
desirest. 11. Fat] RV ' strong.' 

12. Primarily the prophet contemplates the 
restoration of the ruined buildings of Jeru- 
salem, but the wider spiritual application of 
his words is obvious. The faithful soul is not 
only itself fruitful (v. 11), but a means of 
bringing help and blessing to others. 13. Turn 
away thy foot from the sabbath] so as not to 
profane it. 14. Cause thee, etc.] i.e. give 
thee triumphant possession of the land. 

CHAPTER 59 
1, 2. An answer to the implied objection 
that the promises of restoration have not yet 
been fulfilled. 3. Cp. 1 is. 4. RV 'None 
sueth in righteousness . . in truth.' The allu- 
sion is to unjust prosecutions. 5. Cockatrice] 



29 



449 



59. 6 



ISAIAH 



61. 11 



i 



E&M % adder.' He that eateth, etc.] i.e. the man 
who falls in with their plans is ruined thereby, 
and he who opposes them is confronted with 
a still greater danger. 6. Their schemes can- 
not even benefit themselves. 9. The prophet 
and the people confess their sins. Light] i.e. 
deliverance. 

10. Grope . . wall] seeking guidance: cp. Dt 
28 29 . We are . . dead men'] RV ' among them 
that are lusty we are as dead men.' 11. Mourn] 
i.e. moan (38 14 ). 12. With us] i.e. present in 
our thoughts. 14. The street] the open space 
in the city where business is done, and cases 
are brought before the judges. 

15. Injustice arouses God's indignation. 

Faileth] RV k is lacking.' Judgment] justice. 

i6f. Cp. 63 5f - 17. The attributes of Jeho- 
vah, which come out clearly in His inter- 
position, are figured as His armour. St. Paul's 
imagery (Eph6 14f -) is based on this passage. 

18. Islands] put for distant lands generally. 
The judgment affects the world at large as 
well as Israel. 19. When . . against him] RV 
1 for he shall come as a rushing stream, which 
the breath of the Lord ' (i.e. a strong wind) 
1 driveth.' 

20. Redeemer] i.e. Jehovah, who is so called 
elsewhere : cp. 41 u 43 l . This was fulfilled 
at Christ's first coming, when He was accepted 
by the faithful few in Israel. But St. Paul 
(Ro 1 1 2t5 ) applies the promise to the time when 
Israel, which did not accept the gospel, shall 
be restored again to God's Church, so that its 
final fulfilment is yet in the future. Zion] i.e. 
the faithful remnant of the nation, as the next 
clause explains. 21. My spirit, etc.] The 
faithful remnant is to be the inspired organ 
of Jehovah's revelation. 

CHAPTER 60 

1. The light of deliverance so long waited 
for (59 9 ) is about to shine. This prophecy 
received its highest fulfilment at the coming 
of Christ, the true Light of the world, which 
was followed by a great ingathering of the 
nations to the Church of God (vv. 3, etc.). 

2. People] RV ' peoples.' 4. Cp. 49 ls . All 
they gather themselves] i.e. the exiles who had 
been dispersed. Nursed . . side] i.e. carried on 
the hip, in the Eastern fashion. 5. Flow- 
together] RV ' be enlightened.' Fear] RV 
• tremble, 1 with strong emotion. Abundance 
of the sea] the rich seafaring people. Forces, 

\\\ • wealth of the nations.' 
6 f. The nations are pictured as coming in a 
Long train, to bring their riches for the sen ice 
<>f tin- sanctuary. Ephah] a Midianite tribe 
((in 25 »). Sheba] PsTJ 1 ". 7. Kedar] cp. 
21 i: . Nebaioth] a tribe allied to Kedar, de- 
Boendedfrom Lshmael(Gn25 18 ). 8. The ships 

with sails spread speed o\er the waters, like 
to their nest. 9. Isles] the maritime 



lands of the west (49 l ). Ships of Tarshish" 1 
cp. 2 lt3 1 K 10-- 22 « Deep-sea ships suitable 
for long voyages, such as that to Tarshish 
across the Mediterranean. 

10. In my wrath] cp. 54 7S . 

11. The gates are open continually, that the 
trains of caravans bearing gifts may enter. 

And that their kings, etc.] RV 'and their 
kings led with them,' i.e. as captives. The re- 
building of the Temple is pictured in language 
recalling its erection in the days of Solomon. 

13. Cp. 35 2 . Place of my feet] i.e. the 
Temple (Ps99 5 132"). 

15. The figure is that of a forsaken wife 
(54 6 ), but is quickly changed to that of a dead 
late land. 16. The thought is the same as in 
49 - 3 . 17. The language suggests a return to 
the prosperity which marked Solomon's reign, 
with the great difference that the officers shall 
not be agents of oppression (1K12 4 ). Ex 
actors] RM 'taskmasters.' 18. Thy walls, 
etc.] cp. 26 1. 19. Cp. Rev 21 23 22 5 . 21. The 
people shall all fulfil the law, so that there 
will be no need of the discipline of exile : 
cp. 59!3.i4. 

22. A little one] RY ' the little one,' i.e. the 
smallest ; he who has no children, or few. In 
his time] RV ' in its time.' 

CHAPTER Gl 

1. The speaker is the prophet, either in h'\> 
own person, or in that of the Servant of Jehovah 
The mission here spoken of is identical witl 
the mission of the Servant as already indicated 
e.g. to bind up, etc. (cp. 42 3 > 7 ), and. again, pro 
claim liberty, etc. (cp. 42 7 49 9 ). This phras, 
is taken from the law of the year of jubilei 
(Lv25 8 - 10 ). Our Lord applies the passage t. 
His own work in Lk 4 U!f . Anointed] i.e. t 
prophetic office (IK 19 16 ). 2. The period e 
God's favour (acceptable year) is contrast e 
with the short time that His wrath endur< 
(day of vengeance). 3. Appoint] assign U 
provide. Beauty] RV ' a garland.' 

4. The outcome of the mission recounted i 
v. 1 is the same as the issue of the Servant 
work (49 s ). 5. Other nations represented I 
filling menial offices. 6. Israel will attain i. 
original ideal (Ex 19 6 ). Riches.. Gentiles] wen 1 
of the nations. In their glory, etc.] RM 
their glory shall ye succeed.' 7. Double] i 
by way of compensation or reward (40 s ). 

8. Judgment] i.e. justice. For burnt offt 
ing] RV 'with iniquity.' The reference is 
the spoliation of which Israel is the victim. 

Direct their work] RV 'give them th 
recompenee.' 9. Known] i.e. renowned. 

10. Decketh . .ornaments] lit. 'decketh hi p 
self with a priestly headdress." The alius 
is to the custom of the bridegroom wearing b 
special head-dress on the wedding daj 
3 11 ). 11. As the earth, etc.] i.e. as surelj 1 



450 



1 



ISAIAH 



63. 19 



the seasons come round. Righteousness] i.e. 
the justification of his people in the eyes of 
the world. 

CHAPTER 62 

I. The speaker is probably Jehovah Him- 
self. Hold my peace] cp. 42 14 . The righteous- 
ness] i.e. her vindication, the setting of her 
right in the eyes of the world (cp. 58 8 ). Salva- 
tion] i.e. deliverance. 2. New name] as befits 
her new character (l 26 Jer33 16 ) : see v. 4. 

3. In the hand] so held for the admiration 
of the world. 

4. The figure is again that of a bride (54 6 ) 
in whom her husband delights. Hephzi-bah . . 
Beulah] meaning, ' My delight is in her,' and 
' Married.' 5. The same image differently 
applied, the people being regarded as the bride- 
groom and their country as the bride. 

6. Watchmen] These are angelic beings 
who report to Jehovah what happens on earth, 
and intercede for mercy to Zion (Zech 1 n > 12 ). 

Ye that make, etc.] RY ' ye that are the 
Lord's remembrancers, take ye no rest.' 

8, 9. The foe will no more rob them of their 
harvests, but the produce of the land shall be 
used for the service of the Temple. Holiness] 
RV ' sanctuary.' 10. A command to prepare 
the way for the returning exiles (40 3 57 14 ). 

For the people] RY ' for the peoples,' that 
they may escort the Israelites. 11. His re- 
ward, etc.] see on 40 10 . Work] RY ' recom- 
pence.' 12. Holy people] Israel's ideal char- 
acter realised (Exl9 6 ; cp. Isa61 6 ). Sought 
out] contrast Jer 30 17 . Not forsaken] Cp. v. 4. 

CHAPTER 631-6 

The Divine Warrior 

I. The prophet asks who is this warrior 
coming from Edom ? The Warrior replies, 
He is the Divine Deliverer. 2. The prophet 
asks why is His raiment red ? 3-6. The 
Warrior explains, He is returning from venge- 
ance upon the enemies of His people. 

1. Travelling] lit. 'bending,' denoting move- 
ment in marching (RY). In righteousness] i.e. 
in faithfulness to promises. Speak, etc.] cp. 
45 19 . 3. The winepress is the symbol of 
slaughter in battle (Joel 3 13 Revl4i8- 2 0). 

Alone, etc.] i.e. no human agent assisted. 

People] RY ' peoples.' I will tread, etc.] RY 
'trod . . trampled . . is sprinkled . . have stained.' 

4. Is] RY 'was.' Year] see 61 2 . 5. The 
absence of human aid (v. 3) further emphasised 
(50 2 59!6). 

6. Will tread . . make] RY ' trod . . made.' 

People] RY ' peoples.' The divine vengeance 
falls upon the nations in general, but upon 
Edom in particular (v. 1), the prophet fixing 
his thoughts upon this nation because of the 
long-remembered hostility of Edom in the day 
of Jerusalem's calamity (see prefatory note to 



c. 34). Drunk] a figure for stupefying disaster 
(51 17 ). Will bring, etc.] RY ' poured out their 
lifeblood on the earth.' The imagery of 
Christ's final triumph and judgment is taken 
from this passage (Rev 19 13 ), which is thus 
shown to be a prophecy that will receive its 
full fulfilment in the punishment of the enemies 
of God's Church at the last day. The Warrior, 
who in v. 3 is represented as treading the 
winepress alone, thus stands for the Son of 
God, to whom alone the Father has committed 
all judgment (Jn5 22 ). The prophecy is also 
sometimes applied by analogy to Christ's vic- 
tory over the powers of evil in His Passion 
(Jnl2 31 > 32 ), wherein He contended alone 
(Mt2746). 

CHAPTERS 63^-6412 
Past Deliverances and Present Needs 

C. 63. 7-14. Commemoration of Jehovah's 
mercies to Israel in the past. 15.-C. 64. 5 a . 
Prayer that He will interpose to deliver His 
people from their present calamities. 

C. 64. 5 b -i2. Acknowledgment that these 
are due to their sins. Appeal to Jehovah that 
He will look upon the pitiable state of His 
people and sanctuary. 

CHAPTER 63 M» 

8. Lie] RY 'deal falsely.' 9. He was 
afflicted] so Heb. traditional reading, meaning 
that He felt His people's pains as His own 
(JglO 16 ). But Heb. written text 'he was no 
adversary ' (RM), but, on the contrary, their 
deliverer. The angel] see Ex23 20 32 34 332. 

Bare them] see Dtl 3 i 32 n 

10. Cp. Ps 78 40 . 11. He (Israel) remem- 
bered] The thought of past mercies evoked 
penitence (Ps78 35 ). Shepherd] RY 'shep- 
herds.' Within him] i.e. Israel, e.g. Ex35 31 
Null 25 . 12. RY 'That caused his glorious 
arm to go at the right hand of Moses.' Arm] 
see 51 9 (also in connexion with the exodus). 

13. In the wilderness] i.e. in a grassy plain. 

14. RY 'As the cattle that go down.' This 
refers to the settlement in Canaan. 

15. Strength] RY 'mighty acts.' Sounding 
of thy bowels] stands for sympathetic pity 
(16 n ). Read, ' the sounding . . and thy mercies 
toward me are restrained.' 16. The patriarchs 
might disown their descendants, but Jehovah's 
love is sure. The thought is similar to 49 15 . 
The passage is remarkable as one of the very 
few in OT. where God is addressed as Father 
(64 8 ). 17 f. A bold expostulation. Hardened, 
etc.] Have their sins caused God to give them 
up and become their adversary, as in Pharaoh's 
case ? 18. A little while] whereas Jehovah 
had promised them an everlasting inheritance ! 

19. RY ' We are become as they over whom 
thou never barest rule ; as they that were not 
called,' etc. 



451 



64. 1 



ISAIAH 



66.3 



CHAPTER 64 

1-3. The imagery is taken from the account 
of the divine manifestation at Sinai (Ex 19 18 ). 

2. RV 'As when fire kindleth the brushwood, 
and the fire causeth,' etc. 4. O God, etc.] 
RV ' a God beside thee, which worketh for 
him that waiteth for Him.' St. Paul (1 Cor 2 9) 
alludes to this passage to emphasise the fact 
that human wisdom cannot fathom the working 
of God. Meetest] i.e. as a friend. 

Art] RV 'wast.' In those, etc.] RV 'in 
them ' (i.e. our sins) ' have ice been of long 
time, and shall we be saved ? ' 6. An unclean 
thing] RV ' one that is unclean.' Filthy rags] 
RV ' a polluted garment ' : such as was cere- 
monially unclean. 8. Cp. 63 ^ Ro 9 20 . An 
appeal to God that He will not abandon the 
work of His own hands. 

10, 11. Another motive for Jehovah's inter- 
ference — the present desolation of the land 
and sanctuary dedicated to Him. 10. Holy 
cities] Elsewhere Jerusalem only is so called, 
but the attribute is here extended to the 
whole land (Zech2 12 ). 11. Pleasant things] 
the same word as 'goodly vessels,' 2Ch36 19 . 

12. Refrain thyself] i.e. refuse to give way 
to natural tenderness (Gn 45 v ). 

CHAPTERS 65, 66 

The Punishment of Apostate and 
Reward of Faithful Israel 

C. 65. 1-10. Israel's obduracy to Jeho- 
vah's appeals, and persistent idolatry, which 
He will surely punish ; yet a faithful remnant 
shall be preserved, n-25. The fate in store 
for the unfaithful. The glories of the coming 
age for God's faithful people. 

C. 66. 1-4. The danger of trusting in ex- 
ternals ; a merely formal worship is an abomi- 
nation to Jehovah. 5. A message of comfort 
for the faithful who are persecuted. 6-i4 a . 
The wonderful restoration of Israel. I4 b -i8 a . 
The divine judgment on the nations, and on 
all idolaters. i8 b -24. The recognition and 
worship of Jehovah by all nations. 

CHAPTER 65 

1 . Render, ' I have offered answers to those 
who asked not ; I have been at hand to those 
who sought me not . . a nation that hath not 
called upon my name.' The v. refers to the 
[sraelites who neglected Jehovah's appeals so 
often made. St, Paul (RolO 90 ) applies the 
passage by inference to the heathen world. 

3. Gardens] the scenes of idolatrous rites 
in ihc pre exile period (l 20 57 5 ). Upon 
altars, etc.] RV ■ upon bricks.' i.e. perhaps the 
tiled roofs of houses (2K23 12 ). 4. Monu- 
ments] RV 'secret places.' The v. alludes to 
the custom of Bleeping in sepulchres or vaults 
of idol temples to learn the future through 



dreams. Eat swine's flesh] i.e. in sacrificial 
meals (66 17 ) ; it was forbidden by the Law as 
unclean (Lvll 7 Dtl4 8 ). Broth, etc.] re- 
ferring to a sacrificial feast of unclean food. 

5. Which say, etc.] The words are uttered by 
those initiated into heathen mysteries, and 
who therefore considered themselves peculiarly 
sacred. 6. 7/ (i.e. their sin) is written] cp. Jer 
17 K 7. Upon the mountains] cp. 57 "> Hos4 13 . 

Therefore . . work] R V ' there will I first mea- 
sure their work.' Jehovah must first of all 
punish these deeds. 

8. The meaning is that as a few good grapes 
often save a cluster from being destroyed, so 
Israel shall be preserved through the faithful 
remnant. 10. Sharon] the maritime plain on 
the W. of Palestine and the valley of Achor 
near Jericho on the E., are put for the whole 
land. n. Ye are they that] RV 'ye that.' 

Prepare a table] alluding to rites such as are 
described in Jer 7 18 . That troop] Heb . Gad, 
i.e. 'Fortune' (RV): cp. Josh ll 17 . Furnish, 
etc.] ' fill up mingled wine unto Meni ' (i.e. 
' destiny '). ' Meni ' and ' Gad ' in the clause 
preceding are names of heathen deities. 

12. Number you] RV ' destine you.' 15. Ye 
shall leave, etc.] So fearful will their fate be 
that their name will be used in imprecation. 
Jer 29 22 exactly illustrates what is meant. 

16. The meaning is that men will recognise 
the faithfulness of Jehovah. 17. The same 
language is in NT. applied to God's final in- 
terposition and restoration of all things 
(2Pet3!3 Rev 2 li). Nature itself will be 
transformed to be in harmony with regenerate 
Israel : cp. 11 6 ' 9 . 20. The f uture, in the pro- 
phet's view, will be marked by a return to 
patriarchal longevity (Gn5), the power of 
death being not altogether removed, but 
limited. Those who die at 100 will be reck- 
oned as but children, or as prematurely cut 
off for their sins. 21, 22. Reversal of the 
curse (Dt 28 30 ). 25. Together with the coming 
golden age for humanity the prophet anticipates 
a transformation of the lower creation, as 
in 11 6f - : cp. Ro8 19f . Dust, etc.] the serpent 
will be content with the food God assigned 
to it (Gn 3 14). 

CHAPTER 66 
1. Where, etc.] RV ' what manner of house 
. . what place shall be my rest.' The v. is a 
strong rebuke of such as, without a reallv 
religious spirit, idly trusted in the inviolability 
of /ion. and the protection they thought the 
sanctuary would afford. A like fault is re- 
buked in Jer7 1-16 . This passage is quoted by 
St. Stephen (Ac 7 4!1 » 50 ). 2. Those things] i.e. 
the universe. All . . have been] RV ' so all 
these things came to be.' 3. They who offer 
the due sacrifices, yet without a proper spirit, 
are no better than they who perform unclean 



452 



66. 4 



ISAIAH— JEREMIAH 



INTRO. 



or idolatrous acts. 4. Their delusions] i.e. 
things to delude them. 5. Your brethren, etc.] 
These are the apostate Israelites (also referred 
to 65 5 ) who despise the true worshippers of 
Jehovah. Let the LORD, etc.] RV ' Let the 
Lord be glorified, that we may see your joy ; 
but they ' (who so speak) ' shall be ashamed.' 
The apostate taunt the faithful with wor- 
shipping a God who does not help them. 

6. The prophet seems to hear a sound as of 
one stirring in the Temple and preparing for 
vengeance. 

7-9. The mother is Zion, the child regene- 
rate Israel, and in v. 8 the normally slow 
processes of birth and growth are contrasted 
with the astonishing development of G-od's 
people. 8. Shall the earth . . bring forth] RV 
' Shall a land be born.' 9. God will not delay, 
or leave unfinished, the work of restoration. 

11. The figure of Zion as a mother is still 
continued. 12. Flowing] RV ' overflowing.' 

14. An herb] RV 'the tender grass'; their 
youth will be renewed. 

16. Plead] i.e. hold judgment. 17. Sanctify 
themselves] referring (as in 65 5 ) to the apos- 
tates who are initiated into some form of 
heathen mysteries. Behind one] i.e. (a) ' be- 
hind one Asherah,' i.e. idol tree-trunk (RM, 
cp. 17 8 ) ; or, (b) 'behind one man,' as priest 
and leader of their worship. LXX omits the 
words. Eating, etc.] cp. 65 4 . The mouse] 



unclean by the Law (Lvll'29). 18. It shall 
come] RV ' the time cometh.' 

19. Those that escape the divine judgment 
on the nations opposed to Israel are repre- 
sented as going as missionaries to the more 
distant peoples. Tarshish] in Spain ; put for 
the far West. Pul (i.e. Phut) and Lud] 
probably African peoples ; they are mentioned 
together as serving in the Egyptian army (Ezk 
30 5 ). Tubal] Scythian tribes near the Black 
Sea (Ezk 38 2 > 3 ). Javan] Ionians, i.e. Greeks 
settled in Asia Minor. 20. The remoter 
nations bring back the Israelites dispersed 
among them. 21. Take of them] i.e. (a) of 
the nations who bring back the Jews ; or, (b) 
of the Jews themselves thus brought back ; 
all Israel shall be eligible for the priesthood. 
61 6 favours this latter interpretation. 22. Cp. 
6517. 

24. The picture of restoration is completed 
with the thought of the judgment upon the 
wicked (similarly 48 22 57 21 ), who are here 
thought of as having been slain in battle by 
Jehovah (vv. 15, 16). Their worm, etc.] 
These words may be intended to refer only to 
the literal destruction of their corpses, or may 
also include the torment of the spirits of the 
ungodly. Jewish interpretation adopted the 
latter view (Ecclus7 17 Judith 16 17 ), and it ap- 
pears also to have the sanction of our Lord's 
teaching (Mk 9 43 " 48 ). 



JEREMIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Life and Times of Jeremiah. Jeremiah 
(the name probably meaning ' appointed by 
God ') belonged to a priestly family living at 
a small town named Anathoth (now Anata, 
consisting of about a dozen houses and the 
remains of a church) some two miles to the 
NE. of Jerusalem. The high priest Abiathar, 
of the line of Ithamar, had settled there in 
the days of David (IK 2 26). The prophet's 
family had apparently been owners of land in 
that region ever since Abiathar's time, and 
their social status is further indicated by the 
fact that Jeremiah had for his scribe Baruch, 
whose brother was chief chamberlain to Zede- 
kiah (51 59 : see also on 45 1 ). We may add 
that Hilkiah, the father of Jeremiah, is not to 
be identified with the reforming high priest 
of Josiah's day (2 K 22 8 ), as the latter belonged 
to the line not of Ithamar but of Eleazar. 

At an early period in Jeremiah's life (though 



the expression ' child ' in 1 6 may partly at 
least refer to his sense of unfitness for such a 
task) he was moved to realise— probably in 
gradually increasing measure — the working of 
the divine spirit within him. In the thir- 
teenth year of Josiah, 626 B.C., he received 
his call to be a prophet, and his prophetic life 
was continued under that king's four succes- 
sors, viz. Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and 
Zedekiah. Eventually the danger which had 
long threatened the southern kingdom culmin- 
ated in the overthrow of the Jewish monarchy 
by the Babylonian power, which had lately 
risen on the ruins of that of Assyria. Zede- 
kiah and a large number of his subjects were 
carried captive to Babylon. The prophet, with 
unselfish patriotism, rejecting the conqueror's 
offer of honourable treatment in exile, remained 
in Judaea, carrying on his prophetic office during 
the turbulent times which ensued, until a body 



453 



INTRO. 



JEREMIAH 



INTRO. 



of his countrymen forced him to accompany 
them to Egypt (43 4f -). There, according to 
a Christian tradition, he met a martyr's death 
at Tahpanhes, being stoned by the Jews who 
resented his faithful reproofs. 

Thus Jeremiah has fitly been called ' the 
prophet of the decline and fall of the Jewish 
monarchy,' and the manner of his end seems 
to have been in close accord with the character 
of his life-work and sufferings. For, like 
Cassandra, it was his fate through life to gain 
but little credence for his warnings. 

Jeremiah is one who reveals with frankness 
the workings of his mind. Hence his pro- 
phecies are charged with a large element of 
human interest. His countrymen as a whole — 
alike those who had, and those who had not, 
sympathised with Josiah's reforms (2Ch34) — 
refused to see that nothing short of a thorough 
amendment of life and morals would satisfy 
God's law and avert national disaster. The 
prophet's office then was to utter and reiterate 
a needed warning, emphasising it by fervour 
of language and variety of illustration, though 
sensible all the time that his appeals were 
probably in vain. The end was approaching, 
and at last, when princes and people alike 
proved faithless, he centred his hopes upon 
the few in whose case adversity and exile had 
had their chastening uses. 

Belonging to the orders both of priest and 
prophet, and living at the very time when each 
had sunk to its lowest degree of degradation, 
he was compelled to submit to the buffeting 
which they each bestowed upon one who by 
his every word and deed was passing sentence 
upon them. Hostility, abuse, powerlessness to 
avert the coming ills, a solitary life and pro- 
hibition of marriage (16 2 ) — these were the 
conditions of life allotted to a man of shy and 
timid disposition and naturally despondent 
mind. No miracle was wrought for his benefit. 
His predictions were scorned. He failed to 
induce his compatriots to recognise the solidity 
of his claims to a hearing. At times he de- 
spaired even, as it seems, of life (20 14 * 18 ). And 
yet he could not be silent. The divine message 
must find its utterance (20 8 > 9 ), and in fact the 
promise made to him at the time of his call 
(1 18), and renewed later ( 1 :»-"). did not fail. 

Reign of Josiah. During the reign of this 
king, commencing 639 B.C., the dangere arising 
to Judsea from its geographical position became 
painfully evident. It was the natural battle- 
ground between the rival powers of Assyria 
and Egypt. So small a kingdom could not 
cope with either of these dangerous neigh- 
bours without the support of the other, and 
therefore the problem which pressed for solu- 
tion was with which of the two it was most 
prudent to throw in their lot. There was still, 

as earlier, in Isaiah's time ( Is.i :;< » ' 31 l:; >. a 



strong party in the state favouring either 
alternative. The extension of Josiah's work 
of reformation (to which we are about to refer), 
beyond the borders of his own kingdom north- 
wards (to G-eba, 2 K 23 8 ), showed that the power 
of Assyria, which just a hundred years earlier 
had overthrown the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, 
was on the wane. On the other hand, it by 
no means followed that Egypt was to be de- 
pended on, even though the Chaldean (Baby- 
lonian) power, soon to take the place of Assyria, 
was scarcely yet above Judaea's political horizon. 

Notwithstanding this precarious position 
with regard to external politics, the inner life 
of the state did not lack certain hopeful 
features. The new king, unlike his idolatrous 
predecessors, Manasseh and Amon, was one 
whose ardour on the side of Jehovah, seconded 
as it was by wise counsellors, took the form of 
a vigorous campaign against the idol-worship 
and immorality which had polluted those two 
reigns. The altars erected to Baal, the 
worship of l the host of heaven' (2K17 16 ), 
the images of the horses and chariots of the 
sun within the very precincts of the Temple, 
the offering of human sacrifices in the valley 
of Hinnom (on the S. and W. of Jerusalem), 
the gross immoralities of Canaanitish worship — 
these were wide-spread indications of the 
religious corruptions which Josiah assailed. 
The great principle underlying his reforms 
was that Jehovah alone should be the object of 
worship, and that that worship should be 
centralised at Jerusalem. So far as this 
principle took effect, it had very important 
consequences on the religious life of the nation. 
This centralisation was a standing protest 
against the worship of a plurality of gods. 
Moreover, the limitation of sacrifice to the 
central sanctuary tended to throw into greater 
relief worship in its more spiritual aspect 
independent of any particular locality. 

But, as Jeremiah clearly saw. the abuses 
were too deeply rooted for these reformers to 
penetrate much below the surface, and the 
mass of the people were supported in their 
adherence to the old ways by the priests of 
the local shrines ( k high places ') throughout 
the land, who naturally resisted a change that 
deposed them from their office and cut awa\ 
an important source of subsistence (2K2.1"). 
Accordingly, the picture which the prophet 
draws of the condition of society is a startling 
one. On every side among high and low there 
was dishonesty, false swearing, murder, and 
open licentiousness. (For an account of the 
local Baal-worship see Intro, to Hosea.) 

Many, doubtless, were the influences which 
culminated in what w r e term Jeremiah's call. 
The sight of abounding immorality and 
idolatry, the tradition of his house, and the 
hostility to reforms on the part of many of 



454 






INTRO. 



JEREMIAH 



INTRO. 



the natural guardians of religion, both priests 
and prophets, moved him to painful self- 
communing, and urged him to lift up his voice 
against the sins of the nation. A strong 
impetus no doubt was given to his prophetic 
ardour when, five years after his call, the 
Book of the Law came to light in the Temple 
(2K22 S ). That book contained at least a 
considerable portion of our book of Deut- 
eronomy. Such graphic pictures of punish- 
ment for unfaithfulness to Jehovah, as are to 
be found in Dt28, cannot but have served as 
an antidote to the shyness of his nature, and 
nerved him afresh for the task appointed him. 
He had to face, on the one hand, the immoral 
and idol worshippers, on the other, persons 
who maintained that, to secure the abiding 
favour of Jehovah, it was only necessary to 
offer more numerous and costly sacrifices and 
to increase the splendour of the Temple ritual. 
According to them, the Temple was in itself a 
charm which must render Jerusalem and its 
inhabitants secure (7 4 ). 

Shortly before the newly risen Chaldean 
power, by the capture of Nineveh, made good 
its claim as the successor to Assyria (607 B.C.), 
Josiah openly espoused its side (2K23 29 ), 
confronted Necho, king of Egypt, on his march 
against Chaldea, and was slain in battle at 
Megiddo (608 B.C.). 

Reign of Jehoahaz (the Shallum of 22 n ), 
608 B.C. After a brief reign of three months 
this king was carried captive to Egypt by 
Necho, and the land made tributary (2 K 23 33 ). 
The prophet evidently felt that in Jehoahaz 
the nation had lost one who would have used 
his power for good (22 10 " 12 ). 

Reign of Jehoiakim, elder brother of Jeho- 
ahaz (2Ch36 2 > 5 ). The king of Egypt placed 
him on the throne, and his reign lasted for 
eleven years (608-597 B.C.). His policy, the 
reverse of that of his father Josiah, was a 
disastrous one (2K24 1 " 4 ). Under him the 
hope of averting the ruin of the country soon 
faded away. In the worship of 'the high 
places ' and in the bloodstained rites, either 
encouraged or at least connived at by him, 
men sought deliverance from the troubles of 
servitude to a foreign oppressor. The king 
was cruel, frivolous, eager for his own glori- 
fication, and regardless of the national religion 
(Jer22 13 ' 17 ). Under his rule the faithful few 
were refined by adversity, and it was seen, as 
in the time of Manasseh, that faithfulness to 
God might easily lead to martyrdom. The 
priests and false prophets, exasperated by 
Jeremiah's rebukes and warnings, and en- 
couraged by the king's murder of Urijah, even 
demanded that Jeremiah too should die, but 
were foiled in their purpose (26 16 ). 

Real and not pretended service is the great 
lesson which Jeremiah at this time enforced, 



and in so doing he excited the animosity of 
his foes by the very truth of the charges that 
he brought against them. In opposition to 
those who still advocated alliance with Egypt 
against Babylon, he declared that the latter 
would assuredly prevail, and illustrated his 
words by the symbol of the potter's clay and 
the breaking of the earthen vessel (chs. 18,19). 

The fourth year of Jehoiakim 's reign (605 
B.C.) gave noteworthy proof of Jeremiah's 
prescience. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 
defeated the army of Necho at Carchemish on 
the Euphrates, and, advancing into Palestine, 
drove many, including the Rechabites (c.35), 
to seek shelter within the walls of Jerusalem. 
The conqueror advanced to the capital and 
bore away both captives and sacred vessels to 
Babylon (2Ch36 6 - 7 ). The complete over- 
throw was deferred, only because of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's hasty return home on the report 
of his father's illness, in order to secure his 
succession to the throne. From this time 
forth Jeremiah's forecasts assume an air of 
greater definiteness. He speaks no longer, as 
in l 14 6 1 , of an enemy from 'the north,' but 
declares plainly that the king of Babylon, as 
God's instrument of punishment, is destined 
to prevail, urges submission, and promises that 
those who abide by his counsel shall be left 
undisturbed in their land. The rest, though 
captivity for seventy years is to be their lot, 
shall in the end be restored. Probably it was 
soon after the battle of Carchemish that there 
occurred the scene of the king's burning of 
the prophet's roll and repudiation of his 
warnings (c. 36). From this time till the end 
of Jehoiakim's reign Jeremiah seems to have 
been absent from Jerusalem. The king 
received no more warnings. After three years' 
payment as vassal of the tribute which he 
yearned to spend upon self-indulgence, he 
rebelled, was attacked by bands of Chaldeans 
and others, and probably in an engagement 
with some of them, came to a violent end and 
a dishonoured burial (22 18 >!9). 

Reign of Jehoiachin (the Jeconiah of 24 *, 
and the Coniah of 22 24 > 2 8), 597 B . c . He 
was the son of Jehoiakim, was set up by 
Nebuchadnezzar, and, like his uncle Jehoahaz, 
reigned but three months, when he and the 
flower of the community with him (the ' good 
figs ' of c. 24) were deported to Babylon. 
After thirty-six years' imprisonment he was 
released by Nebuchadnezzar's son and successor, 
Evil-merodach (52 31 ). To this period belongs 
c. 13, with its acted symbol of the linen girdle. 

Reign of Zedekiah, 597-586 B.C. He was the 
youngest son of Josiah, well disposed, but utterly 
weak. He showed more disposition than his 
predecessors had done to consult with Jere- 
miah (37 1 ?- 2 ! 38 14 " 28 ), and under his advice to 
submit to Babylon. On the other hand, he 



455 



INTRO. 



JEREMIAH 



INTRO. 



was devoid of any real zeal for religion, and 
yielded, now to the suggestions of the prophet, 
now to those of the princes, who advocated 
resistance, either single-handed or in alliance 
with Egypt. Thus he was virtually powerless 
against the strong wills and more vigorous 
leaders opposed to him (38 5 > 25 ). To the 
worthiest part of the nation, who were in cap- 
tivity, Jeremiah writes a letter of comfort (c. 
29), advising submission, and promising re- 
storation in due time. 

At the beginning of the ninth year of Zede- 
kiah a Chaldean army laid siege to Jerusalem. 
Jeremiah had already from time to time worn 
a yoke upon his neck, symbolical of the coming 
servitude (Jer27 2 ), and when the false pro- 
phet, Hananiah, who promised deliverance, 
had broken the yoke (28 10 ), he received the 
sentence of speedy death at the mouth of 
Jeremiah (28 16 ) because he had ' spoken re- 
bellion against the Lord.' It was natural for 
self-reliant, irreligious men to be highly dis- 
pleased with such acts and words as these, and 
much persecution, including imprisonment, fell 
to the prophet's lot in consequence, the king 
being too weak to give him any permanent 
support (Jer37 n ' 21 ). In the eleventh year of 
Zedekiah, 586 B.C., the city was sacked and 
the Temple burnt. Zedekiah's eyes were put 
out, and he was brought to Babylon, and im- 
mured in a dungeon, apparently till his death. 
Jeremiah was permitted to remain under 
Gedaliah. Nebuchadnezzar's new governor, who 
was of a family friendly to the prophet. But in 
two months' time Gedaliah was murdered by 
the irreconcilables among the remnant in the 
land. In the turbulent period that followed, 
the prophet, viewed by the people as a traitor, 
foretold the want and misery that would ensue, 
if, through fear of the vengeance of Nebu- 
chadnezzar (42 7f -), they went down to Egypt. 
They only replied by compelling him to accom- 
pany them thither. From Tahpanhes, a town 
near the eastern border of Lower Egypt, we 
draw the last certain notice of him that we 
possess. He declares that the fate which had 
befallen Judaea shall also be that of Egypt, 
and that Nebuchadnezzar's throne shall be set 
up at the entrance to Pharaoh's house (43 10 ). 
He also makes a dying protest against the 
idolatrous worship practised by his country- 
men (c. 44). We have no notice in the Bible 
of his death. 

2. Jeremiah's Attitude towards the Cere- 
monial Law and the Sabbath. Jeremiah's 
unvarying theme is that in G-od's sight the 
moral always takes precedence of t lie cere- 
monial Law (although laxity in sahhath 
observance is sharply rebuked in IT 1 '-'--"). 
This principle he applies to the people's re- 
verence for the ark (8 18 ) and the tables of the 
Law (31 81f », cp. 32 40 ), to circumcision (4 4 G 10 



9 2 6), to the Temple (74,i0f. ni5 173 266,9,12 
27^), to sacrifices (6 2 o 721*. His 1412). We 
may further note that in many of the passages 
where the ' Law ' is mentioned, the prophet is 
describing the ' oral ' teaching given by priests 
(Dtl7 n ) and prophets to those who consulted 
them on points of ritual or practice : see 2 8 
913 1818 26 4 >s. 

3. The Messianic Passages and the Nature 
of the Prophet's Hope for the Future. A charac- 
teristic of Jeremiah's stjde is to insert a bright 
thought among gloomy ones, so that at the 
most terrible period of his country's fortunes 
his Messianic hopes are clearest in their ex- 
pression. These hopes are gathered round 
(a) the Davidic house, (Z>) Jerusalem. 

The chief Messianic passages (17 25, 26 23 5 " 8 
30 9 >2i 33 14- i 8 ) are deserving of close study, 
as indicating the gradually increasing clearness 
of the hope. The worthless rulers of the • 
prophet's days should be succeeded by a king 
of David's line, who should reign in righteous- 
ness ; out of the ruins of Jerusalem should 
arise a new city, which should bear the name, 
' The Lord is our righteousness ' ; and the 
old covenant, which had proved itself unable 
either to cleanse from sin or to enforce obe- 
dience, should give place to a new covenant of 
grace, written not on tables of stone, but on 
fleshy tables of the heart. Then i they shall 
all know me from the least of them even unto 
the greatest of them ' (3 1 34 ). Such was the 
dim forecast, as revealed to Jeremiah, of the 
New Order which, in the fulness of time, 
was to arise out of the Jewish dispensation 
through the coming of the Saviour of the 
world. ' The New Covenant has been esta- 
blished in the spiritual dispensation of the 
gospel, in a law written by the Spirit in the 
hearts of men, and in the new revelation the 
means of pardon and of purification have been 
provided and made known to man ' (Kirk- 
patrick, ' The Doctrine of the Prophets,' p. 
324). Christ, both Priest and King, and heir 
of David's line, has come to dwell among men 
in a higher sense than it was given to Jere- 
miah to realise. 

4. Arrangement of the Contents of the Book. 
The book of Jeremiah gives us interesting 
indications of what we may call the literary 
history of a prophetical collection. More than 
twenty years had elapsed since Jeremiah's call 
when Baruch was bidden, apparently for the 
first time, to take down prophecies from his 
dictation. And when the roll which thus came 
into existence was burnt, that which succeeded 
it contained the same, and, in addition, 'many 
like words' (36 82 ). From the nature of the 
ease there must have been a certain amount of 
condensation, as the ipsissima verba of the pro- 
phet's utterances would not remain in his mind 
< hiring so long a period, and much of what he 



456 



INTRO. 



JEREMIAH 



INTRO. 



said must have been from time to time sub- 
stantially repeated in the course of the twenty 
years. We also find that while the arrange- 
ment of the prophecies preceding c. 36 is in 
the main the order of delivery, that order is 
occasionally broken, the prophet grouping with 
some particular deliverance other prophecies of 
kindred subject-matter. Moreover, the roll, 
we may perceive, can only have been in general 
agreement with the section of the book down 
to c. 36, for portions of that section are clearly 
later than the fifth year of Jehoiakim ; while 
the prophecies against foreign nations, some »of 
which were contained in the roll (c. 36 2 ), are 
now all at the end of the book according to 
the Hebrew arrangement (see next section, 
' The Septuagint Version of Jeremiah '). We 
can trace signs of a distinction between the 
methods in which the earlier and later parts 
of the book (those directly dictated to Baruch, 
and those which Baruch himself arranged, as 
editor) assumed their present shape. For such 
a formula as ' the word of the Lord came unto 
me ' in the earlier part, we find later ' The word 
of the Lord came to Jeremiah.' 1 In the same 
way the expression ' Jeremiah the prophet,' 
more likely to be used by Baruch when acting 
as editor than as amanuensis, is characteristic 
of the later chapters. In this way the earlier 
seem to give us the voice of the prophet him- 
self, while in the later we have the scribe col- 
lecting the utterances of his master, arranging 
them as he deems best, and editing the records 
of his life. It follows from what we have 
said that the order of the groups of prophecies 
is not always that of time. Moreover, while 
it is in some cases clear, it is also often uncer- 
tain when they were delivered. The convul- 
sions through which the nation was passing 
during the latter part of the period were far 
from favourable to any formal arrangement of 
the contents. But the very lack of order here 
and there observable serves a valuable end, in 
showing that we may consider ourselves to' 
possess the words of Jeremiah put together 
in those same troublous times at which they 
were spoken, and not as they might afterwards 
have been remodelled and fitted to the notions 
of men of a later generation. 

The following can only claim to be a rough 
approximation to a chronological arrangement. 



CHS. 

1-12 
14-20 
26 
25 

46-49 
35,36 
45 
13 
29 
27 



Josiah 

Jehoiakim 

1st year of Jehoiakim 

4th „ 



Jehoiachin 

(? 1st year of) Zedekiah 



CH8. 

50,51 

28 

21-24 

34 

37 

30-33 

38 

52 

39-44 



(? 4th year of) Zedekiah 
4th „ „ 

9th 

it ii ii 

(9th or) 10th 
10th 



11th 

Period of exile 



or later 



5. The Septuagint Version of Jeremiah. The 
LXX, as a whole, adheres with tolerable fidelity 
to the Hebrew as we now possess it. But the 
book of Jeremiah in the Greek presents in 
various places so startling an exception to this 
rule, that it has been questioned whether the 
Greek is not in this case at least the more 
correct text. 

The two main points of difference in the 
two texts are (a) that the Greek version omits, 
at different points, words amounting in the 
whole to about one-eighth of the text as it 
stands in the Hebrew ; (&) that in the Greek 
the prophecies against foreign nations, instead 
of coming near the end of the book (chs. 
46-51), stand after 25 13 , their logical place, 
where in the Hebrew text there is merely a 
reference to them. Also their order of se- 
quence among themselves varies from that of 
the Hebrew. 

Space does not allow further treatment of the 
question here ; but it may be said that while 
there seems good reason for thinking that the 
form of the book on which the Greek trans- 
lators' work was based preserves purer readings 
in many passages, and that the Hebrew has in 
some passages glossed or expanded the text, 
' on the whole the Massoretic text deserves the 
preference ' (Driver). 

6. Jeremiah's Relations to his Predecessors. 
The prophet to whom Jeremiah is most 
closely related in thought and teaching is 
Hosea. Just as Hosea found idolatry and 
licentiousness in the kingdom of Israel in the 
years before its fall, so Jeremiah found them 
in Judah in similar political circumstances. 
It is probable that Jeremiah was acquainted 
with the prophecies of his large-hearted pre- 
decessor. Both were men of the same type 
of mind ; both were deeply religious and 
jealous for Jehovah's service ; and certain 
passages in the book of Jeremiah suggest the 
influence of the prophet of the North : cp. 
Jer2i-6 with Hos2i-5, Jer3!> 2 with HOS3 1 , 
Jer3 22 with Hosl4 4 , Jer5 31 with Hos4Q, 
etc. 

As already mentioned, in the early part 
of the prophet's career the ' book of the Law ' 
(Deuteronomy) was found in the Temple. Its 
teaching supported him in his appeals to the 
people, and as the results of its discovery the 
reformation of worship was made by Josiah. 



457 



INTRO. 



JEREMIAH 



2. 



That Jeremiah was influenced by this book is 
seen, negatively, in the fact that we have no 
prophecies belonging to the latter part of 
Josiah's reign, the teaching of Deuteronomy 
and the adoption of its precepts having 
rendered his work unnecessary for the time ; and 
positively in the frequent references to it which 
occur in his prophecies : cp. 2 6 with Dt32 10 , 
5 15 with Dt28 49 , 7 33 with Dt28 2 «, ll 3 with 
Dt 27 26 , 11 5 with Dt7 12 > 13 , 24 9 with 28 25 , etc. 
Jeremiah is concerned with the sin of the 
people as exhibited in their unfaithfulness to 
God. It was not enough that they should 
have a reform of worship ; the true reform 
was that of the human heart (4 4 ) ; what they 
needed was a change of heart (24 7 31 31 ). 
The importance of the individual in the sight 
of God is a prominent thought with our 
prophet. Men were to be punished for their 
own sins, he taught, not for those of their 
forefathers (31 29 ). Individual responsibility 
was to be the foundation of character and 
spiritual life. And consequently the new 
law was to be a spiritual bond between God 
and man, a law written in men's hearts, and 
obeyed in love and loyalty (31 31 ). This 
teaching of the importance of the individual 
was the first step towards that faith in per- 
sonal (as distinguished from racial) immor- 
tality, which from this time begins to be dimly 
sought after by Jewish thinkers. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Call of Jeremiah (13th year of 

Josiah). First Prophecy 
1-3. See Introduction. 

3. The fifth month] i.e. when Jerusalem 
was destroyed (2K26 3 > 8 ). 

4-10. Jeremiah's call and first prophecy. 

4. The word of the LORD came unto me] 
see art. l Introduction to Hebrew Prophecy.' 
We cannot doubt that Jeremiah had long 
mourned over his people's sins, and yet perhaps 
hesitated to undertake the burden of witness- 
ing against them. At length he became con- 
scious of a divine call to the prophetic office, 
which was not to be restricted : cp. 20 7 . 

5. I knew thee] approved, selected thee : 
cp. Gnl8 19 Pb1« NahK Sanctified] con- 
secrated: cp. John Baptist (Lkl 15 " 17 ) and 
St. Paul (Gal 1 I*. 1,; ). Unto the nations] This 
points out a distinction between the work of 
Jeremiah is a prophet and that of many of 
his predecessors, e.g. Elijah and Elisha. Their 
predictions were concerned with the Jews 
only. Those <>l" Jeremiah, on the other hand. 

had to do with the heathen world as well, and 
also with the nations of subsequent ages, as 

1,,. foretold the blessings that were bo come 
,,n the earth through the Messiah. See Intro. 

6. A child] not probably in years, bul in 
fitness. 'Who is sullicient for these things ?' 



9. Touched my mouth] symbolic of divine 
grace and inspiration : cp. Isa6 6 Ezk2 9 -3 3 . 

10. Jeremiah's work was to be radical and 
destructive in denouncing the sins of his 
people and predicting their chastening, but 
also one of restoration and rebuilding through 
leading them to repentance. 

11-19. Words of encouragement. Jeremiah 
is vouchsafed two visions. The first (11, 12) 
was the branch of an almond tree, which is 
extremely early in blossoming. This indicated 
that God would very soon execute His pur- 
poses and judgments. 12. Since the days of 
Manasseh the Lord had not visited upon the 
people their sins. That period of rest was like 
the winter. The Lord is now rousing Him- 
self ; yet not only to punish, but to save as 
well. Through Josiah's reforms and Jere- 
miah's ministry religion is to be kept alive in 
a remnant, viz. those carried to Babylon, and 
so the return shall at last be brought about. 

13. The second vision was that of a seething 
pot with its mouth ' towards the south ' (lit. 
' from the face of the north '), and about to 
boil over. The meaning was as hinted in 
v. 14, that the great Babylonian power to the 
N. of Palestine, which had long been at strife 
with Elam and Media, would soon be directed 
against Judaea, the danger to which always 
depended upon the fact that it lay on the 
direct route of an army proceeding from the 
E. against Egypt. 

15. Shall set every one his throne, etc.] 
This prediction was literally fulfilled (see 
39 3 ). The function of administering justice 
was exercised by the king in person, and 
the neighbourhood of the city gate was the 
ordinary place at which trials were held. 
Here then the rulers of the invader's army 
will sit in judgment on the conquered people. 

17. Gird up thy loins] The shortening of 
the robe by drawing it up through the girdle 
was preparatory to active exertion : cp. Elijah 
1 K 18 46 . 18. I have made thee . . a defenced 
city, etc.] God would endue Jeremiah with 
firmness and resolution to carry out his mission 
in spite of all opposition. 

CHAPTERS 2-6 
The Prophet sets forth the Sin of 
the Nation and points out the in- 
evitable Result (Reign of Josiah. 
and probably before the reforms of that 
king : cp. •">''') 
This section furnishes us with the gist of 
the prophet's testimony during the early years 
of his ministry, and doubtless represents the 
commencement of the roll written by Baruch 
a1 Jeremiah's dictation. In these five chs. he 
lays before his hearers the grossness of their 
conduct in deserting Jehovah, and urges 
repentance and amendment while yet the 



458 



2. 2 



JEREMIAH 



2. 34 



impending judgment is delayed. For the 
idolatrous and ' high place ' worship of the 
period see Intro., and cp. Intro, to Hosea. 

CHAPTER 2 

Jekemiah's Second Prophecy (2 1 -3 5 ) 

The prophet expostulates with Israel 

because of their unfaithfulness to Jehovah. 

i -i 3. Under the figure of the marriage 

relation Jehovah reminds the people of His 

past favours, and charges themwith faithlessness 

to their first love, as shown by their idolatry. 

2. The kindness of thy youth, etc.] Israel's 
earliest devotion to Jehovah at Sinai (Ex24 8 ). 

3. Firstfruits of . . increase] i.e. the conse- 
crated part. All that devour, etc.] The priest 
and his family alone were to eat of the first 
fruits (Lv22 10 > 16 ). If any unhallowed person 
took of them, he trespassed or ' offended.' 
In like manner if heathen nations meddle with 
Israel (the consecrated people), they will be 
guilty as those who eat the fruits. 

5. Vanity] i.e. idols : cp. 10 15 . 6. The 
shadow of death] RY ' deep darkness,' as 
referring to a region where the supply of the 
necessaries of life was so precarious that the 
fear of death was always present. 

8. The priests, the pastors (i.e. rulers) and 
the prophets were all alike in sympathy with 
the degraded worship of Jehovah at the high 
places, mingled as it was with the worship of 
the Baalim. The priests were more concerned 
with gain than with purity of worship ; and 
the prophetic guilds had also become cor- 
rupted by the general idolatry and immor- 
ality. It was the most degraded period of 
both these orders. 

9. Plead] ' argue, ' or ' contend.' 10. Chittim] 
probably Citium in Cyprus. Kedar] As 
Chittim represented the parts to the west- 
ward of Palestine, so did Kedar (the NW. of 
Arabia) those to the east. 11. None of the 
nations have forsaken their ancestral worship, 
false though it be. Israel has forsaken her 
ancient religion, though true. 

13. G-od's blessing, under the figure of fresh 
water as supplied by a spring or rivulet, is con- 
trasted with the vanity of serving idols, which 
is as devoid of profit as is a cracked reservoir 
(dug to collect rain water) for that which it is 
intended to supply. 

14-35. Not only by her idolatry, but by her 
quests for alliance, now with Egypt and now 
with Assyria, has Judah shown her faithlessness. 
For both these sins she will be punished. 

14. Is Israel, etc.] The meaning here pro- 
bably is, How is it that Israel, the people of 
God, has become a slave to neighbouring powers ? 
V. 17 gives the answer. 15. The young lions, 
etc.] the enemies of Israel. 16. Noph] pro- 
bably Memphis, the capital of northern (lower) 
Egypt. Tahapanes] the classic Daphnse, an 



Egyptian fortress on the E. frontier of Lower 
Egypt. It is again mentioned (43 >7 - 10 ) as the 
future scene of the acknowledgment of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's supremacy over Egypt. The sense 
of the v. is, Egypt is God's instrument for 
punishing Judah. Have broken] RM ' fed 
on,' so as to make it bald ; a disgrace. 

18. Egypt] Some of Judah's politicians 
desired an alliance with Egypt ; others with 
Assyria, or rather with Babylonia, Assyria's 
successor in the command of the East. Sihor] 
here the Nile ; so in Isa23 3 . Assyria] The 
Assyrian power had passed to Babylonia, but 
the name had been familiar for generations 
and was still in use for the great Eastern 
power. The river] Euphrates. 

20. See Intro, respecting worship in ' high 
places,' simultaneously with that of Jehovah, 
which they thought a lawful combination. I 
have broken . . and burst, etc.] RM ' thou hast 
broken,' etc., i.e. thou hast cast off allegiance to 
Me, thy Maker. Transgress] RY ' serve.' 

When] RY ' for.' Wanderest] RY ' didst 
bow thyself,' in idolatry, thus dishonouring thy 
rightful spouse. 21. A noble vine] a ' Sorek ' 
vine, the word probably indicating the dark- 
purple colour of the fruit. Strange vine] cp. 
Isa5 2 ' 4 . 22. Nitre] RY ' lye,' i.e. natron, or 
carbonate of soda. 

23. Baalim] the Heb. plural of ' Baal ' : cp. 
' cherubim,' ' seraphim.' The Baalim were the 
images of the local Baals under the form of a 
bull at the various shrines. The valley] Most 
likely Hinnom (S. of Jerusalem), which was 
defiled by Josiah in order that the impure rites 
(viz. the worship of Moloch = Baal) here re- 
ferred to might cease. Traversing] running 
quickly hither and thither in the eagerness of 
her passion. Yv. 23-25 are figurative of Israel's 
shameless love of idolatry. 24. At her pleasure] 
RY 'in her desire.' 25. Withhold, etc.] pursue 
not thy reckless wanton quest with parched 
throat and worn-out sandal. 

30. Your prophets] Such as Isaiah (said to 
have been sawn asunder) and Zechariah son of 
Jehoiada (2 Ch 24 20 ), and those whom Jezebel 
(1K18 13 ) or Manasseh (2 K 21*6) slew: cp. 
Mt 23 2 9-39. 3.1. A wilderness] i.e. fruitless, 
useless. We are lords] RY 'we are broken 
loose ' ; we are our own masters. 33. Why art 
thou so careful in thy devotion to strange gods ? 
In so doing thou hast made wicked ways to be 
a second nature to thee (or, thou hast taught 
the wicked women thy ways). 

34. Poor innocents] RY ' the innocent poor.' 

By secret search] RY ' at the place of break- 
ing in.' The allusion is to the law (Ex 22 2 ) 
by which it was permissible to slay a thief 
caught in the act of breaking into a house. 
But those ' innocent poor ' had committed no 
such crime, yet their blood had been wantonly 
shed : cp. the cruelties of Manasseh 2K21 16 . 



459 



2. 35 



JEREMIAH 



4. 10 



Upon all these] RM ' upon every oak,' or, 
perhaps, ' because of this,' i.e. your lust for 
idolatry. 

35. Plead] RV ' enter into judgement.' 

36. Ashamed of Egypt] literally fulfilled 
when the Egyptians in the reign of Zedekiah 
were expected to raise the siege of Jerusalem, 
but failed to do so : cp. 37 5 . Ashamed of 
Assyria] A conspicuous instance was in the 
reign of Ahaz (2Ch28 21 ). 37. Thine hands 
upon thine head] clasped in disgrace. 

C. 3. 1. That land] an allusion to the law 
(Dt24 1 - 4 ) that under such circumstances the 
reunion of husband and wife would pollute the 
land. Yet return again, etc.] RM 'and think- 
est thou to return again.' 

2. The Arabian] the Bedouin freebooters. 
As they are eager to despoil a passing cara- 
van, so is Israel eager for the worship of false 
gods. 5. Behold, thou hast spoken, etc.] RM 
' Thou hast spoken th us, but hast done evil 
things.' As thou couldest] RV ' and hast had 
thy way.' 

CHAPTERS 36-44 

Jeremiah's Third Prophecy. The Fate 

of the Ten Tribes a warning to Judah 

In this prophecy, as in the last, idolatry is 
denounced under the figure of unfaithfulness 
to the marriage vow. But as a marked dis- 
tinction, God here invites to repentance, and 
on this there hinges pardon. 

6-20. Israel and Judah have both forsaken 
their Divine Spouse, but forgiveness will follow 
repentance. 

7-1 1. Samaria, the capital of the kingdom of 
the Ten Tribes, after a stubborn resistance had 
been captured by Sargon, king of Assyria, 722 
B.C., and more than 27,000 of its inhabitants de- 
ported. The isolation and comparative poverty 
of Judah helped her to survive her northern 
sister for well over a hundred years. But 
failure to take advantage of the warning thus 
afforded her brought its inevitable results. 
Moreover, in spite of greater privileges, she 
had added to apostasy treachery, by hypo- 
critically feigning still to pay homage to Je- 
hovah under cover of idolatrous rites. She 
had rejected Josiah's reforms, and this rejection 
sealed her fate. ' li is not by the act of its 
government that a nation stands or falls ; Ahaz 
and Manasseh Lent the weight of their influence 
to the cause of idolatry ; Hezekiah and Josiah 
to the cause of truth : but the nation had to 
determine which should prevail' (Speaker's 
( Sommentary ). 

8. I saw] some read, ' she saw.' Bill of di- 
vorce] i.e. exile. 

11. Justified herself more] for Judah had 
even more \\ arning khan Israel. 

12. Toward the north] to Assyria, the 
place of Israel"* captivity. 



14. One of. . two of, etc.] A 'city' might 
be a mere village. A ' family,' i.e. descendants 
of a common ancestor, suggested a larger 
number. There were, e.g., only four or five 
families in the whole tribe of Judah. The 
reference here is to the return from the exile 
to Palestine. 

16. The blessings of repentance and obedi- 
ence. Even the ark with the mercy seat on 
which the brightness which marked Jehovah's 
presence rested shall be forgotten, for Jehovah 
shall no longer be confined to one place or one 
people. All nations shall serve Him ; His do- 
minion centred in Jerusalem shall extend to 
the ends of the earth. 17. Imagination] RV 
'stubbornness.' 19. The Lord tells of His 
affection for Israel. But] rather, 'and.' How] 
i.e. In what honourable position ? The child- 
ren] the nations of the earth, all of them God's 
children, as created by Him. 

22-25. -A- n acceptable prayer of repentance. 

23. The multitude of mountains] RV ' the 
tumult ' (RM ' the noisy throng ') ' on the 
mountains ' : the orgies and clamorous suppli- 
cations of idolatrous crowds at the high places. 

24. Shame] RV ' the shameful thing,' i.e. 
the god Baal : cp. II 13 . Hath devoured] hath 
consumed in the form of sacrifices the fruits 
of our toil. 

C. 4. 1-4. The assurance of forgiveness. 
I. Then shalt, etc.] RM 'and wilt not 
wander.' 

3. Break up, etc.] As the farmer is care- 
ful to clear the soil of weeds before sowing 
his seed, so with Israel. The sowing of 
repentance must be serious and real. 

4. Circumcise] Circumcision was a dedi- 
cation of self to God's service, and a removal 
of imperfections. 

CHAPTERS 45-630 
Jeremiah's Fourth Prophecy (or group 
of prophecies). God's Judgment upon 
the Unrepentant 
When the check which Josiah's personal 
character and influence put upon idolatry was 
removed, Jeremiah foresaw that the condition 
of the nation would become well-nigh des- 
perate. 

CHAPTER 45-31 

5-10. Destruction approaches Jerusalem. 

6. Set up the standard] to mark out the 
safest route to those who were seeking the 
shelter of the walls of Jerusalem. Evil from 
the north] The enemy (see v. 13) used chariots. 
and were therefore probably the Chaldeans, 
not (as some ha ve supposed) Scythians. 7. The 
lion] i.e. the enemy. Of the Gentiles] RV l of 
nations.' 

10. Jeremiah here struggles against the fate 
announced for the nation. After all its 



4f)0 



4. 11 



JEREMIAH 



6.9 



glorious history and the many promises of 
coming glory that prophets like Isaiah had 
made to it, was this to be the end ? The 
prophet was ' in a strait betwixt two,' sorrow- 
ing for the doom of the nation and anxious to 
avert it, and yet desirous to vindicate Jeho- 
vah's ways to them. Hence this exceeding 
bitter cry. Some, however, regard the v. as a 
reference to the mischief done by the false 
prophets, who had promised peace in the name 
of the Lord. 

11-18. Description of the attack. 

11. A dry wind] the Chaldean army coming 
like a sirocco from the E. 15. Dan was on 
the northern border of Palestine. Mount 
Ephraim was the range immediately N. of 
Judah, only about 10 m. from Jerusalem it- 
self. Thus the enemy's approach is rapid. 

16. The nations summoned to witness the 
vengeance on the chosen people. The watchers 
are the Chaldean besiegers. 17. The besiegers' 
tents compared to the booths of shepherds or 
husbandmen. 

19-31. The prophet expresses horror at the 
approaching calamity. 

19. My bowels] supposed to be the seat of 
emotions. 21. See v. 6. 22. God's answer 
to the implied appeal to know why the in- 
vasion was permitted. It is not without cause, 
for, etc. 24. Lightly] RY ' to and fro.' 

27. Yet will I not make a full end] The de- 
struction will not be complete : a remnant 
shall return : cp. Am9 8 . 30. And when thou 
art spoiled] better, ' and thou, spoiled one,' i.e. 
Jerusalem. Rentest thy face with paint- 
ing] RY ' enlargest thine eyes with paint.' 
The Eastern custom was to paint black the 
border of the eyes, so as to give the effect of 
size and brilliancy. So Jezebel in 2K9 30 . 

CHAPTER 5 

1-9. The universal corruption of the city 
prevents forgiveness. 

2. Though they say, The LORD liveth] i.e. 
though they take the most solemn form of oath, 
as opposed to those held by the Jews to be 
of less obligation : cp. Mt 5 34 > 35 . 3. The truth] 
RM ' faithfulness.' It is this that G-od looks 
for. 4. These are poor, etc.] i.e. the ignorant 
ones who know no better. 5. Yoke . . bonds] 
i.e. restraints of God's law. 6. Lion] i.e. the 
invader: cp. 4 7 . Evenings] RM 'deserts.' 

7, 8. All idolatry was unfaithfulness to God, 
to whom Israel was espoused, but gross licen- 
tiousness was literally the common accompani- 
ment of the worship of the reproductive 
powers of nature, such as was practised by the 
Canaanites. 

8. In the morning] RM ' roaming at large.' 
10-31. In spite of fancied security desola- 
tion is at hand in requital for rebellion and 
faithlessness. 



10. Jerusalem is likened to a walled-in vine- 
yard, and the Chaldean host is bidden to batter 
and trample it. Yet the overthrow shall not 
be complete, for Israel is, after all, a chosen 
nation. Battlements] RY ' branches,' so as to 
keep up the figure of the vine. Though the 
tendrils be cut away yet the stock shall be left. 

12. It is not he] It is not God who sends 
these messages of woe. 13. The prophets, 
etc.] These are still the words of the scoffing 
Jews. 15. A nation] the Assyrian. 16. Is as 
an open sepulchre] for it is filled with missiles 
dealing death. 

19. Note the distinct prophecy of the cap- 
tivity of Judah. 24. Jeremiah reminds them 
of the providence of God, who sends the 
winter and spring rains, so needful for the 
crops, and maintains a dry season between 
Passover and Pentecost for harvesting. 

25-28. A strong testimony to the deception, 
avarice, and oppression of the time. 28. Yet 
they prosper] R Y ' that they ' (the orphans) 
' should prosper.' 

31. Prophets, priests, and people alike con- 
nived at and took part in these crimes. By 
their means] RM ' at their hands.' Formerly 
the prophetic guilds had borne witness for 
righteousness and withstood the priests : now 
they are become false prophets, abetting the 
priests in their idolatry and wickedness. 

CHAPTER 6 

1-8. The hostile army approaches. 

1. Benjamin] Jerusalem was within the 
territory assigned to this tribe. Tekoa] 11m. 
S. of Jerusalem, and in the line of flight for 
its inhabitants seeking to escape an enemy 
from the N. A sign of fire] a warning 
signal. Beth-haccerem] probably a hill be- 
tween Jerusalem and Tekoa, and thus suitable 
for a beacon station. 2. RY ' The comely 
and delicate one, the daughter of Zion will I 
cut off,' a tenderly worded lament over the 
ill-fated city. Daughter] is used for the 
inhabitants collectively. 3. A figure of the 
devastating enemy. Flocks eating the herbage 
on every side are a figure to express devasta- 
tion. 

4, 5. The invaders propose a determined 
and continuous attack. 4. Prepare] RM 
' Heb. sanctify.' Entering on a war was 
accompanied by religious ceremonies : cp. 
Dt 20 2f . 6. Hew ye down trees] to clear 
the approaches to the city. Cast a mount] 
earth was carried in baskets and poured in a 
heap until it was on a level with the walls : 
cp. this method of assault in 2K19 32 Isa29 3 . 

To be visited] with punishment. 7. Grief] 
RY ' sickness.' 

9-21. Retribution awaiting the guilty people. 

9. Into the baskets] RM ' upon the shoots.' 
As the grape-gatherer goes back over the 



461 



6. 10 



JEREMIAH 



7.22 



tendrils, lest he should have missed any of the 
fruit, so the people shall be subject to suc- 
cessive gleanings at the hand of their con- 
querors, who are here addressed, io. Uncir- 
cumcised] in the sense of ' imperfect ' : cp. 
Ex6 12 . ii. Abroad] RV 'in the street.' 

14. They] the leaders, prophets, and priests. 

The hurt] the sins and shortcomings. They 
are like physicians who for their own ease 
assure their patients that all is well. 

16. God's appeal. ' A national calamity is 
at hand. As prudent men ye will desire to 
avoid it. Make enquiries what paths led your 
ancestors to prosperity. Were they those of 
idolatry or of true religion and purity ? ' 

17. Watchmen] the prophets sounding the 
alarm. The trumpet] warning of approaching 
danger. 18. What is among them] i.e. what 
is the punishment impending over Judah. 

20. Sheba] in the S. of Arabia. The 
general sense of the v. is, ' To obey is better 
than sacrifice ' (IS 15 22 ). Cane] i.e. calamus, 
a sweet-scented reed, used in making the 
anointing oil. 21. Stumbling-blocks, etc.] the 
enemy's invasion, which would, as it were, trip 
them up in their easy-going ways. 

22-24. The approaching invader. These 
vv. are repeated with necessary changes in 
50 4i-43 ; where Babylon is the object of the 
threat. 

22. The sides of the earth] an expression 
for the far distance. 

23. The Assyrian monuments show us rows 
of impaled victims hanging round the walls of 
besieged towns, also men collecting in heaps 
hands cut off from the vanquished enemy. 

25. Fear is on every side] a favourite 
expression with Jeremiah (20 3m *- 10 46 5 49 29 ). 

27-30. The nation incapable of reform. 
Jehovah reassures Jeremiah of his divine 
commission. The prophet appears under the 
figure of one testing metal by smelting. The 
result of the process is that no precious metal 
is found. All is dross. 

27. A tower] RM ' trier,' or tester. A for- 
tress] He shall have God's protection in his 
task. 28. They are brass and iron] They 
have none of the precious metal in them. 

29. All the prophet's fervour is without 
effect. Nothing of value rewards the long 
assay. Are burned] RV 'blow fiercely.' 

Plucked away] i.e. eliminated from the good. 

30. Reprobate] RV ' refuse.' 

CHAPTERS 7M0» 

JeREHI IH'S I'm 1 11 PrOPHEI 'i (OB GROUP or 

PROPH1 « n>). Aim. 1:1 — \ 1 1 HE TEMPLE 

(i\ii (Reign "t Joaiafa or beginning of 
that of Jehoiakini ) 
The prophet takes advantage <>f a solemn 

gathering of the people at Jerusalem to stand 
atone of the Temple gates as they pass in. 



and warns them against their superstitious 
confidence that the possession of the Temple 
was itself a charm against danger from with- 
out. As immorality had already brought 
about the overthrow of an older sanctuary 
(Shiloh) as well as of the Ten Tribes, so shall 
it be with them. Punishment for the wicked- 
ness of leaders and people can only be averted 
by a speedy amendment of life. 

It is possible that these chapters may be an 
expanded account of the prophecy closely 
resembling them, which is recorded in c. 26 as 
spoken at the commencement of Jehoiakim's 
reign. But it is more likely that the two 
occasions are distinct. 

CHAPTER 7 

1-20. Ceremonies and sacred places shall be 
no defence. 

4. God, said the false prophets, will never 
allow His Temple to be overthrown : cp. Mic 3 n . 

The temple, etc.] The threefold repetition 
suggests ' the energy of iteration that only 
belongs to Eastern fanatics ' (Stanley, ' Jewish 
Church,' ii, 438). 

5-7. Their tenure of the Temple is condi- 
tional on obedience to the covenant made by 
God with their fathers. 10. We are delivered] 
By the discharge of this formality we are set 
free for a return to wickedness. 11. Den of 
robbers] a place of retreat in the intervals 
between acts of violence: see Mt21 13 and 
parallel passages. 

12. Shiloh] a town of Ephraim, in a central 
position, chosen by Joshua as the resting-place 
of the ark and for the Tabernacle. It was a 
considerable place in the time of the Judges 
( Jg 2 1 19 > 21 ). Its fall into idolatry was followed 
by loss of the ark (IS 4) and subsequent cap- 
ture and cruel treatment (Ps 78 58 f -). Thence- 
forward it became insignificant, so that Jero- 
boam, when setting up calves for his rival 
worship, passed it by. 15. Ephraim] meaning, 
as often (e.g. Isa7 2 ), the ten northern tribes in 
captivity for nearly a century. 

16. So in 14 7 , when Jeremiah docs intercede 
for them, the prayer is rejected. 18. Queen of 
heaven] identified either with the moon or with 
the Assyrian Ishtar, the planet Venus. The 
Jewish Women were specially given to that 
worship, offering incense and cakes stamped 
with a representation of the goddess : cp. 4-1 1T . 

19. Do they provoke me] Their sin does not 
provoke God to a mere helpless anger, but to a 
wrath that is quick to punish and destroy them. 

21-28. The moral law lias always taken 
precedence of the ceremonial. 

21. Put your burnt offerings, etc.] Multiply 
your victims ad libitum. It will avail you nought. 

22, 23. This need not be more than a forcible 
< »i a t ( nical expression, not meaning that no cere- 
monial laws were given to Israel when brought 



462 



7. 24 



JEREMIAH 



9. 17 



out of Egypt, but that in the promulgation of 
the Ten Commandments on Sinai there was no 
direction concerning sacrifice. These were the 
only precepts which had the honour of being 
treasured up in the ark. Thus from the first 
they were shown to hold the chief place : cp. 
Isa 1 11_14 . ' The law of obedience was the 
earliest law of all (Gn2 1(3f -), and the most im- 
portant ; that of sacrifice was of secondary im- 
portance ' (Deane). 24. Imagination] see on 
3 17 . 27. Jeremiah need not therefore expect 
that his words will be heeded. 

29-34. Where they sinned there shall they 
be punished. 

29. Cut off thine hair] in token of mourning, 
or as a Nazirite shaved his head after immediate 
contact with a dead body (Nu 6 9 ) to mark defile- 
ment. The hair was the mark of consecration 
of the High Priest (Ex 29 6 ) and of the Nazirite 
(Nu 6 5 ). Here it is the mark of Jerusalem as 
chief city of a consecrated people. 

31. Valley of Hinnom] on the W. and S. sides 
of the city, Tophet being near the E. extremity 
of the S. reach. The valley had an evil name, 
(a) as the place of human sacrifices ; (b) as de- 
filed by Josiah ; (c) as the receptacle of the offal 
and filth of the city. Hence it afterwards became 
with the Jewish Rabbis the visible emblem of 
the place of future punishment, Gehenna : cp. 
Mt5 22 . To burn, etc.] in honour of Moloch, 
often identified with Baal, the sun-god (see on 
Gn22 2K16 3 ). 32. Till there be no place] 
rather, ' for want of room ' (elsewhere). The 
carnage of war shall extend far beyond the 
valley. 

Some think that the immediate result of this 
discourse was the trial of the prophet, as recorded 
in 26 7 - 24 , when the mob rose against him and he 
was saved with difficulty. 

CHAPTER 8 

1 -3. The dead shall share in the universal 
punishment. 

1. Shall bring out the bones] either from pure 
wantonness, or in the hope of finding treasure 
or ornaments of value. 2. Before the sun] the 
heavenly bodies will not be prevented by all the 
offerings and devotions that they have received 
from using their influence to hasten the rotting 
of the carcases of their sometime worshippers. 

3. Family] the whole nation : see on 3 14 . 
4-17. The people are hardened in sin. 

4. They] RY 'men.' If a man stumble, 
he will naturally regain his footing : if he 
lose his way he will return to it. Not so 
with this people. 6. As the horse, etc.] 
meaning, an eager plunge into wrongdoing. 

7. The turtle and the crane and the swallow] 
rather, ' The turtle dove and the swift and the 
crane ' : cp. Isa 1 3 . 

8. Lo, certainly in vain . . in vain] RY i But, 
behold, the false pen of the scribes hath 



wrought falsely,' i.e. they have used their 
knowledge of the Law to deceive others, 
persuading them that they may transgress 
with impunity. The scribes (frequently men- 
tioned in NT.) were a class of persons 
who devoted themselves to the study and 
exposition of the Law. That they were a 
leading class as early as the time of Josiah 
(and Jeremiah's whole argument depends on 
this fact) is a strong argument in favour of the 
belief that the Book of the Law even at that 
time had well-grounded claims to antiquity. 

10. Shall inherit therri] shall take possession 
of them. The idea is forcible seizure by the 
invader. 11. See on 6 14 . 13. And the thing* 
. . from them] EM ' I have appointed them 
those that shall pass over them ' : viz. the 
Assyrians invading them as a flood. 

14 f. The people address one another, while 
suffering under the troubles thus described. 

Enter into the defenced cities] i.e. out of 
villages for protection. Water of gall] bitter- 
ness is our portion. 16. His horses] i.e. those 
of the Babylonian invader. Strong ones] war- 
horses. So in 47 s 50 n . 17. Cockatrices] RY 
' basilisks,' RM ; adders ' : Jeremiah may have 
chosen the word because of its resemblance in 
sound in the Hebrew to the word northern, the 
invaders coming from that quarter. Charmed] 
so as to be harmless. 

18-22. Jeremiah speaks. 18. When I 
would] RY ' that I could.' 19 f. Jeremiah 
is in thought anticipating the captivity and 
the distressful cries of the exiles in the direction 
of their home. 20. When the harvest was 
bad there was still hope of the yield from 
grapes, etc. But the people had lost one 
chance of deliverance after another, and 
might now despair. Summer] RM ' ingather- 
ing of summer fruits.' 21. Black] RM 
' mourning.' 22. ' Is there no way of saving 
this people ? ' Gilead was a mountainous 
part of Palestine E, of the Jordan. Balm 
(balsam) was found there, and naturally in the 
same place would be found those skilled in 
its use. 

CHAPTER 9 

1-22. The prophet continues his lament. 
The impending doom. 

2. A lodging place, etc.] a caravanserai 
(khan), supplying a bare shelter, even the 
most desolate spot, if he may thereby escape 
the crimes of Jerusalem. 

7. Melt . . try] i.e. remove the dross, and 
test whether the metal is now pure. 8. His 
wait] RY ' wait for him.' 10. Habitations] 
RY l pastures.' 11. Dragons] RY ' jackals' ; 
so in 49 33 . 12. For what, etc.] rather (with 
RY), a new question, l Wherefore is ? ' etc. 
Why this heavy chastisement ? 

17. Mourning women] professionals, who 



463 



9.23 



JEREMIAH 



11. 10 



i 



with dishevelled locks and bared breasts led 
the loud weeping. Cunning] skilful. 

23, 24. The people have been trusting in 
worldly wisdom, power, and riches ; but the 
only sure trust is in knowing the will of God, 
who Himself acts righteously, and desires that 
men should do the same. 

25. Them which are circumcised with the 
uncircumcised] RV ' Them which are circum- 
cised in their uncircumcision.' They are 
circumcised in the flesh, but uncircumcised in 
spirit : cp. DtlO^ Bo 2 28, 29. Judah is be- 
come as the other nations which observe the 
outward rite, but have not the spirit of which 
it is the symbol. 26. That are in the utmost 
corners] BY ' that have the corners of their 
hair polled': cp. Lvl9 27 . The reference 
is to the tribes of Kedar : see 49 28 > 32 . 

CHAPTEB 10 

1- 1 6. The folly of idolatry. 

This section of the prophecy is of doubtful 
authorship. For (a) it introduces a break in 
the sense ; (&) there is less smoothness between 
the parts than we generally find in Jeremiah's 
writings ; (c) its language differs considerably 
from his use elsewhere, and closely resembles 
that of Isaiah 40-44 ; (d) the writer empha- 
sises the fact that false gods are incapable of 
hurting, while Jeremiah elsewhere speaks 
rather of them as powerless to aid ; (e) vv. 
2, 4 read as though addressed to men who 
were contemplating the idolatry around them, 
rather than guilty of it themselves. For 
these reasons it is held by some to be a dis- 
course addressed by an unknown author during 
the captivity to the exiles at Babylon : cp. 
the spurious letter ascribed to Jeremiah, which 
forms c. 6 of the (apocryphal) book of 
Baruch. 

It should, however, be said, on the other 
hand, that the Septuagint version of this 
book, though omitting much that is found 
in the Hebrew (see Intro.), yet contains this 
chapter. 

2. Signs of heaven] portents in the sky, such 
as comets and meteors. 3. People] nations. 

5. Upright as the palm tree] RV l like a 
palm tree, of turned work.' These idols are 
as still" and lifeless. 7. To thee doth it apper- 
tain] Thine is the supreme kingship. 8. The 
stcck, etc.] BV ' the instruction of idols, it is 
hut a stock' : an idol is wood, and can never 
get beyond it. 9. Tarshish] probably Tar- 
teasns in Spain, or perhaps Tarsus in Cilicia. 

Uphaz] perhaps the same as Ophir, which 
wbb probably either in India or on the E. 
coast of Arabia Founder] BV ' goldsmith ' : 
BO in v. I 1. 

11. This v. is in the later Hebrew or 
Aramaic. It may therefore have been origin- 
ally a note on the margin of the manuscript. 



afterwards copied into the text. 13. The 
ascent of the vapours in clouds is spoken of 
poetically, as though it were the consequence 
of the thunder (his voice), because it is seen to 
follow it. 14. In his knowledge] BV ' and is 
without knowledge.' 16. The portion of 
Jacob] i.e. the true God, upon whom Israel has 
a claim. Former] Maker, Fashioner. The rod] 
RV 'tribe.' 17-25. The coming troubles. 
This section seems to be closely connected 
with, and should probably be read after, 9 7 ' 22 . 
17. Gather up, etc.] i.e. collect articles for 
a hasty flight, thou who art in a besieged 
city' ; i.e. prepare for exile. 18. Find it so] 
BV 'feel if. 19 f. The lament of Jerusalem. 

20. The spoiling and exile represented in 
figurative language. Tabernacle] BV ' tent.' 

21. The condemnation of the rulers. 

22. The bruit] EV ' a rumour.' The north 
country] see on 1 13 . Dragons] see on 9 n . 

23. Jeremiah's prayer : the helplessness of 
man, and his dependence on God. 

CHAPTEBS 11, 12 
Jeremiah's Sixth Prophecy (Beign of 
Josiah). The Broken Covenant en- 
tails a Curse 
These chs. form a connected prophecy. 
They probably belong to Josiah's time, for 
(a) 'the words of this covenant' (ll 3 ) seem to 
refer to the reading of the newly discovered 
law mentioned in 2K23 3 ; (6) Jeremiah has 
not yet removed from Anathoth to Jerusalem 
(11 21 ), and (c) the apparent allusion (12 4 ) to 
a drought accords with similar references in 
prophecies belonging to Josiah's reign (8 3 5 2 *). 

CHAPTEB 11 

1-14. Punishment must follow faithlessness. 

3. Cursed, etc.] cp. the language of the 
warnings in Deuteronomy (27 lf, - 2t5 ), a book 
with which this passage has other features in 
common. 4. The iron furnace] the brick- 
kilns of the bondage in Egypt (Ex 1 14 ) may 
have given rise to the figure as expressive of 
affliction. 6. The cities of Judah] Jeremiah 
may have accompanied Josiah in the journey 
which he made to Bethel and to the cities of 
Samaria for the overthrow of idolatry (2K 
_':'» '"• '•'). 7. Rising early] a frequent phrase 
with Jeremiah to denote earnestness, but not 
occurring in that sense elsewhere. 8. Imagin- 
ation] BV L stubbornness.' 

9. A conspiracy] The words seem to point 
to an actual secret combination against Josiah 
on account of his reforms. 10. The iniquities 
of their forefathers] referring to the idolatry 
in the wilderness days. They went after] 
B V 'they are gone after,' viz. the Jews of 
the prophet's own day. The reformation had 
not taken hold of the hearts of the people, 
they had returned to their heathenism. 



4G4 



11. 13 



JEREMIAH 



13. 16 



13. The worship of Baal was practised 
secretly or openly in all parts of the country 
and city. Shameful thing] i.e. Baal. 

15-20. The people resent rebuke. 

15. Faithless Judah's presence in the Tem- 
ple is only an intrusion. And the holy flesh is 
passed from thee] better, perhaps, ' shall vows 
and holy flesh (i.e. sacrifices) take away thy 
wickedness ? ' 

16. The fair promise and the punishment 
which apostasy brought about. 

18. The prophet passes from the general to 
the particular, and charges his fellow-townsmen 
of Anathoth with conspiring to silence and even 
to kill him. The Lord had shown him their 
intentions. 

19. Like a lamb or an ox] RV ' like a gentle 
lamb.' The tree with the fruit thereof] ap- 
parently a proverb. Not only is the tree to 
perish out there is to be no chance of repro- 
duction by the sowing of its seed. 

21-23. Anathoth shall be punished. 

23. There shall be no remnant of them] viz. 
of the actual conspirators. Among those who 
return from exile are mentioned ' men of 
Anathoth' (Ezr223). 



CHAPTER 12 
1-4. The prosperity of the 



wicked per- 
plexes Jeremiah. 

1. Wherefore, etc.] The question was one 
which much exercised men of pre-Christian 
times who had no clear view of any but tem- 
poral rewards and punishments. See Pss 37, 
39, 49, 73, and Job (specially 21 ? «.). The 
plots of his fellow-townsmen at Anathoth 
(see c. 11) were probably the occasion of this 
outburst of Jeremiah's. 2. Near in their 
mouth, etc.] They honour G-od with their lips 
but their heart is far from Him. 4. A drought 
has been sent in punishment. He shall not 
see, etc.] Jeremiah's denunciations are derided 
by his enemies. 

5, 6. God's answer to the prophet's appeal. 
By two proverbial expressions He shows him 
that he must prepare to endure worse things 
than any he has yet been called upon to face. 
He has been in danger at Anathoth, but greater 
dangers await him at Jerusalem. Let him 
therefore be strong and play the man. 

5. Swelling] RV ' pride,' referring to the 
luxuriant vegetation on the banks, which 
formed a source of danger, as a covert for 
wild beasts. 

7-13. A lament over the desolate land. 
Some scholars think that this passage belongs 
to the time after the first siege and capture of 
Jerusalem, where Jehoiachin was led into 
captivity. 

8. The v. indicates the hostile attitude of 
the people to God. 9. The figures to repre- 
sent the coming desolation are, first, that of 



birds assembling round one of their own kind 
and maltreating it, because its plumage attracts 
their attention as unusual, and then that of 
hungry beasts of prey. 10. Pastors] leaders 
of the invading armies : cp. 6 3 , where they are 
called ' shepherds.' 

12. High places through] RV 'the bare 
heights in ' : no spot shall escape. 

13. And they shall be ashamed] RV 'And 
ye shall,' etc. Revenues] RV 'fruits.' 

14. Mine evil neighbours] Syrians, Edomites, 
Moabites and others who would feel that 
Judah's difficulty formed their opportunity. 
Both they and Judah shall be punished by 
exile ; but God will restore them in His 
mercy. If the heathen will but seek to serve 
God, they shall share in the blessings He has 
in store for Judah after they have suffered 
and repented. 

CHAPTER 13 

Jekemiah's Seventh Prophecy (Reign of 
Jehoiachin). The Linen Girdle 

The date of this prophecy is shown pretty 
clearly by the word 'queen' (v. 18), which 
means queen-mother, namely, Nehushta, mother 
of Jehoiachin. The queen-mother had always 
a high position, and in Jehoiachin's case this 
would be specially so, owing to his tender 
years. 

I— 11. The symbol of the linen girdle. 

1 . Go, etc.] It is doubtful whether this and 
the subsequent acts of the prophet were real or 
done only in symbol. As, however, Jeremiah 
appears to have been absent from Jerusalem 
during the most of the latter years of Jehoia- 
chin, he may well be supposed during part of 
that time to have been in or near Babylon: 
cp. v. 4. This would account for the kindly 
feeling shown towards him afterwards by 
Nebuchadnezzar (39 n ), which seems to point to 
an earlier acquaintance. 

The girdle represents the people of Judah 
(vv. 9, 10). Jehovah chose them for His 
service and glory, but they turned away and 
served other gods. Therefore as the girdle 
lost its beauty, so will they lose their beauty 
and come to ruin beside the Euphrates. 

10. Imagination] RV ' stubbornness.' 

12-14. Tne symbol of the bottles. Under 
the figure of intoxication, through which the 
people shall be helpless to resist the enemy's 
attack, the prophet intimates God's punish- 
ment for headstrong continuance in sin : 
cp. 25 15 ; and for Israel under the figure of 
a bottle or jar, cp. 18 1 ' 6 . Bottle] RM 'jar' 
(of earthenware ; not the skin bottles of NT.). 
The bottle represents the people, and the 
wine the wrath of God. But the people failed 
to see the significance of the message. 

15-27. Vain appeal to Judah. 

16. Give glory] a Hebrew idiom, meaning, 



30 



465 



13. 17 



JEREMIAH 



15. 20 



confess your sins : cp. Josh 7 19 Jn 9 * 24 . Dan- 
ger, difficulty, and gloom are near. 17. In secret 
places] The prophet will mourn apart, as he 
did in Jehoiakim's reign. 18. See note at 
head of c. The kings practised polygamy ; 
hence the high position taken by the queen- 
mother : cp. 1K15 13 2K10 13 . Principalities] 
RV ' headtires,' diadems. 

19. Cities of the south] i.e. of Judah. 
Shall be] RV 'are.' Shut up] i.e. besieged, 

blockaded, by the Chaldeans. 

20. The north] see on 1 13 . Where is the 
flock?] Where are the towns that once lay, 
like a fair flock of sheep, grouped around 
thee? 

21. RV ' What wilt thou say when he shall 
set thy friends over thee as head, seeing thou 
thyself hast instructed them against thee?' The 
reference is to Egypt and Babylon, the friend- 
ship and guidance of which countries Judah 
had alternatively courted, and thus was but 
preparing the way for subjection to them. He 
is Jehovah. 22. Made bare] and thus sub- 
ject to the roughness of the road as thou 
art led captive. 23. They are incapable of 
repentance. 24. The wind of the wilderness] 
see on 4 11 . 25. Of thy measures] RV ' measured 
unto thee.' Falsehood] i.e. idolatry: cp. 10 14 
16 19 . 27. Made clean] i.e. from infidelity and 
idolatry. When shall it once be f] RV ' How 
long shall it yet be ? ' 

CHAPTERS 14, 15 
Jeremiah's Eighth Prophecy (Reign of 
Jehoiakim ?). The impending Drought 

AND OTHER WOES 

Dialogue between the prophet and God. 
He intercedes ; but in vain, for the nation 
persists in sin. In this section we probably 
see the state of matters in the early part 
of Jehoiakim's reign. There is no historical 
allusion to the drought which formed the 
occasion of the prophecy. 

CHAPTER 14 

1-6. Description of the drought. 

2. The gates thereof languish] Figurative 
of the people who collect there. They are 
black unto] RV ' They sit in black (mourning) 
upon.' 3. Covered their heads] as a sign of 
grief Or confusion: cp. David (2S19 4 ) and 
Hainan (Esth6 12 ). 6. They snuffed up the 
wind] RV ' They pant for air.' Dragons] RV 
' jackals.' 

7-22. Jeremiah's pleadings and God's 

replies. 

7. Do thou it] RV ' work thou.' 8. As a 
stranger, etc.] one who has no interest in the 
people. Turneth aside] RM ' spreadeth his 
tent. 1 9. Astonied] hesitating, inactive. 

13. Jeremiah pleads that the false prophets 
have misled the people. 17. The virgin 



daughter of my people] i.e. Judah. whom God 
had hitherto protected. 19. The prophet 
again intercedes. 21. The throne of thy 
glory] Jerusalem, or, more particularly, the 
Temple. 

22. A reference to the drought (v. 1). God 
alone can remove it. 

CHAPTER 15 

1-9. The coming woes described. 

1. Moses (Ex 17 11 32 "*• Nu 1413-20) and 
Samuel (1S7 9 12 23 ) were successful pleaders 
with God in time past : cp. Ps99 6 . 2. To 
death] meaning, by pestilence. 4. To be 
removed into] RV 'to be tossed to and fro 
among.' For Manasseh's wickedness see 
2K213f. 7. They shall be dispersed and 
driven forth from the land by every way of 
exit. 8. Even the mothers of warriors in the 
prime of youth shall have none to protect 
them. At noonday] taking them by surprise : 
see 6 4 . I have caused him, etc.] RV 'I 
have caused anguish and terrors to fall upon 
her ' (the mother) k suddenly.' 

10-21. Jeremiah's lament and appeal. 
God's reply. 

10. I have neither lent, etc.] The Jews were 
forbidden to take interest from one another 
(Dt23 20 ), and the money-lender accordingly 
was held in extreme disfavour. Jeremiah 
laments that his mission is constantly one of 
strife with his people. 11. It shall be well 
with thy remnant] RV ' I will strengthen thee 
for good.' His enemies shall not only spare 
Jeremiah, but invoke his aid. This took place 
more than once : see 21 lf - 37 3 42 2 . 

12. Judaea is not tough enough to with- 
stand the Chaldean power. For northern, cp. 
6 1 . 14. I will make thee to pass with] Some 
authorities read, ' I will make thee to serve.' 
So it runs in the parallel passage, 17 4 . 

16. He describes the joyful acceptance with 
which he first received the divine commission. 

17. The mockers] RV 'them that make 
merry.' There is no suggestion of wrong 
doing in the original word. Because of thy 
hand] meaning God's guidance, His inspira- 
tion. For this sense of 'hand' cp. IsaS 11 
and Ezkis 37 1 . 18. Liar] RV 'deceitful 
brook? As waters that fail] The figure is that 
of a watercourse, which being dried up belies 
the anticipations of the thirsty traveller : 
cp. Job6 15f . Jeremiah laments that his mes- 
sage seems to h:i\e no effect. 

19. Return] i.e. repent of his murmuring. 

Stand before me] as my servant : cp. for 
the phrase, 1K18 1 * 2K3 14 . Take forth the 
precious from the vile] i.e. purge himself of 
his distrust. Let them return, etc.] Deliver 
your message, regardless of the people's 
favour. They must turn to God. 20. See 

118,19. 



4uC 



16.1 



JEREMIAH 



18. 3 



CHAPTERS 16, m-™ 

Jeremiah's Ninth Prophecy (Reign of 
Jehoiakini ?). Punishment of Judah 
by Pestilence and Exile 

It is clear from 17 15 , in which the people 
challenge the prophet to point to a fulfilment 
of his prophecies of woe, that it is at any rate 
earlier than the capture of Jerusalem at the 
end of Jehoiachin's reign. 

CHAPTER 16 

1-13. Self-denial and an ascetic life are to 
be the prophet's lot. 

6. Nor cut themselves] in token of mourn- 
ing : cp. 47 5 . 7. Tear themselves for them] 
RV ' break bread for them.' The reference 
here and in the rest of the v. is to the custom 
that the friends should urge the mourners to 
eat and drink : cp. 2 S3 35 1216*. Prov316. 

12. Imagination] cp. 31 7 . 13. There shall 
ye serve other gods] if you please. Spoken 
ironically. 

14-21. The deliverance will be in propor- 
tion to the severity of the punishment. 

14. 15. Yet the coming deliverance shall be 
one in comparison with which even the exodus 
from Egypt shall pale. For Jeremiah's cus- 
tom of throwing in a bright thought among 
gloomy ones see 314 427 510,1s 2722 30 3 3237. 

15. The land of the north] i.e. Babylon : a 
promise of restoration after the exile. 

16. Many fishers] Judah's enemies. The 
people shall be hunted down with energy 
wherever they may be found. 

19-21. God's power thus shown in the care 
of His people for evil and then for good, and 
witnessed by other nations, shall lead even the 
most distant of them to acknowledge Him. 

CHAPTER 17 1-18 

1-4. The sin of Judah is indelible. Hence 
the severity of the punishment. 

2. Groves] RV ' Asherim,' wooden pillars, 
or monuments, set up in honour of Astoreth 
(Astarte), generally near altars (e.g. Jg6 25 ). 
The Law ordered them to be pulled down 
(Ex 34 13). 3. O my mountain in the field] The 
hill on which Jerusalem is built rises high 
above the plain. On the other hand, it is 
lower than the surrounding mountains, hence 
can be spoken of as a 'valley' in 21 13 . For 
sin] i.e. because of sin. 

5-8. God alone is worthy of trust. 

6. The heath] EM ' a tamarisk.' The figure 

I is that of a barren, profitless life. 7, 8. Note 

the parallels to Ps 1. But which has been 

influenced by the other is a question more 

difficult than important. 8. See] RY ' fear.' 

Careful] i.e. anxious. 

9-1 1. G-od searches out and punishes evil. 

11. RY 'As the partridge that gathereth 



young which she hath not brought forth,' and 
which will soon fly away — a popular belief of 
which Jeremiah avails himself to illustrate 
the truth that riches unlawfully gotten are a 
precarious possession. 

12-18. God is the Saviour of the faithful. 

12, 13. Connected with the preceding v. 
The covetous man will be disappointed ; and 
all they who forsake Jehovah and His sanc- 
tuary shall not endure. 12. Place of our 
sanctuary] i.e. Zion, where Jehovah's glory 
abode. 13. Shall be written in the earth] i.e. 
shall disappear — a natural simile, a board 
covered with sand being used for writing 
lessons in Eastern schools to this day, owing 
to the scarcity of writing materials. 15. See 
intro. to c. 16. 16. I have not hastened, etc.] 
I have not sought to resign the office of 
assistant shepherd for Thy people. The 
woeful day] when his predictions would be 
fulfilled. 

CHAPTER 1719-27 

Jeremiah's Tenth Prophecy (Reign of Je- 

hoiakim, or even Josiah, for it speaks of 

the possibility of the continuance of the 

Monarchy). The Sabbath Obligation 

19. The children of the people] perhaps 

meaning the lay folk as opposed to the priests. 

25. A promise of the continuance of the 

lineage of David. 26. The plain] from the 

hill-country westward to the Mediterranean. 

The mountains] the central portion of the 

land running from M". to S. Meat offerings] 

RY ' oblations.' RM ' meal offerings.' They 

were made of flour and oil, with frankincense 

strewn on the top (Lv 2 1). 

CHAPTERS 181-2018 
Jeremiah's Eleventh Prophecy (Reign of 
Jehoiakim). Prophecies illustrated 
from the Work of the Potter 

C. 18 gives and explains the figure of the 
potter's clay, and tells of the effect upon the 
people. C. 19 gives and applies the figure of 
the potter's broken vessel, while c. 20 describes 
the consequent sufferings of Jeremiah and his 
complaints. 

The outrage on the prophet committed by 
Pashur (20 2 ) would certainly not have been 
permitted in Josiah's time. On the other 
hand, there seems from the language used to 
be still a chance for the people, and the calam- 
ity threatened had not yet arrived. Therefore 
we may date the symbolical actions early in 
Jehoiakim 's reign. 

CHAPTER 18 

1-17. Figure of the potter's clay. 

3. The potter's house] Clay from which pot- 
tery was made was found S. of Jerusalem : 
cp. Zechllis Mt27 10 . The potter teaches 



467 



18. 7 



JEREMIAH 



21. 1 



Jeremiah important lessons concerning the 
providential rule of the world. ' As I watched 
him shaping the pliant clay, remodelling the 
imperfect vessels until they conformed to his 
ideal, God revealed to me the manner in which 
He is able to mould at His will the nations. 
At the same time I realised that man may 
render G-od's work imperfect ' (Sanders and 
Kent, ' Messages of the Earlier Prophets '). 

7-10. Predictions of good or evil were 
conditional on the moral state of those 
addressed. 

n. Frame] the Hebrew word is the same 
as that for ' potter.' 

14. Will a man leave, etc.] RV ' Shall the 
snow of Lebanon fail from,' etc. Understand 
the answer, 'No, it is perpetual.' Shall the 
cold, etc.] RV ' Shall the cold waters that flow 
down from afar ' (mg. ' of strange land that 
flow down ') ' be dried up ? ' Nature is con- 
stant in her operations, but God, the Rock of 
Israel, is forsaken by those who used to trust 
in Him. 

15. Vanity] i.e. idols. 

16. Hissing] not in contempt, but amaze- 
ment. 

17. I will shew them the back] God's 
countenance will be turned away. 

18-23. Invocation of evil on the prophet's 
enemies. 

18. The people's appeal against Jeremiah's 
words to the three classes of persons whom 
they thought to be in undoubted possession of 
the truth. 

21-23. The stern spirit of the OT. dispen- 
sation, as shown in these imprecations, was 
connected with the comparative darkness in 
which a future existence was then shrouded. 
This would make righteous men more eager 
that God's glory should be vindicated and His 
people avenged in this life. 

CHAPTER 19 

In c. 18 the special lesson was the power of 
God to alter at any moment the destinies of a 
people. Here, on the other hand, it is taught 
that the time may come when the only altera- 
tion must take the form of a breaking or 
overthrow. 

1-13. Figure of the broken vessel. 

1. Ancients] RV 'elders.' 2. Valley of the 
son of Hinnom] sec on 7 31 . East gate] He- 
l»!-<w is obscure. KM 'gate of potsherds,' 
perhaps because refuse of this sort was thrown 
there. 3. Kings] the whole dynasty with their 
accumulated transgressions. 4. Estranged 
this place] i.e. alienated it from the worship 
of Grod. 6. Tophet] sec 011 7 :il . 8. An hissing] 
sec on ixi'\ 9. This was fulfilled in the 
Chaldean siege of Jerusalem: sec Lam 2 2° 
4 10 . 11. Till there he no place to bury] see 
on 7 :i '~\ 13. The flat roofs were easily used 



as gathering places: see e.g. Jgl6 27 Neh8 16 
Zeph 1 5. 

14. This v. as introducing another address 
should commence a new paragraph ending 
with 20 6 . 

CHAPTER 20 

1-6. Pashur's act and Jeremiah's reply. 

2. Pashur] In c. 38 1 two Pashurs are men- 
tioned. This one is perhaps the father of 
Gedaliah there spoken of, while Pashur the 
son of Malchiah of that v. is probably identical 
with the Pashur of 21 1 . The houses repre- 
sented by both men were strong in numbers 
amongst the few priestly courses that returned 
from Babylon (Ezr23<3-39). 

3. Magor-missabib] i.e. 'fear is on every 
side ' : see on 6 25 . The name is symbolic of 
his coming fate, consisting in part, at least, of 
remorse at the ruin which he had brought 
upon his country by opposing the warnings of 
Jeremiah and perhaps claiming prophetic 
powers. For other cases of names given to 
symbolise and sum up a prophetic message, 
cp. Shear- jashub, ' a remnant ' (only) ' shall 
return' (Isa7 3 ), and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 
' speedy spoliation ' (Isa8 3f «). 

7-13. The prophet's cry to God. 

7. Deceived] RM ' enticed,' to undertake 
his mission. 8. For since I spake, I cried out] 
RV ' for as often as I speak I cry out ' (com- 
plain loudly). 9. The prophet cannot refrain 
from delivering his message, though it entailed 
derision and mockery. 10. Report my they, 
etc.] the words of two groups of his foes, the 
first arguing that his language should be 
brought under the notice of those in power, 
the second undertaking to do so. 

14-18. For the vehemence of the impreca- 
tions cp. Job3 3 10 1S , and David's address to 
Gilboa (2 S 1 21 ). It is interesting to note that 
in later time, when the prophet had still more 
afflictions to endure, we no longer read of his 
trembling or bewailing the sufferings connected 
with his calling. 16. The cry . . the shouting] 
of war and trouble. 

CHAPTER 21110 
Jeremiah's Twelfth Prophecy (Reign of 
Zedekiah during the siege). Zedekiah'8 
Roll 

This c. commences a new division of the 
book extending to the end of c. 24. We pass 
from the time of Jehoiakim to that of the last 
king <>f Judah. when Jerusalem was attacked 
by the Chaldeans. The city must betaken, 
but surrender may still ensure safety. 

1-10. The king's appeal to the prophet, and 
ilic 1 eply. 

1. Pashur] see on 20 2 . Zephaniah] men- 
tioned again 29 26 37 8 5224. j n c . 52 he is 
spoken of as 'the second priest,' meaningnext 



•lf>8 



21. 2 



JEREMIAH 



;. 6 



in rank to the high priest. Both men were 
for resisting Nebuchadnezzar. 2. Nebuchad- 
rezzar] meaning, l Nebo, defend the land- 
mark.' It is a more correct spelling than 
'Nebuchadnezzar' in 34 1 . 4. The defenders 
will be driven back into the city. 9. He that 
goeth out, etc.] Many acted upon this sugges- 
tion : see 39 9 52 15 . His life shall be unto him 
for a prey] i.e. he shall snatch it from destruc- 
tion. 10. He shall burn it with fire] see 52 13 . 

CHAPTERS 2111—2410 
Jeremiah's Thirteenth Prophecy 

A collection of short prophecies here form- 
ing one group, delivered, however, at various 
dates, and perhaps reissued with modifications 
from time to time to suit the needs of succes- 
sive occasions. 

Chs. 21 H-22 30 deal with the sins of succes- 
sive kings, 23 1- 8 give expression to Messianic 
hopes. 241-1° show by the figure of baskets 
of worthless figs the rottenness to which the 
state had been reduced under Zedekiah. 

CHAPTER 211114 

11-14. Exhortation and warning to the 
royal house. 

12. Execute judgment] An important part 
of the king's duties was to adjudicate cases of 
dispute in the open space at the gate of the 
city : cp. 2 S15 2f . 13. Valley] see on 17 3 . 

14. The forest] referring to the houses of 
Jerusalem clustered together, or perhaps to 
the house of the forest of Lebanon (1 K7 2 ). 

CHAPTER 22 

1-9. Call to amendment of life. 

1. Go down] The king's house was on lower 
ground than the Temple : cp. 36 12 . 3. The 
reference is to the special crimes of Jehoiakim 
more fully stated in vv. 131: cp. 2 K 2335, 
He oppressed his people in order that though 
paying tribute to Necho he might yet build 
himself sumptuous palaces. Neither shed 
innocent blood] For his sins in this respect 
cp. 26 20f . 4. Cp. 17 25 . 6. Gilead, with its 
balm (8 22 ) and its flocks of goats (Song 41 6 5 ), 
and the forests crowning the highest parts of 
Lebanon, represent things that are most 
precious. 7. Prepare] see on 6 4 . Thy choice 
cedars] either the house of the forest of 
Lebanon (see on v. 6), or figuratively for the 
chief men of the state. 

10-12. Lament for the fate of Jehoahaz. 

10. Weep ye not for the dead] viz. Josiah. 
The sense is that even his fate (as slain at 
Megiddo) is preferable to that of his son and 
successor Jehoahaz (Shallum) carried into 
hopeless captivity in Egypt : see 2 K 23 29 ' 34 . 
Lamentations for Josiah came to be a fixed 
custom(2Ch35 2 5). 

13-23. Jehoiakim's evil deeds and fate. 



15. Closest thyself] RY ' strivest to excel,' 
rivalling Solomon with his cedar palaces in- 
stead of aiming at just rule. Thy father] 
Josiah. 18. Ah my brother ! or, Ah sister] 
The reference may be to a chorus of mourners 
male and female addressing themselves anti- 
phonally. 18, 19. The capture and death of 
Jehoiakim are mentioned in 2 Ch36 6 2 K 24 6 . 

20. The passages] RV 'Abarim,' a range of 
mountains in the SE. Thy lovers] Egypt and 
the other nations whose aid Judah hoped for : 
see 27 3 . 23. Inhabitant of Lebanon] referring 
to the king and his nobles as dwelling in cedar 
houses. How gracious] RY ' how greatly to 
be pitied.' 

24-30. Punishment of Jehoiachin. 

24. Coniah] so in 37 1 : called Jeconiah in 
24 !, etc. The change of his name to Jehoia- 
chin, as in the case of his uncle Jehoahaz (the 
Shallum of v. 11), was probably made on his 
accession to the throne. All three names 
mean, ' The Lord will establish.' Signet] 
emblem of royal authority. 26. See 52 3 i f . 

28. A lament over Jehoiachin's fate. Idol] 
RY ' vessel,' a piece of earthenware cast out 
as useless. 29. For the emphasis by three- 
fold repetition cp. 7 4 . 

30. Write ye, etc.] addressed to those who 
kept his family registers. They are bidden to 
enter the fact now instead of waiting for his 
death. Even though he had children (1 Ch 3 !7 f -) 
they were not to succeed to the throne. 
' Whether childless or not Jehoiachin was the 
last king of David's line. His uncle, indeed, 
actually reigned after him, but perished with 
his sons long before Jehoiachin's death (521°).' 

CHAPTER 23 

1-4. A remnant shall return. 

1. The pastors] i.e. the rulers of Judah. 

4. Shepherds] e.g. Ezra, Nehemiah, etc. 
5-8. Promise of the Messiah. 

5. Branch] rather, ' sprout,' ' shoot,' that 
which is immediately connected with the root, 
and contains, as it were, the springs of life. 
So in 33 1 5 , and in later time Zech3 8 6i 2 . On 
the other hand, the word in Isa 111 denotes 
1 branch,' properly so called. The v. predicts 
the coming of an ideal descendant of David, a 
king who shall reign in righteousness over the 
people. We see the fulfilment of the prophecy 
in the spiritual conquests of Christ. And 
prosper] RY ' and deal wisely,' as David did 
(lS18 5 -i 4 ). 6. THE LORD OUR RIGHT- 
EOUSNESS] RY ' The Lord is our right- 
eousness.' The coming king shall be a right- 
eous ruler, whose reign shall be marked by 
absolute justice ; He shall be called Jehovah- 
Tsidkenu ('The Lord is our righteousness') ; 
and His name shall be the sign that Cod will 
make His people righteous : cp. 33 16 . Cp. also 
'Immanuel' ('God with us'), Isa7 14 8i°. 



469 



23.7 



JEREMIAH 



25. 23 



7, 8. See on 16 14f - The deliverance after 
the captivity will be even more wonderful than 
that from Egypt. 

9-40. Rebuke of false prophets and priests. 
Their disgrace is foretold. 

10. Swearing] RM k the curse' (of God). 

Pleasant places] RV ' pastures.' Course] 
manner of life. Force] exercise of power. 

13. Samaria] the northern kingdom. In 
Baal] i.e. the name of Baal. 14. The repre- 
sentatives of God encourage evil doers by their 
own misdeeds. 17. These false prophets 
promised deliverance from Babylon. 18. For 
who hath stood, etc.] meaning that at any rate 
these false prophets had not done so. 

20. Consider] RV ' understand.' 21. Yet 
they ran] as if appointed. 23. Think you that 
My knowledge is subject to human limitations ? 
These men do not deceive Me as they do the 
people. 25. I have dreamed] By repeating 
this formula they caught the ear of the 
crowd. 

28. The contrast between true and false 
prophecy. God's word contains nourishment 
and life. Other words are but as chaff, or, 
rather, straw. 29. Fire] which consumes the 
dross. 30, 31. The false prophets steal the 
phrases of the true, e.g. ' He saith.' 32. Light- 
ness] RV ' vain boasting.' 

33. They ask jestingly of Jeremiah, What 
is thy latest message for us? what is the 
burdensome oracle of the Lord ? ' Burden ' 
was often used in this sense : cp. Nah 1 1 
Habli Zech9i. What . . burden] LXX 'ye 
are the burden.' 

34> 35- The misused phrase ' the burden of 
the Lord ' is to be used no more. Some other 
expression is to take its place. 36. Every 
man's burden shall be his use of the word. 
For he who has jokingly enquired after the 
1 burden of the Lord ' shall find that those 
lightly spoken words of his are in very deed a 
load upon him. Perverted] used jestingly. 

CHAPTER 24 

The two Baskets of Figs 
The evil figs were such of the people as had 
not been carried away with Jehoiachin to 
Babylon after the first siege of Jerusalem, 
597 B.C., but had failed to draw any warning 
from the fate that had overtaken their breth- 
ren. Those who had been made captives, on 
the other hand, should yet be the subjects of 
God's love and grace. The ripening time for 
both baskets was over, but here the likeness 
between them ceased. 

1. Carpenters] RV 'craftsmen,' the most 
valuable captives. 2. First ripe] In the case 
of trees bearing twice in the year, the first 
crop, ripening in Jnne, was considered a 
special delicacy. Naughty] RV 'bad.' 

5. Acknowledge] RV l regard.' 8. Egypt] 

4' 



cp. 22io.il. 9. To be removed into] RV 'to 
be tossed to and fro among.' 

CHAPTER 25 
Jeremiah's Fourteenth Prophecy (Reign 
of Jehoiakim). The Wine Cup of God's 
Fury 

We have here the first closely dated pro- 
phecy, taking us back from Zedekiah's reign 
to the fourth year of Jehoiakim, between the 
news of the victory of Nebuchadnezzar over 
Pharaoh-Necho and the Egyptians at Car- 
chemish (605 B.C.) and the arrival of the Chal- 
dean army under the walls of Jerusalem. The 
prophet advises submission to Babylon as God's 
agent, but promises its overthrow at the end 
of the seventy years' captivity which impends. 
He announces the judgment that shall descend 
on the nations. 

1-7. The people's prolonged waywardness. 

3. The three and twentieth year] of Jere- 
miah's prophetic ministry. 7. The works of 
your hands] i.e. your idols. 

8-14. Babylon's victory and subsequent 
overthrow. 

9. Families of the north] the races near the 
Tigris and Euphrates. My servant] God's 
agent in carrying out His purposes of chastise- ' 
ment. 

11. Seventy years] for the definite number 
cp. 29 1°. The Jewish love for round numbers 
would lead them to consider the number seventy 
used in such a connexion as standing for any 
approximation to that amount. The captivity 
seems to have been, in fact, for somewhat less 
than seventy years. 

Immediately upon v. 13 there come in the 
Septuagint (Greek) version of this book the 
prophecies against foreign nations, which in 
the English (following the Hebrew) stand at 
the end (chs. 46-51). 

14. Of them] viz. of the Chaldeans. As 
they have done to the people of God, so shall 
it be done to them. 

15-29. The wine cup of God's fury to be 
drunk by the nations. 

15. Wine cup] representing disaster, so often 
in OT. : cp. 4912 51 T . 16. Be moved] RV 
'reel to and fro.' 17. Then took I the cup] 
not, however, in a Literal sense, the cup being 
itself only figurative. 18. As it in this day] a 
later insertion by Jeremiah or another as com- 
ment on the fulfilment. 20. The mingled 
people] those who had attached themselves to 
a nation without being connected with it by 
blood. Uz] Job's country near Idumea 
(Lam4 21 ). Ashkelon, etc.] the chief cities 
of Philistia. Azzah] RV ' Gaza.' 22. Isles] 
RV 'isle,' RM ' coastland,' a phrase denoting 
generally the region W. of Palestine, with 
special reference to the Grecian Archipelago. 

23. For Dedan see on 49 8 . Tema and Buz 



25. 25 



JEREMIAH 



28.7 



(to which Elihu belonged, Job 32 2 ) were neigh- 
bouring Arabian tribes. Utmost corners] see 
on 9 26 . 25. Zimri] quite unknown. 

26. Sheshach] Sheshach stands in all prob- 
ability for Babel (or Babylon). The Jews had 
a species of cypher writing, the form of which 
consisted in substituting the last letter of the 
Hebrew alphabet for the first, the last but one 
for the second, and so on. Omitting vowels, 
we find that thus Sh, Sh, Ch will represent 
B, B, L : cp. 51 41 , where Sheshach" and Babylon 
stand in parallel clauses. Another instance of 
the cypher is in 51 1 , where the Heb. for 'in 
the midst of them that rise up against me ' 
becomes, when thus transmuted, ' Casdim,' i.e. 
Chaldeans. 

30-38. Judgment shall come upon all the 
peoples of the earth. 

30. Upon his habitation] RV 'against His 
fold,' i.e. His people. 31. Plead] in a legal 
sense, judge. 32. Coasts] RV 'uttermost 
parts.' 34. Shepherds] i.e. rulers. Like a 
pleasant vessel] fair but fragile. 37. Habita- 
tions are cut down] RY ' folds are brought to 
silence.' 

38. As the lion] The Lord is gone forth in 
wrath to lay waste. 

CHAPTER 26 

Jeremiah's Fifteenth Prophecy (Early in 
the reign of Jehoiakim) 

For vv. 1-8 see intro. to chs. 7-10. This c. 
gives us a sketch of the difficulties and dangers 
under which Jeremiah had spoken the preceding 
prophecies. 

1-6. The prophet warns the people. 

6. Like Shiloh] see on 7 12 . A curse] i.e. a 
subject of their cursing, as being contemptible. 

8. A prophet speaking without God's com- 
mand was to be put to death (Dt 18 20 ). This was 
the charge against Jeremiah, and the alleged 
proof was that God could not permit such a 
calamity to fall on Jerusalem. 

7-15. The charge against Jeremiah, and his 
defence. 10. The princes] apparently heads 
of prominent houses, who had taken up their 
quarters in Jerusalem. 

16-24. The princes and people, not being 
prejudiced against Jeremiah, as were the pro- 
phets and priests, gave a fair decision. 

17. The elders] for their action in criminal 
procedure cp. Dt21 2f - ; in civil, Ruth4 2f . 

18. Micah] the minor prophet : seeMic3 12 . 
The king and the people listened to his warn- 
ings. 20-23. An instance of the ill-treatment 
of a prophet. This part of the narrative was 
probably introduced later. It would have been 
dangerous for any of those present to have made 
such an attack upon the reigning king. 

24. Ahikam] father of Gedaliah, who, when 
appointed governor by Nebuchadnezzar, stood 
the prophet's friend (39 14 40 5 ). 



CHAPTERS 27-29 

Jeremiah's Sixteenth Prophecy (Reign of 
Zedekiah, earlier part). The Babylonian 
yoke 

Babylon had already shown its power. 
Jehoiakim and the chief of the people had 
been carried captive. Zedekiah was king only 
on sufferance. The neighbouring nations were 
under those circumstances willing to make 
common cause with the Jews against Nebuchad- 
nezzar, many of whom, however, refused to 
realise the gravity of the danger. In these 
chs., therefore, Jeremiah sets himself to show 
that the power of Babylon would be permanent 
and irresistible. He addresses on this subject 
(27 l-ii) the neighbouring nations, (vv. 12-15) 
Zedekiah, (vv. 16-22) the priests and prophets, 
(c. 28) the false prophets, (c. 29) the exiles in 
Babylon. 

CHAPTER 27 

1-29. Judah is warned to submit to Babylon. 

1. For Jehoiakim read 'Zedekiah' : see 
vv. 3, 12, 20. The former word may be a 
copyist's accidental repetition of 26 1 . 2. It is 
plain from 28 10 that Jeremiah actually wore a 
yoke in public. 3. Messengers] These ambas- 
sadors had come to Jerusalem probably with 
the view of forming an alliance against Babylon. 
This, however, was not accomplished, as Zede- 
kiah was compelled to go to Babylon and swear 
allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar (51 59 ). 

6. My servant] see on 25 9 . 7. Him, and 
his son, and his son's son] meaning simply that 
there was to be no speedy riddance. In point 
of fact, Nebuchadnezzar had three successors, 
Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar, and Nabonidus, in 
whose seventeenth year Babylon was taken by 
Cyrus. The very time] the appointed end. 

Great kings] Persia and Media became 
masters of Babylon. 

9-1 1. Rebellion will entail exile. There- 
fore let them submit. 

16. The vessels, etc.] Some had been taken 
in Jehoiachin's reign (2 K 24 13 ). The rest were 
destined to follow (2 K 25 13 ). They were given 
back by Cyrus (Ezr 1 7 ). 19. The sea] in which 
the priests washed their hands and feet before 
sacrificing (1 K 7 23 f -). The bases] the supports 
of the ten lavers (1 K 7 27f -). 

CHAPTER 28 

i-ii. Opposition of Hananiah and the false 
prophets. 

2. Thus speaketh the LORD of hosts, the 
God of Israel] a formula of Jeremiah's, and 
hence, perhaps, assumed by Hananiah as imply- 
ing an equal claim to inspiration. 

6. Amen : the LORD do so] i.e. would that 
it might be so. 

7-9. Hananiah's forecasts of peace being in 



471 



28. 10 



JEREMIAH 



31.5 



i 



opposition to those of his predecessors, the 
presumption is against him, and can only be 
removed by the fulfilment of his predictions 
(the test laid down in Dt 18 22 ), which assuredly 
is not to take place, io. See on 27 2 . 

12-17. Hananiah rebuked and punished. 

13. Hananiah's act by inciting Zedekiah and 
his people to resistance only makes the servi- 
tude which they will have to undergo harsher. 

17. The seventh month] cp. v. 1. 

CHAPTEK 29 

1 -1 4. Jeremiah's letter to the exiles. Re- 
lease after seventy years. 

1. Prophets] The exiles in Babylon had 
also false prophets, e.g. Ahab and Zedekiah 
(v. 21), and Shemaiah(of v. 24) among them. 
But they were on the whole of a better class 
(see 24 5_7 ), and the prophet might hope that 
his words would have more effect. 2. Car- 
penters] RY ' craftsmen.' 4-7. They are 
not to sit loose to the land of their exile, 
but to make homes for themselves there. Else 
they will soon dwindle away. 10. At Babylon] 
RY ' for Babylon,' referring to the duration of 
its power: cp. 25 11 . 11. An expected end] 
RY ' hope in your latter end.' 

15-23. The exiles reply : — The prophets 
here tell us that we shall be delivered speedily. 
Jeremiah answers that their teaching shall soon 
be disproved by the overthrow of Jerusalem, 
and they shall themselves die miserable 
deaths. 

17. Vile fig's] cp. 24 2 f . The exiles would 
probably already know that prophecy. 

24-32. On the arrival of Jeremiah's letter 
at Babylon, Shemaiah had written to Zepha- 
niah, the acting high priest (52 24 ) at Jeru- 
salem, to have the prophet silenced as a mad- 
man. Jeremiah, having seen the letter, writes 
again to denounce the writer, and foretell 
his punishment. 26. In prison, and in the 
stocks] RY ' in the stocks and in shackles.' 

CHAPTERS 30-33 
Jeremiah's Seventeenth Prophecy (Reign 

of Zedekiah during the siege). Israel's 

Hope 
Hitherto the general character of Jeremiah's 
prophecies lias been gloomy. The whole tone 
of this section, on the other hand, is one of 
hopefulness, which is the more remarkable in- 
asmuch as it was delivered at a time when the 
prophet was subject to imprisonment, and 
famine ami pestilence held possession of the 
city, ami the prospects of the nation were at 
their lowest. It was under snch circumstances 
then that it was announced through Jeremiah 
that the chosen people should not perish, thai 
through them 'lie Gentile nations should be 
led to a knowledge <»f Hi*' true God, that the 
Righteous Branch should vet arise from the 



house of David, and Zion ' shall be called, The 
Lord our righteousness ' : see on 33 16 . 

CHAPTER 30 

1-9. When the gloom is deepest, deliverance 
shall come. 2. In a book] Thus his words 
would bring abiding comfort in the approach- 
ing time of exile. 3. Bring] RY ' turn.' 

4. Concerning Israel . . Judah] Both divisions 
of the kingdom of David are the subject of 
c. 31 : see above. 5. Of fear, and not of 
peace] RM ' There is fear and no peace,' and 
the present circumstances are evil. There is 
nothing but fear and terror in the hearts and 
on the faces of men. 7. That day] the day 
of Babylon's overthrow. 8. Serve themselves 
of him] see on 25 14 . 9. David their king] the 
ideal king who, as coming of David's line, here 
receives his name. So in Ezk34 23f - 37 24 . For 
David, meaning the line of kings of his house, 
see IK 12 16. 

10-17. God will remember Israel in her 
affliction. 11. In measure, etc.] RY 'with 
judgment, and will in no wise leave thee.' 

12-15. These vv. describe the present con- 
dition from which the nation shall be delivered. 

13. Thy cause, that thou . . medicines] 
rather, join 'that thou,' etc., with what follows. 
' For the closing up of thy wound there is no 
healing, no plaister.' 14. Thy lovers] the 
nations that sought to ally themselves with 
thee : see 27 3 . 

18-24. Jerusalem shall be restored to favour. 

18. Bring] see on v. 3. Tents] a name for 
dwellings generally, which was retained from 
nomadic times: cp. 4-°. Remain] RM 'be 
inhabited.' After the manner thereof] occupied 
by a king, and kept up suitably as aforetime. 

21. Nobles] RY 'prince,' a reference to the 
ideal king. Of themselves] no longer foreign- 
ers. Engaged his heart] RY ' hath had bold- 
ness.' The new king will have close access 
to Jehovah. He will do His will, and rule 
in righteousness. And is not this to know 
the Lord ? (22 16 ). 23, 24. These vv. are nearly 
identical with 23 19 . 24. Consider] RY 'under- 
stand.' 

CHAPTER 31 

1-22. Jeremiah speaks of the restoration first 
of Israel (Ephraim, vv. 2-22), then of Judab 
(w. 23 f.). Those who survive the sufferings 
of the captivity are promised a safe journey 
home. The words, ' found grace in the wil- 
derness ' (v. 2) are probably an allusion to the 
journey from Egypl under Moses, which was 
thus a prophecy to the captive Israelites of 
the return from Assyria. 

3. In this v. the people are the speakers. 

4. Tabrets] tambourines. 5. Shall eat them 
as common things] RY ' shall enjoy the fruit 
thereof. 1 



172 



31.6 



JEREMIAH 



6. Watchmen] posted on heights to announce 
seasons of prayer and, according to Jewish tradi- 
tion, the appearance of the new moon as de- 
termining the dates of festivals. In the present 
case they are posted on the hills of Ephraim 
that members of the northern kingdom may go 
up to keep the feasts in Jerusalem, thus be- 
tokening the reunion of the Twelve Tribes in 
worship. 8. The blind, etc.] None, even the 
feeblest, shall be left behind. Thither] KY 
'hither' to Palestine. 9. With weeping] tears 
at once of contrition and joy. Ephraim is my 
firstborn] see 1 CI15 1 . God will not forget the 
house of Joseph, the head of northern Israel. 

10. The isles] see on 25 22 . 12. To the 
goodness of the LORD] to receive from Him 
the blessings of a fruitful land. For wheat, 
etc.] RY ' to the corn, and to the wine.' Sor- 
row] rather, ' droop,' ' fade,' keeping up the 
image of a garden. 13. Both young men] RY 
1 and the young men ' (shall rejoice with the 
old). 14. The sacrifices shall be so numerous 
that the priests and their families shall have 
abundance for their share : see Lv7 31f . 

15. The mourning which took place at Ra- 
mah, whether on account of some unrecorded 
butchery there on the part of the Chaldean 
conquerors, or in reference to their general 
cruelty to the exiles there assembled for de- 
portation to Babylon (see 40 1 ), is referred lo 
by St. Matthew (2 17f .) as a forecast of the 
wailing at the slaughter of the Innocents by 
Herod. Rahel] the appropriateness of calling 
upon Rachel to weep in Ramah consists in this, 
that she, the one of Jacob's wives who had so 
ardently longed for children and the mother 
of Joseph and so of Ephraim and of Manasseh 
(whose lot was with Judah), should lament the 
overthrow of her offspring in a conspicuous 
border town of the two kingdoms, with both 
of which she was thus immediately connected. 

16. Thy work shall be rewarded] Rachel 
by the death of her descendants had, as it were, 
been deprived of the reward for which she had 
laboured in bearing and bringing up children. 
Now by their restoration she shall at last 
receive her recompense. 17. In thine end] 
RY ' for thy latter end.' 

18. Ephraim] i.e. the northern kingdom, 
which for over 100 years had been devastated by 
the Assyrians, and its people exiled. 19. In- 
structed] by punishment. I smote, etc.] in 
contrition. The reproach of my youth] the 
shame incurred through the sins of his youth. 

20. God is represented as addressing Himself 
even as a father might do, when dwelling upon 
the ingratitude and rebellion of a son, whom, 
nevertheless, he cannot but continue to love. 

Pleasant] i.e. beloved. Bowels] the sup- 
posed seat of the emotions. 21. High heaps] 
RY ' guide-posts ' for the returning exiles. 

22. Compass] i.e. as protector. In the 



peaceful future the women will be a sufficient 
guard against danger from without, while the 
men perform their daily tasks. 

23-26. The Lord now turns from Israel 
(Ephraim) to Judah and promises her like 
blessings. 

23. As yet] RY ' yet again.' Habitation of 
justice] the same expression is used of the 
Lord in 50 7 . Mountain of holiness] Jeru- 
salem, or in particular the Temple mount. 

26. The words of the prophet at the con- 
clusion of his pleasant vision. 

27. I will sow, etc.] a figure to express 
prosperity and rapid increase. 

28. See on 1 10. 

29-34. The new covenant between Jehovah 
and His people. 

29. 30. The proverb here quoted, which was 
common among the Jews, induced them to 
throw upon their predecessors the responsi- 
bility for their own misdeeds. Accordingly 
the prophet restates in an amended form the 
truth which it embodies. It was true that their 
fathers had sinned, but the children had re- 
peated their sins and they were suffering the 
consequences of their own acts. The prophet 
emphasises individual responsibility for sin. 

31-34. The new covenant is to be of a 
spiritual, personal character, rather than ex- 
ternal and national. It shall supersede that 
of the exodus, and shall differ from the older 
Law both in permanence and in the spring of 
action. Under it the sense of forgiveness 
(v. 34) ensures a willing service based on love, 
not on fear. ' God comes to man as giving and 
not as requiring ' : so Bp. Westcott on Heb 8 8 - 12 , 
which reproduces this passage, applying it to 
the Christian dispensation. 

34. The sense is not that there shall be no 
longer any need of instruction in religion, but 
that for both Jews and Gentiles there shall be 
directness of access to God. It was left for 
later times to reveal clearly Christ as the means 
of this approach. 

35. Which divideth the sea when] R Y ' which 
stirreth up the sea, that.' 36. Israel's national 
existence is as assured as the unchangeableness 
of the laws imposed by God on the universe, 
or as its limitless character. 

38-40. See on 7 31 . Jerusalem in her future 
extension is to enclose spaces hitherto con- 
sidered unclean. Tower of Hananeel] at the 
NE. corner. The gate of the corner] at the 
NW. (see on 2 K 1413). Qareb . . Goath] not 
mentioned elsewhere. Gareb means ' leper's 
hill.' 

CHAPTER 32 

This c. forms the introduction to the most 
continuously historical part of the book, which 
describes incidents in the two years preceding 
the final destruction of Jerusalem, viz. chs. 



473 



JEREMIAH 



34.3 



i 



34-43. The first of these incidents is here 
given, viz. Jeremiah's purchase with all legal 
formality of a field of which he had the right 
of redemption, in order to encourage the people 
while the Chaldeans were investing the city by 
showing thus his faith in the return which he 
foretells in these chs. 

1-5. The general position. 

2. Of the prison] RV ' of the guard,' i.e. of 
the palace sentries. For Jeremiah's imprison- 
ment see chs. 37, 38. 

6-15. Jeremiah's purchase at Anathoth. 

6. An interesting example of legal pro- 
ceedings in connexion with Hebrew land- 
customs : cp. Ruth 4 !- 8 . 7. If land was to be 
sold it was the duty of the nearest of kin to 
buy it, so that it should not pass from one 
family to another : see Lv25 24f - Ruth 4 6 . 

8. Jeremiah bought the estate as next heir 
by the right of preemption. 10. The evi- 
dence] RV ' the deed,' and so in vv. 11, 12, 14, 
44. Jeremiah made out two copies of the deed, 
one to be sealed, the other left open, the for- 
mer to be referred to in case at any time it 
were suspected that the latter had been tam- 
pered with. 11. According to the law and 
custom] RM ' containing the terms and con- 
ditions.' 15. Possessed] RV ' bought.' 

16-25. Jeremiah cannot reconcile the obvious 
sense of the transaction which he had just 
carried out at the Lord's command, with the 
overthrow which he had been so often bidden 
to announce to the guilty city. 24. Mounts] 
see on 6 6 . 

26-35. The first part of God's reply, viz. 
judgment. 

36-44. The second part of God's reply, viz. 
mercy. 36. The words resume the thought of 
v. 27, 'Is there anything too hard for me ?' 

44. The mountains . . the valley . . the south] 
The several parts of the land are specified, viz. 
the central (hilly) portion, the plains westward 
from it to the sea, and the thinly inhabited 
S. of Judah. Cause their captivity to return] 
i.e. restore them from captivity. 

CHAPTER 33 
1-13. Restoration and honour again pro- 
mised. 

1. See on 322. 2 . The maker thereof] RV 

• thai doeth it ' (viz. that which He hath pur- 
posed). 4. By the mounts, and by the sword] 
RV l to make << defence again*! the mounts, 
and ag;iin*i the sword,' to make room for the 
besieged to erect defensive works. For 

• mounts " se i 6 6 . 5. They] the besieged. The 
only resnll of their fighting is thai bhey (ill 

these I sea with the slain. 11. Praise the 

Lord, etc. | Jeremiah quotes from the Temple 
liturgical forms: cp. 2Ch6 u PS106 1 . 

13. Mountains, etc.] see on 32**. Telleth] 
counteth. 



14-18. Permanence of the kingly and 
priestly line. 

15, 16. See on 23 5f . 16. The LORD our 
righteousness] RV ' The Lord is our right- 
eousness.' The name is here given to the 
city, as it was given in 23 6 to the king. 

17, 18. In these vv. the prophet declares 
the permanence of the office of king in the 
Davidic line, and of the priesthood among the 
Levites. The prophecy is sometimes mystic- 
ally interpreted of Christ. 18. Meat offer- 
ings] see on 17 26 . 

19-26. God's covenant is as sure as the 
ordinances of nature. 

19 f. See on 3 1 36 for the argument. 21. For 
the covenant with David's line see 2 S 7 12f -, and 
for that with the Levites (in the person of 
Phinehas)Nu 25 13 . 24. The people, seeing that 
both Israel and Judah (the two families) are 
being apparently cast off, despise their own 
nation, despair of any better days, and con- 
sider their national existence to be a thing of 
the past. 

CHAPTER 34 

Jeremiah's Eighteenth Prophecy (Reign 
of Zedekiah). The Fate of Zedekiah. 
The Treatment of Hebrew Slaves 

Early in the campaign of Nebuchadnezzar, 
whose scheme of conquest included all the 
region as far as Egypt inclusive, the policy 
urged by Jeremiah was that Zedekiah should 
make the best terms he could. In this c. we 
seem to have a sort of abbreviated memo- 
randum of the conditional promise, which in 
that case the prophet was commissioned to 
announce to Zedekiah, viz. peace followed by 
kingly obsequies. The condition, here omitted, 
is expressed in 38 17 . 

The laws as to the limitation of the length 
of servitude in the case of Hebrew slaves (Ex 
21 2 Lv25 39 ' 55 ) had apparently fallen out of 
use with many Jews, especially in the country 
parts. Very possibly the arrival of many of 
the wealthier Jews at Jerusalem from the 
country to escape the invading army made the 
laxity on their part more conspicuous by con- 
trast. The agreement here spoken of seems 
to have been brought about in view of the 
impending danger of invasion, in resisting 
which the slaves, if enfranchised, might be 
more willing to co-operate. But when the 
Babylonian army withdrew for a short time 
(37 5 ) to meet the Egyptian forces, which they 
believed to be threatening them, the masters 
basely cancelled their agreement. 

1-7. Capture and burning of Jerusalem 
foretold. 

3. Thine eyes shall behold . . the king, etc.] 
i.e. at Riblah, before being blinded and carried 
to Babylon: see 397 529, and cp. 32 4 Ezk 
1213. 



•174 



34. 5 



JEREMIAH 



30. 32 



5. Shall they burn odours] RV ' Shall they 
make a burning' : see details in 2Chl6 14 . 

7. Against Lachish, and against Azekah] in 
SW. of Judah near the border of Egypt. 
Nebuchadnezzar would not venture to advance 
into that country on his career of conquest, 
leaving these fortresses untaken. 

8-22. The masters of Hebrew slaves to be 
punished for their cruel treatment of them. 

13. Out of the house of bondmen] The point 
is that Israel's position at the time when the 
covenant was made, as having themselves been 
delivered from Egyptian slavery, should have 
taught them better. 17. The people shall no 
longer as hitherto be under God's protection 
as His servants, but be thrown by Him on 
their own resources, and so exposed to their 
perils. 18. Cut the calf in twain] For such 
mode of ratifying a covenant see on G-nl5 8 . 

21. Which are gone up from you] i.e. which 
have raised the siege for the time. 

CHAPTER 35 
Jeremiah's Nineteenth Prophecy (Reign 
of Jehoiakim). The Obedience of the 
Rechabites 

This and c. 36 form a break in the narrative, 
bringing us back from the tenth year of Zede- 
kiah to the insecurity which followed upon 
Nebuchadnezzar s victory of Carchemish (fourth 
year of Jehoiakim), when predatory bands of 
Chaldeans and others had compelled many of 
the inhabitants of Palestine to take refuge 
within Jerusalem. Among these were the 
Rechabites, a nomadic tribe of Kenite descent. 
The prophet contrasts their obedience to the 
precepts of their leader Jonadab (who lived 
about two centuries and a half before this 
time, 2K10 15f ') with the disobedience of 
Judah. Each shall receive its meet recompense . 

1-11. The Rechabites' rule of life. 

2. The Rechabites were descended from 
Hobab, brother-in-law of Moses, of the Kenite 
tribe. They migrated with the Israelites from 
the wilderness to Palestine: cp. NulO 29 " 32 
Jgl 16 . 5. Pots] RY 'bowls.' 6. Command- 
ed us, etc.] perhaps owing to the excess which 
he saw to be fostered by city life. For Jona- 
dab see 2 K 10 15 . 

12-17. Application of the lesson to the Jews. 

18, 19. The Rechabites' reward. 

CHAPTER 36 
Events connected with the collection 
of Jeremiah's Prophecies into a vol- 
ume (4th and 5th years of Jehoiakim) 
The prophecies concerning Israel and Judah 
are now ended, and we have here the record of 
the embodying in a permanent form by Jere- 
miah of the substance of these prophecies. 
For further remarks see Intro. 

2. A roll of a book] Several skins were 



stitched together and attached to a roller of 
wood. The writing was arranged in columns 
parallel to the roller, so that as the parchment 
was gradually unfolded the successive columns 
could be read. 4. Baruch] the prophet's 
companion and assistant already mentioned 
(32 12f <). 5. Shut up] not meaning imprisoned 
(with which v. 19 would be inconsistent), but 
hindered perhaps by the extreme unpopularity 
of his recent utterances. 

9. In the ninth month] our December. It 
was thus a specially appointed fast, not that of 
the seventh month which alone was prescribed 
by the Law (Lv 1 6 29 23 2 ?). 10. Gemariah] he 
was brother of Ahikam (see 26 24 ), who was 
friendly to Jeremiah and distinct from 
G-emariah of 29 3 . 

11. When Michaiah. . had heard] As it was 
in the chamber of Michaiah 's father that 
Baruch had been allowed to read the roll, 
Gemariah, who was engaged at a council of 
the leading men in another room, would 
naturally be desirous to learn as soon as might 
be what had occurred. 12. Went down] see 
on 22 1 . Elnathan] mentioned in 26 22 . 

15. Sit down] Baruch was invited to take 
the position ordinarily assumed by an Eastern 
teacher. This together with v. 19 shows that 
the princes were favourably disposed towards 
Jeremiah. 17. How didst thou write, etc.] 
They desired to know how much was Baruch' s 
own that they might be able to state to the 
king the amount of responsibility that rested 
upon each. 

22. The winter-house] a separate portion of 
the palace, as appears from Am3 15 . On the 
hearth] RY ' in the brasier ' : so in v. 23. 
Braziers containing charcoal were placed in a 
depression in the middle of a room for warm- 
ing purposes. 23. Leaves] RM 'columns': 
see on v. 2. He] i.e. the king. 24. They 
were not afraid . . neither the king, etc.] Con- 
trast with this the conduct of the king's father 
Josiah when the newly discovered Book of the 
Law was read to him (2 K 22 n ). 

29. Shall certainly come, etc.] fulfilled in 
the time of Jehoiakim's son, Jehoiachin, and 
finally when Zedekiah was carried captive. 

30. He shall have none to sit, etc.] for his 
son was carried captive in three months from 
his accession: cp. 22 30 . His dead body, etc.] 
see on 22 19 . 32. The substance of the second 
roll is doubtless to a large extent preserved to 
us in this book. 

CHAPTERS 37, 38 
Events during the Siege of Jerusalem 
(Reign of Zedekiah) 
Here after two parenthetical chapters (35, 
36) concerning the time of Jehoiakim, we 
revert to the narrative (beginning in c. 32) 
of the last two years of Zedekiah. 



475 



37. 1 



JEREMIAH 



40.6 



CHAPTER 37 

1-5. The general position. 

1. Coniah] see on 22 24 . Whom] referring 
to Zedekiah. 3. Zephaniah] see on 21 1 . 

5. This refers to the temporary raising of 
the siege of Jerusalem by the Babylonians on 
the approach of an Egyptian army under 
Pharaoh-Hophra. He either retired or was 
defeated, for the siege was soon renewed. 

6-10. The return of the Chaldeans foretold. 

11-15. Jeremiah imprisoned. 

12. To separate himself thence] RV ' to re- 
ceive his portion there,' probably referring to 
an allotment of communal land at Anathoth. 

In the midst of the people] there was 
naturally a rush to get out of the city on 
account of the confinement as well as the 
scarcity of provisions. 

16-21. The king takes compassion on Jere- 
miah. 

16. Cabins] RY 'cells.' 17. Secretly] 
dreading in his weakness the interference of 
the princes. 21. See on 32 2 . 

CHAPTER 38 

1-3. The removal of Jeremiah from the 
prison was favourable to the publication of 
his message. Hence the alarm of the princes. 

1. Pashur] see on 20 2 . 

2. He that goeth forth] i.e. submits : so 
v. 17. 

6. Dungeon] RM ' pit,' or cistern. It is 
conjectured that Ps69 may have been com- 
posed by Jeremiah on this occasion. 

7-13. Jeremiah is rescued by Ebed-melech. 

10. Thirty] possibly a copyist's error for 
' three.' The two words resemble each other 
much more closely in Hebrew than in English. 

14-28. The king again asks the prophet's 
advice. Result. 

14. The third entry] Probably referring to 
some passage between the Temple and the 
palace. 15. Wilt thou not hearken unto me ? ] 
RV ' Thou wilt not hearken unto me.' 18. The 
king of Babylon's princes] Nebuchadnezzar 
was probably himself at Riblah: see 39 6 . 

19. And they mock me] for not surrender- 
ing sooner as they had done. 

22. The women of the harem shall join in 
the reproaches, saying, Thy friends have per- 
suaded thee against thy better judgment, and 
then deserted thee. 

24-26. Zedekiah's weakness is again con- 
spicuous. 28. And he was, etc.] RV 'And 
it came bo pass when Jerusalem was taken ' ; 
the words i hits belonging not to what precedes, 
but to c. :v.>. 

CHAPTERS 39-437 

Jbrbmiah'b Bistort prom the Fall of 
Jerusalem i ill be goes down to 

E(iYPT. See Introduction 



CHAPTER 39 

The Capture of Jerusalem (11th year of 
Zedekiah) 

The narrative in this c, with some varieties 
in detail, coincides with that of c. 52 and with 
2K25. 

1-7. The city taken. Zedekiah's fate. 

3. From the Eng. it would appear that 
there are six persons named. But Rab-saris 
(chief of the eunuchs) and Rab-mag (chief of 
the sorcerers) are only the titles of those 
whose names they follow. 4. The way of the 
plain] so as to escape to the eastern bank of 
Jordan. 5. Riblah] on the high road between 
Palestine and Babylon. 7. See on 34 3 . 
Putting out the eyes was a common punish- 
ment in the East. 

8-10. Fate of the city. If we had only 
this narrative we should suppose that Nebuzar- 
adan was present in person, but 52 12 shows 
that he did not arrive till a month after the 
taking of the city. 

11-14. Nebuchadnezzar and the prophet. 

12. Look well to him] for Jeremiah had 
always counselled submission to Babylon : cp. 
40 1. 14. Gedaliah] see on 26 24 . 

15-18. Message to Ebed-melech. 

CHAPTER 40 
Gedaliah as Governor (586 b.c.) 

Chs. 40 7 -43 6 are briefly summarised in 
2K25 22 - 26 . The account in the book of Kings 
mentions merely the accomplished results ; 
while here the process by which these results 
were brought about are fully detailed. We 
learn here in particular that Ishmael ben- 
Nethaniah was prompted to assassinate Geda- 
liah by the Ammonite king, Baalis, and that 
Gedaliah was warned of the plot by Johanan, 
but that he refused to believe that Ishmael 
would do such a thing. Full details of the 
slaughter of the people at Mizpah are also 
given here, as well as an account of the pur- 
suit of Ishmael by Johanan and the recovery 
of the captives. We are told here also what 
is omitted in Kings that when Johanan 
desired to go to Egypt for safety, Jeremiah 
sought to dissuade him, promising safety if 
the people remained in Judah, but destruction 
if they went to Egypt. Johanan, however, 
was incredulous, and took the remnant of 
Judah down to Tahpanhes in Egypt, and with 
them Jeremiah and Baruch. 

1. The word that came] including the 
history which follows. No prophetic utter- 
ance comes till 42 9 . To the Jews history 
and prophecy were intimately connected ; 
e.g. they included most of the historical books 
of the Bible under the title of Prophets. 

5. Reward] RV ' present.' 

6. Mizpah] a city of Benjamin, NW. of 



476 



40.7 



JEREMIAH 



44. 19 



Jerusalem, and the chief scene of the events 
now to be described. 7. Forces which were 
in the fields] keeping out of the way until the 
Babylonian army departed, and they should 
have learned the nature of the new govern- 
ment : cp. v. 13. 

8. The Netophathite] Netophah was a village 
near Bethlehem (Neh7 26 ). 

10. Gather ye wine, etc.] Make provision 
for the winter. 

12. Returned] reassured by the fact that 
the new governor was their own countryman. 

14. Ishmael felt aggrieved that he, though 
of royal birth (see 41 *), had been set aside in 
favour of G-edaliah. The instigation by Baalis 
may have arisen through designs of conquest. 

CHAPTER 41 

Plot against G-edaliah and its Results 
(586 b.c.) 

1-10. Ishmael murders Gedaliah and others, 
and carries off captives. 

1. And the princes] RV ' and one of the 
chief officers ' ; a further description of Ishmael 
himself, not an addition to his band. Even] 
RV ' and.' 5. Having their beards shaven, 
etc.] in mourning for the destruction of the 
Temple : see on 16 6 . 6. Weeping all along] 
feigning equal concern with them, so as to 
put them off their guard. 7. Pit] RV 
w cistern.' 8. Treasures] RV ' stores hidden.' 
Dry cisterns, covered with a deep layer of 
earth, are commonly used for this purpose in 
the East. 9. Because of] RV ' by the side of,' 
i.e. their bodies placed by his. Asa . . Baasha] 
see IK 15 22 . 

11-18. Johanan rescues the captives and 
they start for Egypt. 

12. Gibeon] the modern El- jib, a city of 
the priests (Josh 18 25 2117), in the tribe of 
Benjamin. 14. Cast about] turned round. 

15. These acts of treachery may well have 
been connected with woes predicted for Ammon 
in 49 lf . 17. The habitation of Chimham] 
RM ' the lodging place ' (i.e. inn or khan) of 
Chimham : see 2S19 37 . It was natural that 
David as a mark of gratitude to the son of 
Barzillai should have given Chimham a piece 
of his patrimony. 

CHAPTER 42 

Jeremiah's Message from God to 
Johanan 

1. Jezaniah] the Azariah of 43 2 (and pro- 
bably not the Jezaniah of 40 8 ). 

7-22. The people are forbidden to go down 
to Egypt. Jeremiah had always denounced 
connexion with Egypt (2 36 37 7 ). 

15. And now] RV 'now.' 20. Ye dis- 
sembled in your hearts] RV ' ye have dealt 
deceitfully against your own souls,' i.e. while 
persuading yourselves that you are prepared 



to accept God's decision, all the while nothing 
but your own way would content you. 

CHAPTER 43 
The Fate of Egypt 
1-7. They disobey and go to Egypt. 

7. Tahpanhes] see on 2 16 . 

Here ends the historical portion of the 
book, the remainder consisting of prophecies 
directed mainly against foreign nations. 

8-13. Prophecy of the overthrow of Egypt. 

9. In the clay in the brick-kiln] RV ' in 
mortar in the brickwork.' 11. Death] by 
famine or pestilence. 12. Nebuchadnezzar 
shall have no more difficulty in spoiling Egypt 
than has the shepherd in wrapping his outer 
garment about him after his labour. 

13. Images] RV 'pillars,' Rl 'obelisks.' 

Beth-shemesh (Gk. ' Heliopolis,' Egyptian 
' On ') was a city of obelisks, two of which 
stood before the Temple of the Sun. Its site 
is about 10 m. NE. of Cairo. 

CHAPTER 44 

Jeremiah's Latest Prophecy (after 586 
B.C.). (The prophecies against the Gentile 
nations (chs. 46-51) were mostly uttered 
after the battle of Carchemish, 605 B.C.) 
He denounces the unabated idolatry which 
still characterised the people now that they 
dwelt in Egypt. Their experience of suffer- 
ing had taught them nothing. 

1-10. Jeremiah's countrymen rebuked. 
1. Migdol] on the northern boundary of 
Egypt. For Noph and Tahpanhes see on 2 16 . 

8. The works of your hands] i.e. your idols. 
Might cut yourselves off] RV ' may be cut 

off.' 

11-14. Their punishment foretold. 

15-19. They persist in their idolatry. 

15. All the women that stood by] Probably 
the occasion was an idolatrous festival in which 
the women were taking a leading part. All 
the people, etc.] not, of course, to be taken 
literally, but meaning that they were very 
numerous and represented the whole. 

17. Whatsoever thing goeth forth] RV 
' every word that is gone forth.' They refer 
to their religious vows : cp. Nu 30 2 Dt 23 23 . 

Queen of heaven] see on 7 18 . Then had we 
plenty of victuals] They perversely attribute 
the misfortunes which had befallen their coun- 
try from the battle of Megiddo and death of 
Josiah onwards to the attack made upon idolatry 
(2 K23) by that king, and not to the gradual 
degradation of the people through the medium 
of that idolatry during the reigns of Manasseh 
and Amon and the earlier part of that of 
Josiah. 19. Worship] RM ' pourtray,' refer- 
ring to the full moon, as represented either by 
the shape of the cake itself or by a figure upon 
it. Men] RV l husbands.' A wife's vow was 



477 



44. 20 



JEREMIAH 



47. 






not binding unless with the consent of the 
husband : see Nu30 6f . 

20-23. Jeremiah answers. It was, he says, 
owing to the idolatry, which had been so long 
rampant and which Josiah's reforms had 
scotched, not killed, that the overthrow at last 
came. 

25. With your hand] RY 'with your hands,' 
pointing, perhaps, to the cakes which they were 
carrying. Ye will surely, etc.] RV k Establish 
then . . and perform.' If ye persist, then be it 
so. 26. As being faithless to their covenant 
with God, they shall lose the right of calling 
upon His name as such. 29. The sign referred 
to, viz. Nebuchadnezzar's invasion of Egypt, did 
not take place till 586 B.C. For other instances 
of a sign not to take effect for a considerable 
time after its announcement cp. Ex3 12 2K 
1929. 

It is not improbable that it was on this 
occasion that Jeremiah met with a martyr's 
death at the hands of his apostate countrymen, 
as tradition recounts. 

CHAPTER 45 
Baruch's Appendix to the Roll of c. 36 

Baruch, a man of social position (see Intro.), 
seems to have expected either important office 
in the state or more probably the gift of 
prophecy. On the occasion of his writing of 
the roll at Jeremiah's dictation, the prophet 
warns him that his ambition is not to be 
gratified. 

3. Sorrow] RV ' pain ' at the sins of his 
countrymen. The added ' grief ' was caused 
by the predictions of punishment. 5. But thy 
life, etc.] Baruch's life should be preserved 
amidst all perils. 

CHAPTERS 46-51 
Prophecies concerning the Nations 
The custom of placing in a group, as here, 
prophecies against heathen nations is illus- 
trated by Isaiah (chs. 13-33), Ezekiel (chs. 25- 
32), and Amos (chs. 1, 2). For the position 
of the prophecies at the end of the book as 
compared with that which they hold in the 
LXX, see Intro, and on 26 11 . We may divide 
them thus : — 

(a) ('lis. 46-49 (mostly of the fourth year 
of Jehoiakim). This section con tains prophe- 
cies concerning Egypl and five other nations 
doubtless included in the roll of c. 36, with 
the exception of the second concerning Egypt 
( w. 1 I 28 : sec note «ni v. L3) and of the last 
against Elam(49 84 ^ 9 : first year of Zedekiah). 
These prophecies follow a natural order. 
Egypt is at the head as the nation whose over- 
throw by Nebuchadnezzar would be the signal 

bo those others of a similar fate. We go thene 

to Philistia (including Tyre and Bidon); then 
( passing round to the E. of Palestine) to Moab, 



Ammon, and Edom ; then to Damascus, as re- 
presenting the kingdoms of the North ; to 
Kedar and Hazor, as indicating the kings men- 
tioned in the summary of 25 24 ; while, lastly, 
the nations of the East are included under Elam. 
(b) Chs. 50, 51 (of doubtful authorship). 
This prophecy concerning Babylon forms an 
appropriate conclusion to the series. The 
nations immediately bordering upon Palestine 
have had their fate foretold, and then the 
more remote. Now the empire which was to 
execute God's vengeance upon them is itself 
declared to be destined in its turn to fall. See 
further, in intro. to c. 50. 

CHAPTER 46 
Against Egypt 

1. Against the Gentiles] RV 'concerning 
the nations ' around. 

2. Carchemish] see Intro, and 2 Ch 35 2 °- 24 ; 
also on 47 1 . 

3-6. A lively description cf the preparation 
and advance, followed by the defeat at Car- 
chemish. 4. Brigandines] RV 'coats of mail.' 

5. Seen them dismayed] RY ' seen it ? 
They are dismayed.' 

7. A flood] RY ' the Nile,' their own sacred 
river in its annual overflow. So in v. 8. 

9. The Ethiopians, etc.] mercenary troops 
forming the chief part of the Egyptian armies. 

10. A day of vengeance] on the Egyptians. 
They are to be the sacrifice, because of their 
treachery to Judah. 1 1. The medical science 
of Egypt was in high repute. 12. The land] 
RY ' the earth.' 

13. The second part of the prophecy con- 
cerning Egypt suggests by its tone a more inti- 
mate acquaintance, and is probably to be 
ascribed to the time of the prophet's residence 
in that country. 

14. See on 44 l and 2 16 . 16. They said] 
the mercenaries : see on v. 9. 17. The time 
appointed] the period of grace is over. 

18. Omit the second is. The v. means that 
Nebuchadnezzar shall resemble Tabor and 
Carmel, standing out conspicuous as compared 
with neighbouring rulers. 

20. Is like] RY ' is.' This probably is an 
allusion to the sacred bull Apis, worshipped at 
Memphis. Destruction] RM ' the gadfly.' The 
north] i.e. Chaldea. 22. Like a serpent] rust- 
ling as it escapes through the thick underwood. 
Such shall be the sound of Egypt as it flees 
away. 23. Her forest] her beauty: cp. 21 14 . 

Grasshoppers] RY ' locusts.' 25. The multi- 
tude of No] RV ' Amon of No,' i.e. the god 
worshipped there. No] i.e. Thebes in Upper 
Egypt. 

CHAPTER 47 
Against Philistia 
The Chaldean armed men with horses and 



478 



47. 1 



JEREMIAH 



49. 1 



chariots shall carry terror and desolation into 
Philistia and its cities. 

i. Before that Pharaoh smote Gaza] The 
main views as to the date of this prophecy are 
(a) that the ' Pharaoh ' is Necho, and that he 
captured Gaza about the time of his defeat of 
Josiah's army at Megiddo (608 B.C.) ; (b) that 
the reference is to the same king, as having 
taken Gaza on his way back from his defeat at 
Carchemish (605 B.C.) ; (c) that the ' Pharaoh ' 
is Hophra (588-570 B.C.), and that he captured 
Gaza in the course of an expedition against 
Tyre and Sidon. 

2. Waters. . out of the north] i.e. the Chaldean 
army. 4. Caphtor] the place of origin of the 
Philistines (see Dt 2 23 Am 9 7 ), probably to be 
identified with Crete. 5. Baldness] in token 
of mourning : cp. 48 37 . Cut thyself] see on 16 6 . 

6. The prayer of the Philistines. 7. Jere- 
miah's reply. 

CHAPTER 48 

Against Moab 

Moab, in recompense for its pride and security, 

and for its triumphing over Israel in the day of 

her calamity, shall itself be laid waste and taken 

captive : cp. the 'burden of Moab' in Isa 15, 16. 

I . Nebo] not the mountain, but the Reubenite 
town (Nu32 38 ), which had been annexed by 
Mesha, king of Moab (about 895 B.C.), according 
to the ' Moabite Stone ' records. Several places 
mentioned in this c. have not been certainly 
identified. 2. Heshbon] an Ammonite town 
on the border of Moab, where the Chaldean in- 
vaders would lay their final plans. Madmen] 
a place unknown. 5. RV ' For by the ascent 
of Luhith with continual weeping shall they go 
up.' 6. The heath] see on 1 7 6 . 7. Chemosh] 
the god of Moab's national worship. 8. The 
valley] of Jordan, bounding part of Moab on 
the W. 10. Deceitfully] RY 'negligently.' 
Moab's foe must not be slack in executing 
God's command. 

II. Settled on his lees] i.e. like wine which 
has remained undisturbed and not lost its 
flavour. Lees means sediment. Moab had re- 
tained its strength, but it was not to last. 

12. Wanderers, that shall cause him to wan- 
der] RY ' them that pour off, and they shall 
pour him off.' The figure of jars of wine is 
continued. They are emptied by being tilted 
on one side, an operation that was performed 
slowly and carefully, that the jars might be safe 
and the wine run off clear, while the sediment 
was left. This work, however, in the case of 
Moab, shall be done roughly. 13. Bethel] the 
southern seat of the idolatrous worship intro- 
duced by Jeroboam (IK 12 29). 

15. And gone up out of her cities] RM 'and 
her cities are gone up in smoke.' 18. Come 
down] Dibon stands on two hills. 25. Horn] 
symbol of strength and pride. 27. Was he 



479 



found among - thieves] that he merited such 
treatment. Since] RY ' as often as.' 30. But, 
etc.] RY ' that it is nought ; his boastings have 
wrought nothing.' 

32.* Cp. Isa 16 8 > 9. With] RY 'with more 
than.' Plants] RY ' branches.' Sibmah seems 
to have been famous for its vineyards. Over 
the sea] as far as the W. shore of the Dead 
Sea. Jazer] N. of Heshbon. Near its ruins 
are two large ponds. ■ 33. Their shouting, etc.] 
The vintage shout shall be changed to the cry 
of panic. 

36. Pipes] They were used at funerals, so 
that the word is appropriate to express mourn- 
ing. 37. All shall have the usual emblems of 
mourning : cp. 47 5 . 

38. Vessel] see on 22 28 . 

40. He shall fly] i.e. the Chaldean power. 

45. They that fled . . force] RY ' They that 
fled stand without strength under the shadow 
of Heshbon.' While the fugitives of Moab 
wait in hope of aid under the walls of the 
Ammonite city, there bursts forth from it a 
flame kindled by the Chaldean foe like that 
which in old days was kindled at the same place 
by Sihon, the Amorite conqueror (Nu21 28 ). 

Tumultuous ones] the fugitives. 

47. For the note of comfort at the end of 
the prophecy cp. 46 26 49 6 > 39 . 

CHAPTER 49 

Against Ammon, Edom, and other 
Nations 

1-6. The territory of Ammon was N". of 
Moab, and the two peoples were connected by 
descent. The carrying away of the tribes on 
the E. of Jordan by Tiglath-pileser, king of 
Assyria (2 K 15 29 ), strengthened the hands of 
Ammon, and it is their occupation of the por- 
tion of Gad upon that occasion that forms the 
crime which is dwelt on in this prophecy, and 
which shall bring on them judgment. 

1. Their king] RY 'Malcam,' or Moloch, the 
god of the Ammonites, and so in v. 3. So in 
48 7 Chemosh is used for ' Moab.' 2, 3. Rabbah 
. . Heshbon . . Ai] Ammonite towns. 

Hedges] fences, inclosures of vineyards. 

4. Thy flowing valley] Ammon was full of 
valleys and streams running into Jordan. 

7-22. Concerning Edom] The bitterness of 
the tone in which Edom is addressed in this 
prophecy is doubtless to be ascribed to the 
affinity between them and the Jews, which 
made the unnatural exultation of Edom over 
the fallen fortunes of their kinsmen the more 
offensive. 

Much of the earlier part of this prophecy 
is almost verbally the same as Obad vv. 
1-8, while in Obadiah the vv. come in more 
natural sequence. Obadiah seems to have 
written (see his v. 11) after the destruction of 
Jerusalem, whereas the prophecy in Jeremiah 



49.7 



JEREMIAH 



50. 12 



is connected by its grouping with the 4th year 
of Jehoiakim (see intro. to chs. 46-49). To 
meet this difficulty it has been suggested either 
(a) that the earlier part of Obadiah's prophecy 
was written before Nebuchadnezzar's over- 
throw of Jerusalem, and only the latter part 
after that event ; or, (b) that both prophets 
embodied in their writings an earlier predic- 
tion. Another suggested solution is that 
Obadiah is referring to an earlier overthrow, 
viz. in the time of Jehoram (2Ch21 17 ). 

7. Is wisdom no more in Teman ?] Wisdom 
seems to have been a special characteristic of 
Edom : see v. 20, Obad v. 8, and cp. (apocry- 
phal) book of Baruch 3 22f . 8. Dedan] a tribe 
descended from Abraham by his wife Keturah 
(Gn25 3 ), and dwelling SE. of Edom. They 
are bidden to keep well out of the way lest they 
should be involved in the overthrow of their 
neighbours : cp. v. 30. Esau] i.e. Edom. 

9. Would they not leave some?'] RM 
1 they will leave no,' etc. In Obad v. 6 the 
words are interrogative, but probably not so 
here. The enemy, under the simile of grape- 
gatherers and of thieves, will bring about com- 
plete desolation. 10. Secret places] retreats 
and fastnesses. II. The widows and orphans 
of the slain may, however, look to God's pro- 
tection. 

12. Whose judgment was not] RV ' to 
whom it pertained not.' If Israel itself 
has not escaped the cup of woe, how should 
Edom ? 16. Thy stern mountain fastnesses 
have persuaded thee thou art impregnable. 

Rock] Heb. Selah , is probably an allusion to 
the precipice -protected town of that name 
(identical with Petra), the capital of Edom : 
see 2 K 14 7 . 17. A desolation] RV ' an aston- 
ishment.' 

19. He] the enemy of Edom. Like a lion from 
the swelling of Jordan] see on 12 5 . Against 
the habitation of the strong] RM ' unto the per- 
manent pastures,' as the spot where a lion would 
l)c most likely to find his prey. But I will 
suddenly, etc.] RM ' for I will suddenly drive 
them away,' i.e. the Edomites. And who is 
a chosen iikui. thai I may, etc.] RV 'and whoso 
18 chosen ' (viz. my servant Nebuchadnezzar) 
'him will I,' etc. The time] RV 'a time.' 
God identifies Himself with Hishuman agent 
lor punishment. The reference is to the 
righl of the plaintiff in a suit to appoint the 
time of trial. Who shall dare to claim such 
B righi h.re ? cp. Job9 19 . Who is that shep- 
herd?] What rnlci- will attempt to defend his 
flock againfll Me ? 20. The least, etc.] RV 
'They shall drag them away, even the little 
ones of the flock.' Edom shall be as helpless 
before the foe as sheep. 21. Red sea] pro- 
bably the Gulf of Akaha. to the S. of Edom, 
not the ( talf of Suez. 

23-27. Concerning Damascus] The prophecy 



relates to Syria generally, of which this was 
the most important city. 

23. On the sea] If with some Heb. MSS 
we read ' as ' for ' on ' it will refer to the 
hearts trouble-tossed by conquest. 25. How 
is . . not left] i.e. how sad it is that the inhabit- 
ants, paralysed with fear, have not saved them- 
selves by fleeing in time ! 27. Ben-hadad] 
Three kings of Damascus bore this name (1 K 
15isf. 2 ()i f . 2K1325). 

28-33. Concerning Kedar. Kedar] see on 
2 10 . Hazor] perhaps in Arabia. 

30. Dwell deep] see on v. 8. 31. Addressed 
to the invaders. Wealthy] RV k that is at ease,' 
feeling secure against invasion. 32. Corners] 
see on 9 26 . 33. Dragons] RV 'jackals.' 

34-39. Against Elam] RV ' concerning 
Elam,' a country to the E. of Chaldea. For 
the date, as compared with the other prophecies, 
see intro. to chs. 46-49. 

35. The bow] their chief weapon : cp. 
Isa22 6 . 36. The four winds] i.e. invasion 
from all sides. 39. See on 48 47 . 

CHAPTER 50 
The Fall of Babylon and the Restora- 
tion of Israel 

The prophecy concerning Babylon is ascribed 
to Jeremiah in 51 59 . This, however, need not 
mean more than that it represents the tone of 
Jeremiah's utterances as expanded by a fol- 
lower, e.g. Baruch, at a later date. The reasons 
for doubting Jeremiah's authorship arc : (a) he 
elsewhere speaks in friendly terms of the 
Chaldeans ; here their overthrow is predicted ; 
(&) the style and words betray another writer ; 
(c) the knowledge displayed of Babylonian 
matters is greater than could be expected of 
the prophet ; (<1) the Jews are in exile far 
away from Jerusalem (50 4 > 6 > 17 > 33 ). The pro- 
phecy was fulfilled when Babylon was taken 
by Cyrus or his general Gobryas (perhaps the 
Darius of Daniel) in 539 B.C., nearly 50 years 
after the fall of Jerusalem. 

2. A standard] as the speediest way of call- 
ing attention to the news. Merodach] another 
name for Bel (Baal), the tutelary God of 
Babylon. 3. Out of the north] referring to 
the Medo-Persian power. Media was NW. of 
Babylon. 

4. The overthrow of their captors shall free 
the Jews. 5. Thitherward] RM 'Heb. hither- 
ward.' 

8-16. The triumph of Babylon over Israel 
shall be avenged. 

8. As the he goats] in joyful alacrity. 

9. An assembly of great nations] see for 
some of them 51 27 . Herodotus (vii. 61 f ) says 
there were twenty-two. II. It is for exulting 
over Israel that Chaldea suffers. At grass] 
RV 'that treadeth out the corn. 1 The com- 
mand in Dt 25 4 would have this effect. 1 2. The 



480 



50. 15 



JEREMIAH 



51. 46 



hindermost, etc.] RV ' She (Babylon) shall be 
the hinderrnost,' etc. 15. Given her hand] RV 
' submitted herself,' surrendered. Founda- 
tions] RV ' bulwarks.' Her walls are thrown 
down] not done by Cyrus, but (according to 
Herod, iii. 159) at the later capture by Darius. 

16. They shall turn, etc.] The captives of 
other nations as well as of the Jews shall be 
released. 

17-32. Babylon and her empire are doomed, 
while Israel shall be forgiven. 

17. The lions] The sculptured winged lions 
(Assyrian and Babylonian) give the image a 
special point. Assyria had devoured the Ten 
Tribes, and now Babylon was crushing the 
feeble remnant of the people. Assyria had paid 
the penalty; so too shall Babylon. 20. Reserve] 
RV ' leave as a remnant.' 

2i. Merathaim . . Pekod] Proper names bear- 
ing the significant senses of ' double-rebellion ' 
and ' visitation,' alluding to Babylon. 

23. Hammer] Babylon: cp. 51 20 . Indi- 
viduals at other times have borne this title ; 
Judas Maccabseus for his victories over Syria ; 
Charles Martel, grandfather of Charles the 
Great (Charlemagne), who conquered the 
Saracens in a decisive battle at Tours, 732 A.D., 
and Edward I of England, on whose tomb at 
Westminster Abbey are the words, ' Scotorum 
Malleus,' or ' hammer of the Scots.' 

27. Bullocks] i.e. her choice young warriors : 
cp. 48 15 . 28. The vengeance of his temple] 
the requital for having burnt it : cp. 51 n . 

29. The Holy One of Israel] cp. 51 5 , not 
elsewhere in this book, but characteristic of 
Isaiah. 

33-40. Babylon shall be utterly laid waste. 

34. Redeemer] Heb. Goel, the near kinsman, 
to whom belonged the duty of avenging a 
murder. So the Lord is about to avenge His 
people. 36. Liars] rather, 'boasters.' 

37. Mingled people] see on 25 20 . 38. Her 
waters] the many canals which drained and 
irrigated the country around Babylon: cp. 51 13 . 

Idols] Heb. 'terrors,' meaning their gro- 
tesque forms, such as winged bulls and human- 
headed lions. 39. The wild beasts of the 
islands] RV ; the wolves,' Heb. ' howling crea- 
tures.' Owls] RV ' ostriches.' 

41-46. The enemy approaches and fulfils 
God's behests. 

41-43. See on 6 22f . 

44-46. Adapted from 49 19 " 21 . 

CHAPTER 51 

1-14. The end of Babylon arrives. 

1. See on 25 26 . 1,2. The imagery is of the 
wind scattering the chaff on the threshing- 
floor. The wind and the fanners are the 
Medes (v. 11). 3. Him that bendeth] i.e. his 
bow in defence of Babylon. Brigandine] coat 
of mail. 5. See on 50 29 . 7. Babylon has 



been God's instrument in His vengeance on the 
nations. 10. Hath brought forth our righteous- 
ness] has judged that the Jews' idolatry has 
been sufficiently punished, and that they are 
again to be treated as righteous. 

11. The kings of the Medes] the leaders of 
the various tribes which together formed the 
nation: cp. v. 28. His temple] see on 50 28 . 

12. Upon] RV against.' 13. Many waters] 
see on 50 38 . Covetousness] RM 'dishonest 
gain.' 14. Caterpillers] RV 'the cankerworm.' 

15-19. The Creator of all things is the 
only true God. See on 10 13f . 

20-58. The fate appointed for Babylon. 

20. My battle ax] Many commentators think 
that Babylon is meant, but as Babylon is in 
this passage not the instrument but the 
object of God's vengeance (vv. 24-26), it 
seems more natural to regard Cyrus as indicated 
here. Will I break] rather, 'I break.' 

25. O destroying mountain] The same 
phrase is used of the Mount of Olives (AV 
'mount of corruption') in 2K23 13 , as the 
scene of pernicious idolatry. Babylon here 
receives the title, as at once hurtful and con- 
spicuous. Burnt] i.e. probably, burnt out, 
extinct. 

27. Ararat, Minni, are districts of Armenia, 
and so probably was Ashchenaz. Minni is 
frequently mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions, 
the kings of Assyria having had to quell 
frequent revolts against their overlordship 
among its people. 28. Prepare] lit. ' sanctify ' : 
so in 6 4 22 7 . His dominion] referring to the 
king of Media, who is to gather to the attack 
his tribes with their leaders : cp. v. 11. 

31. Post] running messenger. At one end] 
RV ' on every quarter.' 32. Passages] with 
fords, or ferries. Reeds] RM ' marshes,' Heb. 
' pools.' The reservoirs and pools around 
Babylon which prevented inundations shall 
disappear as completely as what is inflammable 
does by the action of fire. 33. It is time to 
thresh her] RV 'at the time when it is 
trodden.' 

34 f. Oppressed Israel speaks. 

34. Dragon] here, ' sea-monster.' Delicates] 
dainties ; here only used as a substantive in 
the Bible. 36. Sea] a great lake, or reservoir, 
made by the Babylonish queen Nitocris. 

Springs] RV ' fountain,' referring to the 
net- work of canals dug for commerce and irriga- 
tion. 37. Dragons] RV ' jackals.' 39. While 
they are exulting and carousing, I will 
destroy them unawares. In their heat] when 
hot with wine. 

41. Sheshach] see on 25 26 . 42. The sea] 
a figure for the invaders : cp. v. 55, 46 7f . 

44. Bel] see on 50 2 . That which he hath 
swallowed up] the riches of the subjugated 
nations. 

46. Lest] RV ' let not.' Rumour] the state 



31 



481 



51. 48 



JEREMIAH— LAMENTATIONS 



IXTRO. 



of unrest preceding the final catastrophe : 
cp. Mt246,7. 

48. Shall sing for] RV ' shall sing for joy 
over. ' 

50. Ye that have escaped the sword] by 
being already in exile at Babylon. Afar off] 
RV ' from afar,' viz. Babylon. 

51. The exiles have been scoffed at for wor- 
shipping a God who has not defended His 
Temple from sacrilege. 

53. Allusion to the height of the walls or 
of the tower of Bel. 

55. The great voice] the hum of the city's 
life. When her waves] RV ' and their waves,' 
the surging hosts that encompass the city : 
cp. v. 42. 

58. Broad walls] They were 30 or 40 ft. wide : 
see Herod, i. 178. 

And the people . . shall be weary] The labour 
expended on these splendid edifices will have 
been in vain. 

59. Seraiah] brother of Baruch : see 32 12 . 
Went with Zedekiah] Zedekiah's visit was 

probably an act of homage to Nebuchadnezzar, 
perhaps to allay suspicions caused by the com- 
munications between the former and neigh- 
bouring peoples : see on 27 3 . Possibly, how- 
ever, we should read ' from,' instead of 'with.' 

A quiet prince] RV ' chief chamberlain,' mg. 
' quarter-master,' who prepared for the king's 
reception at each halting-place on the journey. 

61. And shalt see, and shaltread] RY 'then 
see that thou read,' so that the Jewish wit- 
nesses who heard could testify in after time to 
the prediction. 

64. And they shall be weary] the last word 
(in Heb. but one) of the prophecy (see v. 58) 
with which the symbolic act is thus coupled. 

Thus far, etc.] showing that c. 52 is by 
another hand. 



CHAPTER 52 

Historical Appendix (probably by the 
compiler of the book) 

This c. is substantially the same as c. 39 (see 
notes there), but adds particulars relating to 
the Temple vessels (vv. 171), while omitting 
Nebuchadnezzar's charge as to Jeremiah's 
safety (39 llf -)- Both accounts are probably 
based on that of 2K2418-2530. 

t— XX. Capture of the city. 12-27. Subse- 
quent severities. 28-30. Nebuchadnezzar's 
deportations. 31-34. Concluding notice of 
Jehoiachin. 4. Nebuchadrezzar] see on 21 2 . 

6. Famine] described in detail in the 'La- 
mentations.' 7. Then the city was broken up] 
RY ' Then a breach was made in the city.' 

9. Riblah] see on 39 5 . 11. He put out the 
eyes] see on 39 7 . 17 f. See prefatory remarks. 

18. Caldrons] RY ' pots,' for carrying away 
ashes after sacrificing. 22. A chapiter] a 
capital. 24. Zephaniah] see on 2 1 1 . 

25. The principal scribe of the host] R Y ' the 
scribe of the captain of the host.' 

28-30. This passage seems to have been 
taken by the compiler from a separate docu- 
ment. For seventh we should probably read 
' seventeenth,' corresponding to Zedekiah's 
tenth year, while the siege was going on. Thus 
this captivity would consist chiefly of people 
from the country parts. The next, i.e. Nebu- 
chadnezzar's eighteenth year, was that with 
which this chapter deals. Of the deportation 
of his three and twentieth year we have no 
other mention. 

31. The seven and thirtieth year] 561 B.C. 
Evil-merodach] son of Nebuchadnezzar. 
Lifted up the head] released : cp. Gn 40 1S > 20 . 

32. The kings] captives kept at his court 
to commemorate his conquests. 

33. He was admitted to the king's table. 



THE LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Name, Place in Canon, and Subject. To 
the Hebrews Ibis book is known by its initial 
word, ' hlthah. -How' ; by the ancient Jews of 
Alexandria it was < :il K< I Threnoi, 'Dirges'; 
by St. Jerome, Lamentationes, whence our 
English title. Its position in the English and 
other rereions is dne to the influence of the 
Greek or LXX version, which placed it imme- 
diately after the prophecies of Jeremiah ; but 
in the Hebrew canon it is usually found among 



the Hagiographa, or 'Writings,' constituting, 
along with Canticles, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, and 
Esther, a small collection known as the five 
Megilloth, or 'Rolls.' The great theme of 
the book is the siege, capture, and destruction 
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Josephus, 
on the basis of 2rii.' , >.V-"\ erroneously supposed 
that it was written as an elegy over the death 
of king Josiah. For vividness and pathos 
the book is unsurpassed in all literature. 



482 



TNTRO. 



LAMENTATIONS 



1. 4 



2. Analysis. 

C. 1. Zion's desolation and sorrow. 
C. 2. Zion's sorrows due to Jehovah's anger. 
C. 3. Zion's hope in God's mercy. 
C. 4. Zion's former glory contrasted with 
her present humiliation. 

C. 5. Zion's earnest petition for deliverance. 

3. Structure. Of the five lyric poems of 
which the book consists, the first four, in 
Hebrew, are acrostics ; each poem consisting 
of 22 portions or verses, corresponding to the 
number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, 
except the third, in which each letter is used 
thrice, and in which, consequently, there are 
3 times 22, or 66 verses. The fifth poem, 
though not an acrostic, has 22 verses. The 
metre is known as Kinah rhythm or elegiac, 
sometimes spoken of as ' limping verse,' be- 
cause the second line is usually considerably 
shorter than the first. No book shows greater 
art or more technical skill in composition. Isa 
I44-21 i s written in the same metre. 

4. Author. In the original these poems are 
anonymous, but tradition has long since as- 
scribed them to Jeremiah. The LXX prefaces 
the book with these words : ' And it came to 
pass, after Israel had been carried into cap- 
tivity and Jerusalem had been laid waste that 
Jeremiah sat weeping and lamented with this 
lamentation over Jerusalem and said ' ; and 
this ancient tradition is confirmed by the 
Syriac, the Latin Yulgate, the Targum of 
Jonathan, the Talmud, and by modern Jews 
and Christians, who point to the very cave or 
grotto, near the Damascus gate on the N". side 
of the Holy City, in which Jeremiah is sup- 
posed to have written them. Various allusions 
in the poems themselves look in the same 
direction ; especially the vivid descriptions of 
Jerusalem in chs. 2 and 4, which are evidently 
the pen-pictures of an eye-witness ; likewise 
the strongly sympathetic temper and prophetic 
spirit of the poems throughout, as well as 
their style, phraseology, and thought, which 
are all so characteristic of Jeremiah. 

On the other hand, it is possible, of course, 
that they were written by a contemporary of 
Jeremiah, perhaps Baruch ; for, as has been 
suggested by Professor McFadyen, being ano- 
nymous, it is easier to think that the traditional 
title has been added by the Greek version than 
that a genuine one has been lost from the 
Hebrew. Besides, the allusion to the pro- 
phets in 2 9 , bearing the iniquities of the 
fathers in 5 7 , and the expectation of help 
from Egypt in 4 17 , are unlike Jeremiah. But 
notwithstanding all the objections to the con- 
trary, the balance of evidence, both internal 
and external, is probably in favour of Jere- 
miah. 

5. Unity and Date. As may be seen from 
the outline given above, the unity of the book 



is not logical, but emotional ; hence the ques- 
tion of its literary unity is largely dependent 
upon one's attitude toward its authorship and 
date. As to its date, it is very generally 
agreed that it was composed soon after the 
downfall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. How soon, 
it is difficult to state : the author's vivid lan- 
guage points to a time immediately subsequent, 
whereas the highly artificial and acrostic char- 
acter of the composition would indicate that 
the bitterness of the siege had passed, and 
that the poet had had time for calm reflection. 
6. Permanent Religious Value. The richest 
portion of the book is doubtless the section 
contained in 3 19 ' 39 , in which vv. 22-27 are 
particularly precious. But the entire book is 
of value to teach not only patriotism, and 
patience, and prayer, and confession of sin, 
but the divine character of chastisement, the 
disciplinary value of yoke-bearing, how God 
pities those whom He is compelled to afflict ; 
and, what is deepest and most important of 
all, how ideal Zion, in suffering for the sins 
of the nation, is typical of the Messiah who 
' bore our sins and carried our sorrows.' The 
book is also of liturgical value, being read by 
pious Israelites every Friday afternoon at the 
Jews' wailing place, within the city of Jeru- 
salem, but just outside the Temple area, and 
in Jewish synagogues the world over on the 
9th of Ab (August), the day on which the 
Temple was burned. 

CHAPTEE 1 

Zion's Desolation and Sorrow 
Though the five poems contained in the 
book have practically the same theme — the 
downfall of Jerusalem — yet each poem dwells 
on a different phase of the subject as intimated 
in the opening words of each c. This first 
one emphasises the desolation and misery of 
the city, describing it as ' solitary, 1 as ' a widow,' 
and as ' tributary,' i.e. Judah has lost her 
independence ; and there is 'no comforter,' 
vv. 2, 9, 17, 21. It falls naturally into three 
sub-divisions, as seen below. In structure it 
is strictly alphabetical : each v. being of triple 
construction. 

I— II. The poet laments Zion's utter deso- 
lation. 

1. How] a characteristic word for the 
commencement of an elegy : cp. 2 1 4 *> 2 Isa 1 4 4 . 

Sit solitary] in the sense of empty houses 
and deserted streets. Provinces] the neigh- 
bouring countries, such as Edom and Moab. 

2. Lovers] synonymous with friends, viz. 
her allies Edom and Egypt (4 22 ). 

3. Because of affliction and . . great servi- 
tude] i.e. Judah chose exile to escape the 
sufferings to which she was exposed in her 
own land (Jer40 11 ). Between the straits] 
RV ' within the straits.' 4. The ways of Zion 



483 



1. 5 



LAMENTATIONS 



2. 20 



do mourn] The roads by which pilgrims came 
up to the feasts are now deserted (Jerl4 2 ). 

Her virgins] those who took part in the 
festal occasions (Ps68 25 ). 5. Are the chief] 
RV ' are become the head ' : i.e. Judah has 
lost her leadership. Before the enemy] driven 
as slaves. 6. Her princes are become like 
harts] referring to Zedekiah's flight with his 
sons (Jer39 4 -<). 

7. Remembered] RV ' remembereth.' 

Sabbaths] RV ' desolations,' in the sense 
probably of ceasings : cp. the enforced sabbaths 
of Lv26 34 ' 35 . The Heb. word employed here 
is not found elsewhere in OT. 8. Is removed] 
RV ' is become as an unclean thing.' Her 
nakedness] her sin and its punishment (4 21 ). 

9. Her filthiness] moral pollution, expressed 
by a bold but common Oriental figure (Jer 13 22 ). 

She remembereth not] RV ' she remembered 
not.' 10. Pleasant things] primarily the 
vessels of the sanctuary (2 Ch36 10 > 19 ), but in- 
cluding all of Jerusalem's precious possessions. 

12-19. Zion's comfortless condition due to 
Jehovah's righteousness. 

12. Zion yearns for sympathy. 13. From 
above] RV ' From on high.' 14. Is bound] a 
bucolic figure, God being represented as bind- 
ing Judah's sins upon his neck as a ploughman 
binds the yoke upon oxen (Jer 27 2 ). He hath 
made my strength to fall] rather, ' it (the yoke) 
hath caused my strength to stumble.' The 
LORD] in Heb. Adonai, used 14 times in 
Lamentations to express lordship ; the name 
Jehovah conveys the covenant idea of redemp- 
tion. 15. He hath called an assembly] lit. 'an 
appointed time ' : i.e. a religious festival 
(Lev 23 4 ); not for Israel, however, but for 
the enemy, to celebrate the defeat of Zion's 
soldiers. 16. Mine eye, mine eye] The em- 
phatic repetition reminding one of Jeremiah's 
style (Jer4 19 6 14 ). 17. That his adversaries 
.should be round about him] i.e. that his nearest 
neighbours should be his most hateful foes. 
In this v. the poet speaks. 19. Lovers] see 
on v. 2. My priests and mine elders] Even 
the most honoured chiefs of the city died of 
starvation. 

20-22. In distress Zion appeals to Jehovah 
for redress. 

21. The day] i.e. the day of vengeance on 
Zion, Long before announced (Jer 25 tf* 2 **). 

22. Let all their wickedness come before 
thee] a not infrequent prayer of OT. saints for 
righteous retribution upon the enemy: cp. 
Pssi'.m. L09, L37 .Irris 1 •■; not altogether 
unjustifiable, for the Hebrew was conscious 
thai wickedness must be punished, but far 
below the plane of the Sermon on the Mount. 

CHAPTER 2 
Zion's Sorrows due to Jehovah's Angeb 

In this second dirge, the cause of Zion's 



woe is dwelt upon. Jehovah has become 
angry with His people, therefore He has cast 
them off. Zion's miseries are the judgments 
of God, which have been sent because of 
Judah's sins. In structure the poem is an 
acrostic, each v. being of triple character, as 
in c. 1. The prophet speaks. 

1-10. The agonies caused by Adonai's 
anger. 

I. The beauty of Israel] the Temple 
(Isa64 n ), or possibly the heroes of Jerusalem 
(2 SI 1 *). His footstool] the ark of the 
covenant (lCh28 2 ), or possibly the sanctuary 
(Pss99 5 1327 Isa60 13 ). 2. Swallowed up] 
i.e. destroyed by earthquake. Habitations] 
open villages of the shepherds. Strong holds] 
fortified towns. 3. All the horn] better, 
' every horn,' in the sense of self -protection 
or of resistance, the horn being a symbol of 
strength. 4. In the tabernacle of the daughter 
of Zion] The division of the v. in AV is 
faulty. The colon after Zion should stand 
after eye, as in RV. 6. As if it were of a 
garden] i.e. God has destroyed His Temple as 
easily as a man removes a vintage booth, which 
has served its purpose, from a garden (Isa 1 18 ). 

8. He hath stretched out a line] Jehovah 
surveys, but to destroy : cp. Isa 34 n Am7l 

9. Her gates are sunk into the ground] a 
metaphor expressing their total destruction, 
not a vestige being left above ground. The 
law is no more] including the national ritual 
and government. Her prophets also find no 
vision] because so hardened by sin. 

10. The elders . . sit upon the ground] i.e. in 
banishment. 

11-19. Zion's bitter sorrow and lamentation. 

II. The scene of Jerusalem's woes is to the 
poet heartrending. My liver] a phrase not 
found elsewhere in OT., but expressive of 
strong emotion : cp. our English use of ' spleen ' 
and 'humorous.' 12. The picture of helpless, 
innocent children crying in vain for food is 
touching. 13. What thing shall I take to 
witness for thee ?] RV ' What shall I testify 
unto thee ? ' in the sense of attempting to com- 
fort Jerusalem. 14. False burdens] RM 
'oracles of vanity' (Jer 23 33 ). Causes of 
banishment] The Heb. word employed here is 
not found elsewhere, but probably means 
things which draw aside and drive out 
(Jer 27 10 . 16 ). 17. The LORD hath done] The 
poet points to Jehovah as Zion's Destroyer, 
only later to show that He may become her 
Saviour. 18. O wall] apostrophised as a 
human mourner (Isal4 81 ). No rest] RV 'no 
respite.' Apple of thine eye] lit. ' daughter,' 
i.e. pupil of the eye : cp. Psl7 8 . 

20-22. In bewilderment Zion appeals to 
Jehovah. 

20. To whom thou hast done this] viz. to 
His own chosen people. Children of a span 



484 



% 22 



LAMENTATIONS 



S. 60 



long] RY ' the children that are dandled in 
the hands ' : cp. v. 22, Jer 19 9 . 22. My terrors 
round about] as in Jer6 25 20 3 > 10 . Jehovah 
has now summoned His terrors (Magor- 
missabiV), as at other times He had summoned 
His people to the festivals (a solemn day). 

CHAPTER 3 

Zion's Hope in God's Mercy 

This third poem is the most elaborate in 
structure and the most sublime in thought of all. 
The poet speaks not only for himself, but for 
the nation. The order of thought is sorrow, 
confession, repentance, prayer. Though con- 
sisting of 66 w. the poem is but a little longer 
than the others. Three consecutive vv. are 
built upon each letter of the Heb. alphabet : 
each triplet is usually closely associated in 
thought, and consequently grouped together 
as in the RY. 

1-18. Zion bewails her calamities. 

1-3. I am the man] The author is a repre- 
sentative sufferer, an eye-witness, and typical 
of Christ. 4-6. Gall] bitterest sorrow 
(Jer8 14 ). Travel] RV ' travail,' which is the 
more modern spelling, in the sense here in- 
tended, of painful labour (Nu20 14 ). He hath 
set me] RY ' He hath made me to dwell ' 
(Psl43 3 ). Be dead of old] RY 'have been 
long dead.' 7-9. He hath made my paths 
crooked] in the sense that every avenue of 
advance is blocked. 10-12. He was] RY 
1 He is.' As a bear . . as a lion] God is even 
lying in wait to oppose him (Jer4 7 5 6 ). 

Danger follows distress. 13-15. Arrows of 
his quiver] RM ' sons of his quiver,' a poetical 
expression for the enemies' taunts (Jer 20 8 ). 

My reins] The English equivalent is heart, 
denoting the seat of the affections (Jer 1 2 2 ). 

To all my people] better, ' to all peoples,' as 
in many Heb. MSS and the Peshitto. 

16-18. Broken my teeth with gravel stones] 
i.e. God has forced him to eat bread full of 
grit (Prov20 17 ). He hath covered me with 
ashes] or, ' He made me cower in the ashes.' 
Such dreadful thoughts about God are almost 
without a parallel in the OT. 

19-39. Hope of relief through God's mercy. 

In this section we reach the highest point 
of trust to which the mourner attains. 

19-21. Remembering] RY 'remember,' in 
the imperative sense (1 7 ). This I recall] viz. 
what just precedes, his affliction. 25-27. The 
LORD is good] ' good ' is the initial word of 
each v. in this group. Goodness to the poet 
is an essential attribute of Jehovah and the 
basis of his hope. He is too good to keep 
them always in despair. Should both hope 
and quietly wait] lit. ' should wait and in 
silence ' ; quiet waiting being the pre-requisite 
of perceiving that God is good. Yoke] disci- 
pline, or work that is irksome, compulsory and 



painful. These vv. have the ring of auto- 
biography. 28-30. The leading verbs in this 
triplet are to be taken hortatively, as RY ' Let 
him sit,' 'put,' 'give,' the argument being that 
yoke-bearing in order to be beneficial must be 
submitted to willingly. Hath borne] RY 'hath 
laid.' Giveth his cheek] the climax of patience 
is reached when suffering that comes through 
human agency is borne without murmuring. 

31-33. Three grounds are given for resig- 
nation : (1) because chastisement is only tem- 
porary (Ps77 7 Jer3 5 > 12 ) ; (2) because by nature 
God is merciful, and therefore the distress 
sent will not exceed what is absolutely neces- 
sary (Isa54 8 ) ; (3) because all affliction is 
against His will, hence God cannot commit an 
injustice. 34-36. In this triplet the order of 
thought is transposed to accommodate the 
alphabetic structure. The teaching is, the 
Lord approveth not, (1) of cruelty to prisoners 
in war, as Nebuchadnezzar to the inhabitants 
of Jerusalem ; (2) of perverting justice in 
court (Ex23 6 ) ; (3) of dishonesty in private 
business (Ex 2 2 8 > 9 ). 37-39. This group rounds 
out the thought of the section : each v. 
contains a separate interrogation : (1) Who 
can command and bring to pass except Adonai ? 
(Ps339). (2) Do not evil (i.e. suffering) and 
good alike proceed from God ? (Am 3 6 Isa 45 7 ). 
(3) Why should a man who still lives complain 
when he is only being punished for his sins? 
(Jer 45 5 ). A living man] The word 'living' 
is emphatic. Life in itself is more than the 
sinner merits. Instead of having been over- 
paid, he is not even paid in full : for ' the 
wages of sin is death ' (Rom 6 23 ). The poet is 
here championing the divine cause. 

40-54. Exhortations to repent and confess. 

40-42. Our heart with our hands] strictly, 
our heart to our palms, in the sense that the 
heart should actually follow in the direction 
in which our hands point (Jer4 31 ). 

43-45* Zion's condition is dire because 
Jehovah will not hear the prayers of His 
miserable victims. People] RY k peoples,' i.e. 
the foreign nations round about. 52-54. These 
vv. are thought to point to Jeremiah as the 
author of the poems : cp. Jer 38. Cast a stone 
upon me] i.e. covered with a stone the pit into 
which they cast him. Waters flowed over 
mine head] There was no water, but mire, in 
Jeremiah's dungeon (Jer 38 6 ). I am cut off] 
the sufferer is a type of Christ (Ps 88 5 Isa 53 8 ). 

55-66. In despair Zion prays for vengeance 
upon the enemy. 

55-57. I called upon thy name] i.e. upon 
the attributes of God ; referring possibly to 
Ps69, supposed by some to have been com- 
posed by Jeremiah while in the dungeon. 

Fear not] God's answer was brief, consisting 
of but two words, but enough since they came 
from him. 58-60. Pleaded] as an advocate 



485 



3. 63 



LAMENTATIONS 



4. 22 



i 



(Jer50 34 ). All their imaginations] EV 'all 
their devices' (Jer ll 19 18 18 ). 63. Musick] 
E-V ' song.' 64-66. AV by translating the 
imperfect tenses of the verbs in this triplet as 
imperatives, makes the language appear harsher 
than it really is ; still it must be allowed that 
the poet prays for retribution upon the enemy 
(Jerl8 23 2 Tim 4 14). Sorrow of heart] RV 
1 hardness of heart.' 

CHAPTER 4 

Zion's former Glory contrasted with 
her present humiliation 

In this fourth dirge the poet describes the 
miseries of the various classes in the sack of 
Jerusalem, concluding with a warning to 
Edom. In structure, each alphabetic v. is 
composed of two rather than of three sub- 
divisions, the ideas and phrases balancing as 
in ordinary Hebrew poetry. This is considered 
the finest poetry of the book. The mourner 
speaks throughout. 

1-10. The terrible distress of the people 
and nobles. 

1. How is the gold become dim] The three 
words used for gold, pure gold, and fine gold, 
in w. 1, 2, all stand metaphorically for Jeru- 
salem's most precious possessions, particularly 
her inhabitants. The stones of the sanctuary] 
the choicest portion of Zion's citizens (2 19 
Zech9 16 ). 2. Earthen pitchers, the work of 
the hands of the potter] The contrast is not 
merely one of the materials, gold and clay, 
but of workmanship ( Jer 18 1 ' 6 19 *- 10 ). 3. The 
sea monsters] RV k the jackals ' (Jer 9 n ). The 
thought is that even wild beasts suckle their 
young, but the women of Jerusalem are be- 
come cruel and take no heed of their children's 
pitiful cries. Like the ostriches] here taken 
as the type of cruelty and heartlessness, be- 
cause they forsake their young at the least 
alarm" (Job 39 i^). 5. Delicately] daintily 
(Prov 29 - 1 ). Brought up in scarlet] lit. ' carried 
upon scarlet,' as infants. Embrace dunghills] 
lie upon dust heaps. The contrast is most 
vivid. From the highest luxury, the upper 
classes in Jerusalem have been reduced to the 
extremes! poverty. 

6. For the punishment of the iniquity] RV 
■ Pot the iniquity.' As in a moment] Sodom 
w;is overthrown suddenly ; Jerusalem's suffer- 
\(!c prolonged. Hence it is inferred 
thai Jerusalem's sin was greater than Sodom's. 
Our Lord modified this ancienl view of sin 
and pnnishmenl ( Lk 13 '-'•). And no hands 
stayed on her] B V l and ao hands were laid 
upon her,' i.e. Sodom's pnniahmenl was direct 
from God. 7. Nazarites] RV 'nobles,' pro- 
kil.lv alluding to the Kechabites, famous at 
thai time for their purity and temperance 
(Jer 35). 

9. Better] i.e. better off. Death by the 



sword, prior to the siege, is pronounced pre- 
ferable to being gradually wasted by famine. 

For want of the fruits of the field] lit. ' from 
the produce of the field,' famine being more 
cruel than the enemy (Ps 109 24 ). 10. This v. 
describes a gruesome scene, alluded to in 2 2°, 
and predicted in Jer 19 9 . Pitiful women] the 
daughters of an effete civilisation, who had 
been nursed in the lap of luxury. 

1 1-16. The ignominious fate of the prophets 
and priests. 

This section begins and ends with an account 
of the wrath of Jehovah. 11. Kindled a fire 
in Zion] poetic for the glowing of Jehovah's 
anger (2Ch36 19 ). 13. For the sins of] RV 
' It is because of the sins of.' Zion's prophets 
were really murderers (2Ch24 21 Jer 26 23 ). 

14. They have wandered] reeled and stag- 
gered, reckless of their responsibilities as 
leaders. 15. They cried unto them] the 
people applied to them what lepers were re- 
quired to declare of themselves, viz. Unclean ! 
Unclean! (Lvl3 45 ). Theirs was spiritual 
leprosy. They said among - the heathen] When 
ostracised, people abroad said, They shall tarry 
here no longer. They were unwelcome every- 
where ; fugitives and vagabonds, with the 
mark of Cain upon them. 

16. The anger of the LORD hath divided 
them] lit. ' the face of Jehovah hath scattered 
them.' 

17-20. The vain hope of escape ; even the 
king being captured. This short section is in 
the first person plural. 

17. RV k Our eyes do yet fail in looking for 
our vain help.' Egypt or some other expected 
ally disappoints (Jer 37 7 Isa36 6 ). 19. Our 
persecutors] RV ' our pursuers.' 20. The 
breath of our nostrils] a rather strong expres- 
sion to use of Zedekiah, yet he was Jerusalem's 
king, and though weak, ' the anointed of 
Jehovah.' Under his shadow] even as cap- 
tives, they hoped to be allowed some sort of 
national organisation with Zedekiah as their 
head. The hope expressed is pathetic. 

21, 22. The doom of Edom. 

21. Rejoice and be glad] i.e. enjoy thy 
malicious but fleeting satisfaction (Jer 49 7 ---). 
Edom is typical of the church's foes to-day. 

Uz] the territory lying SE. of Palestine. 
extending probably into Arabia (Jer26 20 ). 

The cup] the symbol of divine wrath (Jer 
2f> 17 ). 22. The punishment of thine iniquity is 
accomplished] lit. 'ended.' For one brief 
moment the curtain of gloom is lifted, and a 
hope — in a sense a Messianic hope — is held out 
to Zion (Isa40 2 ). He will discover thy sins] 
i.e. he will punish thy sins ; for, if to cover 
is to forgive, to discover must be to punish 
(Pss32 ] 85 2 ). Thus the poem closes with a 
contrast. Zion's sins shall be covered, Edom's 
discovered. Zion's captivity is past, Edom's 



486 



5. 1 



LAMENTATIONS 



5. 22 



yet to come. The Hebrews' debt is paid, 
the Edomites' is yet to be exacted. 

CHAPTER 5 
Zion's earnest Petition for Deliverance 

This final poem is not so much an elegy as 
a prayer or meditation. The tone is more 
calm and spiritual than the others, with no 
trace of vindictiveness. The poet, speaking 
for the people, k will have God know every- 
thing.' Though divided into 22 vv., it is not 
an acrostic. Rhyme takes the place of the 
alphabetical structure, the poem having not 
less than 45 words ending in the sound u : cp. 
Psl24. Like c. 4, each v. is composed of two 
members which are balanced with the greatest 
care, both as to form and thought. In the 
Yulgate this c. is given a separate title, 
k Oratio Jeremiae prophetae.' 

1-18. A pathetic review of Zion's condition. 

i. Remember, O LORD] Like the initial 
sentences of the other poems, the opening 
words strike the key of what follows. The 
poet is about to pray, so he secures first of all 
God's attention. 2. Our inheritance] Canaan 
(Lv20 24 ). 3. Our mothers are as widows] i.e. 
without protection and support. 5. Our necks 
are under persecution] RY fc our pursuers are 
upon our necks.' 6. To the Assyrians] Baby- 
lonians of course are meant (Jer2 18 2K23 29 ). 

7. And we have borne their iniquities] not 
in contradiction to Jer31 29 Ezkl8 2 , nor that 
they were not themselves great sinners, for 
v. 16 shows that they acknowledged they 
were, but that the nation's guilt extended 
back into the past. Ideal Zion, like Christ, 
was to ' be made perfect through sufferings ' 
(Heb2 10 ). 8. Servants have ruled over us] 
Babylonian satraps were often simply house- 
hold favourites, promoted by the king to posts 
of honour, such as the headship of the wretched 
remnant of Judah (Jer39 3 ). 9. We gat] 
RY ' We got,' lit. ' we bring in.' Because of 
the sword of the wilderness] alluding to the 



raids of the Bedouins, who may have fallen 
upon the remnant in their attempts to snatch 
a little food. 

10. Black] RM 'hot.' Terrible famine] 
RY ' burning heat of famine.' 12. Hanged 
up by their hand] The Assyrian custom was 
to impale bodies after death in order to expose 
them to the most utter contempt possible 
(Dt 2 1 23 1 S 3 1 !0- 12 ). 1 3. They took the young 
men to grind] RY c The young men bare the 
mill,' work usually done by women and slaves 
(Isa47 2 ). 

14. From the gate] corresponding to our 
public square or park (Jerl4 2 ). 

16. The crown is fallen from our head] a 
figurative expression conveying the thought 
that Zion has lost her dignity of statehood. 

Woe unto us, that we have sinned] a distinct 
confession on the part of the people, and the 
effect desired has been obtained. 17. For 
this . . for these things] loss of nationality and 
present distress respectively. 

19-22. A final appeal to Jehovah to remove 
Zion's reproach. 

The book closes with a majestic apostrophe 
to Jehovah. 19. Remainest] RY ' sittest,' 
as king. Jehovah had not abdicated, though 
Zedekiah had (Ps45<3 10212). 2 o. Where- 
fore . . so long time] a hint may be contained 
in these last words as to the time of composi- 
tion, at least of c. 5. 21. Turn thou us unto 
thee] The poet realises that they cannot turn 
themselves. The doctrine clearly is that 
repentance is of grace. It is useless simply 
to resolve to turn (Jer31 18 ). 

22. But] RY ' unless,' which is better ; 
for that Jehovah has utterly rejected Zion is 
to the poet unthinkable. The tone of the v., 
however, is so melancholy that in some MSS 
v. 21 is repeated ; so that, in reading the roll 
in the synagogue, the book might end more 
hopefully. The Jews delighted in cheerful 
conclusions. Similar repetitions occur at the 
close of Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and Malachi. 



487 



EZEKIEL 



INTRODUCTION 



I. History of Ezekiel's Times. Ezekiel was 
preeminently a prophet of the Captivity of 
Judah, but the allusions in his book go back 
over the last half -century of the existence of 
the Jewish kindgom. 

Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt. The kings 
of Judah had long been vassals of Assyria, but 
in the latter half of the 7th cent. B.C. the 
power of that empire was declining. Soon after 
630 B.C. Western Asia was invaded by the 
Scythians — hordes of northern barbarians who 
penetrated to the borders of Egypt. Their 
irruption is not directly mentioned in Scripture, 
but it made a strong and terrifying impression, 
of which traces are found in both Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel, and the possibility of its recurrence 
was long present to men's minds. About 
625 B.C. Babylon, hitherto a tributary of 
Assyria, became independent under Nabo- 
polassar, and about 607 B.C. Nineveh, the 
Assyrian capital, fell before Nabopolassar and 
his allies. The supremacy of the E. was thus 
transferred to Babylon. When Nineveh fell, 
Pharaoh-Necho of Egypt made himself tem- 
porarily master of Palestine, but in 605 B.C. 
he was defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchad- 
rezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, who immedi- 
ately succeeded his father as king of Babylon 
and ruler of all Western Asia. 

The last kings of Judah. The reign of Josiah 
(639-608 B.C.) was signalised by the discovery 
of the Book of the Law in the Temple (621 B.C.), 
and by the great reformation that followed it. 
Josiah was slain in battle at Megiddo, when 
attempting to oppose the northward march of 
Pharaoh-Necho (608 B.C.). The people of 
Judah placed Shallum (generally known as 
Jehoahaz), Josiah's youngest son, on the throne, 
but their choice did not satisfy Pharaoh-Necho, 
who deposed Shallum. and carried him captive 
to Egypt, putting Jehoiakim, another son of 
Josiah. in his place. Jehoiakim reigned as a 
vassal of Egypt for four years, but Nebuchad- 
rezzar's victory at Carchemish made him a 
snbjeci of Babylon. For three years longer he 
was loyal bo Nebuchadrezzar, but at last he 
began to intrigue again with Egypt. He died 
in 597 B.C. before Nebuchadrezzar could punish 
his unfaithfulness, bu1 the blow fell on his son 
Eindsuoci asor,Jehoiachin, who u as deposed after 
;i reign of three months, and carried captive to 
Babylon, along with the flower of the nobility 
and the best of the < raftsmen of the land. 



This was the first captivity (597 B.C.). Ne- 
buchadrezzar, however, spared the kingdom of 
Judah a little longer, and set Zedekiah, a third 
son of Josiah, on the throne. But Zedekiah 
proved a weak ruler, unable to resist the anti- 
Babylonian party in Judah. He too was led 
into intrigue with Egypt, and revolt against 
Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar sent an army against 
Jerusalem. The siege began on the tenth day 
of the tenth month of Zedekiah's ninth year ; 
and after being temporarily raised owing to 
the approach of an Egyptian army, was re- 
sumed, and ended on the ninth day of the 
fourth month of Zedekiah's eleventh year. 
The king fled, but was captured, had his eyes 
put out, and was taken to Babylon. A month 
later Jerusalem was burnt, and the bulk of the 
people of Judah carried into exile. This was 
the second captivity (586 B.C.). 

After the Second Captivity. Gedaliah, a 
Jewish noble, was made Babylonian Governor 
of Palestine, but after three months he was 
murdered, at the instigation of the king of 
Ammon, by a noble of the anti-Babylonian 
faction. The Jewish leaders of Gedaliah's 
party fled with their followers into Egypt. It 
was probably to avenge the murder of Gedaliah 
that a further deportation of Jews to Babylon 
took place five years later (Jer 52 30 ). This 
was the third captivity (581 B.C.). 

Babylon, Tyre, and Egypt. Tyre as well as 
Judah revolted against Nebuchadrezzar, and 
was besieged by him for thirteen years from 
the seventh year of his reign (597-584 B.C.). 
In his thirty-seventh year (567 B.C.) Nebu- 
chadrezzar was engaged in a campaign against 
Egypt. 

2. Ezekiel's personal history. Ezekiel ('God 
strengthens,' or ' God is strong '), the son of 
Buzi, was a priest who was carried to Babylon 
at the first captivity (597 B.C.). This is the 
point from which the dates in his book are 
reckoned. Nothing is known of his age at the 
time of his transportation, or of his previous 
history. In the fifth year of his captivity 
(592 B.C.) he was called and consecrated to the 
work of a prophet by a remarkable vision with 
which the book opens, and he carried on his 
ministry at intervals for twenty-two years, the 
latest (late in the book being the twenty-seventh 
year of the captivity (570 B.C.). Our knowledge 
of his personal career is very meagre. He 
lived in a house of his own, among a colony of 



488 



INTRO. 



EZEKIEL 



INTRO. 



his fellow exiles, who were settled at a place 
called Tel-abib. He was married, and his wife 
died suddenly on the very day when the siege 
of Jerusalem began. 

3. Ezekiel's Audience. This consisted out- 
wardly of the exiles at Tel-abib, who were an 
organised community with ' elders ' at their 
head. They were at first opposed to Ezekiel, 
and were inclined to believe the false prophets 
who held out hopes of a speedy return to their 
own land (Jer29 8 > 9 ). This antagonism pre- 
vented him from speaking in public, but the 
elders visited him from time to time in his 
house. After the fulfilment of his earlier 
prophecies in the fall of Jerusalem, the atti- 
tude of the exiles to the prophet became more 
favourable. Though living in Babylonia Eze- 
kiel's chief concern was with the fate of Jeru- 
salem, and he took the deepest interest in all 
that was happening in Palestine. The pro- 
phecies spoken to the elders and other exiles 
at Tel-abib were really addressed to the whole 
people of .Israel whom they represented. At 
times Ezekiel makes a distinction between the 
exiles and their brethren in Palestine, and in 
these cases his verdict is in favour of the 
former. 

4. The Book of Ezekiel falls into three well- 
marked divisions. The first (chs. 1-24) pre- 
dicts the fall of Jerusalem as the necessary 
consequence of Israel's sin. The second (chs. 
25-32) deals with God's judgments on the 
surrounding nations. The third (chs. 33-48) 
describes the restoration of Israel and the 
establishment of the perfect kingdom of G-od. 
There is no doubt as to the unity and authen- 
ticity of the book, though a few passages here 
and there have been thought to be duplicates 
of the same prophecy. The Hebrew text, 
however, has become obscure in some places 
through the mistakes of transcribers, and 
the true sense has to be sought either in 
ancient translations like the LXX, which fre- 
quently give a better meaning, or in simple 
and obvious corrections. The prophecies of 
Ezekiel have a peculiar style and character, 
due to the prophet's special mental qualities. 
The most marked of these qualities was his 
powerful imagination, which not only dis- 
played itself in strange and weird conceptions, 
but wrought these out with great minuteness 
of detail, akin to what we find in Dante. 
Three forms of prophecy are specially char- 
acteristic of Ezekiel. We have symbolic actions, 
in which the truths to be taught are practically 
illustrated ; allegories, which present the sub- 
jects in hand under elaborate figures ; and 
visions, in which material emblems stand out 
spontaneously before the prophet's mind. It 
is possible that some of the symbolic actions de- 
scribed were not actually performed. In 24 3 
we see that the symbolic action and the allegory 



cannot be sharply distinguished. The visions, 
too, have been supposed by some to be merely 
allegories thrown into a peculiar literary form, 
but there is no reason to doubt that they were 
real experiences, though some of the details 
may have been worked out more fully when 
the visions were committed to writing. 

5. Ezekiel and Jeremiah were contemporary 
prophets, though the latter was much the older 
of the two. Neither prophet mentions the 
other, but the book of Ezekiel contains many 
traces of Jeremiah's influence. During the 
eleven years of Zedekiah's reign both were 
engaged, the one in Jerusalem, and the other 
in Babylonia, in proclaiming practically the 
same truths — the guilt and coming punishment 
of Judah, the sin and folly of opposing Baby- 
lon and seeking help from Egypt, the cer- 
tainty of the destruction of Jerusalem. After 
the captivity both foretold the ultimate restora- 
tion of the exiles. Jeremiah's prophecy of 
the New Covenant is closely paralleled in 
different parts of Ezekiel, but the latter left a 
larger place for ritual and external law than 
the former in his conception of the perfect 
kingdom of God. 

6. Ezekiel's Leading Doctrines. The glory 
and holiness of God are very prominent in 
the book of Ezekiel. He is the God of Israel, 
and has chosen Israel as His people. His 
holiness has been outraged by Israel's sin, and 
the display of His glory is the great motive of 
all His dealings with them both in judgment 
and mercy. What He does is ' for His Name's 
sake.' The sin cannot be unpunished, and yet 
the choice of Israel cannot be finally revoked. 
God will restore and purify His people and 
dwell among them for ever. The result will 
be the manifestation of His true character to 
men. ' They shall know that I am the Lord ' 
is the most frequent phrase in the book. 

7. Ezekiel's Messianic Prophecies. The 
whole of the last part of the book pictures an 
ideal kingdom of God, and an ideal future 
king. The latter is symbolised by the twig 
taken from the top of the cedar (17 22 > 23 ), is 
further hinted at in 21 27 , and is clearly repre- 
sented by the Davidic king of 34 23 > 24 37 24 , 
and the ' prince ' of the concluding chs. 

8. Fulfilment of Ezekiel's Prophecies. Those 
in the first part were accomplished in a general 
sense when Jerusalem fell. Those in the last 
part were partially realised in the return of 
the Jews from captivity and the rebuilding of 
the Temple ; and in their essence, though not 
in their literal form, they have been or are 
being fulfilled in the Church of Jesus Christ. 
Ezekiel conceived of the future kingdom of 
God as a national and Jewish one, and allow- 
ance must be made for this limitation of his 
view in dealing with the prophecies of the 
second part as well as with those of the third. 



489 



INTRO. 



EZEKIEL 



1. 



The future of the foreign nations is foretold 
with reference to their influence on God's 
kingdom, and as the latter did not preserve the 
national form which Ezekiel contemplated, the 
literal fulfilment of the prophecies about the 
former was not to be looked for either. These 
prophecies embody general truths about the 
overthrow of the powers of evil rather than 
precise anticipations of actual history. 

9. Ezekiel and the Law. The last nine 
chapters of Ezekiel have an important bearing 
on the questions connected with the dates of 
the different parts of the Pentateuch. The 
ritual and legal details they contain show that 
such regulations were the subject of much 
thought during the exile, and their differences 
from the Pentateuch show that on particular 
points the Law was not absolutely fixed from 
the first, but allowed a certain elasticity in 
practice. The most important question is that 
connected with the relationship between the 
priests and the Levites. In Deuteronomy, 
which guided Josiah's reformation, the two 
classes are regarded as identical, while in the 
parts of the Pentateuch known as the Priests' 
Code they are distinct. Ezekiel (44 10-16) m _ 
dicates that up to his time the priesthood 
had been common to all the tribe of Levi, but 
that in future it would be confined to the 
family of Zadok, and that the other Levites 
would be reduced to the rank of Temple ser- 
vants. Ezekiel thus marks a transition from 
the arrangement of Deuteronomy to that 



of the Priests' Code, and the inference is 
that the latter took its present form during 
or after the exile. With the part of the 
Priests' Code, however, known as the Law of 
Holiness (Lv 16-26), the book of Ezekiel has 
many points of correspondence. This por- 
tion of the Pentateuch, therefore, must have 
been in substance as early as his day. 

10. Ezekiel and the New Testament. The 
language and thought of Ezekiel have had 
a considerable influence on the writers of the 
New Testament. His allegory of the G-ood 
Shepherd evidently suggested some part of 
our Lord's parables of the Lost Sheep and 
the Good Shepherd. The promise of the new 
heart of flesh is referred to in 2 Cor 3 3 . The 
idea of judgment beginning at the house of 
God reappears in 1 Pet 4 1 7 . The influence of 
Ezekiel is specially evident in Revelation, 
which reproduces the eating of the roll (Rev 
10 9 ' 10 ), the invasion of Gog and Magog (20 7- 9 ), 
the measuring of the Temple (ll 1 ' 2 ), the life- 
giving river (22 M), and the four-square city 
with its twelve gates (21 12 " 16 ). Many of the 
judgments on 'Babylon' in Rev 18 are taken 
from Ezekiel's chapters on Tyre. 

11. The Permanent Message of Ezekiel. 
This book has an abiding value to the Christian 
because of its promise of the new heart, its 
doctrine of the individual's relation to God, 
and its assurance that God has no pleasure in 
the death of the wicked, but desires that all 
should turn to Him and live. 



Sin and Judgment. 

§ 1. Ezekiel's Call and Consecration 

as a Prophet (chs. 1-3). 
Date, June-July, 592 B.C. 
Ezekiel's call and consecration to his pro- 
phetic work took place by means of a vision 
of God's glory (c. 1), and of a divine commis- 
sion, or rather series of commissions, conveyed 
partly in speech and partly in symbol (chs. 2, 3). 



CHAPTER 1 
The Vision ok God's Glory 

This vision, unlike the inaugural visions of 
Isaiah and Jeremiah, came to Ezekiel not only 
in the beginning of his prophetic ministry, 
I nit ;ilso several limes during the course of it. 
h \v;is early repeated in connexion with his 
call and commission (.">'-' : M, and it appeared mm 
two other occasions (chs. 8-11, 13 '-"'). Inc. 10 
in particular the account in c. 1 is closely re- 
produced, with Borne additional details. 

In a state of trance, or ecstasy, Ezekiel saw 
approaching from the north a glowing storm 
cloud, which resolved itself into a remarkable 
group <>r four living creatures, arranged sym- 
metrically in a square. Their general appear- 



PART 1 

The old Israel and its Overthrow (Chs. 1-24) 

ance was human, and every one had four faces, 
a human face looking outwards, the. face of a 
lion on the right, the face of an ox on the left, 
and the face of an eagle looking inwards to 
the centre of the square. Every one had also 
four wings, two of which were stretched out 
to meet those of the living creatures on either 
side, the points where the tips of the wings 
touched each other being the corners of the 
square. The other pairs of wings covered the 
bodies of the living creatures, and under these 
wings were human hands. The living crea- 
tures had straight, jointless limbs, and feet 
like the hoofs of a calf. The whole group 
was pervaded with glowing lambent fire, from 
which lightnings shot forth. It moved to and 
fro with lightning speed, and did so without 
turning, as its four sides were exactly alike, 
and any one of them could be the front for 
the time. Beside the living creatures were 
four vast wheels, the rims of which were full 
of eves. These wheels also were so arranged 
that they could move in any direction without 
changing front. Though apparently uncon- 
nected with the living creatures they moved 



490 



1. 



EZEKIEL 



1.7 



in perfect harmony with them, ascending and 
descending, going backwards and forwards, or 
from side to side, exactly as they did. The 
motion of this living chariot was accompanied 
by a majestic rushing sound. Above the heads 
of the living creatures there was a solid crystal- 
line platform, supporting an enthroned human 
Figure, who was clothed in a fiery iridescent 
radiance. Overawed by the sight, Ezekiel fell 
upon his face, and as he lay he heard a divine 
voice addressing him. 

The whole vision brought before Ezekiel's 
consciousness the presence and glory of God, 
but the part of it in which God Himself was 
more directly manifested is described with a 
reverent reserve. Ezekiel is careful not to 
identify the divine essence with the material 
emblems which he beheld. What he saw was 
J the likeness of a throne,' and upon it ' a like- 
ness as the appearance of a man.' The whole 
was ' the appearance of the likeness of the 
glory of Jehovah.' The details of the vision 
are concerned rather with the subordinate 
appearances by which the divine glory was 
accompanied and upborne. 

We are not, of course, to understand that 
the living creatures and the wheels which 
Ezekiel saw were actually existing realities. 
They were only the forms in which certain 
aspects of God's glory were bodied forth before 
his mind's eye. And while the visionary com- 
bination of the symbols, and the impression 
which it produced, were the results of divine 
inspiration acting through a peculiar mental 
condition, it is permissible to seek the origin 
of the symbols themselves among objects which 
were familiar to Ezekiel's ordinary sight, and 
conceptions which were familiar to his ordinary 
thought. Composite animal figures, such as 
winged bulls and lions with human heads, and 
winged and eagle-headed men, were very com- 
mon objects in the temples of -Babylonia. 
There has even been found on an ancient Baby- 
lonian seal a representation of a god in a four- 
wheeled chariot drawn by a winged monster. 
Then Ezekiel tells us himself (10 20 ) that the 
living creatures were cherubim, like those 
which formed part of the furniture (Ex25 18 " 20 ) 
and decoration (Ex26 31 ) of the tabernacle, 
and of the Temple of Jerusalem (1 K6 23 ' 29 ). 
In Hebrew poetry, too, the cherubim were 
personifications of the storm-cloud on which 
Jehovah rode (Psl8i<>, also Pss80i99iRY). 
In the winged attendants, the glowing fire, 
and the throne, Ezekiel's vision has points of re- 
semblance to that of Isaiah (Isa 6), but while the 
imagery of Isaiah's vision was evidently that of 
the Temple at Jerusalem expanded and glorified, 
the scene of Ezekiel's was rather the great temple 
of nature, where Jehovah's throne is above the 
blue sky. and His chariot is the thunder-cloud, 
with lightnings flashing from its heart of fire. 



The details of the vision are all suggestive 
of the attributes of God. The Figure on the 
throne is an emblem of His sovereign rule. 
The general human form and the various faces 
of the living creatures symbolise diiferent 
aspects of divine majesty and strength. The 
imposing height of the wheels, and the sub- 
lime sound with which the whole living chariot 
moved, convey the same impression. The 
symmetrical arrangement of the living crea- 
tures and the wheels, and their swift move- 
ments in every direction, indicate the omni- 
presence of God. The eyes on the wheels 
denote His omniscient intelligence. The spon- 
taneous and united motion of wheels and 
cherubim suggest the pervasive presence and 
universal working of God's Spirit, controlling 
things that seem to be independent. The fire 
is a symbol of divine purity and holiness. 
The rainbow colours add a touch of sublime 
beauty to the conception of the glory of God. 

I. The thirtieth year] The reference of the 
number is uncertain. Suggested explanations 
are, (1) that Ezekiel's age is meant ; (2) that 
the reckoning is from some recent era, such as 
Josiah'g reformation (621 B.C.), or the inde- 
pendence of Babylon under Nabopolassar (625 
B.C., taking thirty as a round number), or the 
accession of Nebuchadrezzar (604 B.C., reading 
1 thirteenth ' for ' thirtieth '), or some Babylonian 
epoch otherwise unknown to us ; (3) that 
' the thirtieth year ' is an insertion made with 
the object of harmonising the different periods 
assigned for the duration of the exile by Jere- 
miah (70 years, Jer25 n 29 10 ) and Ezekiel (40 
years, 4 6 ) respectively. Of these explana- 
tions (1) is improbable, and if (3)T)e not ac- 
cepted we are shut up to some of the forms 
of (2). Among these 625 B.C. (Nabopolassar) 
seems a more likely starting-point for an epoch 
than 621 B.C. (Josiah's reformation), but, on 
the other hand, the latter date agrees more 
exactly with the number given. The fourth 
month] the month Tarn muz = June- July: see 
on 8 M . The river of Chebar] the ndr Kabari 
(Great River, or ' Grand Canal ') of the in- 
scriptions. It was a large navigable canal 
branching oif from the Euphrates, and passing 
near Nippur, SE. of Babylon. It is probably 
represented by the modern Shatt-en-Nil, a 
canal 120 ft. wide, which divides the ruins of 
Nippur in two. 2. King Jehoiachin's captivity] 
the first captivity, 597 B.C. : see Intro. The 
fifth year] 592 B.C. 3. The word of the LORD 
came] the usual formula for prophetic in- 
spiration. Chaldeans] Babylonians. The 
hand of the LORD was . . upon him] producing 
the trance in which he saw the vision. 

4. Amber] RM ' electrum,' an alloy of gold 
and silver. 7. Feet] rather, 'limbs.' Straight] 
kneeless, unjointed. The living creatures did 
not move by walking. Like . . a calf s foot] 



491 



1.11 



EZEKIEL 



2. 10 



not projecting in one direction as a human foot 
does. II. Stretched upward] RV 'separate 
above.' 15. One wheel . .with his four faces] 
R V ' one wheel . . for each of the four faces 
thereof,' four wheels in all. 

16. A wheel in the middle of (RY 'within') 
a wheel] an obscure expression. One explana- 
tion is that every wheel had another joined to 
it at right angles, so that the compound wheel 
would appear thus -|- from above, and could 
revolve backwards and forwards on one rim, 
and from side to side on the other. Another 
theory places the four wheels symmetrically 



thus 



in which arrangement, taking any 



side as the front , the back wheel would over- 
lap the front one and could be seen through 
the spokes of the latter. A third suggestion 
is that every wheel was made up of two con- 
centric circles, the outer rim having a smaller 



wheel within it, surrounding the axle, thus j 

17. They turned not when they went] as in 
vv. 9, 12. The wheels of course revolved, 
but, like the living creatures, they could move 
in different directions without changing front. 

18. Rings] RM 'felloes.' 20, 21. Living 
creature] The group of four is spoken of as 
one. 24. The voice of the Almighty] the voice 
of Jehovah is a common OT. expression for 
thunder. Voice of speech] RV ' noise of 
tumult.' The articulate voice, as distinguished 
from the sound of the wheels, is not men- 
tioned till afterwards. 26. A sapphire stone] 
see the very similar vision of God's glory in 
Ex 24 10. 

CHAPTERS 2, 3 
Ezekiel's Commission to be a Prophet 
Ezekiel's commission came to him by three 
stages, and on three distinct occasions. The 
first and principal occasion was the immediate 
sequel of the vision described in c. 1. The 
account of it occupies the whole of c. 2, 
and the first 13 vv. of c. 3. The second was 
seven days later, among the exiles at Tel-abib 
(3 14 " 21 ). The third was connected with a 
repetition of the vision, apparently in the 
neighbourhood of Tel-abib (3 22 " 2 7). 

'I'm: FlEST Commission (2 l -3 18 ) 
This consisted of two series of instructions 
(2 x " 7 and 3 4 " 11 ) separated by a visionary symbol 
of prophetic inspiration (2 8 -3 3 ), and was 
followed by the withdrawal of the vision 
for a time (.''> '-'• l:i ). As Ezekiel's opening 
risiofl recalls bhal of Isaiah, so his first com- 
mission has much in common with that of 
Jeremiah, and indeed the contents of the two 
are closely parallel in order as well as in 
substance. 

(n) First Instructions (2 17 ) 
The voice which addresses Ezekiel bids him 



stand on his feet, and when he has been raised 
from the ground by an unseen force he is told 
that God has given him a mission as a prophet 
to the children of Israel. He is warned of 
their rebelliousness and hardness of heart, and 
encouraged to deliver his message fearlessly 
no matter how they receive it. This exhorta- 
tion corresponds to that in Jer 1 8 . 

1. Son of man] a term reminding Ezekiel 
of his human weakness, like the word 'mortal.' 
It occurs nearly 100 times in the book. 

Stand, etc.] God's call does not suppress 
human powers, but reinforces them and makes 
use of them at their best. 3. Nation] RY 
' nations,' the whole Hebrew people, both 
Judah and Israel. Rebellious] a frequently 
recurring description of Israel's character 
found very often in the phrase a 'rebellious 
house,' as in v. 5. 

5. Hear, or . . forbear] The latter is chiefly 
expected. They . . yet shall know, etc.] the 
result which will keep the prophet's work from 
being in vain. His warnings may be fruitless 
at the time, but they will be fulfilled, and he 
will be recognised in the end as God's mes- 
senger. This will be very far from utter 
failure. The result thus indicated is the first 
of an ascending series which runs through the 
whole book. They are all introduced by the 
phrase ' they shall know,' and they describe 
the production in Israel's mind of convictions 
which increase in depth, and solemnity, and 
blessedness. The final conviction, which itself 
has various stages of growing significance, is 
' they shall know that I am the Lord.' 6. Briers 
. . thorns . . scorpions] figures for the oppo- 
sition of the Israelites to Ezekiel and his 
divine message. 

(b) A Symbol of Inspiration (28-33) 

In Jeremiah's commission God says to him, 
' Behold, I have put my words in thy mouth ' 
(Jer 1 9 ), and Jeremiah himself says afterwards, 
' Thy words were found, and I did eat them, 
and thy words were unto me a joy and the 
rejoicing of mine heart' (Jerl5 16 RV). The 
experience thus described metaphorically came 
to Ezekiel in his trance in a concrete, material 
way. God's words seemed to be set before 
him in the form of a book, which he ate at 
God's command, and found to be as sweet as 
honey. The truth underlying this visionary 
symbol was that Ezekiel was divinely inspired, 
in other words, that God had communicated to 
him a message which lie was called to proclaim 
to men. This passage is the basis of Rev lO 5 '- 1U . 

9. A hand] This hand is not said to be that 
of the Figure on the throne. The vague 
expression is another instance of Ezekiel's 
reverent reserve. A roll] the usual form of 
Eastern books : see Jer 36 2 . 10. Spread it be- 
fore me] Ezekiel had a view from the first of 



492 



3.3 



EZEKIEL 



3.26 



the whole nature of his message. Within and 
without] indicating the abundance of calamity 
which Ezekiel had to proclaim. Book rolls 
were usually written on the inner side alone : 
see Revo 1 . Lamentations, etc.] the character 
of Ezekiel's message. 

C. 3. 3. As honey for sweetness] The privi- 
lege of being God's messenger brought a great 
joy, though the message itself was of the saddest. 

(c) Further Instructions (3 4 - 11 ) 

Having thus received his message Ezekiel is 
again told to speak it to his countrymen. He 
is warned in fresh terms of their indifference 
and obstinacy, and encouraged further by the 
assurance that he will be strengthened to with- 
stand their utmost opposition. These vv. should 
be compared with Jer 1 17 " 19 . 

4. With my words] an advance upon the 
general instruction of 2 7 , following the sym- 
bolical act just described. 6. People] RV 
\ peoples.' Israel will be less responsive to 
Ezekiel's words than a foreign nation to whom 
his speech would be unintelligible. 7. Impudent] 
R.Y 'of a stiff forehead.' This rendering gives 
greater point to ' thy forehead ' in vv. 8,9. 

9. Adamant] diamond: see Jer 17 1 . 

11. Them of the captivity] a closer definition 
than in 2 3 of Ezekiel's immediate audience: 
see Intro. 

(d) The Vision withdrawn (3 12 > 13 ) 
The voice that has been speaking to Ezekiel 
has proceeded from the Figure enthroned above 
the living chariot of c. 1, which has therefore 
been present during all these instructions. 
Ezekiel now hears the sound of its movement 
as it departs. 

12. Behind me] Ezekiel's face is now turned 
away from the visionary chariot. As it appeared 
from the K he is probably looking S., and 
Tel-abib may have lain in the latter direction 
from the Chebar. Blessed be the glory, etc.] 
A change of one letter in the Hebrew gives 
the much better sense, ' When the glory of the 
Lord went up from its place,' i.e. when the 
vision was withdrawn. 1 3. Noise of the wheels] 
in addition to the noise of the wings of the 
living creatures. The latter sound alone is 
mentioned in 1 24 . 

The Second Commission (3 14 - 21 ) 

Ezekiel, still under a strong, divinely pro- 
duced excitement, came to the community of 
exiles at Tel-abib, near the Chebar, and after 
seven days of stupefaction he received a 
further commission from God. It was un- 
accompanied by any vision, and the manner in 
which he received it is und escribed, as is so 
often the case with the prophets. The new 
element in this second commission was the 
thought of Ezekiel's responsibility for the fate 



of his people, and it was set forth in the title 
of • watchman,' now given to him for the first 
time. This responsibility was exhausted when 
he had warned them of their danger and duty. 
Only if he failed to do so would he be held 
accountable for their sin and doom. 

1 4. The spirit lifted me] to be taken along with 
I went. Ezekiel was not miraculously trans- 
ported to Tel-abib, but in his movement thither 
he was under the influence of God's Spirit, like 
Elijah in 1K18 46 . 15. Tel-abib] a place near 
the Chebar, where a colony of Jewish exiles 
lived. The exact site is unknown. The name 
is usually explained to mean ' Hill of corn- 
ears ' or ' Corn-hill,' but some recent editors 
suggest that it is rather the same as til-abubi, 
'Hill of the deluge,' the Assyrian name for the 
numerous heaps of sand and debris formed by 
floods in Babylonia. Astonished] RY 'asto- 
nied,' in a stupor of reaction after the vision. 

18. Die. .21. Live] not to be understood 
in the highest NT. sense. To die was to be 
cut off from the restored kingdom of God, 
foretold in the latter part of this book. To 
live was to survive and enjoy its blessedness. 

20. I lay a stumblingblock before him] This 
difficult phrase does not mean that God see^s 
to make the righteous fall, but that the tempt- 
ations of the righteous are under God's provi- 
dential control. Where there is a temptation 
He also sends a warning, and the two consti- 
tute a discipline by which the righteous man 
is tested, and under which he has an oppor- 
tunity of moral growth. The case of a right- 
eous man sinning and perishing in spite of 
warning is not contemplated at all. 

The Third Commission (3 22 - 27 ) 
In a plain or valley near Tel-abib the great 
vision of God's glory formerly seen by the 
Chebar again appeared to Ezekiel. The divine 
voice further explained the nature of his com- 
mission. His prophetic activity would be 
subject to a double limitation. He would be 
restrained from public speech by the opposi- 
tion of the people, and God would impose 
silence upon him except when a divine mes- 
sage should be given him from time to time. 
This intermittent silence became permanent 
from 24 27 (January, 587 B.C.) onward, till the 
restraint on his speech was removed altogether 
three years later (33 21 . 22 ). 

22. Plain] RM' valley.' 25. They] Ezekiel's 
fellow exiles. Bands] not literal but figur- 
ative. 26. Dumb] as far as prophetic speech 
is concerned, as the following words not . . a 
reprover show. 

§ 2. The Overthrow of the Jewish 

KINGDOM FORETOLD (chs. 4-7) 

The great theme of the first part of Ezekiel's 
prophetic ministry was the certainty of the 



493 



4. 1 



EZEKIEL 



4.6 



complete downfall of the Jewish state. 
Though Zedekiah had been set on the throne 
by Nebuchadrezzar after the first captivity, 
there was no hope for the kingdom. Zede- 
kiah's reign was viewed by Ezekiel, as well as 
by Jeremiah, only as a temporary respite, to 
be followed by a second captivity which would 
bring the state to an end. Chs. 4-7 contain 
the first group of Ezekiel' s prophecies to this 
effect. They are to be placed between the 
date of his prophetic call (June- July, 592 B.C.) 
and that of the next group of prophecies (Au- 
gust-September, 591 B.C.). The present group 
includes a series of symbolic prophecies of the 
siege and captivity of Jerusalem (chs. 4, 5), a 
prophecy against the mountains of Israel (c. 6), 
and a description, partly in the form of a 
poetic lament or dirge, of the final desolation 
of the land (c. 7). 

CHAPTERS 4, 5 
Symbolic actions representing Jerusa- 
lem's Siege and Captivity 
Ezekiel is commanded to perform four re- 
markable actions setting forth the coming siege 
with its hardships, and the approaching captivity 
with its evils. It is uncertain whether these 
actions were literally performed or not. Sym- 
bolic methods of this kind were certainly used 
by various prophets, but some of those in c. 4 
are so extraordinary that many suppose that 
they were not actually carried out, but only ima- 
gined and described. The explanation of the 
second and third symbols is given along with the 
account of the symbols themselves. The first 
and fourth are explained more fully in 5 5 * 17 . 

(a) A Symbol of the Siege (4i-3) 
Ezekiel was told to draw a representation 
of a city on a slab of clay, and to conduct a 
mimic siege of it. In this action the prophet 
played the part of the enemies of Jerusalem, 
and especially of God, who was now the great 
Adversary of the city. 

i. A tile] or l brick,' a slab of clay, such as 
the Babylonians used for inscriptions and 
sculptures in relief. 2. A mount] an embank- 
ment raised in ancient warfare by besiegers to 
enable them to approach the top of a city wall. 
3. Pan] RM ' flat plate,' such as was used 
for baking (Lv6 21 7 9 ). This may be taken as 
a symbol either of the stubbornness of the de- 
fence or of the rigour of the siege. Or it may 
represent the hopeless barrier which now sepa- 
rated G-od from His people. A sign to the 
house of Israel] The symbol was intended to 
beach those who witnessed or heard of it that 
tin- stern real it y which it represented was close 
at hand. 

(b) Symbols of the duration of Siege 
and Captivity (4 4 - 8 ) 
Ezekiel was directed to lie on his left side 



for a fixed number of days (390), and then on 
his right side for another fixed number (40). 
The whole time was supposed to represent the 
length of the siege of Jerusalem, and the two 
numbers of days were supposed to correspond 
to the years of the respective captivities of Israel 
and Judah. The constrained posture of the 
prophet was a symbol of the loss of freedom 
awaiting the people. 

4. The house of Israel] used here and in v. 5 
in the limited sense of the northern kingdom 
of the Ten Tribes. 

5. Three hundred and ninety days] This is a 
difficult number. Ezekiel expected the cap- 
tivities of Israel and Judah to end together 
(37 15f -). As Israel's captivity was to be 350 
years longer than Judah's, it must have begun 
350 years sooner. The captivity of Judah may 
be dated («) from the first captivity (597 B.C.). 
or (b) from the second captivity (58G B.C.). 
The latter was still in the future at the time 
of this prophecy, and would not be a fixed date 
for Ezekiel, who would therefore probably 
reckon from 597 B.C., which he elsewhere calls 
' our captivity ' (40 1 ). The captivity of Israel 
is most naturally reckoned (a 1 ) from the fall of 
Samaria (721 B.C., 2 K 17 6 ) ; but it may possibly 
be calculated (b 1 ) from the first ravages of 
Tiglath-pileser (734 B.C., 2K 15 29 ). From (a 1 ) 
to («) gives 124 years, and from (5 1 ) to (a) 137 
years. Taking (b) instead of (a) for the captivity 
of Judah, these numbers become respectively 
135 and 148. The LXX has 190 instead of 
390, which would give 150 instead of 350 for 
the difference between the two captivities, 
and this would agree approximately with 
the actual dates, especially with (b l ) to (ft). 
The only way to reach anything like 350 years 
is to count Israel's captivity from the revolt of 
the Ten Tribes (939 B.C.). This was 342 years 
before (a) and 353 years before (6), but it is 
unlikely that Ezekiel should have given the time 
of Israel's shi and only the time of Judah's 
punishment. Another explanation is that since 
390 + 40 = 430, Ezekiel represented the united 
captivities of the two kingdoms as equal in 
length to the bondage in Egypt (Ex 12 40 ), and 
that of Judah as equal to the period of wander- 
ing in the wilderness (Nu 14 34 ). The latter v. 
is certainly closely parallel to this passage, and 
possibly we have here an ideal and artificial 
scheme of numbers with no relation to actual 
historic dates. If a historic explanation he 
preferred, 350 (or 150) must be taken not as 
an exact, but as a round number. 

6. Forty days] the years of Judah's cap- 
tivity and of Babylon's supremacy (29 1M:; ). 
The return of the exiles took place about 
538 B.C., fifty-nine years after the first and 
forty-eight years after the second captivity. 
If the number 40 is not taken from Nu 1 4 34 
(see the note above), it is a round number, 



494 



4 7 



EZEKIEL 



6.7 



meaning ' more than a generation.' 7. The 
siege of Jerusalem] the mimic siege described 
in vv. 1-3. The first and second symbolic 
actions were to be carried on together. Thine 
arm . . uncovered] a threatening gesture. 

8. Bands] By some divine restraint Ezekiel 
would be prevented from turning. The days 
of thy siege] The number 430 represented the 
days of the siege of Jerusalem as well as the 
sum of the years of the two captivities. The 
actual siege lasted almost exactly a year and a 
half (2K25 1 "3 Je^ 1 - 2 ). 

(c) Symbols of Scarcity during the Siege 
and of Defilement in Captivity (4 9 ' 17 ) 

Ezekiel was commanded to prepare bread 
from a mixture of various kinds of grain, and 
to live on scanty rations of meat and drink 
while he lay upon his side. This was in token 
of the scarcity which the inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem would suffer during the siege. The bread 
was to be baked with loathsome fuel, as a sign 
of the banishment of Israel to an unclean 
foreign land. 

9. Wheat, etc.] a mixture of all sorts of 
grain, fine and coarse, symbolising the poor fare 
which would be used in Jerusalem during the 
siege. 

10. Twenty shekels] eight or nine ounces. 

11. The sixth part of an hin] less than a 
quart. 12. Bread thus baked would be un- 
clean «(Lv 5 3 7' 21 ). 

13. Eat their defiled bread] KV ' eat their 
bread unclean.' Foreign lands were regarded 
as unclean in themselves (Am 7 17 ), and, besides, 
all food eaten in them would be unclean, be- 
cause it could not be consecrated by offering a 
portion to God in the Temple : see Hos 9 3 ' 4 . 

14. Ezekiel, as a priest, was peculiarly sensi- 
tive about ceremonial defilement. 15. A par- 
tial mitigation of the symbol for the prophet's 
sake. The dung of domestic animals was often 
used as fuel, and does not seem to have defiled 
the food cooked upon it. Though the symbol 
was modified, it was not implied that the defile- 
ment of captivity, signified by the fuel first 
prescribed, would be any the less. 

(d) Symbols of Three Calamities awaiting 

Jerusalem (5 1-4 ) 

In the previous symbols Ezekiel himself 
personated both the besiegers and the besieged. 
Now the hair of his head and beard is made to 
represent the people of Jerusalem. He is 
bidden to shave it off and divide it into three 
parts. One of these he is to burn, as an em- 
blem of those who will die of pestilence and 
famine ; another he is to smite around with a 
sword, as a symbol of those who will be slain ; 
while the third part he is to scatter to the wind, 
as representing those who will go into captivity. 
A few hairs are to be reserved as an emblem of 



the pious remnant ; but even these are partly 
to be burned, in token of the trials the remnant 
will endure. 

1. A sharp knife . . a barber's razor] RV ' a 
sharp sword, as a barber's razor.' 4. For there- 
of] RV ' therefrom.' The clause thus intro- 
duced is obscure. The meaning seems to be 
that the punishment of Jerusalem will extend 
to the whole nation. 

(e) Explanation of the First and Fourth 
Symbols (5 5 ' 17 ) 

The pictured city is Jerusalem, and God 
is her great Adversary (vv. 5-8). Her un- 
paralleled sins deserve an unparalleled 
punishment. Famine and pestilence, the 
sword, and captivity await her people. Only 
thus can God's righteous wrath be appeased 
(vv. 9-17). 

5. This] the city depicted on the tile 
(4 1-3 ). In the midst of the nations] God gave 
Jerusalem a great opportunity of displaying 
His righteousness and truth to the world. Her 
position, near the highway between Asia and 
Africa, was peculiarly central and conspicuous. 

7. Multiplied] RV ' are turbulent.' Neither 
. . my judgments . . the judgments (RV ' or- 
dinances ') of the nations] Israel had been 
worse than the heathen, who had at least been 
faithful to their own gods : see Jer 2 10 ' n . 8. In 
the sight of the nations] Punishment must be 
as conspicuous as the lost opportunity. 

11. Defiled my sanctuary] This charge is 
substantiated at length in c. 8. 13. Cause 
my fury to rest] RV ' satisfy my fury.' 

CHAPTER 6 

A Prophecy against the Mountain 
Land of Israel 

The coming judgment is here announced to 
the land of Israel, which is identified with the 
people. Vv. 8, 9, following up the hint in 
5 3 ' 4 , speak of a remnant of the nation which 
will be led to repentance in exile. 

2, 3. The physical features of the land are 
described, not only because their variety was 
in strong contrast to the monotony of the 
Babylonian plains where Ezekiel lived, but 
also, and chiefly, because they were associated 
with different forms of idolatrous and impure 
worship. The mountains and hills were the 
sites of the ' high places ' — shrines of Canaanite 
origin (Dt 12 2 ). The ravines and valleys were 
the scenes of Baal-worship (Jer2 23 ) and of 
child-sacrifice (Isa57 5 ) : see also v. 13. 

4, 6. Images] RV ' sun-images,' probably 
obelisks representing the sun-god. 

7. Ye shall know that I am the LORD] 
Ezekiel's favourite expression for the result 
of God's dealings with men in prophecy and 
in history. It means the recognition now of 
one, now of another, aspect of the character 



495 






6.8 



EZEKIEL 



7.26 



of the true God. Here it is the conviction 
that His warnings are not empty threats : see 
w. 10, 14. 

8. A remnant] already hinted at in 5 3 . 

9. Because I am broken with, etc.] RM 
' how that ' (better, ' when ') ' I have broken 
their . . heart . . and their eyes.' The metaphor 
of breaking is extended to l eyes,' though it 
strictly applies only to ' heart.' Idolatry was 
accompanied by licentiousness, and this is one 
reason why the prophets so often described it 
under the figure of a breach of the marriage 
vow : see especially chs. 16 and 23. 

11. Smite (i.e. ' clap ') . . and stamp] emphatic 
gestures of satisfaction in the calamities that 
are announced. Ezekiel was called to be in 
complete sympathy with God's attitude to- 
wards Israel : see 21 14 > 17 25 6 . Alas !] rather, 
' Aha ! ' : see 25 3 . 12. He that is far off, etc.] 
The judgment would fall on idolatrous Israel- 
ites not only in Jerusalem, but wherever they 
might be. 14. More desolate than] RV ' waste, 
from.' The wilderness toward Diblath] RV 
' Diblah.' Diblath, or Diblathaim, was in 
Moab, beyond the Dead Sea (Nu33 4 6 Jer48 22 ). 
The phrase in AY would mean the wilderness 
of Judaea, which lay in that direction (east- 
wards) from Jerusalem. Another and more 
probable reading is ' Riblah ' instead of ' Dib- 
lah.' Riblah was a city of Hamath in the far 
north (2K25 21 ). 'From the wilderness to 
Riblah ' would mean ' from one end of the 
land to the other.' 

CHAPTER 7 
The Desolation of the Land op Israel 

This is a final message of doom upon the 
whole land (v. 2). God's wrath against Israel's 
sin is relentless, and the judgment is inevitable 
and close at hand. Social relations will be 
broken up (v. 12); preparations for defence will 
be unavailing (v. 14); wealth, which has been 
an occasion of sin and an instrument of idolatry, 
will not avert calamity, but will become the 
spoil of the heathen (vv. 19-21); priests and 
prophets, king and nobles, will be helpless to 
deliver (vv. 26, 17); the Temple will be pro- 
faned (v. 22) ; the remnant will be over- 
whelmed with sorrow (v. 16). Vv. 5-7, 10-12 
are in the poetic metre commonly used for 
laments or dirges. 

7, 10. The morning is come] RV 'Thy 
doom is come.' 

7. Not the sounding again of the mountains] 
RV 'not of joyful shouting upon the moun- 
tains. ' The shouting of harvest or vintage is 

meant : see Isa I '''" "' .Ier48 33 . 

9. Ye shall know, etc.] another aspect of 
the result of God's judgment. He would be 
recognised as the <i<><! who punishes sin. 

10, 11. The meaning here is rather obscure. 
If the rod in v. 10 is that of chastisement, 



pride will mean the same thing. Babylon is 
called 'Pride' in Jer50 31 (RM). But the 
violence in v. 11 seems to be that of Israel, 
and the rod of wickedness to be a figure for 
its developed form. Possibly ' the rod ' and 
' pride ' in v. 10 may also refer to Israel's sin. 

12. The same kind of social confusion as in 
Isa24 2 . 13. The seller, etc.] This may mean, 
either that those of Ezekiel's fellow-exiles of 
the first captivity who had sold their possessions 
before leaving Jerusalem would not return to 
regain them, or that land which ought to have 
come back to its seller at the year of Jubilee 
would not do so, since the destruction of the 
city would obliterate this and all other social 
institutions. The vision is touching, etc.] A 
more probable reading is, ' wrath is upon,' etc., 
as in vv. 12, 14. 

15. No safety either in Jerusalem or out 
of it : see 6 12 . 

18. Baldness] a sign of mourning. 

19. Removed] RV ' as an unclean thing.' 
Similarly in v. 20. 

20. 21. The rendering in AV and RV means 
that the Temple, profaned already by Israel's 
idolatry, would be further polluted by the 
heathen conquerors. Most scholars, however, 
take the beauty of his (the people's) ornament 
to refer to the silver and gold of v. 19, and 
render as in RM, ' they turned it to pride and 
they made the images . . thereof.' The wealth 
which had been turned to idolatrous uses 
would be defiled by passing into heathen 
hands. 

22. Secret place] RM ' secret treasure.' 
Not the Holy of Holies specially, but Jerusa- 
lem and the Temple viewed as God's precious 
possession. 

23. A chain] a figure for captivity. Violence 
must be punished by forcible restraint. 

26. Prophets] were consulted for oracles as 
to God's will, priests for authoritative decisions 
as to the law, elders or ancients for general 
advice : see Jerl8 18 . 

§ 3. A Vision of Jerusalem's Sin and 
Doom (chs. 8-11) 

Date, August- September, 591 B.C. 

A year and two months after his call to be 
a prophet, Ezekiel was visited in his house by 
the elders of the Jewish colony at Tel-abib, 
and in their presence he fell into a trance, 
during which he was transported in spirit to 
Jerusalem, and witnessed, as in a dream, a 
remarkable drama being enacted there. The 
glory of God was present during this vision 
in the same symbolic form, and accompanied 
by the same living chariot, as in c. 1, but 
with this difference, that it sometimes left 
the chariot and took up its position else- 
where. Ezekiel witnessed first the idolatries 
practised in the Temple (c. 8), then the 



496 



8. 1 



EZEKIEL 



8. 14 



slaughter of all the idolaters in Jerusalem 
(c. 9), and next the destruction of the city by 
the fire of God's holiness (c. 10). He then 
heard a parable of judgment pronounced 
against the leaders of Jerusalem's wicked 
policy, and a message of comfort addressed to 
the exiles who were despised by their country- 
men at home. Finally he saw the glory of 
God departing from the Temple, and having 
come back in spirit to Babylonia he awoke 
from his trance and recounted his vision to the 
exiles there (c. 11). There is no reason to 
doubt that Ezekiel here describes an actual 
experience. He was not, of course, literally 
transported to Jerusalem, but only seemed to 
be taken thither, as one might in a dream. 
The idolatries he saw were those which he 
knew to be carried on in Jerusalem, and the 
persons mentioned in the vision were doubtless 
also known to him as prominent leaders in the 
sin of the city. Yet in his trance these 
persons and practices, and the whole scene, 
stood out before his mind's eye with a vivid- 
ness and reality which enabled him to describe 
them as actually seen. The truths presented 
in the symbols, and expressed in the messages, 
of judgment were really communicated to 
him by God. 

CHAPTER 8 
The Idolatry of Jerusalem 

Yarious forms of idolatry, increasing in 
heinousness and rising to a climax, were seen 
practised in the precincts of the Temple. 
First there was the ' image of jealousy '(vv. 3-6), 
next a species of secret animal-worship (vv. 
7-12), then the lamentation of the women for 
Tammuz (vv. 13-15), and lastly the worship of 
the sun (vv. 16-18)! 

i. The sixth year . . the sixth month] August- 
September, 591 B.C. Mine house] to which 
Ezekiel's prophetic activity was confined 
(3 24 ). The elders of Judah] the leading men 
of the exiled community at Tel-abib. The 
hand of the Lord GOD fell] as in 1^. The 
vision, with all its meaning, was the result of 
divine inspiration. 

2. The same appearance as the enthroned 
Figure in c. 1. The living chariot is not 
mentioned here, but, as it appears afterwards 
without any special explanation, it was 
probably present in the vision from the first. 

3. The form of an hand] the same reverent 
reserve as in 2 9 . In the visions of God] 
Though Ezekiel's transference is described in 
physical terms he was not taken to Jerusalem 
in body, but only in spirit. Inner gate] RY 
1 gate of the inner court.' Solomon's Temple 
had two courts : the great or outer court (2 Ch 4 9 ), 
and the inner court or court of the priests 
(1 K6 36 2 Ch4 9). We know very little about 
the arrangement of the gates, but in Ezekiel's 



time the inner court had probably three, one 
on every side except the W., and the outer 
court at least two, one on the N. and one on 
the E. The gate in this v. is the inner 
northern gate. We must distinguish between 
the gate or gateway, which was a block of 
buildings, and the doors by which the gateway 
was entered at either end. The image of 
jealousy] An idol figure, so called from the 
divine jealousy which it aroused. The refer- 
ence is probably to the image set up by 
Manasseh (2K21 7 ) and removed by Josiah 
(2K23 6 ). The seat means the place where it 
had stood. 

4. The glory . . was there] perhaps over the 
main Temple building, S. of the gate where 
Ezekiel was. In the next v. he turns and 
looks N. All the idolatries were thus enacted 
in God's very presence. 

5. Northward at] RY ' northward of.' 
Gate of the altar] apparently still the 

northern inner gate. It is uncertain why it 
was so called. This image of jealousy] Ezekiel 
saw the image, which had not been there when 
he left Jerusalem, now restored to its old 
place. It was in the outer court, and Ezekiel, 
standing within the gateway, saw it through 
the entrance. 

7. The door of the court] the opening of 
the gateway next the outer court. 8. A door] 
leading into one of the chambers of the gate- 
way. 10. This animal-worship may have 
been borrowed from Egypt, where beetles, 
crocodiles, snakes, cats, jackals, and other ani- 
mals were worshipped ; or it may have been 
a survival and revival of ancient superstitions 
native to Palestine. Some think that Babylon 
is as likely as Egypt to have been the source 
of the practices. 

11. Jaazaniah the son of Shaphan] Shaphan 
was a famous scribe who took part in Josiah 's 
reformation (2K22 8f -). Two of his sons, 
Ahikam (Jer26 24 ) and Gemariah (Jer36^25) 7 
were friendly to Jeremiah. If Jaazaniah was 
the son of this Shaphan he was of a different 
character from his father and brothers. 

12. In the dark] Secrecy was a marked 
feature of this animal- worship. The LORD 
seeth us not, etc.] This was the excuse and 
perhaps the belief of these idolaters, though 
God's glorious presence was even then manifest 
to Ezekiel's eyes. 

14. The door . . toward the north] probably 
the outer doorway of the outer northern gate. 
The women would thus be outside the Temple 
precincts altogether. Tammuz] a deity wor- 
shipped both in Babylonia and in Phoenicia — 
the same as the Greek Adonis. He appears 
to have been a god of the spring, and the myth 
regarding him told of his early death and of the 
descent of Istar his bride into the underworld 
in search of him. The death of Tammuz 



32 



497 



8. 16 



EZEKIEL 



]0. 4 



symbolised the destruction of the spring vege- 
tation by the heat of summer, and it was 
celebrated annually by seven days of women's 
mourning in the 4th month (June- July), which 
was called Tammuz. This superstition had 
been introduced into Jerusalem. 

1 6. Between the porch and the altar] The 
altar of burnt offering was probably in the 
centre of the inner court, and the main Temple 
building faced it on the W. The sun-worship 
now described was just in front of the sacred 
building: cp. Mt23 35 Lkll*i. With then- 
backs, etc.] This followed from their turning 
towards the rising sun. Their position im- 
plied the greatest contempt for the G-od of 
Israel, whose glory was at that moment visible 
to the prophet close to them. The worship of 
the sun and other heavenly bodies was intro- 
duced by the kings of Judah before Josiah's 
day, and abolished during his reformation 
(2K23 5 ' 11 ). Sun-images are mentioned as 
early as the days of Asa (2 Ch 14 5 RY). Jere- 
miah describes the worship of the Queen of 
Heaven (probably the moon or the planet 
Venus) as prevalent in Jerusalem before the 
second captivity (Jer44 17 ). 17. The branch 
to their nose] usually explained as a ceremony 
connected with sun-worship. Persian sun- 
worshippers held bunches of the twigs of 
certain trees before their mouths, that they 
might not contaminate the sun with their 
breath. Many scholars think we should read, 
' they send a stench to my nostrils.' 

CHAPTER 9 

The Slaughter op the Idolaters in 
Jerusalem 

The voice which has been speaking to Eze- 
kiel now summons six supernatural beings 
armed with weapons of slaughter. They are 
attended by a seventh robed like a priest and 
equipped as a scribe. They come from the 
north, and take their stand by the brasen altar 
in the inner court. The ' glory of God ' leaves 
the living chariot and stands at the threshold 
of the main Temple building. The man who 
acts as scribe is instructed to go through the 
city and set a mark on the foreheads of all 
those who mourn for the prevailing idolatries. 
Tin- other six are instructed to follow him, to 
slay all those who are not thus marked, with- 
out reaped bo si \ or age, and to begin at the 
Temple itself. The command is obeyed, and 
the Bun-worshippers in the Temple are the 
firs! victims. Bzekiel, appalled a1 the fate of 

the Citizens, falls On his face to plead that tile 

whole nation may not be destroyed, but he is 
told thai punishment must be sternly executed 
on those who have s<» fully deserved it. The 
Bcrihe-angel reports that his work is done, and 
we are left to imagine that the work of slaugh- 
ter W8B carried out too. This e. teaches that 



while God visits sin with doom, He is per- 
fectly just, and will not suffer the righteous 
to perish with the wicked. 

2. The higher (RV ' upper ') gate . . toward 
the north] the northern gate of the inner 
court, as in 8 3 > 5 > 7 . The brasen altar] made by 
Solomon (2C114 1 ), and probably placed in 
the middle of the inner court. Ahaz made a 
new altar of stone, and removed Solomon's 
brasen altar to the N. side of it (2K16 14 ). 

3. The cherub] mentioned without explan- 
ation. Throughout this vision ' cherub ' is 
used for ' living creature ' for the reason given 
in 10 20 . The singular number is used here, 
as in 1 20,21^ f or the group of four. The house] 
the chief Temple building, which was on the 
W. side of the inner court, with its front 
facing E. 4. A mark] lit. ' a Tav,' the last 
letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Its early form 
was like a cross, thus -j-. Rev 7 3 is based on 
this passage. 

6. The ancient men] the sun-worshippers 
in 8 16 . The thought of this v. is taken up in 
1 Pet 4 17 . 7. Defile] The presence of corpses 
would pollute the sanctuary. 8. One of the 
few instances in which Ezekiel's love of his 
nation struggles with his approval of God's 
judgments upon them. He fears that all 
Israel may share Jerusalem's fate. 

CHAPTER 10 
The Destruction of Jerusalem by Fire 
In this c. the living chariot accompanying 
the vision of God's glory is the most prominent 
object. The living creatures are now recog- 
nised by Ezekiel as cherubim, and called so. 
Otherwise the description is largely a repeti- 
tion of c. 1. The man with the inkhorn is 
directed to take coals of fire from the glowing 
interior of the chariot and to scatter them 
over the city. This part of the vision points 
forward to the burning of Jerusalem as the 
final stage of her punishment. 

1. As the ' cherub ' was mentioned without 
any introduction in 9 3 , the living chariot with 
all its parts now appears in the same way. It 
is not directly stated that the glorious Figure 
is on the throne. The ' glory ' had left the 
chariot for the threshold of the Temple in 9 3 , 
and is in the same position in 10 4 . It may or 
may not have returned to the chariot in the 
interval. 

2. Wheels] RV ' whirling wheels,' and so 
in \ v. (>, L3. The word is not the ordinary 
one for k wheels.' Cherub] the singular de- 
noting the group, as in 9 3 . 

3. The right side] the 8. side. The Hebrews 
described the points of the compass as for a 
spectator facing E. The S. side of the Temple 
building was the part of the precincts nearest 
to the city. 

4. The house was filled with the cloud] a 



498 



10. 5 



EZEKIEL 



11.7 



comparison with IKS 10 ' 11 shows that the 
' glory ' which Ezekiel saw in his visions was 
the same as that by which God's presence had 
been hitherto manifested in the Holy of 
Holies. 

5. As the voice, etc.] like thunder. 

6. Beside the wheels] RV ' beside a wheel.' 

7. One cherub] RV 'the cherub,' the cherub 
next the particular wheel just mentioned. The 
scribe-angel did not actually go between the 
wheels himself, but stood beside "the chariot 
and received the fire from one of the 
cherubim. 

12. The cherubim, as well as the wheels, 
are now said to be full of eyes. 

13. It was cried unto them . . O wheel] 
RV ' they were called . . the whirling wheels.' 

14. The face of a (RV 'the') cherub here 
takes the place of the ox-face of 1 10 . This 
seems at first sight to indicate that the 
cherubim already known to Ezekiel were ox- 
faced. But the cherubim in the decoration 
of Ezekiel's visionary temple (44 18 ' 19 ) had 
only the faces of a man and a lion. The sub- 
stitution of ' cherub ' for l ox,' and the change 
in the order of the faces, may be explained by 
supposing that Ezekiel, still standing near the 
X. gate of the inner court, looked S. towards 
the chariot, which was about to move E. (v. 
19). The cherub on the E. side of the chariot 
would be the leading one, and so might be 
called ' the cherub.' Ezekiel would see the 
left, or ox-, face of this cherub, the front, or 
human, face of the cherub on the N. side of 
the chariot, the right, or lion-, face of the 
cherub on the W. side, and the back, or eagle-, 
face of the cherub on the S. side, thus : 

N 

7H& prophet 



w 



en 

a - a 



eog/e 

5 



18. The 'glory' now returns to its place 
above the chariot. 19. Every one~\ RV 
' they.' The east gate] the eastern gate of the 
outer court. The presence of God moves to 
the very verge of the Temple precincts, which 
it is about to leave altogether. 

20. I knew that they were the cherubims] 
RV ' I knew that they were cherubim.' 
Ezekiel now recognised for the first time that 
the ' living creatures ' were identical with the 
1 cherubim ' of Hebrew poetry and sacred 
symbolism. He thus gives a clue to the 
source of the ideas which had unconsciously 
moulded his visionary conceptions from the 
beginning. 



CHAPTER 11 

The Doom of the Leaders of Jeru- 
salem's WICKEDNESS. COMFORT FOR 

the Exiles 

The slaughter in c. 9 was only the visionary 
rehearsal of a judgment still in the future. 
The vision now takes another turn, and shows 
the wicked inhabitants still alive. Ezekiel is 
brought to the outer eastern gate of the Temple 
where he finds a group of the leaders of Jeru- 
salem's sinful policy, two of whom are men- 
tioned by name (vv. 1-2). A proverb by 
which they express their light-hearted security 
is turned into a parable of the doom that 
awaits them (vv. 3-12). The warning is 
ratified by the sudden death of one of the 
leaders (v. 13), after which a comforting 
message is spoken to the exiles whom the 
people of Jerusalem despised (vv. 14-21). 
The glorious symbol of God's presence then 
forsakes Jerusalem (vv. 22, 23). The vision 
ends, and Ezekiel finds himself again in Baby- 
lonia, where he describes to the exiles all that 
he has seen (vv. 24, 25). 

I. The east gate] the outer eastern gate, to 
which the chariot with the ' glory ' upon it 
had already moved. At the door of the gate] 
just outside the Temple precincts. Jaazaniah . . 
and Pelatiah] men of whom nothing further 
is known. Jaazaniah is not the same as the 
Jaazaniah of 8 n . 

3. It is not near; let us build, etc.] or, 
as in RM, 'Is not the time near to build?' 
etc. : an expression of security. This city is 
the caldron, etc.] The ' wicked counsel ' of v. 
2 is usually understood to mean proposals of 
revolt from Babylon, which would involve the 
prospect of war and siege. In that case the 
proverb about the caldron and the flesh would 
express the plotters' trust in the strong forti- 
fications of Jerusalem, which they hoped would 
save them from the ' fire ' of Nebuchadnezzar's 
armies. This would be a grimly humorous 
way of describing the desperate course they 
were meditating. They expected, as we 
might say, to be in the frying-pan, but thought 
that it would at least save them from the fire. 
Another explanation is that the saying is a 
boast over the exiles, who had been taken 
away from Jerusalem, as the useless ' broth ' 
is poured out of a pot when the cooking is 
over, leaving the valuable ' flesh ' behind. 
This is more in line with the latter part of 
the chapter. 

6. The wicked counsellors, whatever their 
policy may have been, had already put many of 
their fellow citizens unjustly to death. 7. The 
proverb would prove true in quite a different 
sense from that in which it was first used. 
The only flesh in the caldron would be that of 
the wicked leaders' victims. Those who 



499 



11. 10 



EZEKIEL 



12. 




thought they were the flesh would be taken 
out of the caldron and slain by strangers else- 
where, io, ii. In the border of Israel] In- 
stead of being safe in Jerusalem they would 
meet their fate far away from it, on the very 
outskirts of the land. Over seventy of those 
taken at the second captivity, including twelve 
prominent officials, were put to death by Nebu- 
chadrezzar at Riblah, in the extreme N. of 
Palestine (2 K 25 18-21 j er 52 24-**). 

13. The sudden death of Pelatiah may have 
been an actual occurrence, of which Ezekiel 
had heard, and which was reproduced in the 
vision. It may, however, have been an ima- 
ginary incident, symbolising the certainty 
and suddenness with which the prophecy of 
judgment on the wicked counsellors would be 
fulfilled. Then fell I down, etc.] As in 9 8 Ezekiel 
was dismayed at the speedy execution of God's 
threatening, and besought God that the whole 
nation might not be destroyed. This time he 
received a comforting assurance that the exiles 
should be spared and restored, while the people 
of Jerusalem who despised them should perish. 

15. Thy brethren . . all the house of Israel] 
The exiles of the first captivity are identified 
with the true Israel. Get you far from the 
LORD, etc.] The people of Jerusalem claimed 
that God was only among them, and that the 
exiles were banished from His presence. This 
was a different sentiment from that expressed 
in 8 1 -. Unprincipled men can change their 
theology to suit their circumstances. 16. As 
a little sanctuary] RV'a sanctuary for a little 
while.' God's presence and the privileges of 
the Temple were not confined to Jerusalem. 

17. People] RY l peoples.' 19. A promise 
of an inward change, which Ezekiel afterwards 
repeats and expands (18 31 3G 25-27 ). 

22, 23. The emblem of God's presence now 
Leaves the holy city, which is abandoned to 
its fate. What the idolaters had said in un- 
belief (8 12 ) became a terrible truth. 23. The 
mountain . . on the east] the Mount of Olives. 
\\Y cannot but think of Christ's words of 
doom, spoken from the same mountain, to the 
Jerusalem of His day (Lk 1937,41-44). 

§4. Furtheb Prophecies of Israel's 
q-uilt \\l» approaching punishment 
(chs. 12-19) 
This is a somewhat miscellaneous group of 
prophecies intermediate in date between tin- 
preceding (August-September, ;V.»1 r>.< .) and 
succeeding (July-August, 590 B.C.) sections. 
It includes fresh Bjmbols of exile, flight, and 
famine (l- 1 -"). a doctrine of prophecy, true 
and false ( I 2 H 1 1 n ). an explanation of (lod's 

exceptional treatmenl of Jerusalem in Bparing 

a remnant ( 1 1 ' -■-«). K/.ekiel's parable of the 

Vine (c. 15), the para Me of the Foundling child 

(c 16), a parable of Zedekialfs perfidy and its 



punishment (c. 17), a vindication of God's 
equity (c. 18), and a lament over the royal 
house of Judah (c. 19). 

CHAPTER 121-20 
Symbols of Exile, Flight, and Famine 

Ezekiel's audience being blind to the mean- 
ing of the vision he has just described, he is 
commanded to give them, in new symbolic 
actions, a further representation of the coming 
fate of Jerusalem and its king and people. 
He is told to gather together such things as 
one leaving home would take with him, and to 
carry these out of his house by day. At night 
he is to dig a hole in a wall, and pass through 
it with his face covered and his baggage on 
his shoulder. When the people ask him next 
morning what these proceedings mean he is 
directed to tell them that the action of the 
day-time is a symbol of the captivity awaiting 
Jerusalem, and that the action of the evening 
foreshadows the secret flight which Zedekiah 
will attempt, and the punishment of blindness 
which will prevent him from seeing the land 
of his exile (vv. 1-16). Another symbolic 
action, resembling that of 4 9f -, is also com- 
manded. Ezekiel is to eat and drink sparingly 
and with trembling, in token of the famine 
which the coming siege will cause in Jerusalem 
(vv. 17-20). 

2. The story of the vision seems to have 
produced no impression. 5. The wall] Some 
understand the town-wall of Tel-abib, or the 
wall of the courtyard of Ezekiel's house, but 
we cannot be sure that these walls existed. 
The house-wall itself may be meant, but in 
that case Ezekiel would have to carry his 
luggage indoors again. 6. Twilight] R Y k dark,' 
and so in vv. 7, 12. Cover thy face] A natu- 
ral emblem for disguise and secrecy, but with 
a special reference, as v. 13 shows, to Zede- 
kiah's blindness. 7. Captivity] RY ' removing,' 
as in v. 4. 

10. The prince] Zedekiah, the last king of 
Judah : see Intro. That are among them] 
Changing one letter we may render, ' that are in 
it.' The prince . . shall go forth] Zedekiah 
attempted to escape from Jerusalem towards 
the end of the siege, but was captured and 
brought to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah. There 
his eyes were put out, and he was then taken to 
Babylon (2K25-*-- Jer 39 4 -' 52M1). I2 . That 
he see not] RY ' because he shall not see.' 

16. I will leave a few] This is really an 
explanation of the symbol in 5 3 . 

CHAPTERS IJ-1-1411 
On Pbophbcy, True and False 
After rebuking certain prevalent forms of 
oontempl for prophecy (12 21 * 28 ), Ezekiel re- 
proves the false prophets (IS 1 * 1 *) and false 
prophetesses (13 17 * 28 ) of Israel. A visit from 



500 



12. 22 



EZEKIEL 



14. 4 



the elders next supplies the occasion for an 
announcement of the principles on which God 
deals both with false enquirers and with the 
prophets who answer them (14 1 " 11 ). 

(a) Contempt of Prophecy Rebuked 

(1221-28) 

This contempt took two forms. On the 
one hand it had become a common saying that 
prophecy was no longer fulfilled at all (v. 22), 
and on the other hand it was supposed by 
many that Ezekiel's prophecies, though true, 
referred to a very distant future (v. 27). In 
answer to both of these false views God said 
that His word would be fulfilled, and that 
without delay. 

22. Ezekiel's message frequently takes the 
shape of a criticism of current proverbs, as in 
113 1225 182 20 3 2. 24. Vain vision . . flat- 
tering divination] Forms of false prophecy, 
more fully exposed in c. 13. These had been 
unfulfilled, and this had led to contempt for 
all prophecy. But God's true word would no 
longer be confounded with such things. 

25. Prolonged] RV 'deferred,' and so in 
v. 28. 

(b) False Prophets Reproved (13 ^e) 

False prophecy accompanied true prophecy 
in Israel like its shadow. While the true 
prophets spoke in God's name a message which 
they had really received from Him, the false 
prophets used God's name to sanction messages 
which He had not given them (vv. 6 7), which 
were merely the product of their own heart 
and spirit, and not the result of inspired in- 
sight (vv. 2, 3). These messages were smooth 
and agreeable (vv. 10, 17), but they were also 
vain, false, and seductive (vv. 6-10). They 
did not deserve the name of prophecy, but 
were on the same level as heathen divination 
(w. 6, 7, 9). Ezekiel compares the false pro- 
phets first to foxes that burrow in ruins and 
make them more ruinous (vv. 4, 5), and next 
to men who daub with untempered mortar (or 
whitewash) a slim and tottering wall ; the wall 
symbolising the vain attempts of the people 
co defend Jerusalem, and the mortar or white- 
wash the futile encouragement which the false 
prophets lent to these efforts. Such prophets 
would be blotted out of Israel (v. 9). The 
wall would be destroyed by the storm of God's 
wrath, and the daubers would perish along 
with it (vv. 11-15). 

4. Deserts] RV ' waste places,' ruins. 

5. Gaps] RM 'breaches.' Hedge] RY 
' fence.' The false prophets did nothing to 
repair or strengthen Israel's defences. 6. That 
they would confirm the word] RY ' that the 
word should be confirmed.' 9. The false pro- 
phets would have no share in the restoration 
of Israel which Ezekiel foretold. 

10. A wall] RM 'a slight wall,' the vain 



defences of Jerusalem. And one built, etc.] 
RY ' and when one ' (the people) ' buildeth up 
a wall, behold they ' (the false prophets) ' daub 
it,' etc. Untempered morter~\ or whitewash. 
The false prophets could only give the wall 
a specious appearance of strength. 

(c) False Prophetesses Denounced 

(1317-23) 

True prophecy was represented by women 
like Deborah, Huldah, and Noadiah, as well as 
by men, and false prophecy was also practised 
by women in Ezekiel's day. In their hands 
it was accompanied by various superstitious 
rites and ceremonies (v. 18), and seems to have 
been a species of fortune-telling. As such it 
might be popular and seem harmless, but it 
was mercenary, ensnaring, and fatal to souls 
(vv. 18, 19). It discouraged the righteous and 
encouraged the wicked (v. 22). These women 
would find their occupation gone (vv. 20, 2 1 , 23). 

18. Pillows] probably 'amulets,' supposed 
to have magical virtues. They were worn by 
the false prophetesses themselves (v. 20). 

Armholes] RY ' elbows,' RM ' joints of the 
hands.' The amulets were worn in some way 
on the arms or wrists. Kerchiefs] or ' fillets.' 
These were apparently veils put over the heads 
of those consulting the false prophetesses, and 
were of different sizes to suit persons of differ- 
ent stature. 19. Will ye pollute] RY ' ye have 
profaned.' Handfuls of barley, etc.] The fees 
received by the false prophetesses. Die and 
live] see on 3 18 . This whole passage should 
be read in the light of the description of the 
true prophet's duty in 3 16 - 21 . 20. To make 
them fly] RM 'as birds.' 22. The truth of 
prophecy may be judged by its moral tendency. 
Whatever encourages sin betrays itself as false : 
see Jer23 2 2. By promising him life] RY ' and 
be saved alive.' 

(d) On Insincere Enquirers and those who 
answer them (14 1 " 11 ) 

The Jewish elders of Tel-abib again came to 
consult Ezekiel, evidently with idolatrous lean- 
ings in their hearts. God commanded him to 
speak a warning to all such enquirers, calling 
them to forsake idolatry, and threatening that 
God Himself would answer them by destroying 
them if they persisted in their sin. The pro- 
phet who should answer such people according 
to their desire would share their fate. 

3. The stumblingblock, etc.] idolatry : see 
7 19 . Should I be enquired of ?] Such enquiry 
was a mockery of God. 4. That I may take, 
etc.] Sin hardens the heart and so leads on to 
destruction. This is a self-acting law of divine 
retribution, and so in a sense the result is God's 
doing. But God does not seek to ensnare men. 
On the contrary, He pleads with them to forsake 
their evil way (v. 6). 



501 



14. 9 



EZEKIEL 



16. 



i 



9. When he hath spoken a thing] RV ' and 
speaketh a word/ A true prophet will not 
answer insincere enquirers at all, but will leave 
it to God to answer them by destruction (vv. 7,8). 
To give any answer is to be a false prophet, 
deceived if not consciously deceiving. I . . have 
deceived that prophet] the same idea as that of 
the ' lying spirit ' from the Lord by which 
Ahab's false prophets were inspired (1 K 22 19_23 
2Chl8 18 - 22 ). The meaning can only be that 
the deception is the penalty of previous dis- 
loyalty to truth. No man becomes a false pro- 
phet without blame on his own part. To lend 
oneself to the purposes of insincere enquirers 
reveals a certain share of their spirit, which 
leads naturally to increasing blindness. As this 
law is of God's appointment the deception is 
in a certain sense His work. The OT. writers 
emphasised God's supreme control of all 
events, and were not troubled by the ques- 
tions which may be raised as to the bearing of 
the events on the moral character of God. 
Hence they were not careful to avoid expres- 
sions which appear startling to us. 10. The 
punishment of their iniquity] RV ' their iniquity.' 

Punishment . . punishment] RV ' iniquity . . 
iniquity.' 

CHAPTER 1412-23 
A Divine Principle and an apparent 

Exception 
As a rule when God punishes a land for its 
wickedness by such judgments as famine, wild 
beasts, sword, or pestilence, the presence in it 
of the most eminently righteous men will not 
save the wicked, not even the members of their 
own families. They will only escape them- 
selves. Jerusalem will be a seeming exception 
to this principle, since a remnant of its wicked 
sons and daughters will be spared when the 
city is taken, and will escape into exile. But 
this is in order that the earlier exiles, seeing the 
abandoned conduct of the later, may realise 
how thoroughly Jerusalem has deserved its 
punishment, and may cease to regret its fate. 

13. The land] RV 'a land.' Vv. 13-21 sup- 
pose a series of general cases. Then will I 
stretch, etc.] RV l and I stretch . . and break . . 
and send .. and cut off.' All this is pari of 
the supposition. 14, 20. Noah, Daniel, and 
Job] Typical righteous men, like Moses and 
Samuel in Jer 1 5 '. 

21, 22. It might be expected that none of 
the wicked in Jerusalem would be Bpared, 
y©t, in apparent violation of the law just 
described, some of them would escape and 
go into exile. 22. Ye shall see .. and be 
comforted] The exiles of the first captivity 
would be distressed al the fate of Jerusalem, 
but the conduct of the survivors would con- 
vince tli. -in that n had I leen well deserved, and 
was not to be regretted. 



CHAPTER 15 
Ezekiel's Parable of the Vine 
Jerusalem and Israel are compared else- 
where in Scripture to a cultivated vine, bearing 
or expected to bear fruit. Ezekiel's similitude, 
however, is that of the wild vine (v. 2, RV), 
regarded simply as a tree. It is the most 
worthless of trees. Its wood is of no use for 
any purpose, being too weak even to make a 
peg of. A vine branch that happens to be 
half -burnt is even more worthless than it was 
before. Jerusalem is such a half -burnt vine, 
already charred by the first captivity. It is 
only fit for fuel, and will be wholly consumed. 
2. Or than a branch] RV ' the vine branch.' 
7. From one fire, and another fire] RV 'from 
the fire, but the fire.' Jerusalem has survived 
one captivity, but will be overtaken by a 
second and final disaster. 

CHAPTER 16 
The Foundling Child who became an 
Unfaithful Wife 
From Hosea onwards the prophets spoke of 
idolatry under the figure of unchastity. God 
was the husband of Israel, but she proved un- 
faithful to Him. This thought has already 
been expressed by Ezekiel in 6 9 , and it is 
now expanded into an elaborate historical 
allegory. The subject is nominally the city of 
Jerusalem, but really the whole nation of 
Israel. Jerusalem was a girl-child of heathen 
extraction, who was exposed in infancy to die 
(vv. 1-5). God saw her and saved her life, 
and she grew to maturity, though still in a 
poor and mean condition (vv. 6, 7). Then 
He took her to be His wife, loading her with 
every honour (vv. 8-14). But she was dis- 
loyal to Him, admitting idols as her lovers at 
the high places, and lavishing on them the 
gifts God had bestowed upon her (vv. 15-19). 
She even sacrificed to them her own children 
whom she had borne to God (vv. 20, 21). By 
borrowing the idolatries of the surrounding 
nations, Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, she 
made them all her paramours, with every 
aggravation of guilt (vv. 23-34). Her sin 
had already brought reproach upon her from 
hostile neighbours like the Philistines (v. 27), 
but she had proved incorrigible and must now 
sutfer utter humiliation and destruction (v v. 35- 
43). Men would speak of her as the true 
daughter of her parents, the true sister of 
Samaria and Sodom, whose guilt had been less 
than hers, though she had despised them in 
her pride (vv. 44-52). Her humiliation would 
be completed by her being put on a level with 
them, and sharing the mercy extended to them 
(vv. 53-59). Nevertheless God would not 
forget His love for her, but would pity and 
restore her, giving her Samaria and Sodom 



502 



16.3 



EZEKIEL 



17. 22 



for daughters instead of sisters. Humbled, 
ashamed, and forgiven,* she would know at 
last the true character of God (vv. 60-63). 

3. Thy birth, etc.] Though the allegory 
deals with the history of Israel as a nation it 
begins by tracing the origin of Jerusalem. It 
was a Canaanite city, inhabited by Jebusites, 
long before it became the capital of God's 
kingdom. Josh 1 5 63 Jg 1 21 1 9 11 2 S 5 6 ' 8 . 

Amorite] a general name for some of the 
tribes originally inhabiting Canaan : cp. Gnl5 16 
Dt20 17 . Hittite] The Hittites, or children of 
Heth, were another portion of the original 
inhabitants of Canaan : cp. GnlO 15 Nul3 29 . 
Another branch of the Hittites had a power- 
ful empire to the N. of Palestine (Joshl 4 

Jgl26). 

7. Thou hast increased, etc.] RV ' thou 
didst increase,' etc. The past tense should be 
read throughout the verse. Whereas] RV'yet.' 

8. A covenant] a marriage covenant, prob- 
ably with reference to the covenant at Sinai. 

10. Badgers' skin] RV 'sealskin,' probably 
the skin of the dugong, an herbivorous cetacean 
found in the Red Sea. 12. A jewel on thy 
forehead] RV ' a ring upon thy nose ' : see 
Isa3 2i. 

16. High places] the seats of ancient Cana- 
anite worship, retained by the Israelites for 
the worship of the true God, but perverted to 
their old uses : see 6 3 > 6 > 13 . 20, 21. Human 
sacrifice was not unknown in early Israel : see 
on Gn22 1 " 14 Jgll 30 " 40 , and was introduced in 
later times by Ahaz (2 K 1 6 3 2 Ch 28 3 ) and 
Manasseh (2 K 21 6 2 Ch 33 6 ). It was also prac- 
tised in the northern kingdom (2K17 17 ). 

24, 25. Besides the high places throughout 
the land, idolatrous shrines were established 
in the streets of Jerusalem. 27. Israel suffered 
from the Philistines both in the days of the 
Judges and the early kings, and in later times 
(2Ch28i8). 

29. In the land of Canaan, etc.] RM ' unto 
the land of traffic,' etc. See 17 4 . 

38. As women . . are judged] see Lv 20 10 
Dt22' 22 Jn8 5 . 41. Many women] the neigh- 
bouring nations. 45. Your mother . . your 
father] The plural pronoun refers to the three 
sisters. 46. Samaria] the capital of the king- 
dom of the Ten Tribes, standing for the whole 
of that kingdom. Left hand . . right hand mean 
north and south respectively : see 10 3 . 

Elder . . younger] refer not to historical 
antiquity but to importance. 57. Syria] Heb. 
' Aram.' We may change one letter and read 
'Edom.' The Edomites exulted over the fall 
of Jerusalem (Obad vv. 10-14 Ps 137 ?). The 
Philistines seem to have done the same. Both 
nations are denounced in similar terms in 
2512-17. 

61. Not by thy covenant] The new relation 
of Jerusalem to Samaria and Sodom would 



not depend on anything in the past, but 
would be a fresh arrangement of God's 
grace. 

CHAPTER 17 
Zedekiah's Perfidy and its Punishment 

Zedekiah had been placed on the throne of 
Judah as a vassal of Babylon, but was led by 
his nobles to intrigue with Egypt and to throw 
ofl: the Babylonian yoke. The revolt actually 
took place in 588 B.C., but it had been con- 
templated much earlier : see Jer27 1 - 11 , where 
' Zedekiah ' should be read for ' Jehoiakim ' in 
v. 1. Y. 15 of this c. refers to an embassy to 
Egypt, of which Ezekiel had heard in Baby- 
lonia. The prophet exposes this rebellious 
policy in an allegory, condemns it, and pre- 
dicts its failure and punishment. The royal 
house of Judah is a cedar of Lebanon. Baby- 
lon (or Nebuchadrezzar) is an eagle, which 
crops off the highest twig of the cedar ( Jehoia- 
chin) and carries it to a land and city of com- 
merce (Babylon). The eagle takes of the seed 
of the land (Zedekiah) and plants it so that it 
becomes a dwarf vine bending towards the 
eagle (subordinate to Babylon). There is an- 
other eagle (Egypt,or Pharaoh-Hophra) towards 
which the vine (Zedekiah) turns (seeking 
Egyptian instead of Babylonian overlordship). 
God will not allow such treachery to prosper. 
The vine will be uprooted. Egyptian help 
will fail. Zedekiah will be taken captive and 
will die in Babylon (vv. 1-21). 

But God Himself will take another twig of 
the cedar, and will plant it on a high mountain 
of Israel, where it will become a great, spread- 
ing, and fruitful tree. All the trees (nations) 
will learn that God directs the destinies of 
every one of them (vv. 22-24). This is a 
prophecy of the restoration of the Jewish 
kingdom which was never literally fulfilled, 
but which contains a promise of the Messiah — 
the ideal future king. 

5, 6. A willow . . a vine of low stature] in- 
dicating the dependent position of Zedekiah's 
kingdom : see v. 14. 12, 13. These vv. de- 
scribe the captivity of Jehoiachin (597 B.C.) 
and the appointment of Zedekiah as king under 
a solemn oath of allegiance to Babylon. 

17. The Egyptians succeeded in raising the 
siege of Jerusalem (Jer37 n ), but the relief 
was only temporary, as Jeremiah foretold that 
it would be (37 6 - 10 ). 19. Zedekiah had sworn 
allegiance to Nebuchadrezzar in God's name. 
His revolt against Babylon, therefore, did dis- 
honour to God. For another example of 
Zedekiah's perfidy see Jer34 8 - n . 20, 21. A 
repetition of 1213,14. 

22-24. Ezekiel expected that the restored 
kingdom of God would have a prince (45 7 > s 
461-18 4721,22). This was only fulfilled in a 
Messianic sense. 



503 



18.2 



EZEKIEL 



19. 14 



CHAPTER 18 

God's Equity vindicated 

The popular view of Israel's calamities, as 
expressed in a current proverb, was that they 
were the punishment of the sins of former 
generations. Though there was a measure of 
truth in this, the proverb was used in a false 
and mischievous sense. It led the present 
generation to ignore their own sin, to doubt 
the justice of God's providence, to despair of 
escape from the working of a blind fate. 
Ezekiel. consequently, emphasised in the 
strongest way the truths of individual re- 
sponsibility, and of God's impartiality in deal- 
ing with every man according to his own 
character (vv. 1-4). If a man is righteous he 
shall live (vv. 5-9). If a righteous man has a 
wicked son, the son will not be saved by his 
father's righteousness, but will die (vv. 10-13). 
If this wicked man, in turn, has a righteous 
son, the latter will not die for his father's sin, 
but will live (vv. 14-18). Further, a wicked 
man who repents and becomes righteous will 
live (vv. 21, 22, 27, 28), and a righteous man 
who becomes wicked will die (vv. 24, 26). All 
this is unquestionably just, and God does not 
wish any to die, but appeals to all to forsake 
sin and live (vv. 19, 20, 23, 25, 29-32). This 
c. recalls 3 17-21 , and the teaching of both pas- 
sages is repeated in 33 1-20 . 

2. The fathers, etc.] The same proverb is 
quoted and refuted in Jer 3 1 29 > 30 . 4. All souls 
are mine] God deals directly with every one, 
and not with the son through the father. 

It shall die] ; Die ' and ' live ' are used 
in the sense explained under 3 18 . 6. Eaten 
upon the mountains] shared in an idolatrous 
meal at a high place. 7. Restored . . his 
pledge] see Ex22 6 Dt24 12 . 22. Mentioned 
unto] RV ' remembered against ' : so in v. 24. 

24. Ezekiel does not raise the question 
whether a truly righteous man could thus fall 
away. He assumes that a man's final conduct 
expresses his real and final character. 

CHAPTER 19 

A Lament for the Royal House of 
Judah 

This c. is a poem in which the measure 
use I lor ;i dirge or elegy is more or less trace- 
able throughout. It describes first a lioness, 
two of whose whelps arc successively caught 
and taken away from her (vv. 1-9), and next 
;i vine with lofty branches, which is ruined by 
;i tin proceeding from one of them (v v. 10-14). 
There is no doubt that the branch from which 
destruction spreads to the rine is Zedekiah. 
The vme itself may be the nation of Israel, or 
the royal honse, or tin- mother of Zedekiah. 
There are two interpretations of the first alle- 
gory. The lioness is usualk understood to be 



the nation or the royal family in general, and 
the two whelps to be Shallum and Jehoiachin. 
But some take the lioness to be Hamutal, one 
of the wives of Josiah, and the whelps to be 
her two sons, Shallum and Zedekiah. 

2. Thy mother] Hamutal, whom some sup- 
pose to be meant here, was one of the wives of 
Josiah, and the mother of Shallum (or Jehoa- 
haz) and Zedekiah (2 K 23 31 24 18). Jehoiakim, 
the other son of Josiah who became king, had 
a different mother (2K23 36 ). 

3, 4. One of her whelps, etc.] Jehoahaz, or 
Shallum, the youngest son of Josiah (1 Ch3 15 ), 
was set on the throne by the people after his 
father's death, but after reigning three months 
he was deposed and carried away captive to 
Egypt by Pharaoh-Necho (2K23 30 - 34 2Ch 
36 !- 4 ). His fate is lamented in Jer 22 10-12. 

5-9. Another of her whelps, etc.] Either 
Jehoiachin or Zedekiah. Jehoiachin was a 
grandson of Josiah, who came to the throne 
as a youth and was carried captive to Baby- 
lon in 597 B.C. after a reign of three 
months (2 K 24 8-16 2 Ch 36 9. 1°). Zedekiah, the 
last king of Judah, was a son of Josiah and 
Hamutal. He succeeded his nephew Jehoia- 
chin, and was carried captive to Babylon in 586 
B.C. : see Intro. The high terms in which 
the second whelp is spoken of do not agree 
well with Ezekiel's estimate of Zedekiah in 
c. 17. 

9. In ward in chains] RY ' in a cage with 
hoops.' Lion cages are represented on the 
monuments. 10. Thy mother] The language 
in this allegory is much more applicable to 
the nation than to Hamutal. In thy blood] a 
meaningless phrase. Perhaps we should read 
with RM l in thy likeness.' 11. Strong - rods 
for the sceptres] a double figure. The rods 
represent both the kings and their sceptres. 

12, 13. These vv. describe the final destruc- 
tion and captivity of Judah. 14. Out of a 
rod, etc.] Zedekiah's rebellion was the cause 
of the ruin of the nation. 

§ 5. A FINAL SERIES OF PROPHECIES ON 
THE NECESSITY OF ISRAEL'S PUNISHMENT A.ND 

the Destruction of Jerusalem (chs. 20-24) 
Date, Aug.-Sept. 590 B.C. to Jan.-Feb. 
587 b.c. 

This group includes a warning to the exiles 
against idolatry (20 1_44 ), a description of the 
sword of the Lord directed against Jerusalem 
(20 45 -21' 27 ), a short prophecy against the Am- 
monites, connected with the foregoing (21 28-32^ 
an indictment of Jerusalem (c. 22). an alle- 
gorical history of the sins of Samaria and 
.1 erusalem (c. 23), a fresh parable of the coming 
siege and destruction of Jerusalem (24 1-14 ), 
and an account of the death of Ezekiel's wife, 
and of liis significant conduet in his bereave- 
ment (24 16-27). 



504 



20.1 



EZEKIEL 



20. 44 



CHAPTER 20 ^ 
History Repeating itself 

Some four years before the fall of Jerusalem 
the elders of Tel-abib again came to consult 
Ezekiel, who declared that God had no answer 
to give them. The reason was that then- 
enquiry was insincere, and this passage is 
consequently an illustration of the principle 
of 14 3 . The exiles were beginning to avow 
idolatrous tendencies (v. 32), with which the 
elders were in secret sympathy. - Ezekiel re- 
counted how God had dealt with Israel's 
idolatrous spirit in the past, and announced 
that He would deal in the same way with 
those who still cherished it. 

Israel had been idolatrous in Egypt and 
yet had been brought forth (vv. 5-12). Suc- 
cessive generations had been idolatrous in the 
wilderness, and of these the first had been 
shut out of the Promised Land, while the 
second had been brought into it under a 
warning of exile and dispersion should they 
continue unfaithful (vv. 13-26). They had 
not heeded the warning, but had adopted 
the worship of the Canaanites, and God's 
threat had now been fulfilled (vv. 27-29). 
In all this course of mercy and judgment God 
had ' wrought for His name's sake,' that His 
character might be truly known to Israel and 
to the world. 

The present exiles were no better than 
their fathers. They too were resolving to 
be like the heathen (vv. 30-32). But God 
would frustrate their purpose. He would 
bring them also into a wilderness, and would 
deal with them there as He had dealt with 
those who came out of Egypt (vv. 33-36). 
The persistent sinners among them would not 
enter the land of Israel, but the others would 
again be brought into a covenant with God, 
and restored to their own country, where they 
would worship God acceptably in humble 
penitence (vv. 37-43). In all this God would 
act from the same great motive as before 
(v. 44). 

i. The seventh year . . the fifth month] 
July-August, 590 B.C. 5. Lifted up mine 
hand] i.e. sware, and so in vv. 6, 15, 23, 42. 

8. Ezekiel speaks more definitely than any 
other OT. writer about the idolatry of the 
Israelites in Egypt: see 23 8 . 9. For my 
name's sake] God's consistent motive was 
that His character should be known to the 
world. "When He was patient with Israel it 
was because sudden judgment upon them would 
have been misunderstood by the heathen: 
see v. 22. 

11. Referring to the Law given at Sinai. 

12. My sabbaths, to be a sign] Though 
Ezekiel attached great importance to the sab- 
bath, he regarded it not as one of the moral 



ordinances, obedience to which brings life 
(v. 11), but rather as a special sign of God's 
covenant which Israel was bound to observe. 

15. The first generation in the wilderness 
was shut out of Canaan (Nul4 24 - 3 ° Ps95 n ). 

23. The second generation was warned that 
unfaithfulness would be punished by captivity 
(Lv26 33 > 34 ). 

25. Statutes that were not good] The re- 
ference (as v. 26 shows) is to the practice of 
child sacrifice, which might seem to be justified 
by such a law as that in Ex 22 29. The first- 
born of men, however, were expressly excepted 
(Exl3 12 > 13 Nu3 4 M7), and Jeremiah declared 
that human sacrifice had never been com- 
manded by God(Jer7 31 19 5 ). God did not 
impose sinful laws, but some of His laws could 
be perverted by sinful men and made an ex- 
cuse for their wrongdoing. Both the ambiguity 
of the Law and the blindness which led to the 
misunderstanding of it were the penalty for 
previous sin. 

29. A play upon words, ' "What (mah) . . go 
(ha) ? ' Bamah is the Hebrew for 'high place,' 
and by this punning derivation of the word 
(not of course the true one) Ezekiel expresses 
his contempt for the thing itself. 32. God's 
zeal for His name is stronger even than the 
purpose of the human will to rebel. 

34. People] RY ' peoples ' : so in vv. 35, 41. 

35. Wilderness of the people] the desert 
between Babylon and Palestine, corresponding 
to the desert between Egypt and Palestine 
which had been the scene of Israel's former 
discipline. 37. The rod] the shepherd's rod, 
used in counting the flock (Lv 27 32 ). The bond 
of the covenant] The old covenant made at 
Sinai will be renewed. Ezekiel does not con- 
template such a difference between the past and 
the future as is expressed in Jeremiah's pro- 
phecy of the New Covenant (Jer31 32 ). 

38. Obstinate transgressors will perish in 
the wilderness like the first generation who 
came out of Egypt. 39. Pollute ye . . no more] 
RY ' My holy name shall ye profane no more.' 
Those who wished to choose idolatry might do 
so, but they would no longer have any con- 
nexion with God and His cause. 40. In the 
land, serve me] RY ' serve me in the land,' a 
promise of restoration. 

44. When God does not deal with men as 
they deserve, it is for the sake of His own glory. 
This really means that His mercy is the highest 
aspect of His character, and that which He is 
most desirous to display to the world. 

CHAPTERS 20 454 9, 21 

The Sword of the Lord against 

Jerusalem (and Ammon ? ) 

C. 21 of the Hebrew Bible begins with 

20 45 of the English. It is mainly concerned 

with Jerusalem (20 45 -21 2 7), but has an 



505 



20. 46 



EZEKIEL 



21. SO 



appendix consisting of a short prophecy about 
Ammon, which has been interpreted in different 
ways (2123-32). 

(a) Against Jerusalem (20 45 -21 27 ) 
An enigmatic parable of a forest fire in 
the S. (20 45 " 49 ) is explained as referring 
to the land of Israel, against which God's 
sword is drawn (21 1 ~ 5 ). Ezekiel's distress at 
the announcement is a sign of the dismay 
which all will feel when it comes to pass 
(vv. 6, 7). A ' Song of the Sword ' follows 
(vv. 8-17). Next comes a picture of Nebu- 
chadrezzar halting on his march on Palestine, 
and consulting his oracles as to whether Jeru- 
salem or Ammon should be attacked first. 
The omens decide for Jerusalem, which is 
doomed to capture, though its people make 
light of the heathen oracles (vv. 18-24). The 
prophecy ends with a denunciation of Zedekiah, 
and a hint of the future ideal king (vv. 25-27). 
46. 47. Field . . forest of the south] Palestine 
lay almost due W. of Babylon, but the way be- 
tween them took a circuit N. owing to the desert, 
and to one coming from Babylon, Palestine 
lay directly S. in the last stages of the journey. 

CHAPTER 21 

3, 4. The righteous and the wicked] corre- 
sponding to the green tree and the dry in the 
parable (20 47 ). In spite of his strict theory of 
retribution in c. 18, Ezekiel recognised the fact 
that good men as well as bad would perish in 
the siege of Jerusalem. 

10. It contemneth, etc.] RY ' The rod of my 
son. it contemneth every tree.' These words 
are almost hopelessly obscure, and the text is 
probably corrupt. As it stands, the meaning 
may be (a) that the rod (the sword) with which 
God chastises His son (the king or people of 
Israel) is more severe than any mere rod of 
wood (any previous chastisement), or (b) that 
the king of Judah (the rod or sceptre of my 
son) despises all other powers (every other rod 
or tree). 

12. Cry . . howl . . smite] tokens of Ezekiel's 
excited sympathy with God's justice. Terrors 
. . upon my people] R Y ' they ' (the princes) * are 
delivered over to the sword with my people.' 

13. What if the sword contemn even the rod ?] 
equally ohscure with v. 10. RV ' what if even 
the rod thai contemneth shall be no more?' 
W'lint if Judah in its pride shall be destroyed ? 

14. Smite, etc.] another gesture of excited 
sympathy. Doubled the third time] rather. 
• doubled and trebled ' in its destructive power. 

Slain] KV • <l<;i<lly wounded.' The great 
men thai are slain] RV ' the great one that is 
deadly wounded '—Zedekiah. 15. Point] RM 
'consternation.' Ruins] RV * stumblings.' 

Wrapped up] RV 'pointed.' 17. I will 
also smite] &od also exults in His judgment. 



His sternest justice is a true expression of 
Himself. 

Cause . . to rest] RY ' satisfy.' 

19. Choose thou (RY 'mark out') a place] 
rather; ' grave a hand,' i.e. a sign-post. Nebu- 
chadrezzar is imagined as halting at some point 
where the roads to Jerusalem and Rabbah (the 
capital of Ammon) diverge, and as consulting 
his oracles as to which way he shall take. 

20. In Jerusalem] rather, ' unto Jerusalem.' 

21. He made his arrows bright] RY ' He 
shook the arrows to and fro.' Two arrows, 
inscribed with the names of the two cities, 
were put into a bag and shaken, and then one 
was drawn out. With images] RY ' the tera- 
phim,' the portable images of the gods whose 
advice was sought. Looked in the liver] 
another ceremony of divination. The liver 
would be that of the animal sacrificed on the 
occasion, and an omen would be drawn from 
its shape or colour. 

22. At his right hand] RY ' In his right 
hand. Nebuchadrezzar drew the arrow marked 
'Jerusalem.' 23. The people of Jerusalem 
would make light of Nebuchadrezzar's omens. 

That have sworn oaths] This may refer to 
the broken oaths of allegiance to Babylon (see 
17 13 " 16 ), or perhaps to the covenant to free their 
slaves which the people of Jerusalem made in 
Zedekiah's reign (34 8 - 10 ), and which may have 
led them into self-righteous confidence. 

25. Profane wicked] RY ' deadly wounded 
wicked one.' Zedekiah is addressed. 

27. Until he come] the future ideal king. 

. (b) Concerning Ammon (vv. 28-32) 

The Ammonites were a nation E. of the 
Jordan, and descended from Lot (Gnl9 38 ). 
They had joined in the league against Nebu- 
chadrezzar (Jer27 3 ), and had reason to fear his 
vengeance (v. 20 above). But they seem to have 
thought they would escape, and to have in- 
dulged in reproach, and even hostility, against 
Judah. Ezekiel foretells their certain punish- 
ment. For another prophecy against Ammon 
see 25 1-7 . 

28. The sword . . is drawn] most naturally 
understood to be the sword of the Lord against 
Ammon. as against Jerusalem in v. 9. But 
others take it to be the sword which Ammon 
drew against Jerusalem : see on v. 30. 

29. They see vanity] The Ammonites were 
misled by false prophets. Them that are slain, 
of the wicked] RY ' The wicked that are deadly 
wounded ' — the people of Jerusalem (v. 14). 

30. Shall I cause it] RY ' cause it.' As it 
stands this is a command to Ammon to sheathe 
the sword, and hence the sword in v. 28 is 
generally understood to be theirs. But the 
prophecy is so closely parallel otherwise to 
the preceding one that it is probable that the 
text in v. 30 is corrupt, and that the sword in 



506 



21.31 



EZEKIEL 



24. 



v. 28 is the Lord's. 31. Brutish men] most 
naturally understood of the Babylonians, but 
see 25 4 . 

CHAPTER 22 

Another Indictment of Jerusalem 

The various religious and social evils that 
prevail in the city are recited (vv. 1-11). Their 
coming punishment is then predicted, first in 
direct terms (vv. 13-16), and next under the 
figure of a smelting furnace ("vv. 17-22). 
Lastly, all classes in Jerusalem, prophets, 
priests, princes, and people, are included in 
the general condemnation (vv. 23-31). 

2. The bloody city] referring to those un- 
justly put to death by the wicked rulers of 
Jerusalem : so in vv. 3, 6, 12, 27 ; see also 
116. 5. Much vexed] RV ' full of tumult,' 

6. To their power] RV ' according to his power.' 

13. I have smitten mine hand] God's gesture 
of indignation. 16. Take thine inheritance] 
RV l be profaned.' 18. Dross] the baser 
metals from which silver has to be purified. 

19-22. Jerusalem will be heated like a fur- 
nace for smelting silver, and all that it contains 
will be melted in the fire of God's wrath. 
Though silver is mentioned in vv. 20, 22, it is 
not suggested that any of the precious metal 
will be left after the refining process. The 
whole nation is ' dross.' 

24. Not rained upon] not blessed with fer- 
tilising showers. 28, 30. The same figures 
asin 13 5 . 10 - 15 . 

CHAPTER 23 

The Unchaste Sisters, Oholah and 

Oholibah 
The idolatries and foreign alliances of Jeru- 
salem and Samaria are here described under 
the same strong figure which is used in c. 16. 
Oholah (Samaria) and Oholibah (Jerusalem) 
were two sisters, both seduced in Egypt in 
their youth (v. 3), both espoused by God (v. 4), 
and both unfaithful to Him. Samaria took as 
her lovers first the Assyrians (vv. 5-7), and 
then the Egyptians (v. 8), and was at length 
slain by the former (vv. 9, 10). Jerusalem, 
not warned by her sister's fate, made first 
the Assyrians and then the Babylonians her 
paramours (vv. 11-16). Being alienated from 
the latter she has turned to her early lovers of 
Egypt (vv. 17-21), but she will be destroyed, 
like her sister, by the lovers whom she has 
just forsaken (vv. 22-35). The sin and judg- 
ment of the two sisters are described afresh 
(vv. 36-49). 

3. Another instance of Ezekiel's belief that 
Israel practised idolatry in Egypt : see 20 8 . 
Of course the distinction between the two 
branches of the nation does not really go back 
so far. 

4. Aholah . . Aholibah] RV ' Oholah . . Oho- 



libah.' The words perhaps mean ' her tent ' 
and ' my tent in her,' respectively. It was an 
Eastern custom to give similar names to mem- 
bers of the same family. Samaria] stands for 
the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, of which it was 
the capital. Oholah is called the elder sister, 
probably because the northern kingdom was 
the larger and stronger of the two. Were 
mine] RV ' became mine,' in marriage. 

5. The Assyrians] In 2K15 17 ' 20 we read 
that the northern kingdom became tributary 
to Assyria in the reign of Menahem. But the 
Assyrian monuments show that this subjection 
began as early as the reign of Jehu. 

8. Egypt] The northern kingdom wavered 
for a time between an Assyrian and an 
Egyptian policy (Hos7 n ). Its last king, 
Hoshea, revolted against Assyria and allied 
himself with Egypt (2K17 4 ). This was the 
cause of the destruction of his kingdom. 

12. The Assyrians] The southern kingdom 
made alliance with Assyria in the days of 
Ahaz, who eagerly introduced foreign idola- 
tries (2K16 7f- ). Except in the reign of 
Hezekiah the Assyrian overlordship continued 
till that of Babylon took its place. These 
political relations were accompanied by reli- 
gious defections. 14. Images of the Chal- 
deans] Such pictures were common on the 
walls of Babylonian palaces. Ezekiel imagines 
them as being seen in Jerusalem, and as 
awakening the nation's desire for these un- 
known lovers. 17. Her mind (RV ' soul ') was 
alienated] Judah under Jehoiakim (2K24 1 ) 
and Zedekiah (2K24 20 ) became weary of 
Babylonian supremacy-. 

19. Egypt] Like Samaria, Jerusalem went 
back to her first seducers. Intrigues with 
Egypt were frequent from the days of 
Hezekiah onwards (Isa30 31 ), and it was trust 
in Egypt which led to Zedekiah's revolt and 
the nation's fall : see 17 7 . 

23. Pekod . . Shoa . . Koa] Eastern peoples 
tributary to Babylon. They are all mentioned 
in the inscriptions. The Assyrians] These 
now formed part of the Babylonian Empire. 

34. Pluck off] RV l tear.' 

39. Human sacrifice was combined with the 
forms of God's worship. This only aggravated 
its guilt. 42. Sabeans] RV ' drunkards.' 

45. The righteous men] The allegory carries 
out the forms of justice observed in an 
Israelite city, but we need not look for a 
counterpart to the righteous men in the actual 
history. 

CHAPTER 24 
The Allegory of the Boiling Caldron. 
Ezekiel's Bereavement and Signifi- 
cant Silence 
This prophecy is dated on the day on which 
the siege of Jerusalem began. Ezekiel is 



507 



24. 1 



EZEKIEL 



25. 8 



commanded by God to note the date, and 
to speak to the exiles a final parable of the 
city's coming fate. Jerusalem is a rusty pot 
filled with water and meat and set upon a fire. 
The meat is well boiled, and brought out piece 
by piece at random. The empty pot is then 
set back on the fire that the rust may be 
burned away. The rust denotes Jerusalem's 
impurity and bloodshed. The boiling is the 
siege, and the emptying of the pot the cap- 
tivity. The heating of the empty pot 
symbolises the burning of the city at the end 
of the siege (vv. 1-14). 

Ezekiel spoke this message in the morning, 
and his wife died on the evening of the same 
day, but in obedience to a divine command he 
indulged in no sign of mourning. His silent 
sorrow was an emblem of the stupor into 
which the exiles would be cast when they 
should hear of the fall of Jerusalem. When 
the survivors of the siege should reach Baby- 
lonia, however, Ezekiel's silence would be at 
an end (vv. 15-27). 

i. The ninth year . . the tenth month] 
January-February, 587 B.C. For the date see 
2K251 Jer39i 52*. 

3. Pot] RV ' caldron ' : so in v. 6. 5. Burn 



. . the bones, etc.] We must read either with 
RV ' pile . . the bones under it ' (the flesh), or, 
i burn . . the wood under it ' (the caldron). 
The bones were in the pot, not below it. 

6. Scum] RY 'rust': so in vv. 11, 12. Let 
no lot fall] The meat was to be taken out 
indiscriminately. 7. The top of a rock] RV 
1 the bare rock.' Jerusalem's bloodshed was 
open and unconcealed. 8. I have set] What was 
mere shameless wickedness on Jerusalem's 
part was yet the working out of God's purpose 
of judgment. 10. Kindle] RY ' make hot.' 

Consume] RY ' boil well.' Spice it well] 
RY ' make thick the broth.' Burned] not in 
the fire, but singed in the pot by the intense 
heat of the cooking. 12. With lies, and] 
RY 'with toil, yet.' 13. Caused .. to rest] 
RY ' satisfied.' 

17. Loosening the head-dress, baring the 
feet, and covering the lips, were signs of 
mourning (Lv 10 6 2 S 1 5 30 ). 22. The bread of 
men] probably food offered by sympathising 
friends. See JerlG 7 (RY). 23. Pine., 
mourn (RY ' moan ')] The sorrow of the exiles 
for the fate of Jerusalem would be tearless 
and inarticulate, like Ezekiel's sorrow for his 
wife. 27. See 33 22 . 



PART 2 (Chs. 25-32) 
Prophecies against Foreign Nations 



These chs. come between those which deal 
with the overthrow of the Old Israel (1-24) 
and those which describe the establishment of 
the New Israel (33-48), and they form an 
introduction to the latter group. Their 
significance is well explained in 28 24 - 26 . The 
fall of Jerusalem seemed to be a victory of 
heathendom over the people of the true God, 
and it was needful to show that it was not so. 
The God of Israel who had visited His people 
with this punishment would send His judg- 
ments on the heathen nations also, and would 
convince them that He was the living God. 
The humiliation of these nations would clear 
the stage for the restoration of Israel, which 
would no longer be troubled by its formerly 
hostile neighbours. These prophecies fall into 
three groups : (1) against the lesser and nearer 
nations, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the Philis- 
fcines (c. 25), (2) against Tyre and Sidon 
(chs. 2(1-28). (.",) against Egypt (chs. 29-32). 
With the exception of 2 9 17 " 21 , these prophecies 
are mostly dated in years either just before or 
just after the capture of Jerusalem. 

§ 1. Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia 

CHAPTER 25 

These four nations were the neighbours of 
Israel <>n the B., BE., and s\V. respectively, 
and are dealt with in their geographical order. 



Ammon and Moab are denounced for their 
exultation at the fall of Jerusalem, Edom and 
Philistia for their revengeful share in Israel's 
humiliation. All of them are threatened with 
destruction from God. The instruments of 
the judgment are to be the Bedouins of the 
desert in the case of Ammon and Moab, and 
Israel in the case of Edom. The destroyers 
of the Philistines are not indicated. 

1-7. Ammon. 

For the Ammonites see on 21 2S . In 
addition it may be observed that the king 
of Ammon was a party to the plot against 
Gedaliah, the governor whom Nebuchadrezzar 
left in Palestine after the capture of Jeru- 
salem (Jer 40 14 41 10,15). See Intro. 3. The 
destruction of Jerusalem has taken place. The 
Ammonites have rejoiced at Israel's calamity. 
V. 6 speaks of their gestures of triumph. 

4. Men of the east] the Bedouins of the 
desert: so in v. 10. Palaces] RV 'encamp 
merits. 1 5. Rabbah] the capital of Ammon. 

8-1 1. Moab. 

The Moabites, like the Ammonites, were 
descended from Lot (Gn 1 9 37 ). Their country 
lay E. of the Dead Sea, and S. of Ammon, the 
Arnon being the boundary. They were at 
times subject to Israel and at times inde- 
pendent, but always hostile. 

8. And Seir] These words should be 
omitted. Edom (Seir) is dealt with separately 



508 



25. 9 



EZEKIEL 



27. 13 



below. Behold, etc.] The Moabites denied 
Israel's claim to be the people of the true 
God. Heathen] RY ' nations.' 9. Side] RM 
'shoulder,' i.e. frontier. Beth-jeshimoth, 
Baal-meon, Kiriathaim] three frontier cities 
of Moab: see Nu3349 Joshl2 3 13^19,20. 
The last two were in the territory of Reuben 

(Nu 32 3V, 88). 

12-14. Edom. 

The Edoniites were descended from Esau 
(G-n36 43 ). They showed a specially un- 
brotherly spirit when Jerusalem fell : see 
Psl377 Lam 4 21. 22 Obad vv. 11-16. 

13. Teman] a grandson of Esau (Gn36 n ). 
Also a town or district of Edom (Jer49' r > 20 
Am 1 n Obad v. 9). And they of Dedan] RY 
' even unto Dedan.' Dedan was a district of 
N. Arabia, and is mentioned here as the 
southern border of Edom, Teman being pre- 
sumably the northern extremity : see GnlO 7 
25 3 Isa21i3 Jer25 23 . 

15-17. Philistia. 

The Philistines dwelt on the coast, SW. of 
Palestine. They were oppressors of Israel in 
early times, but were vanquished by David. 
They sought every opportunity of annoying 
Israel afterwards (2Ch21i<3 26? 2818), and 
they seem to have joined with Edom in em- 
bittering the fate of Jerusalem : see 16 57 . 

15. For the old hatred] RV 'with per- 
petual enmity.' 16. Cherethims] RY l Chere- 
thites,' a Philistine tribe (1"S30 14 Zeph25) 
from which David's body-guard was partly 
drawn (2S818 lo^ 20 7 IK 138, etc .). 

§ 2. Tyre (and Sidon) (chs. 26-28) 

Tyre was the capital of Phoenicia, the sea- 
board country on the NW. of Palestine. The 
Phoenicians were the great mariners of the 
ancient world, and Tyre was a famous sea- 
port, renowned for its wealth and splendour. 
It joined in the league against Nebuchad- 
rezzar, and was besieged by him for thirteen 
years (597-584 B.C.). See Intro. Ezekiel 
predicts its overthrow in three prophecies, 
one in general terms (c. 26), one describing 
Tyre under the figure of a gallant ship (c. 27), 
and one directed specially against the king of 
Tyre (28 1-1 9 ). Zidon (or Sidon) was another 
Phoenician sea-port, about 20 m. N. of Tyre, 
which was its younger rival. It also joined 
in the league against Babylon (Jer27 3 ), and 
its downfall too is predicted by Ezekiel 
(2820-26). p ar t G f the language of these chs. 
is reproduced in Rev 18. 

CHAPTER 26 

The Fall of Tyre predicted 

The desolation of Tyre is announced (vv. 1-6), 

its siege by Nebuchadrezzar is vividly described 

(w. 7-14), a lamentation for its fall is put into 

the mouths of the princes of the sea (w. 15-18), 



and God's threat of judgment is again repeated 
(vv. 19-21). 

1. The eleventh year] 586 B.C. The month 
is not given, but the date must have been after 
the destruction of Jerusalem, in the fifth month 
of that year (2 K 25 8 ) : see v. 2. 2. Tyrus] RY 
' Tyre,' and so throughout chs. 26-28. Aha, etc.] 
Tyre had rejoiced because of the commercial ad- 
vantage she would reap from the fall of Jerusa- 
lem. Gates of the people] RY ' gate of the 
peoples.' Jerusalem lay near the highway of 
traffic which led northward to Tyre, and its fall 
would remove a barrier to Tyrian trade. 

4. Like the top of a rock] R Y ' a bare rock ' : 
so in v. 14. 6. Her daughters] tributary states 
or cities. 15. Isles] the maritime countries of 
the Mediterranean. 16. Princes of the sea] 
the rulers of these sea-board lands. 20. Tyre 
is personified, and represented as going down 
into the under-world of the dead : see 3 1 1 4 -18 
3218-32 And I shall set glory] perhaps we 
should read, with LXX, 'nor arise.' 

CHAPTER 27 
The Wreck of the gallant Ship 

Under the figure of a ship, splendidly 
equipped, fully manned, and richly laden, but 
steered into stormy waters and wrecked, Ezekiel 
describes the fall of Tyre. In vv. 10-20 the 
figure is partly dropped. 

3. People] RY ' peoples ' ; and so every- 
where. 5. Senir]Mt. Hermon(Dt3 9 ). 6. The 
company of the Ashurites . . ivory] RY ' they 
have made thy benches of ivory inlaid in box- 
wood.' The ' teasshur ' (mistaken in AY for 
Ashurites or Assyrians) was a species of tree 
(probably box or cypress) found in Lebanon, and 
mentioned in Isa41i 9 60 13 . Chittim] Cyprus. 

7. Elishah] mentioned in GnlO 4 along 
with Javan (Ionia), was some Mediterranean 
country, perhaps the Peloponnesus (Morea), 
which was famous for purple dye. 8. Arvad] a 
Canaanite city (GnlO 18 IChlie) built on an 
island (Ruwad) 2 m. off the Syrian coast and 
nearly 100 m. N. of Tyre. 

9. Gebal] a coast town some 50 m. N. of Tyre, 
the classical Byblos : see Josh 13 5 1 K 5 18 (RV). 

Occupy] RM ' exchange.' This is the old 
meaning of the word, which is regularly used 
in this sense in the Bible : see Lkl9 13 . 

10. Lud and . . Phut] Ludim appears in Gn 
10 13 as the eldest son of Mizraim (Egypt), and 
Phut in Gn 10 6 as a son of Ham and brother of 
Mizraim. Both nations are mentioned as allies 
of Egypt in 30 5 (RY). They were probably N. 
African peoples. 11. Gammadim] a word of un- 
known reference. 12. Tarshish] either Tartes- 
sus in Spain, or the land of the Tyrsenians 
(Etruscans) in Italy. 13. Javan, Tubal, and 
Meshech] these nations are named together in 
GnlO 2 . Javan is Ionia in Asia Minor. Tubal 
and Meshech are usually identified with the 



509 



27. 14 



EZEKIEL 



29. 10 



i 



Tibareni and Moschi, two tribes in the N. of 
Asia Minor. For the slave trade of Javan 
see Joel3 6 . 14. Togarmah] (GnlO 3 ) prob- 
ably Armenia. 15. Dedan] see on 25 15 . 

17. Minnith] an Ammonite town (Jg 1 1 33 ). 
For Ammonite wheat in Judah see 2Ch27 6 . 

Pannag] a word of unknown meaning. RM 
says, ' Perhaps a kind of confection.' 18. Hel- 
bon] a wine-growing district 13 m. N. of Damas- 
cus. 19. Dan also] RY ' Vedan.' Going to 
and fro] RM ' from Uzal.' Vedan and Uzal 
are uncertain localities. 2 1 . Kedar] an Arabian 
district (Gn25 13 ). 22. Sheba and Raamah] 
countries in S. Arabia (GnlO 7 ). 

23. Haran] in Mesopotamia (Gn 1 1 31 ). 

Canneh] perhaps Calneh, a Babylonian city 
(Gn 10 10 ). Eden] either Beth-Eden, a state in 
the W. of Mesopotamia, mentioned in the in- 
scriptions and in 2 K 19 12 Isa 37 12 Aml5 (RM), 
or Aden in Arabia. Asshur] Assyria. Chilmad] 
an unknown place. Perhaps instead of taking 
it as a proper name we should read, • Were as those 
accustomed to be thy merchants.' 25. Ships 
of Tarshish] deep-sea vessels in general : see 
1 K 22 48. Did sing of thee in] RY ' were thy 
caravans for.' 

CHAPTER 281-19 
The King of Tyre 

The overweening pride of the prince of Tyre, 
which has led him to claim to be a god, is re- 
buked, and his destruction by strangers is fore- 
told (vv. 1-10). He is compared to an inmate 
of Eden, the garden of God, who is cast out 
for his sin (vv. 11-19). 

2. The prince of Tyrus] the king of Tyre at 
this time was Ithobalus (Ethbaal) II. 3. Daniel] 
a type of wisdom here, as of righteousness in 
1 4 1 4 > 20 . Ezekiel's references to Daniel suggest 
a sage of ancient times rather than a youthful 
contemporary in Babylonia. 7. Strangers] the 
Babylonians. 10. Deaths of the uncircumcised] 
a phrase for an ignominious end. So in 31 18 

3219,21,25,32, 

12. Thou sealest, etc.] an obscure phrase, 
alluding in some way to the wisdom of the king 
of Tyre. 13. Thou hast been (RY ' wast ') in 
Eden, etc.] Ezekiel here evidently refers to a 
legend similar to the story of the Fall in Gn3. 
His use of it seems to indicate that in his day 
it had not been fixed in the biblical form. 

Every precious stone] the stones mentioned 
are the Bame aa those in the first, second, and 
fourth rows of stones on the high priest's 
breastplate I Bx28 l7 '"). Gold. . tabrets. .pipes] 
rather. ' of L r <>M was the \vorkni:inshi|> of thy 

sockets and grooves,' referring to the setting of 
the precious stones. 14. Thou art (BY' wast') 
the anointed cherub] more probably, ' thou 
wast with the . . cherub.' The holy mountain] 
another phrase Por the garden of* God. 

16. I will destroy (\i\ 'have destroyed ') 



thee, O covering cherub] more probably, ' the 
covering cherub hath destroyed thee,' i.e. ex- 
pelled thee. As it stands the passage describes 
the fall of a cherub, but the alternative render- 
ings in vv. 14-16 bring it more into line with 
Gn3, the cherub being the guardian of the gar- 
den, and the prince of Tyre a privileged inmate 
of it, who is driven out for the sin of pride. 

CHAPTER 2820-26 
God's Judgment on Sidon 
Sidon, the partner of Tyre in opposing 
Nebuchadrezzar, will be its partner in de- 
struction (vv. 20-23). The overthrow of the 
heathen nations will vindicate the supreme 
power of the God of Israel, will prepare the 
way for His people's restoration to their own 
land, and will ensure their security and peace 
in the future (vv. 24-26). These last vv. have 
an important bearing on the significance of all 
Ezekiel's prophecies against the nations. 

§ 3. Egypt (chs. 29-32) 
The most of this series of prophecies 
against Egypt are connected with dates during 
the siege of Jerusalem, the time when Ezekiel 
was silent as a prophet of Israel. They were 
therefore probably written rather than spoken. 
C. 32 is dated in the year after the fall of Je- 
rusalem, and 29 17 - 21 belongs to a much later time. 
In chronological order the series includes ( 1 ) the 
destruction of the crocodile (29 1 " 16 ), (2) the 
invasion of Egypt by Nebuchadrezzar (30 1 " 19 ), 

(3) the breaking of Pharaoh's arms (30 2 <>-26) 5 

(4) the fall of the great cedar (c. 31), (5) two 
lamentations for Pharaoh and Egypt (c. 32), 
(6) Egypt substituted for Tyre (29 17 -2i). 

CHAPTER 29 lie 
The Destruction of the Crocodile 
Pharaoh is compared to the crocodile of the 
Nile. God will drag him forth with hooks, 
and cast him, with the fish that stick to his 
scales, into the wilderness, as a punishment 
for his deception of Israel (vv. 1-7). Egypt 
will be desolate for forty years (vv. 8-12), 
after which it will be restored, but not to its 
former greatness (vv. 13-15). Israel will no 
longer place a mistaken confidence in it (v. 1 6). 
I. The tenth year . . the tenth month'] Janu- 
ary-February, 587 B.C., about seven months 
before the fall of Jerusalem. 2. Pharaoh] 
The king of Egypt at this time was I'haraoh- 
hophra (Apries) : see Jer44 30 . He reigned 
from 588-569 B.C. 3. Dragon] the crocodile. 
His rivers] the Nile and its branches. 
4. Fish] the subjects of Pharaoh. 6, 7. This 
was the constant character of Egypt in its re- 
lations with Israel. It incited Israel by pro- 
mises of help to rebel against Assyria or 
Babylon, and failed in the hour of need: see 
2K18-I Isa 30" 31« Jer377. 10. From the 



510 



29. 11 



EZEKIEL 



tower of Syene] RM ' from Migdol to Syene,' 
and so in 30 l \ The places named represent 
the N. and S. extremities of the country. 
Migdol was a town in Lower Egypt. Syene is 
the modern Assouan, in Upper Egypt. 

ii, 12. Forty years] a round number, stand- 
ing for a full generation, as in 4 6 . The period 
represented EzekieFs forecast of the duration 
of Babylonian supremacy: see Jer25 9-11 > 19 . 

14. Pathros] Upper Egypt. 

For vv. 17-21 see the end of the Section, 
after c. 32. 

CHAPTER 301-19 
The Invasion of Egypt by 
Nebuchadrezzar 
No special enemy of Egypt has been men- 
tioned in 291-1* 3 , but the king of Babylon is 
now pointed out as its conqueror. 

5. Libya, and Lydia] RV ' Put and Lud ' : 
see on 27 10 . * Chub] an unknown people. The 
land that is in league] perhaps we should read, 
' the land of the Cherethites ' (Philistia). 9. In 
ships] ascending the Nile to Ethiopia. 

13. Noph] Memphis, the capital of Lower 
Egypt. 14. Zoan] Tanis, an ancient Egyp- 
tian city (Nu 13 22 ). No] No-ammon, or Thebes, 
the capital of Upper Egypt. 15. Sin] Pelu- 
l sium, a frontier city at the NE. extremity of 
I the Delta of the Nile. 17. Aven] On, or 
Heliopoiis: see G-n41 45 >so 4620. it i ay n 
the E. edge of the Delta. Pi-beseth] Bubastis, 
a city of Lower Egypt. 18. Tehaphnehes (or 
Tahpanhes)] Daphnae, a city on the E. frontier 
of Lower Egypt : see Jer43? 441 4514. 

CHAPTER 3020-26 
The Breaking of Pharaoh's Arms 
' This prophecy appears to have been occa- 
sioned by some reverse sustained by Pharaoh 
. shortly before the fall of Jerusalem. Probably 
] the reference is to the failure of his attempt 
to raise the siege (Jer37 5 - n ). The disaster is 
metaphorically described as the breaking of 
,' one of Pharaoh's arms. Ezekiel predicts that 
, God will break the other arm also, so that 
Pharaoh will drop his sword. The king of 
Babylon's arms will be strengthened. G-od's 
sword will be put into his hand, that it may 
be stretched over Egypt. The Egyptians will 
be scattered in other lands. 

20. The eleventh year . . the first month'] 
March-April, 586 B.C., about four months 
before the fall of Jerusalem. 21. Roller] 
bandage. 

CHAPTER 31 

The Fall of the Great Cedar 

Egypt was a stately cedar, thick, lofty, and 

spreading ; sheltering all the fowls and beasts 

(the nations) in its branches and under its 

shadow (vv. 1-6). It was the envy of all the 

51 



trees (other great empires) in Eden, the garden 
of God (vv. 7-9). But because of its pride 
it is given into the hands of a mighty one 
(Nebuchadrezzar), who will cut it down. 
Those whom it sheltered will be scattered or 
will trample on it when it has fallen (vv. 10- 
13). This will be a warning to all trees 
(empires) against pride (v. 14). Egypt will 
go down to the nether world, and all the 
great nations already there will be comforted 
when it arrives. 

I. The eleventh year . . the third month] May- 
June, 586 B.C., about two months before the 
fall of Jerusalem. 3. The Assyrian] has 
evidently no connexion with the subject of 
the prophecy, which is Egypt. It has been 
supposed that the c. describes the down- 
fall of Assyria, as a type of that of Egypt, 
but it is much more probable that instead of 
' the Assyrian ' we should read ' a teasshur ' or 
box- tree, as in 27 6 . ' Behold a box-tree, 
a cedar,' etc. 4. Waters . . rivers] the waters 
of the Nile. The allegory is not strictly con- 
sistent as to locality. The cedar is in Lebanon 
and also apparently in Eden. 11. I have 
therefore delivered] RY ' I will even deliver.' 

14. All that drink water] all trees : so in 
v. 16. Delivered unto death] another instance 
of Ezekiel's conception of the nations as 
personified and surviving in the under- world : 
see Isal49-20. 15. The deep .. the floods 
(RY ' rivers ') . . the waters] those referred to 
in v. 4. Ezekiel poetically says that the rivers 
of Egypt would cease to flow, in token of 
mourning for the nation's fall. 

CHAPTER 32 

Two Lamentations for Pharaoh and 
Egypt 

This c. consists of two prophecies, both 
dated more than a year and a half after the 
capture of Jerusalem, and separated from each 
other by a fortnight. In the first Pharaoh is 
likened, no longer to a young lion, but to a 
foul river monster, which will be caught, cast 
on the mountains, and devoured by birds and 
beasts of prey. At the monster's end the 
lights of heaven will be darkened, and the 
nations will be dismayed (vv. 1-10). The 
allegory is explained to mean the desolation of 
Egypt by the king of Babylon (vv. 11-16). 

The second prophecy is a burial song over 
Pharaoh and his people (vv. 17-32). They go 
down to the under-world, which is weirdly 
conceived as a vast land of graves, the 
occupants of which, however, retain their 
consciousness and their speech. Two regions 
are distinguished in it. Sheol or ' hell ' (vv. 21, 
27) is the abode of the ancient heroes who 
have received honourable burial, while ' the 
pit ' is a remoter region, reserved for the 
nations which have filled the earth with 



EZEKIEL 



33. 




violence and terror, and whose people have 
died ingloriously in battle. Each of these 
nations has its own portion of k the pit,' where 
the graves of its people are grouped around a 
central grave, occupied by the king or the 
personified genius of the nation. Pharaoh and 
his people will have a place among these 
dishonoured nations, and will be comforted 
to find that they are not alone in their 
humiliation. 

i. The twelfth year. . the twelfth month] 
February-March, 584 B.C., almost a year and 
seven months after the fall of Jerusalem. 

2. Thou art like . . and thou art] RV ' thou 
wast likened . . yet art thou,' a contrast between 
a noble and a base comparison. Whale] RV 
' dragon ' : probably a crocodile or a hippo- 
potamus is meant. 3. People] RV ' peoples.' 

6. With thy blood . . swimmest] probably 
' the earth with the outflow of thy blood.' 

7. Put . . out] RY ' extinguish.' Pharaoh is 
represented as a heavenly luminary, at the 
extinction of which the other heavenly bodies 
veil their light. Some suppose that there is 
a special reference to the constellation of the 
Dragon. 14. Deep] RY 'clear.' Clear and 
smooth rivers betoken an uninhabited land : 
see v. 13. 

17. The month is not mentioned, but it may 
be assumed to be the same as in v. 1. 18. Cast 
them down] i.e. in the burial song. Even her, 
etc.] rather, ' thou and the daughters,' etc., fol- 
lowing up the thought of v. 16. 19. Uncir- 
cumcised] dishonourably buried : see on 28 10 . 
The term is practically equivalent to ' slain by 
the sword' : so in vv. 21, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 
32. 20. Draw her] RY ' draw her away,' to 
her burial-place in the under-world. 21. The 
strong; among the mighty] the ancient heroes, 
referred to also in v. 27. Hell] Sheol, the 
place of the honoured dead : so in v. 27. 

They are gone down, etc.] the taunt uttered 
by the heroes against the Egyptians and their 
allies. 

22. Asshur] Assyria. His graves are about 
him] The central grave is that of the king, or 
of the embodied genius of the nation (' her 



grave,' v. 23, etc.). 23. Sides] RY ' uttermost 
parts,' a remoter region of the under- world 
than that assigned to the heroes. 24. Elam] 
a country E. of the Tigris, formerly a part of 
the Assyrian empire (Isa 22 6 , where Elamite 
archers appear in Sennacherib's army). In 
Jer49 34-39 Elam is an independent state, and is 
threatened with conquest by Nebuchadrezzar. 
26. Meshech, Tubal] see on 27 13 . These 
tribes may have taken part in the Scythian 
invasion : see Intro, and 38 2 > 3 . 27. The 
mighty of . . the uncircumcised] A very slight 
change in the original gives the much better 
sense of the LXX, 'the mighty, the Nephilim 
of old time.' The violent nations would not 
be permitted to share the place of the heroes 
in the under-world. For the Nephilim see Gn 
6 4 Nul3 33 RY. Their iniquities shall be] 
rather, ' their shields are.' The heroes were 
buried honourably with their weapons and 
armour. 29. Edom] see on 25 12 . 30. Princes 
of the north . . Zidonians] the states of Syria 
and Phoenicia. 32. I have caused my terror] 
RY ' I have put his terror.' Pharaoh in his 
violence had been unconsciously carrying out 
G-od's purpose. 

CHAPTER 29 »■* 

Egypt as Nebuchadrezzar's Wages for 

the Siege of Tyre 

This is the latest of Ezekiel's dated pro- 
phecies, and was uttered nearly sixteen years 
after the destruction of Jerusalem. Nebu- 
chadrezzar's siege of Tyre was now over, and 
had not ended so successfully as Ezekiel pro- 
phesied in chs. 26-28. Ezekiel now proclaimed 
that Egypt would be substituted for Tyre as 
Nebuchadrezzar's reward, and concluded with 
a promise of revival to Israel. 

17. The seven and twentieth year, the first 
■month'] March-April, 570 B.C. 20. They 
wrought for me] Nebuchadrezzar and his 
army were God's instruments. 21. The 
humiliation of Egypt would open the way for 
Israel's restoration, and the prophet would no 
longer be silenced by the incredulity of his 
people. 



PART 3 

The New Israel (Chs. 33-48) 



So long as the Jewish kingdom remained in 
existence Ezekiel's prophecies (those in chs. 
1-24) dealt almost exclusively with the nation's 
sin. and with the certainty of its overthrow. 
But when these; prophecies were fulfilled by 
the i;ill of Jerusalem his message assumed a 
in w and hopeful character. God's punishment 
of Israel's sin was not the end of His dealings 
with His people. The destruction of the old 
sinful Israel would be followed by the establish- 
ment of a perfect kingdom of God. The 



humiliation of the foreign nations (described 
in chs. 25-32) would prepare the way for this, 
and would be succeeded by the restoration of 
the exiles. The new kingdom would be set 
up under new conditions of worship and 
fellowship with God. This concluding part 
of the book falls into two sections, the first 
dealing with the restoration from captivity 
(chs. 33-39), and the second with the new 
arrangements and laws of the future kingdom 
(chs. 40-48). 



.12 



1.8 



EZEKIEL 



§ 1. The Eestoration (chs. 33-39) 
After an introductory passage (33 lm2 °), and 
two short prophecies against the wicked sur- 
vivors of Jerusalem and the careless exiles 
(33 21-88), this section describes the restoration 
in connexion with the Ruler, the Land and the 
People successively. As to the Ruler, God is 
pictured as the Shepherd of Israel (c. 34). As 
to the Land, a prophecy against Edom (c. 35) 
introduces a new address to the mountain land 
of Israel (c. 36). As to the People, the revival 
of the dead nation, and the reunion of the two 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah are allegorically 
set forth (c. 37). Finally, we have a description 
of the invasion and overthrow of Gog, the last 
enemy of God's people (chs. 38, 39). The 
beginning of the section is dated in December- 
January, 585-4 (or 586-5) B.C. See on 33 ». 

CHAPTER 331-20 
The Prophet and the Individual 

This passage combines an expanded repe- 
tition of 3 17 ' 21 with a condensed repetition 
of 18 5 " 29 . The prophet is a watchman, 
responsible for warning his people of the 
consequences of sin. God deals with indi- 
vidual souls in strict justice, and desires that 
all should turn from their evil ways and live. 
These principles, already announced, became 
of special importance, and found their real 
application, after the fall of Jerusalem. As 
Ezekiel had foretold (2423), that disaster 
stunned the exiles by its shock. They were 
overwhelmed by the judgment that had over- 
taken the nation for its sin. They pined 
away under it and felt that recovery was 
hopeless (v. 10). The nation being thus de- 
stroyed there was only a company of individuals 
left, and the religion of the individual came 
to have a new significance which has never 
passed away. 

2. The sword] usually a symbol of impend- 
ing calamity (see 14 17 , c. 21), but here it is 
simply a detail in the figure of the watchman. 
The destruction of Jerusalem was past, and no 
further judgment was specially in view. Of 
their coasts] RY ' from among them.' The 
prophet's position is represented as due to the 
people's choice as well as to the call of God. 
This indicates that Ezekiel had now more 
recognition from the exiles than before. 

5. But . . deliver] RV ' whereas if he had 
taken warning he should have delivered.' 

10. I four transgressions. . be] RY 1 our trans- 
gressions .. are.' 13. For] RY'in.' For it] 
RY' therein.' 16. Mentioned unto] RY- re- 
membered against . ' 18. Thereby] R Y ' therein . ' 

CHAPTER 3321-33 
The Prophet, the Survivors, and the 
Exiles 
In 24 27 it was announced to Ezekiel that the 



silence which began with his wife's death and 
the siege of Jerusalem would be ended when 
fugitives from the captured cities should arrive 
in Babylonia. This took place a year and five 
months (but see on v. 21) after Jerusalem fell, 
and Ezekiel began once more to receive and 
proclaim messages from God. This passage 
contains two of these. The first was directed 
against the wicked survivors who remained in 
the land of Israel and boasted that it would 
still be theirs. They were destined to perish, 
and the land to be utterly desolated, in order 
that God's wrath against their sin might be 
shown to the uttermost (vv. 23-29). The 
second describes the changed attitude of the 
exiles towards Ezekiel. They were now inter- 
ested in his words, discussing them in their 
gatherings, and listening eagerly to what he 
had to say. Yet their interest had more of 
curiosity than of earnestness. Not till the 
final punishment of the wicked survivors took 
place would they recognise Ezekiel as a prophet 
indeed (vv. 30-33). 

21. The twelfth year, the tenth month'] De- 
cember 585-January 584 B.C. The Syriac 
Bible reads ' the eleventh year.' Five months 
seem more likely than a year and five months 
as the time to be allowed for a journey from 
Palestine to Babylonia. 

22. Was] RY 'had been.' Ezekiel had 
come under the power of divine inspiration 
the previous evening, when the truths in 
vv. 1-20 had shaped themselves in his mind. 
The prophecy against the wicked survivors 
(vv. 23-29) was probably called forth by in- 
formation which the fugitives brought as to 
their attitude. 

24. They that inhabit, etc.] the surviving 
wicked remnant in the land of Israel. Their 
wickedness is described in vv. 25, 26. For an 
historical account of the events in Palestine 
after the fall of Jerusalem see Jer 40-43. 
The survivors to whom Ezekiel refers are prob- 
ably the anti-Babylonian party, led by Ishmael, 
the son of Nethaniah, who were responsible 
for the murder of Gedaliah : see Intro. 

Abraham was one, etc.] These survivors 
reasoned — ' If Abraham, who was only one 
man, obtained this land for his descendants, 
much more may we, who are many, hope to do 
so in spite of all that has happened.' For 
a sounder use of the same argument see 
Isa51 2 . 

28. From Jer 52 30 we learn that there was a 
further deportation of 745 Jews to Babylonia 
five years after the fall of Jerusalem. 

30. The children of thy people] the exiles 
of the first captivity. Still are talking against 
thee] RY 'talk of thee.' 32. The exiles 
listened to Ezekiel's words as they would to 
music, which was entertaining but had no 
practical influence on their lives. 33. When 



33 



513 



34. 3 



EZEKIEL 



35.2 



this cometh to pass] the utter desolation of 
Palestine foretold in vv. 27, 28. 

CHAPTER 34 
The Good Shepherd of Israel 

In this c. Israel is described as God's flock. 
Its former kings were evil shepherds who 
sought their own selfish ends and were careless 
what became of the sheep. The flock had be- 
come the prey of wild beasts (the heathen 
nations). God would judge the evil shepherds 
and deliver the sheep from them. He would 
Himself be the Shepherd of His people, gather- 
ing the scattered and lost, caring for the sick 
and wounded, feeding the flock in security 
(vv. 1-16). The flock, too, had been divided 
against itself. The fat and strong cattle (the 
upper classes) had tyrannised over the lean 
and weak (the common people). God would 
judge the overbearing cattle also. He would 
unite His flock under David as their shepherd 
(an ideal king of David's line), who would feed 
them in a peaceful and fertile land, untroubled 
by beasts of prey (vv. 17-31). This c. is the 
basis of our Lord's parables of the Lost Sheep 
(Mtl8 12 - 13 Lkl5 3 - 6 ) and the Good Shepherd 
(JnlO 1 "^). 

3. Fat] rather, ' milk. ' Them that are fed] 
RV ' the fatlings.' Flock] RV k sheep ' : so 
in vv. 6, 8, 10, 15, 19, 31. 5. There is] RV 
' there was.' 12. In the day . . scattered] bet- 
ter, ' in the day when all his sheep are scat- 
tered.' 13. People] RV 'peoples.' 16. With 
judgment] RV ' in judgment.' 

17. Between cattle and cattle, etc.] rather, 
' between sheep and sheep, even the rams and 
the he-goats.' The rams and he-goats are the 
second class of sheep, the weaker members of 
the flock being the first class. 18. Deep] RV 
' clear.' 23. My servant David] David, the 
shepherd king, is introduced as a type of the 
ideal ruler of the future kingdom of God : 
see 37 24 Jer30 9 Hos3 5 . 24. Prince] instead 
of king, is Ezekiel's usual designation of the 
ruler of the future : see chs. 45, 46. 25. A 
covenant of peace] see 37 2C) . Wilderness] 
means not ' desert,' but ' pasture-land ' : see 
Ps65i'~\ 

26. Read with LXX ' I will set them round 
abort my hill, and I will send you the rain (in 
its -«;ison), a rain of blessing.' There is a hint 
here of the place which the Temple is to have 
in tin! life of the new Israel : see c. 40. 

27. Those that served themselves of them] 
the evil shepherds. 28. Land] RV 'earth. ' 
The wild beasts denote; the heathen. 29. Plant 

of renown j RV * plantation for renown.' The 
reference is not t<> the Messiah, who is already 
represented in the allegory by David, bui to 

the fertility of the land. Other readings are, 

l a plantation of peace." or 'a fat plantation.' 

30. The result of the restoration will he 



that Israel will recognise not only the charac- 
ter of their God, but the fact that they are 
His people. 31. Omit are men, and read, 
' and ye are my flock,' etc. 

CHAPTERS 35, 36 
The Land of Israel in the Future 
C. 35 is an introduction to c. 36, the con- 
nexion being shown by 36 5 . The claim of 
Edom to the land having been repudiated (c. 
35), its reoccupation by Israel is promised 
(36 1 ' 15 ), and the reason of the restoration is 
explained (36 l ™ 8 ). 

(a) The Punishment of Edom's Presumption 

(c. 35) 

Edom has already been included by Ezekiel 
among the nations whose humiliation would 
prepare the way for the restoration of Israel 
(25 12 " 14 ), and this new prophecy requires a 
special explanation, which is easily found. 
Before the land could be given to its true 
owners all false claimants had to be disposed 
of. The claim of the wicked survivors of 
Jerusalem has already been set aside (33 23-29) 5 
and the claim of the surrounding heathen has 
to be dealt with in the same way. Edom is 
introduced here as then representative (vv. 
10, 12). Its former enmity and malice are 
recalled (v. 5), and the arrogance and blas- 
phemy of its pretensions to possess the land 
of Israel are specially denounced. Ezekiel 
foretells that God will repay the Edomites in 
their own coin, making their land desolate, 
and compelling them to recognise Him as the 
true God. 

2. Mount Seir] Edom : see on 25 12 " 14 . 

5. Time . . end] RV ' time of the iniquity 
of the end,' as in 2125.29. 9. Return] RV 
' be inhabited.' 10. These two . . countries] 
the territories of Israel and Judah. The LORD 
was there] God might seem to abandon His 
Temple and forsake His people, but He never 
gave up His choice of them or His possession 
of their land. 14. When. . rejoiceth] rather, 
' to the rejoicing of the whole earth.' 

15. Idumea] RV k Edom.' 

(b) The Mountain Land of Israel re- 
peopled (36 !- 15 ) 

This prophecy is the counterpart of c. 6. 
The land, made desolate for the people's sin, as 
was foretold, and presumptuously claimed by 
Edom and the other surrounding nations, will 
again become fertile, fruitful, and populous. 
[srael will inhabit it once more, and will no 
Longer Buffer famine, or be oppressed by the 
heathen. 

1. The mountains of Israel] the mountain 

land of [srael, as in 6 1 ' 2 . 2. The ancient high 

places] the everlasting hills, with no reference 

to the idolatrous worship associated with them : 

14 



86. 5 



EZEKIEL 



37. 19 



seeDt33 15 . 5. Idumea] RY ' Edom.' This 
v. makes clear the connexion of c. 35 with 
the present passage. To cast it out] better, 
perhaps, ' to possess it.' 7. Have lifted up 
mine hand] have sworn. 

8. They are at hand to come] The restora- 
tion of Israel is viewed as close at hand. 

13. Bereaved thy nations] RV ' been a 
bereaver of thy nation.' The famines to 
which the land of Israel had been subject had 
given rise to the reproach that it bereaved and 
devoured its inhabitants (Nul3 32 ). This 
would be the case no longer. 14. Nations] 
RY 'nation': so in v. 15. 15. Cause .. to 
fall] rather, k bereave,' as in v. 14. 

(c) God's Reason for restoring; Israel 
(3616-38) 

God had justly sent Israel into exile for 
their sins (vv. 17-19), but the heathen had 
misunderstood this event, taking it as a sign 
of God's inability to save His people (v. 20). 
In this way the exiles had occasioned the pro- 
fanation of God's name, and to vindicate His 
own honour He was compelled to restore them 
(vv. 21-24). This high argument passes into 
a promise of the moral renewal, as well as of 
the outward blessings, which would accom- 
pany the restoration (vv. 25-30). Yet the 
fact is reiterated that all this will be done, 
not because Israel has deserved it, but because 
God's glory has required it. It must minister 
not to pride, but to humility (vv. 31, 32). 
"When the sinful nation has been purified, and 
the desolate land repeopled, the heathen will 
know that the whole is God's doing (vv. 
33-36). The blessing, too, though undeserved, 
will be sent in response to Israel's prayers 
(vv. 37, 38). 

20. Profaned] not now by actual wicked- 
ness, but indirectly, as the v. goes on to 
explain. When they said to them] RY ' in 
that men said of them.' 23. Sanctify] the 
exact opposite of ' profane.' 

25-28. These vv. expand the promise in 
1 1 19, 20. They include purification from guilt, 
inward renewal, the spirit of obedience, and 
the privileges of the people of God. In its 
essence this passage repeats Jeremiah's promise 
of the New Covenant (Jer31 31 " 34 ). 26. Heart 
of flesh] see 2 Cor 3 3 (RY). 31, 32. Cp. 16 61 
Jer 29 u-M. 36. Build . . and plant] RY l have 
builded . . and planted.' 37. I will yet for 
this] RY ' for this moreover will I.' 

38. Holy flock] RY 'flock for sacrifice,' 
the point of comparison being the great 
numbers : see lCh292i 2Ch7-5 29 33 35^. 

Solemn] RY ' appointed.' 

CHAPTER 37 

The Revival and Reunion of Israel 
From the future of the land Ezekiel now 



turns to that of the nation, long ago divided 
by the revolt of the Ten Tribes, and now 
seemingly extinct. The exiles feel themselves 
to be but its scattered bones (v. 11). In a 
striking and beautiful vision, suggested no 
doubt by this current saying, Ezekiel predicts 
that the dead nation will come to life again 
(w. 1-14), and by a symbolic action he repre- 
sents the coming reunion of the rival kingdoms 
of Israel and Judah (vv. 15-28). 

(a) The Revival (vv. 1-14) 

Ezekiel is transported into a valley full of 
dry bones. As he prophesies to them they 
come together into complete skeletons, which 
become covered with sinews, flesh, and skin. 
Then the wind blows upon the inanimate bodies 
and they stand up alive. The prophecy does 
not refer to a literal resurrection of the Israel- 
ites actually dead, but to a revival of the dead 
nation, of which the exiles seemed to be the 
scattered remains. 

I. Ezekiel saw this vision in a prophetic 
trance, under the influence of God's inspira- 
tion. At the same time its details were no 
doubt due to the peculiar working of his im- 
aginative mind on the thought expressed by 
the exiles in v. 11. 7. A shaking] RY 'an 
earthquake.' 8, 9. Wind . . breath] The same 
Hebrew word means wind, breath, or spirit. 
The wind of the vision represents the Spirit 
of God in the actual process of the nation's 
revival : see v. 14. 

II. Cut off for our parts] RY ' clean cut off.' 
12, 13. Graves] The figure here is some- 
what changed. Still the reference is not to the 
graves of those actually dead, but to the 
heathen world as the grave of the dead nation 
of Israel, compared to which their own land 
was the land of the living. 14. My spirit] see 
on vv. 8, 9. 

(&) The Reunion (vv. 15-28) 

Ezekiel is directed to take two pieces of 
wood, one having ' Judah ' and the other 
k Joseph ' inscribed upon it, and to join them 
together (vv. 15-17). The explanation of the 
symbol is that the two divisions of the nation, 
so long separated, will be reunited in their 
former land, governed by one king of the 
house of David, under the same covenant with 
God, and worshipping at the same sanctuary 
(vv. 18-28). 

16. Judah] the southern kingdom of the 
Two Tribes. Joseph . . Ephraim] the northern 
kingdom of the Ten Tribes ; Ephraim, one of 
the two tribes descended from Joseph, being 
the principal one of the ten. Israel] used here 
and in v. 19, as generally by Ezekiel, in the 
sense, not of the northern kingdom, but of the 
whole nation. 

19. Him] RY 'it.' Mine hand] probably 



515 



37. 23 



EZEKIEL 



38. 19 



rather, 'his' (Judah's) 'hand,' to correspond 
with ' the hand of Ephraim ' already mentioned 
in the v. The united stick is placed in Judah's 
hand because the king is to belong to Judah's 
royal house. 23. Dwellingplaces] RM ' back- 
slidings.' So shall they be my people, etc.] 
another feature taken from Jeremiah's New 
Covenant (Jer 31 33 ) : see also vv. 26, 27. 

24, 25. My servant David] in the same 
sense as in 34 23 > 24 . 

26. A covenant of peace] as in 34 25 . 

26, 27. My sanctuary . . my tabernacle] Jero- 
boam had set up rival sanctuaries to Jerusalem 
at Dan and Bethel (lK12 2 8-3 2 ), but the re- 
united nation would have one centre of re- 
ligious worship. God had forsaken the Temple 
at Jerusalem (1 1 23 ), but He would return, never 
to leave it again. The latter aspect of the 
promise is developed in chs. 40-48. 

CHAPTERS 38, 39 
God's Final Victory over the Heathen 

Ezekiel's earlier group of prophecies against 
the nations (chs. 25-32) was concerned with 
Israel's nearer neighbours, which had inter- 
fered more or less in former times with her 
prosperity ; and their humiliation was regarded 
as a necessary condition of Israel's peaceful 
and happy future. Ezekiel, however, contem- 
plated a wider extension of God's glory than 
these prophecies involved. This is described 
under the form of an invasion of the restored 
Israel by hordes of the remotest heathen, who 
will be destroyed by God without any fighting 
on Israel's part. His glory will thus be mani- 
fested to the very ends of the earth. Ezekiel is 
alone among the Old Testament prophets in 
expecting another crisis to arise after the 
restoration has been accomplished. His con- 
ception is reproduced in the New Testament 
in the book of Revelation (20 7-1 °), and the 
underlying idea in both cases is that what 
scorns the triumph of God's kingdom may be 
followed by a fresh assault of the forces of 
evil, which, however, are destined to be over- 
thrown at last. The picture of Gog may have 
been suggested partly by the memory of the 
great Scythian invasion (see Intro.), and 
partly by the ravages of Nebuchadrezzar's 
armies. 

C. 38 describes Gog's allies (vv. 1-7), his 
nefarious plans (w. 8-13), his great invasion 
(vv. 14—17), and God's turning of the forces 
of nature againsl him (vv. 18-23). C. 30 
Foretells thai G-od will had him on to destruc- 
tion (vv. 1-7) ; his weapons will provide 

[srael with fuel ['<>?• seven years (vv. 8-10); 
seven months will !><• required to bury the 

corpses (.f his host, which will fill a whole 
valh \ on fche E. of (he Dead Sea (W. 1 1 1.1) ; 

when the seven months are over special officers 
will slill l>c required i<> Bearoh out and bury 



the dead bodies that remain (vv. 14-16) ; birds 
and beasts of prey will enjoy an enormous 
banquet (vv. 17-20) ; all the earth will re- 
cognise the power and glory of the true God, 
the heathen will understand at last the real 
meaning of Israel's exile, and Israel will learn 
the lessons of all God's dealings with them in 
judgment and in mercy (vv. 21-29). 

CHAPTER 38 

2. Gog, the land of Magog] RV ' Gog, of the 
land of Magog.' The exact reference of the 
names is unknown. Magog is the land ruled 
over by Gog. The conjecture that ' Magog ' 
(Mgg = Ggm = Bbl) is a cryptogram for ' Babel ' 
(Babylon) has no probability. Gog in any 
case is the representative of remote heathen- 
dom, and is located in the far K (38 6 > 15 39 2 ), 
while he has allies in the distant S. (38 5 ). 

Chief prince of Meshech, etc.] RY ' Prince of 
Rosh, Meshech,' etc., and so in v. 3, 39 l . The 
land meant by ' Rosh ' is unknown, but there 
can be no allusion to Russia. On Meshech 
and Tubal see on 27 13 . 

4. Turn thee back] RV ' turn thee about.' 
Perhaps we should read, ' lead thee,' and so in 
39 2 . God directs the movements even of the 
enemies of His kingdom. 5. Persia] a doubt- 
ful rendering. Ethiopia, and Libya] RV ' Cush 
and Put' : see on 27 10 30 5 . 6. Gomer] 
(GnlO 2 ), a people in the N. of Asia Minor, 
usually identified with the Cimmerians. 

Togarmah] Armenia : see on 27 14 . The 
north quarters] RV l the uttermost parts of the 
north.' Bands] RV 'hordes,' and so through- 
out. People] R V ' peoples,' and so throughout, 
except in v. 12, and 39 13 . 7. Be thou a guard 
unto them] LXX reads, ' hold thyself in reserve 
for me.' 

8. The latter years] The invasion of Gog is 
in the distant future. The land that is . . 
gathered, etc.] The sense requires ' the nation ' 
to be supplied before ' that is gathered ' : see 
v. 12. 11. The peaceful state of the restored 
Israel is here described. 12. Midst of the 
land] RV 'middle of the earth,' the supposed 
geographical position of Palestine. 13. Sheba 
. . Dedan . . Tarshish] see on 2223,25 27 15 » 2 °. 

Young lions] does not give a clear sense. 
Other suggested readings are, ' Canaanites,' 
' Cyprians,' or ' traffickers.' The nations men- 
tioned were spectators of Gog's invasion, and 
inquired what commercial advantage they 
might reap from the disposal of the spoil. 

15. North parts] RV ' uttermost parts of 
the north. 1 17. Certain older prophecies were 
understood by Ezekiel to refer, though not by 
name, to the coming invasion of Gog. Per- 
haps he had in view Xeph 1 >•*'• 3 8 Jer 3-0. 

18. At the same time] RV ' in that day.' 
In my face] RV l into my nostrils.' 

19. Shaking] or, 'earthquake.' 



ir, 



39. 2 



EZEKIEL 



40. 11 



CHAPTER 39 



2. Leave but the sixth part of thee] RY 
' lead thee on.' 6. Isles] RM ' coast-lands.' 
God will not only destroy the army of Gog in 
Palestine, but will extend His judgments into 
the lands from which Gog and his allies have 
come. 8. It is come . . it is done] RY ' it 
cometh . . it shall be done.' 9. Set on fire] RY 
'make fires of.' Burn them with fire] RY 
'make fires of them' : so in v. 10. . II. There 
of graves] RY ' for burial.' 

Valley of the passengers] RY ' valley of 
them that pass through.' Others read, ' a 
valley of Abarim,' Abarim being the region E. 
of the Dead Sea. The sea] the Dead Sea. 

Stop the noses, etc.] RY ' stop them that 
pass through.' The valley, formerly a road- 
way, will be blocked by corpses. Hamon-gog] 
means 'the multitude of Gog.' 14. With the 
passengers] should probably be omitted^ and 
bury should perhaps be ' search out.' There 
were to be two classes of officials, the searchers 
and the buriers, and this v. deals with the 
former. The duties of both are described in 
v. 15. Earth] RY ' land.' 

15. And the passengers, etc.] RY ' and they 
that pass through the land shall pass through.' 
"When the searchers found any human 
remains they were to set up a mark to attract 
the attention of the buriers, who followed 
them. 16. And . . Hamonah] RY 'and Ha- 
monah shall also be the name of a city.' The 
reference seems to be to a city to be built near 
the valley of Hamon-gog, in commemoration 
of God's victory over Gog and his ' multitude.' 

18. Bashan] a district E. of the Jordan, 
famous for its cattle : see Dt32i4 Ps22i2. 

24. Have I done] RY 'did I.' 26. After 
that they have borne] R Y ' and they shall bear ' ; 
more probably, ' and they shall forget.' 

Dwelt safely . . made them afraid] RY ' shall 
dwell securely . . shall make them afraid.' 

28. Have left] RY ' I will leave.' 

§ 2. The Ordinances or the New 
Israel (chs. 40-48) 

This concluding section of the book is dated 
in the twenty-fifth year of Ezekiel's captivity , i.e. 
the fourteenth year after the fall of Jerusalem 
(572 B.C.). It is therefore thirteen years later 
than the previous section (chs. 33-39), and, with 
the exception of 29 17 - 21 , forms the latest part 
of the book. It is in the form of a vision, 
which is the counterpart of that in chs. 8-11. 
There God forsook the old Temple which had 
been polluted by idolatry. Here we have a 
description of the Temple of the restored 
kingdom, of God's return to it, and of the 
various religious arrangements and institutions 
of the future. The vision is marked by great 
minuteness of detail, and no doubt Ezekiel 



had brooded long and deeply over the particu- 
lars of the Temple and its ritual. Yet, as in 
former cases, there is no reason to doubt 
that this vision was an actual experience, in 
which the subjects of previous reflection stood 
out vividly before the prophet's mind. "While 
the material details are so minute, some fea- 
tures of the vision are supernatural and mira- 
culous. The whole forms an ideal picture, 
which was never actually to be realised, but 
which strikingly embodied the conception of 
the abiding presence of God with His people, 
and of their perfect fellowship with Him. 

The Plans of Ezekiel's Temple, on p. 518, 
are by permission of the Cambridge University 
Press. 

CHAPTERS 40-42 
The New Temple 
Ezekiel, transported in vision to Palestine, 
is set down on the N. side of the Temple 
mountain, and sees the Temple buildings ex- 
tending to the S. like a city. A supernatural 
figure, like those in c. 9, appears, and measures 
the various parts of the Temple in Ezekiel's 
presence (40 1_4 ). 

(a) The Outer Court and its Gateways 

(405-27) 

The Outer Eastern Gateway (vv. 5-1 6), Fig. 
3, E. For the following details see Fig. 1. 
The outer boundary of the Temple was a wall 
6 cubits thick and 6 cubits high (v. 5). Steps 
led up to the E. gateway, which had a thres- 
hold (a) 6 cubits broad (v. 6, ef\ and 10 cubits 
wide (v. ,11, ee, ff). Within the threshold 
were three guard-rooms (b) on either side (vv. 
7, 10), each 6 cubits square, and separated by 
wall-spaces (posts) of 5 cubits (gh, ik). The 
inner threshold (c) had the same dimensions as 
the outer one (vv. 6, 7). Beyond it was a 
porch (d) 8 cubits wide (m?i), the jambs (posts) 
of the doorway being 2 cubits broad (n 0, v. 9). 
The whole length of the gateway (eo) was 
50 cubits (v. 15), and its breadth 25 cubits 
(v. 13). The guard-rooms and the porch were 
lit by windows, and there were also windows 
in the wall-spaces (posts) between the guard- 
rooms. These spaces, too, were decorated 
with palm trees (v. 16). 

5. Cubit] Yarious sizes of cubit, from 18 
in. to nearly 24 in. were employed in ancient 
measurements. Ezekiel's cubit was one of 
the larger forms — an ordinary cubit and a 
handbreadth. 

6. The other threshold] is that mentioned in 
v. 7 (c). 7. Within] RY ' toward the house,' 
or Temple proper. 8. Should be omitted. It 
contradicts v. 9, and is evidently a copyist's 
repetition. 9. Inward] RY ' toward the house.' 

11. The length of the gate, thirteen cubits] 
an obscure statement, not reconcilable with the 



517 



40 



EZEKIEL 



40. 



Fig. 2. Temple House. 



Fig. I. Outer Gateway. 
n 





Fig. 3. Temple Courts. 




nnDjoM -t m n n n .□. 

; 2 ^ . V . , ... 

Plans of Ezekibl's Temtle 



518 



40. 12 



EZEKIEL 



41. 1 



other measurements. If ' breadth ' instead of outer court,' but ' beyond the gateway, in the 



length' were meant 13 + 6 + 6 would make 
25, but this would allow no space for the outer 
walls of the guard-rooms. 12. The space] 
RY ' and a border,' probably a low parapet in 
front of each guard-room (fg, hi, kl) taking a 
cubit on either side off the width of the passage. 

14. He made . . threescore cubits] read, with 
LXX, ' and he measured the porch (d) 20 cubits ' 
(i.e. in length, the breadth being 8 cubits, 
v. 9). The latter half of the v." is obscure. 

16. Arches] should be 'porch,' and so every- 
where. 

The Outer Court (40 17 " 19 ) had a pavement 
(Fig. 3, B) 50 cubits wide, corresponding to 
the length of the gateways. On this pave- 
ment were 30 chambers (C), the exact ar- 
rangement of which is unknown. From 
the inner opening of the outer gateways to 
the inner gateways was 100 cubits. The 
whole outer court including the pavement was 
therefore 150 cubits wide. 18. Over against] 
R Y ' answerable unto. ' 

The Outer Northern Gateway (vv. 20-23), 
Fig. 3, N. This was similar to the E. gateway. 
' Porch ' should be read for ' arches.' Seven 
steps led up to this gateway, and the breadth 
of the outer court was the same on the N. as 
on the E. side. 

The Outer Southern Gateway (vv. 24-27), 
Fig. 3, S. This was similar to those already 
described. ' Porch ' for ' arches ' as before. 

(6) The Inner Court and its Gateways 
(40 28 "^) 

The Inner Southern Gateway (vv. 28-31), 
Fig. 3, S 1 . This was reached from the outer 
court by 8 steps. It was exactly similar to 
the outer gateways, except that the porch 
(Fig. 1, d) was at the outer and not at the 
inner end. Y. 30 should be omitted with LXX. 

The Inner Eastern Gateway (vv. 32-34), 
Fig. 3, E 1 , and the Inner Northern Gateway 
(vt. 35-37), Fig. 3, 2Y 1 , were similar to that 
on the S. 

Arrangements for Preparing the Sacrifices 
(vv. 38-43). At one of the inner gateways 
(probably that on the N.) there were a chamber 
for washing the burnt offerings (v. 38) and a 
number of tables for slaying and preparing 
them (vv. 39-43). The exact position of the 
tables must remain uncertain. 

38. The chambers and the entries] RY ' a 
chamber with the door.' 

The Chambers for the Singers (vv. 44-47), 
Fig. 3, DD. These were two in number. 
One, by the N. gateway and looking toward 
the S., was for the priests. The other, by the 
S. gateway and looking toward the N., was for 
the Levites. 

44. East] should obviously be S. : see RM. 

Without the inner gate] means not ' in the 



inner court. 

Dimensions of the Inner Court (v. 47). Ex- 
cluding the space occupied by the gateways, 
this court formed a square (Fig. 3, iklm) of 
100 cubits each way. The altar (F) was in the 
centre of the court. 

(c) The Temple Proper (4048-4126) 

The main Temple building was on the W. 
side of the inner court. The details that 
follow are illustrated in Fig. 2. 

The Porch (40 4 M9), Fig. 2, A. This was 
20 cubits long (hh) and 12 cubits broad. The 
posts or jambs (ab) of the doorway were 
5 cubits across, and the side-walls (h 6, bh) 
were of 3 cubits each. This left 14 cubits for 
the width of the entrance (a a, bb). Each 
jamb had a pillar beside it. The porch was 
approached by 10 steps. 

48. Breadth of the gate] should be ' sides of 
the entrance,' as in 41 2 . 

49. Eleven] should be ' twelve,' as the LXX 
reads, and the other measurements require : 
see 41 13 . And he brought me . . whereby] RM 
' and by ten steps.' 

CHAPTER 41 

The Holy Place (41 lj2 ), Fig. 2, B. This 
was the ' temple ' strictly so called. The posts 
of its doorway were 6 cubits across (c d). The 
entrance was 10 cubits wide (cc, del), and the 
side-walls {id, di) were of 5 cubits each. The 
apartment itself was 40 cubits long and 20 
cubits broad. 

1. Tabernacle] should probably be ' posts.' 

The Holy of Holies (41 3, 4), Fig. 2, C. Eze- 
kiel did not accompany the measurer into this 
sacred chamber. The posts of the entrance 
(ef) were two cubits across. The entrance 
itself was 6 cubits wide (ee,ff) and the side- 
walls (kf,fk) were of 7 cubits each. The 
chamber itself was a square of 20 cubits each 
way. 

The Side Chambers (415-7). The Temple 
had a double wall, the inner being 6 cubits 




Fig. 4. 
thick (v. 5), and the outer 5 cubits thick (v. 9). 
Between these was a space of 4 cubits (D), 



519 



41.6 



EZEKIEL 



43. 



which was occupied by 30 chambers arranged 
in three stories. The chambers in each story 
were wider than those below, as the supporting 
beams were not let into the Temple wall, but 
rested on ledges, which took away successively 
from the thickness of the wall (Fig. 4). 

6. Three] RV ' in three stories.' They 
entered into] should probably be ' there were 
rebatements in,' as in 1 K6 6 , which in any case 
gives the key to the meaning here. 

7. And there was . . chambers] RV ' and the 
side chambers were broader as they encom- 
passed the house higher and higher.' 

The Raised Platform and Surrounding Space 
(41 8 " 11 ). The Temple building and the side 
chambers stood on a basement which rose 
6 cubits above the level of the inner court. 
This basement extended 5 cubits (the ' place 
that was left ') beyond the outer wall on either 
side (Fig. 2, jE), and from this space entry was 
gained to the side chambers on either side 
(Fig. 2, gg). Round the platform there was 
a clear space of 20 cubits (the ' separate place ') 
on the K, W., and S. (Fig. 3, HHH). 

8. The height of the house] RV l that the 
house had a raised basement.' 

The Western Building (4112), Fig. 3, K. 
This was on the W. of the Temple beyond the 
' separate place ' (H), and had walls 5 cubits 
thick. Its internal measurement was 90 cubits 
by 70, and its external one 100 cubits by 80. 

General Measurements (41 1315a ). The 
Temple was 100 cubits long, and the western 
space H (20 cubits) with the building K 
(70 cubits) and its walls (10 cubits) made up 
another 100 cubits (v. 13) from E. to W. The 
front of the Temple with the E. ends of the 
separate places H II on either side of it made 
up 100 cubits (I m) from S. to N. (v. 14). The 
building K with its ' galleries ' (walls) was also 
100 cubits (/>,/, r«) from S. to N. (v. 15). 

The Interior Decorations of the Temple 
(41i5b-26). v. 15 should end with 'cubits.' 
The vv. that follow are somewhat obscure. 
The windows that lit the interior of the Temple 
must have been above the third storey of the 
side chambers. What follows is all that can be 
clearly made out. The whole interior from 
tin floor to the windows was panelled with 
wood and ornamented with cherubim and palm 
trees, placed alternately. Each cherub had 
two faces, a lion's and a man's. The porch 
satins to have been decorated witli palm trees 
only (v. 26). Both the Holy Place and the 
Holy of Holies had two doors, each consisting 
of two Leav< is. These had cherubim and palm 
trees like those on the walls. Before the Eoly 
of Holies (in the Holy Place) there was a wooden 
altar shaped table 3 cubits high and 2 cubits 
Long. 

15''. 16. should perhaps read, 'and the 
Temple, and the inner house, and its outer 



porch were covered with a roof work, and they 
three had their closed windows and their gal- 
leries round about.' The ' galleries ' may have 
been borders or dados. 21. An obscure verse. 
22. The second length should be ' base.' 
25. Thick planks stands for a word of 
unknown meaning. 

(d) The Priests' Chambers (421-14) 

This is the most obscure part of Ezekiel's 
description. The following are the clearest 
points. On the N. side of the Temple, and 
separated from it by the space H (Fig. 3) was 
a group of buildings (oumvj) 100 cubits long 
and 50 cubits broad (v. 2). It consisted of a 
block (6r), next the Temple, 100 cubits long, 
and another ((x 1 ), next the outer court, 50 
cubits long (v. 8). The remaining 50 cubits 
next the outer court was occupied by a wall 
(vw, v. 7), and between the blocks was a walk 
(0) 10 cubits wide and 100 cubits long (v. 4). 
This left 20 cubits as the width of each block. 
The chambers in these buildings were in three 
storeys, and were over against the space H on 
the one hand, and the pavement (B) of the 
outer court on the other (v. 3). The upper 
storeys were narrower than the lower, their 
breadth being diminished by galleries (vv. 3, 5) 
which faced each other across the walk (Fig. 5). 
The doors of G were towards the N., opening 
on the walk (vv. 2, 4). The entry (P) from 
the outer court was at the E. end of the whole 
group (v. 9). There was an exactly similar 
group of buildings on the S. of the Temple 
(vv. 10-12). All these chambers were to be 
used by the priests for eating the sacrificial 
flesh and for changing their garments (vv. 
13, 14). 

4. One cubit] RM ' a hundred cubits.' 

5. Were higher than] RV ' took away from.' 
Than the lower] RV ' more than from.' 

10. East should obviously be S. 



If 







Fig. 5. 
(c) Dimensions of the Temple Area (42 15 -2°) 

The whole formed a square of 500 cubits 
each way. Tins follows from the measure- 
ments already given. 'Reeds' is a mistake 
for 'cubits, 1 arising from the fact that the 
reed w r as used in the measurement. 

CHAPTERS 43, 441-3 
'rni. Restobation of the Temple Worship 
This c. describes God's return to the Temple 



520 



43. 6 



EZEKIEL 



44.7 



(43 1_12 ), and His directions as to the construc- 
tion (43 13 -^), and dedication (43 18 - 26 ) of the 
altar of burnt offering. When these directions 
were carried out God's sacrificial intercourse 
with Israel would be resumed (43 27 ). The 
outer eastern gateway, by which God's glory 
returned, was to be permanently shut (44 1 ~ 3 ). 

(a) God's Return to the Temple (43 !- 12 ) 

Ezekiel, standing at the outer E. gate, saw 
the appearance of God's glory in the same 
form in which he had beheld it in previous 
visions. It came from the E., and entered the 
Temple by the gate on that side, the same by 
which it had formerly departed (10 19 11 22 > 23 ). 
Ezekiel was then brought to the inner court, 
where he saw the glory filling the Temple as in 
10 4 . A voice from within the Temple an- 
nounced that God would now dwell for ever in 
the midst of His people, and that His sanctuary 
would no longer be defiled as of old by the 
people's wickedness, or by the nearness of 
the royal palace and sepulchres. Ezekiel was 
further directed to make known the plan and 
ordinances of the new Temple to the people. 

6. The man] RY ' a man,' the divine voice 
personified. 7. Whoredom] a figure for idol- 
atry : see 6 9 16, 23. High places] RM ' death.' 

Carcases, etc.] The royal sepulchres were in 
the vicinity of Solomon's Temple. 

8. Solomon's palace and Temple were close 
together, and formed practically a single group 
of buildings. In Ezekiel's vision of the future 
the city stood far away from the Temple : see 

4815-17. 

(b) Measurements of the Altar of Burnt 
Offering (4313-18) 

The altar (Fig. 3, P) was to have a base 
(abs t, Fig. 6) a cubit high (ab,ts) and a cubit 
broad (5 c, rs). This base was to have a border 
a span in height (&,s). Above this was to be 




Fig. 6. 
Plan of the Altar of Burnt Offering 
the lower settle (cdpr), 2 cubits high (ed, rp) 
and a cubit broad (c?e, op). Next was to come 
the greater settle («/wo), 4 cubits high (e/,ow) 
and a cubit broad (fg,mn). Highest of all 
was to be the upper altar (g h I m), 4 cubits high, 



and having a square top 12 cubits each way 
(hi). There were to be horns (h i, k I) at the 
four corners. The upper settle would form a 
square 14 cubits each way (fti). The whole 
height of the altar, excluding the horns, would 
be 1 1 cubits (nearly 20 ft.), and the top of the 
altar was to be reached by stairs on the E. side. 
13. Higher place] RY ' base.' 15. So the 
altar] RV ' and the upper altar.' From the 
altar]RV 'from the altar hearth ' : so in v. 16. 

16. Squares] RV ' sides ' : so in v. 17. 

17. The border about it] is probably not a 
border about the settle, but a border about 
the base described in v. 13. The three last 
clauses of v. 17 refer to the altar as a whole. 

(c) The Consecration of the Altar 

(4318-27) 

Seven days would be required for this. Each 
day a he-goat was to be sacrificed as a sin- 
offering, and a ram and a young bullock were 
to be sacrificed as burnt offerings. On the 
first day a young bullock was to take the place 
of the he-goat. These vv. may be compared 
with Ex 29 36, 37 Lv8H 1533. 20. Purge] RY 
' make atonement for ' : so in v. 26. 

22. Kid of the goats] RY ' he-goat.' 

26. Themselves] RY ' it.' 

(d) The Closing of the Outer Eastern 

Gate (441-3) 
This gateway, by which God's glory had 
returned to the Temple, was to be perma- 
nently shut thereafter. The prince, however, 
might use it for sacrificial meals, entering it 
by the porch (Fig. 1, d) from the outer court, 
and leaving it by the same way. 

CHAPTER 444-31 
The Priests and the Levites 

Standing at the inner northern gate Ezekiel 
again saw the glory of God filling the Temple 
and was again addressed by the divine voice 
(vv. 4, 5). The Speaker first rebuked the 
custom which had prevailed in the old Temple, 
of having foreigners as servants in the sanctu- 
ary (vv. 6-8). He directed that in future 
their place should be taken by the Levites who 
were not of the family of Zadok. These had 
formerly shared the priestly office, but for 
their encouragement of Israel's idolatry they 
were to be deprived of this privilege, and to 
have humbler services assigned to them (vv. 
9-14). The Levites of the family of Zadok 
alone were to exercise the priesthood in future 
(vv. 15, 16). No mention is made of the high 
priest. Yarious regulations follow as to the 
priests' clothing, marriage, public duties, de- 
filement and purification, and sacrificial per- 
quisites (vv. 17-31). This passage has an 
important bearing on the date of certain parts 
of the Pentateuch (see Intro.). 

7. Strangers] In 2 Kll we have an instance of 



521 



44. 10 



EZEKIEL 



45.23 



foreign mercenaries (' Carites,' v. 4, RV) being 
employed as guards in the Temple. The 
Nethinim (Ezr8 20 ) were apparently captives 
employed as Temple slaves: see Zechl4 21 . 

They] RM 'ye.' Because of] RV ' to add 
unto.' io. Are gone away] RV ' went.' The 
reference is to the worship at the high places, 
abolished by Josiah (2K238.9). 15. Zadok] 
made priest by Solomon when Abiathar was 
deposed (IK 2 26, 27, 35). I7> X 8. Cp. Ex28 3 9-4 2 
3927-29 Lvl6 4 . 19. The holy chambers] those 
described inc. 42: see 42 13 > 14 . 

20. Cp.Lv21 5 . 21. Cp.LvlO 9 . 22. Cp.Lv 
2114. 23. Cp. LvlO 10 . 24. Cp. Dt 178-13 
1 9 17 2 1 5 , where the priests are associated with 
secular judges. 25. Cp. LV21 1 * 3 . 26. Cp. 
Nul9 n . 28. Cp. Nul8 20 . 29. Meat offer- 
ing'] cp. Lv 2 3 7 9_n . Sin . . and . . trespass offer- 
ing] cp. L v 6 18 7 6, 7 Nu 1 8 9, 10. Dedicated] 
RV ' devoted ' : cp. Lv 27 28 Nu 18 14 . 30. The 
firstfruits] Cp. Ex23i9 3426 Nul8i3 Dtl8 4 . 

Oblation] RM 'heave offering': cp. Nu 
1519-21 1819. 3I . Cp. Ex223i Lv22«. 

CHAPTER 45!-8 
The Lands for the Priests, Levites, 

Prince, and City 
The division of the whole country is de- 
scribed in ch. 48, which includes the substance 
of the present passage, and shows the position 
of these lands in relation to those of the tribes. 
The holy portion (Fig. 7, abgh) was to be 
25,000 cubits long (ab,gh) and 20,000 cubits 
broad (ag,bh). The sanctuary (s) was to oc- 
cupy a square of 500 cubits each way, with a 
border on every side of 50 cubits more. The holy 
portion was to be subdivided into a portion 
(efgh) 25,000 by 10,000 cubits, containing the 
a b 



p ' 


□ s 


/ 




i k 


h 


s 


□ 





c I in d 

Fig. 7. 

sanctuary, and allotted to the priests; and a 
portion (abef) ot the same size, allotted to 
tlif Levites. Alongside the priests' portion 
iraa to be &sbrip (ghcd) 25,000 by 5,000 cubits, 
tor fche city and the people, 'rinse three por- 
tions would Forma Bquare of 25,000 cubits each 

way. and lv and W. of this the posses-ions of 

the prince (P, P) were to extend to the bound- 
aries of the land. 

1. Ten thousand] RM ' twenty thousand.' 



Meeds'] should be 'cubits.' 3. And the 
most holy place] RV ' which is most holy.' 

5. The five and twenty . . the ten] omit the 
with RV. For twenty chambers] read with 
LXX, 'for cities to dwell in.' 6. For details 
of this portion see 48 16 ' 19 . 7. The length . . 
portions] RV ' in length answerable unto one 
of the portions,' i.e. the tribal portions on the 
N. and S. See Fig. 8 and 4822. 

CHAPTER 45 9!7 
The Prince's Dues and Obligations 
The oppressive exactions of the former 
rulers were to be unknown in the restored 
Israel. Weights and measures were to be just 
and correct. The prince was to receive from 
the people a sixtieth of their wheat and barley, 
a hundredth part of their oil, and one in two 
hundred of their flocks. Out of these supplies 
the prince was to provide all the regular sacri- 
fices for the Temple. 

10. The ephah (dry measure) and the bath 
(liquid measure) were each the tenth of an 
homer. 12. Twenty shekels .. maneh] read 
with LXX, ' five (shekels) shall be five, and 
ten shekels ten, and fifty shekels shall be your 
maneh.' A shekel was 20 gerahs, and a maneh 
50 shekels or 1,000 gerahs. 13. 1 in 60: see 
v. 10. 14. Cor] equivalent to " homer.' The 
proportion is 1 in 100. 

CHAPTERS 45!8-4624 
The Offerings at the Sacred 
Seasons, etc. 
(This whole passage should be compared 
with Nu28,29.) 

(a) The Atonement for the Sanctuary 
(45 18-20) 

This was to take place twice yearly, on the 
first days of the first and seventh months. 
These two days in Ezekiel serve the same pur- 
pose as the great Day of Atonement on the tenth 
day of the seventh month (LvlG Nn29 7-11 ). 

20. The seventh day of the month] LXX 'in 
the seventh month, on the first day of the 
month.' Reconcile] RV ' make atonement for.' 

(b) The Passover (45 21 - 2 *) 
With these regulations cp. Ex 12 1S - 20 
Lv23 M Nu'.t- 5 Dt'li'.i-*. 

23. Kid of the goats] RV ' he-goat.' 

(c) The Feast of Tabernacles (45 -■') 
This was to hold the same place in the 
seventh month as the Passover in the first 
month: cp. Lv23 M -s« NU29 12 " 88 Dtl6 l:!, \ 
Ezekiel makes no mention of the Feast of 
Weeks (Pentecost). 

(d) The Sabbaths and New Moons (46 l ' 8 ) 
On these occasions the E. gateway of the 
inner court, which was shut at other times, was 



522 



46. 5 



EZEKIEL 



47. 12 



opened all day. The prince was allowed to 
enter the gateway by the porch, which was 
next the outer court (40 34 ), to prepare his offer- 
ings, and to worship at the (inner) threshold of 
the gateway, but not to enter the inner court. 
The people worshipped in the outer court, at 
the entrance of the same gateway : cp. with 
these vv. Nu28 9 ' 15 . 

5, 7. Meat offering] RY ' meal offering.' 

7. His hand . . unto] RY ' he is able.' 

(e) Various Regulations for Worship 

(4 6 9-12) 

No one was to leave the outer court by the 
gate by which he came in. If he entered by the 
N. gate he must go out by the S. and vice versa 
(v. 9). The prince and the people were to 
enter and leave together (v. 10). The meat 
offering on all sacred occasions was to be the 
same as that on the new moon (v. 11 : cp. v. 7). 
When the prince wished to make a free-will 
offering the inner E. gate was to be opened for 
him as on the sabbaths and new moons (v. 12). 

8. The prince in the midst of them . . shall go 
in] RY ' the prince . . shall go in in the midst 
of them.' 

12. Voluntary] RY 'freewill offering, a.' 
Voluntarily] RY ' as a freewill offering.' 

(/) The Daily Burnt Offering (46 13 ' 15 ) 
Cp. with this Ex 29 38 -4° Nu 28 3 " 8 . The pro- 
portions of Ezekiel's meal offering differ from 
those in Ex and Nu, and he says nothing 
about a drink offering or an evening sacrifice. 

14. Temper with] RY ' moisten.' Meat 
offering] RY l meal offering ' : so in v. 15. 

(g) Gifts of Land by the Prince (46 16 - 18 ) 
Such gifts could only be made from the 
Prince's own possessions (Fig. 7, PP). If they 
were given to his sons they were made in per- 
petuity, but if to his servants, they returned 
to him in the year of jubilee : see Lv 25 10 27 24 . 

Qi) The Kitchens of the Priests and the 

People (46 !9- 24 ) 

On the W. of the holy chambers N. of the 
Temple (Fig. 3, GG l ) Ezekiel was shown a 
place (L) where the priests cooked the parts 
of the sacrifice which they ate in the chambers 
(42 13 ). We may assume that there was a 
similar place (L) adjoining the holy chambers 
(GG l ) on the S. of the Temple (vv. 19, 20). 
In every corner of the outer court there was a 
building (M) 40 cubits by 30, where the Tem- 
ple servants (the Levites) cooked the sacrifices 
to be eaten by the people (vv. 21-24). 

22. Joined of] RY ' inclosed.' 23. Places 
of them that boil] RY ' boiling houses.' 

CHAPTER 47112 
The Life-giving Stream 
Ezekiel was now brought in his vision to the 



door of the Temple proper. Here he saw a 
stream of water which came from beneath the 
threshold somewhat to the S. of the entrance, 
and ran eastwards, crossing the inner court on 
the S. of the altar, and leaving the outer court 
on the S. of the outer E. gate. It rapidly 
deepened till it became an unfordable river, 
with trees on both its banks. It traversed the 
barren region between Jerusalem and the Dead 
Sea, and entering the latter removed its bitter- 
ness, so that its waters, hitherto lifeless, were 
filled with fish. Only the salt marshes border- 
ing the Dead Sea were unaffected by the river, 
as they were necessary for the supply of salt 
to the country. The trees on the banks of the 
river were evergreen and bore fruit every 
month. Their fruit was nourishing and their 
leaves medicinal. This picture probably had 
its origin in the fact that a small stream of 
water actually arose in the Temple hill, but 
everything in the account of Ezekiel's river 
points to the greatest possible change in the 
physical conditions of the coming age, a change 
that would involve the miraculous, as no natural 
stream could increase in volume without tribu- 
taries. To Ezekiel this river was not a mere 
symbol of spiritual refreshment. The perfect 
kingdom of God still presented itself to him 
in an earthly form, accompanied by outward 
fertility and other material blessings. This 
passage is the basis of Rev 22 i> 2 . For a similar, 
yet different, picture of physical change in the 
future age see Zechl4 8 . 

1. Right side] i.e. S. : so in v. 2. 2. Ezekiel 
was led from the inner court through the inner 
and outer !N". gates, round to the outside of the 
outer E. gate. This was necessary, as both the 
inner and outer E. gates were shut. 8. East 
country] the wilderness of Judaea, between 
Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. Desert] RY 
' Arabah,' the great depression of the Jordan 
valley and Dead Sea. 9. Rivers] should be 
' river,' as in LXX. 10. En-gedi . . En-eglaim] 
places on the shore of the Dead Sea. The 
situation of the latter is unknown. The great 
sea] the Mediterranean. 12. Be consumed] 
R Y ' fail.' According to his months] R Y ' every 
month.' Medicine] RY ' healing.' 

CHAPTER 47 1 323 
The Boundaries or the Land 
This passage may be compared with Nu 
341-1 2 . The N. border started from a point 
on the Mediterranean, and ran eastward by 
Hamath and other places to Hazar-enon, be- 
tween Damascus and the Hauran. The E. 
border ran southward from here, between 
Gilead and the land of Israel, and followed 
the Jordan, ending at Tamar, S. of the Dead 
Sea. From Tamar the S. border ran by Meri- 
both-kadesh to the brook of Egypt at the 
SE. corner of the Mediterranean. The W. 



523 



47. 14 



EZEKIEL 



48.30 



border is formed by the Mediterranean (vv. 
13-21). Strangers born in the land were to 
share it with the Israelites (vv. 22, 23). 

14. Lifted up mine hand] sware. 

15, 16. Hethlon . . Zedad . . Berothah, Sib- 
raim] are unknown localities. As men go to 
Zedad ; Hamath] RV ' unto the entering in of 
Zedad, Hamath.' Hamath and Zedad have 
probably changed places. 'The entering in 
of Hamath ' was a well-known pass between 
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. 

17. Hazar-enan, the border, etc.] RV l Ha- 
zar-enon at the border.' Hazar-enon and 
Hazar-hatticon (v. 16) are probably the same. 

18. Ye shall measure] should possibly be 
1 from Hazar-enon ' (see v. 19). From Hauran, 
and from Damascus] must mean ' between 
Hauran and Damascus,' where Hazar-enon lay 
(vv. 16, 17). Hauran is a district E. of the 
Jordan and S. of Damascus. From Gilead, 
and from the land of Israel] means, 'between 
Gilead ' (E. of the Jor/lan) ' and the land of 
Israel' (W. of it). The east sea] the Dead 
Sea. 19. Tamar] unknown, but probably near 
the S. end of the Dead Sea. 

Strife in Kadesh] RV ' Meriboth-kadesh,' 
Kadesh-barnea, in the wilderness on the S. of 
Palestine (Nu 20 13 ). The river] R V ' the brook 
of Egypt,' the Rhinocolura or "Wady-el-Arish, 
which enters the Mediterranean at its SE. 
corner. 

CHAPTER 48 

The Division of the Land and the 

Plan of the City 

(a) The Tribes (vv. 1-7, 23-29) 

These were twelve in number, as the two 
tribes descended from Joseph (47 13 ) made up 
for the exclusion of Levi. From the N. bor- 
der (v. 1) to the S. border (v. 28) the country 
was divided into 13 parallel zones, running 
across it from the E. to the W. boundary. 
Starting from the N., seven of these were 
assigned in order to the tribes of Dan, Asher, 
Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben, and 
Judah. Passing over the eighth portion, the 
remaining five were allotted to the tribes of 
Benjamin, Simeon, Issachar, Zebulun, and Gad 
respectively (see Fig. 8). 

1. To the coast of] RV 'beside.' As one 
goeth to] RV ' to the entering in of.' For 
these are his sides] RV k and they shall have 
their sides.' 28. See on 47 19 . 

(A) The Sacred Territory (vv. 8-22) 
This has already been partly described in 
I."* 1 \ It formed a zone extending from the 
Mediterranean to the Jordan, between the por- 
tion of Judafa «>n the X. and thai of Benjamin 
on the S. (see Fig. 8). Its breadth waa25,000 
cubits from N. to S. (v. 8 ). The central portion 
formed a square of 25,000 cubits each way, 
and included the domains of the Levites. 



priests, and city, as described in 45 8 " 15 (see 
Fig. 7). The strip of 25,000 cubits by 5,000 
(Fig. 7, ghcd), assigned to the city, consisted 
of a central square 5,000 cubits each way (ik 
I m), which contained the city proper, a square 
of 4,500 cubits each way (v 16), surrounded 
on all sides by a border (suburbs) 250 cubits 
across (v. 17). E. and W. of this square were 
two rectangles (gicl, Jchmd), each 10,000 
cubits by 5,000, to be cultivated by the citizens 
for food (vv. 18, 19). On the E. and W. of 
the great square formed by the lands of the 
Levites, priests, and city, lay the possessions 
of the prince (Fig. 7, PP), extending to the 
Mediterranean on the W. and the Jordan on 
the E., as described in 45 7 (vv. 21, 22). 



W 



Dan 




Asher 




Naphtali 




Manasseh 




Ephraim 


c 


Reuben 


1 


Judah 


1-3 

T5 


Prince 


Obla- 


Prince 


5E 


tion 


S 

CO 


1 1 


Q 


Benjamin 


Simeon 




Issachar 




Zebulun 




Gad 





Fig. 8. 

8. Offering] RV ' oblation.' See vv. 9, 10, 
20, 21. Heeds'] should be 'cubits,' and so 
throughout. 9. Ten thousand] RM 'twenty 
thousand,' as in 45 1 . 13. Over against] RV 
'answerable unto': so in vv. 18, 21. 15. A 
profane place] RV ' for common use.' 

18. Serve] RV ' labour in ' : so in v. 19. 

19. Shall serve it] RV ■ shall till it.' 

21. The portions] The territories of Judah 
and Benjamin. 

(c) The Gates of the City (vv. 30-35) 
The city, excluding the suburbs, was a 
square of 4,500 cubits each way, or 18,000 
cubits in circuit. It had twelve gates, three 
on each side, and called after the twelve tribes, 
Joseph being here one tribe. The name of the 
city, Jehovah -Shammah, expressed the abiding 
presence of Cod with His people. This passage 
is I he basis Of Re v22l-M3, 16. 

30. Measures] means 'cubits': so in w. 33, 
36, 1 w. 32, 3 1 for reeds (RV) read k cubits.' 



52 1 



DANIEL 



INTRODUCTION 



The book of Daniel occupies a place by 
itself in the OT., owing to the exceptional 
features which it presents and the peculiar 
difficulties with which it confronts the reader. 
It has been the subject of much discussion 
and controversy, especially in recent times, 
and most Christian scholars now hold views 
both of its interpretation and of its literary 
character, authorship, and date, different from 
those which were formerly accepted in the 
church. Before entering on the special ques- 
tions at issue regarding it, it will be of advan- 
tage to take a general survey of its contents. 

i. Contents. The book professes to be a 
history of Daniel, a Jewish exile who was 
carried away to Babylon before the fall of his 
native kingdom, lived at the court of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and survived till the days of Cyrus, 
the Persian conqueror of Babylon. It falls 
naturally into two parts : (a) chs. 1-6, con- 
taining narratives about Daniel and his com- 
panions, written in the third person, and (&) 
chs. 7-12, containing the visions of Daniel 
regarding the future, and written in the first 
person. One of the narratives — that of 
Nebuchadnezzar's Dream-Image in c. 2 — is 
akin in subject to the latter section. From 
2 4 to the close of c. 7 the book is written in 
Aramaic (known also as Chaldee, or Syriac, a 
kindred language to Hebrew), the rest of the 
book being in Hebrew. The division of 
language is not clearly connected with any 
division of subject, and has not yet been satis- 
factorily explained. The following table 
shows the contents of the book in outline : 

Narratives. 

C. 1. The training of Daniel and his com- 
panions. 

C. 2. The Dream-Image (predictive). 

C. 3. The Fiery Furnace. 

C. 4. The Madness of Nebuchadnezzar. 

C. 5. Belshazzar's Feast. 

C. 6. The Den of Lions. 

Visions. 

C. 7. The Four Beasts. 

C. 8. The Ram and the He-Goat. 

C. 9. The Seventy Weeks. 

C. 10-12. The Kings of the N. and S. 

2. Historical Survey. While various points 
in the predictive portions of the book have 
received different interpretations, there are 



undoubted allusions to the course of events 
for several centuries following Daniel's time, 
and a brief outline of the period is therefore 
necessary at this stage. 

The Babylonian Empire was founded by the 
father of Nebuchadnezzar, and became supreme 
in western Asia after Nebuchadnezzar's victory 
over the king of Egypt at Carchemish in 605 
B.C. (Jer 46 2 ). It was under Nebuchadnezzar 
that the fall of the Jewish kingdom and the 
final captivity of the Jewish nation took place 
in 586 B.C. The Babylonian empire lasted 
through the reigns of several kings who suc- 
ceeded Nebuchadnezzar, and came to an end 
in 539 B.C., when Babylon was conquered by 
Cyrus, king of Persia, who in his first year 
issued an edict permitting the captive Jews to 
return to Palestine to rebuild the Temple at 
Jerusalem (Ezrl 1-4 ). 

The Persian (or Medo-Persian) Empire 
lasted from 539 to 333 B.C., when its last 
king was conquered by Alexander the Great. 
Its first, fourth, fifth, and sixth kings, Cyrus, 
Darius Hystaspes, Xerxes (Ahasuerus), and 
Artaxerxes are mentioned in the OT. It was 
Xerxes who conducted the great invasion of 
Greece which was so gloriously repelled, and 
which has made the names of Thermopylae 
and Salamis (480 B.C.) immortal in history. 

The Greek Empire, founded by Alexander 
the Great, was of short duration in its un- 
divided state. Alexander died in 322 B.C., 
and .his dominions were broken up. After 
several years of conflict they were finally 
divided among four of his generals. Our 
attention in the book of Daniel is confined to 
two of these and their successors. Seleucus 
obtained the Babylonian and Syrian portions 
of Alexander's empire, and fixed his capital 
at Antioch. His descendants are known as 
the Seleucidae, or Greek kings of Syria. 
Ptolemy Lagi got possession of Egypt, and 
assumed the surname of Soter. He was fol- 
lowed by a line of Lagidae or Ptolemies, the 
Greek kings of Egypt. These two kingdoms 
of Syria and Egypt had a long history of 
rivalry, varied by fruitless attempts to establish 
alliance through royal marriages. Palestine 
formed a debateable ground between them, 
and many struggles took place for its posses- 
sion. Speaking generally, it was at first under 
the power of Egypt, and afterwards passed 



525 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



INTRO. 



into the hands of Syria. The eighth Syrian 
king, Antiochus Epiphanes (176-164 B.C.), is 
especially important in relation to the book of 
Daniel. He engaged in several wars with 
Egypt, and persecuted the Jews with great 
severity on account of their resistance to his 
attempts to introduce heathen religious obser- 
vances among them. His profanations and 
oppressions led to the heroic and successful 
struggles of Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers, 
which are recorded in the books of Maccabees 
in the Apocrypha. 

3. The Visions of Daniel. The interpreta- 
tion of the predictive portion of the book is 
quite distinct from the question of date and 
authorship, and may be treated separately. 
There are five outlines of the future which 
call for consideration — those in chs. 2, 7, 8, 9, 
and 10-12 respectively. Of these the third 
and the last are clearly explained in the book 
itself to refer to the events of which an outline 
has been given in the last paragraph. The 
vision of the Ram and the He-Goat (c. 8) 
describes the Medo-Persian empire (the two- 
horned Ram), its conquest by Alexander the 
Great (the He-Goat), the four successors of 
Alexander (the four horns of the Goat), and 
the career of Antiochus Epiphanes (who is 
universally recognised under the figure of the 
Little Horn). The concluding vision, of which 
c. 11 is the most important part, similarly 
describes the first kings of Persia, and alludes 
to the war of Xerxes against Greece. Then 
come Alexander's conquest of Persia, and the 
breaking up of his kingdom into four. The 
greater part of the vision is occupied with a 
minute account of the political relations be- 
tween successive kings of Syria and Egypt, 
and at the end special prominence is given to 
the doings of a 'vile person,' in whom again 
all interpreters recognise Antiochus Epiphanes. 
With regard to the remaining predictions, the 
four parts of Nebuchadnezzar's Dream-Image 
(e. 2), and the Four Beasts of c. 7, have always 
been rightly regarded as parallel, and the inter- 
pretation of the one series therefore decides 
that of the other. In both of these visions 
four successive kingdoms are spoken of , which 
the older expositors identified as the Baby- 
lon inn. Medo-Persian, Greek, and Roman. The 
chief ground for understanding the fourth 
kingdom to be the Etonian is bhe Btatemenl in 
In the days of those bangs shall the 
God of heaves set up a kingdom which shall 
never be destroyed,' the supposed reference 
being to the Advent of Chrisl under the 
Romans, Ob this \i<w the Ten Horns of the 
Fourth Beasi is ••. 7 have to be connected in 
some u.-iv wiih the Etonian empire, while the 

Little Horn Of bhe same chapter is identified 
with the Antichrist foretold in the NT. The 
Seventy Weeks of 0.9, tOO, have heeil supposed 



to reach down to Christian times, and to include 
the Crucifixion of Christ, and the destruction 
of Jerusalem by the Komans in 70 a.d. This 
interpretation is mainly based on the references 
to ' Messiah the Prince ' (9 25 > 26 ), and on our 
Lord's quotation of the phrase ' the abomination 
of desolation ' (9 2 ") in His discourse on the 
destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the 
world (Mt24 15 Mkl3 14 ). The more modern 
view of these visions, however, is that the fourth 
kingdom of chs. 2 and 7 is not the Eoman but 
the Greek empire, that the Ten Horns of c. 7 
are to be found among the successors of Alex- 
ander the Great, and that the Little Horn is 
Antiochus Epiphanes. The Seventy Weeks, too, 
are regarded as terminating with this king, the 
last ' week ' covering the last seven years of his 
reign (171-164 B.C.). 

The reasons in favour of the latter view may 
be briefly indicated. They arise mainly from a 
comparison of the different predictive outlines 
in the book. The more closely these outlines 
are studied side by side the more clearly does it 
appear that they are all parallel to one another, 
and have all the same termination in the days 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. Starting for example 
with c. 8, where the Little Horn(vv. 9-1 2,23-25) 
is undoubtedly Antiochus Epiphanes, we may 
compare it with c. 7, where another Little Horn 
and its end are described in very similar terms 
(vv. 8, 24-26). Further, the period of 1,150 
days (2,300 evenings and mornings) in 8 14 is 
approximately the same as the ' time, times, 
and dividing of time ' (3^ years) in 7 26 . Or 
we may compare c. 8 with c. 9. In 8 n > 12 the 
abolition of the daily sacrifice by Antiochus 
Epiphanes is described, and the 1,150 days 
already referred to represent the period during 
which the Temple was polluted in his reign. 
Now in 9 27 we read of the cessation of the 
daily sacrifice for a similar time — the half 
(3|- years) of the seventieth ' week.' Or again 
we may start from the undisputed ground of 
the last vision. Here the abolition of the daily 
sacrifice and the setting up of the 'abomina- 
tion of desolation ' are ascribed to Antiochus 
Epiphanes (ll 31 ), while the same events are in 
9 27 placed together at the end of the Seventy 
Weeks. C. 12 is the conclusion of the vision 
of which c. 11 forms the principal part, and 
further defines the ' time of the end' to which 
the outline in the Lai ter chapter reaches. Here 
again we have the taking away of the daily 
sacrifice and the setting up of the ' abomination 
of desolation ' (12 11 ). The duration of the per- 
secution by Antiochus Epiphanes is described 

as -a time, t hues, and a half ' ( 1 2 r ), while two 

other turning points in the history are indicated 
as happening a Little Later, at the end of 1,290 
and L ,335 days respectively. The phrase the 
• timed' the end' (8". 10 1140 124,9) defined ;1S 
the t ermination of the visions in these chapters, 



526 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



INTRO. 



is also the limiting horizon of Daniel's whole see 7 26 9 26 . These parallelisms are more clearly 
outlook upon the ordinary history of the future : explained in the subjoined table. 



c. 7 


c. 8 


c. 9 


c. 11 


c. 12 


A little horn 

(78,24-26) 


The little horn. 
Antiochus Epipha- 
nes (8 9 - 12 - 23 - 25 ) 










Daily sacrifice 
taken away by An- 
tiochus (8 n > 12 ) 

' Transgression of 
desolation ' (8 13 ) 


Daily sacrifice 
taken away (9 27 ) 

' Abomination of 
desolation ' set up 
(9 27 ) for 


Daily sacrifice 
abolished by An- 
tiochus (ll 31 ) 

' Abomination of 
desolation ' set up 
by Antiochus (11 31 ) 


From abolition 
of daily sacrifice 
(12 n ) and 

Setting up of 
' abomination of 
desolation ' (12 11 ) 


Power of the 
little horn lasts till 
' a time, times, and 
the dividing of 
time' (7 2 s ) 

' the end' (7 26 ) 


Temple cleansed 
after 1,1 50 days (8 u ) 

The ' time of the 
end'(8"> 19 ) 


Half a ' week ' 
(3i years) (9^) 

'the end' (9 s6 ) 


The ' time of the 
end' (11 4°) 


'A time, times, 
and a half (12 7 ) 
1,290 days 
1,335 days 
to 
the ' time of the 
end' (12 4 > 9 ) 



It thus appears probable that Antiochus 
Epiphanes is the Little Horn, not only of 
c. 8, but also of c. 7 ; that the fourth kingdom 
in chs. 2 and 7 is consequently not the Roman 
but the Greek empire ; that the last of the 
Seventy Weeks falls within the days of Antio- 
chus ; that all the references to the taking away 
of the daily sacrifice and the setting up of the 
' abomination of desolation ' are connected 
with his profanations of the Temple ; and that 
the various expressions denoting exactly or 
approximately 3^ years refer to a part of his 
reign. 

The reasons adduced in support of the older 
interpretation are easily met. The statement 
in 2 44 about the establishment of the kingdom 
of God ' in the days of those kings ' (the Greek 
kings of Egypt and Syria) is to be explained 
by the absence of perspective which is cha- 
racteristic of OT. prophecy, and which is 
illustrated elsewhere in Daniel. Thus in 
12 2 the resurrection of the dead seems to be 
placed immediately after the destruction of 
Antiochus Epiphanes and the deliverance of 
the Jews, and here even such a strenuous 
defender of the older interpretation as Dr. 
Pusey sees only an instance of 'that same 
foreshortening which we find throughout Holy 
Scripture, and in our Lord's own prediction, 
first of the destruction of Jerusalem, and then 
, of His second coming to judge the world.' 
i This ' foreshortening ' is equally applicable to 
2 44 . As for the vision of the Seventy Weeks 
(c. 9), while the phrases ' Messiah the Prince ' 
and 'Messiah' in the AY naturally suggest a 
j direct reference to Christ, the true rendering 
in each case is much less definite, and can be 
i most consistently explained from the historical 
, events of earlier times (see RV and notes). 
i ' Our Lord's reference to the ' abomination of 
1 desolation' is an instance of the frequent NT. 



usage by which OT. words and phrases are 
quoted with an application different from that 
which they originally bore. That the ' abomina- 
tion of desolation' was primarily connected with 
Antiochus Epiphanes is proved by 1 1 31 and by 
1 Mac 1 54 , where this very phrase is used of the 
heathen altar set up by Antiochus at Jerusalem. 

Assuming the fourth kingdom to be the 
Greek empire there is more than one way of 
identifying the other three : see notes on 
chs. 2, 7, and table on p. 539. If the Seventy 
Weeks end with the reign of Antiochus there 
are various schemes for reckoning the earlier 
' weeks,' none of which is quite free from 
difficulty (see notes). But the difficulties of 
the older view in calculating the Seventy 
Weeks and in identifying the Ten Horns of 
the Fourth Beast, are much greater, and have 
given rise to the most varied, arbitrary and 
conjectural explanations. The newer inter- 
pretation of the visions is the result of reading 
the book of Daniel by its own light, and is 
supported by scholars like the late Bishop 
Westcott, who have not committed themselves 
to modern views of its authorship and date. 

4. Literary Character, Date, and Authorship 
of Daniel. It has generally been supposed, 
and is still maintained by some, that the book 
of Daniel is the work either of Daniel himself, 
or of a contemporary who composed the narra- 
tives and joined to them Daniel's own account 
of his visions. On this view the narratives are 
literal history, and the predictive chapters de- 
scribe revelations of the future actually made 
to Daniel during or immediately after the 
Babylonian exile. 

In recent times, however, a different view 
of the origin of the book has met with increas- 
ing acceptance. It is one which, though start- 
ling at first sight to the ordinary reader, has 
very much to be said in its favour, and ought 



527 



IXTRO. 



DANIEL 



not to be dismissed until the grounds on which 
it rests, and the possibility of reconciling it 
with the divine inspiration of the book, have 
been fairly considered. The modern concep- 
tion of the book of Daniel is briefly this, that 
it dates not from the age in which Daniel's 
career is placed, but from the close of the 
period to which its visions refer — in other 
words from the days of Antiochus Epiphanes ; 
that its apparent outlines of the future are 
really past history thrown by the author into 
the guise of ancient prediction ; that the nar- 
ratives, though founded more or less on his- 
torical tradition, are to be regarded chiefly as 
stories with a practical moral, and are valuable 
mainly on this account ; that the aim of the 
writer, both in the narratives and in the view 
of history presented in the visions, was to 
encourage the Jews to constancy under the 
religious persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes ; 
and that the true prophetic element of the 
book lies in its confident anticipations of the 
overthrow of God's enemies, the establishment 
of God's kingdom, the triumph of God's 
people, the resurrection of the dead, and the 
final reward of the righteous. The reasons 
for this view may be summarised as follows : — 
(1) The Contrast Between the Predictions in 
Daniel and other Old Testament Prophecies. 
Prophecy was not merely, nor chiefly, predic- 
tion of the future. The prophets were 
preachers of righteousness to their own times. 
Their messages conveyed rebuke, or warning, 
or encouragement to those among whom they 
lived. In this work the prophets spoke in 
God's name, and claimed a special knowledge 
of His will and purpose. Hence they made 
use of an element of prediction, foretelling the 
consequences of evil-doing on- the one hand, 
and the results of penitence and obedience on 
the other. But in so far as these predictions 
were definite, they related to the immediate 
future, dealing with the destinies of men and 
nations already existing, or with the issues of 
movements already in progress. Further, such 
predictions were always provisional. Their 
fulfilment depended upon certain moral cir- 
cumstances and conditions. Threatened doom 
might be averted by repentance. Promised 
prosperity might be forfeited by disobedience. 
This principle, clearly stated in Jer 18 7 " 10 , is 
of universal application. The prophets un- 
doubtedly spoke of the distant future also, but 
their predictions regarding this were always of 
a more <>r Less general nature, consisting ao1 

of minute anticipations of particular historic 
events, but of ideal pictures of the triumph of 

righteousness, of the universal sway of God's 

kingdom, and of the advent of a perfect King 

and Saviour. The last-mentioned features are 

not wanting in Daniel, but in all the other 

respects which have been referred to, this book 



INTRO. 

differs widely from those of the prophets 
properly so-called. Except in the solitary 
exhortation of 4 27 , it contains no practical 
message for the age of the exile, in which 
Daniel is placed. Its teaching is expressly 
represented as sealed up for a future age 
(826 101-14 124,9). The earliest period (as 
interpreters of all schools agree) in which it 
was fitted to convey instruction and encourage- 
ment, was that of Antiochus Epiphanes, 400 
years after the captivity. Again, it appears to 
predict, not in the conditional manner of the 
prophets, but with absolute certainty, the lead- 
ing particulars of the course of history during 
these intervening centuries, the successive 
empires which arose after the fall of the 
Babylonian power (chs. 2, 7), the Persian inva- 
sion of Greece (ll 2 ), the conquests of 
Alexander the Great (8 5 - 7 > 2 i ll 3 ), and the 
breaking up of his empire (8 8 > 22 ll 4 ), the 
minute details of the relations between the 
later kings of Syria and Egypt (11 5 " 20 ), and 
finally the character and career of Antiochus 
Epiphanes (89-i 2 , 2 3- 2 5 1121-45). The contents 
of c. 11 in particular are altogether unique in 
this respect, and have no resemblance to the 
predictions of OT. prophecy in general. So 
obvious is the contrast that some recent 
scholars, while seeking to maintain the earlier 
authorship of the book as a whole, have been 
constrained to regard c. 11 as an addition, 
composed after the events which it describes. 
But the exceptional features which appear so 
strikingly in this c. are more or less charac- 
teristic of all the visions in the book, and point 
to the same conclusion with regard to them all. 
(2) The Resemblance of Daniel to the so- 
called ' Apocalyptic ' Books. At first sight the 
only alternative to the older view of the book 
of Daniel appears to be that it is a mere for- 
gery which can have no right to a place in the 
Scriptures. But a closer acquaintance with 
the Jewish literature of the centuries before 
and after the beginning of the Christian era 
shows that this assumption is by no means 
necessary. There is a well-defined class of 
works, known as ' apocalyptic,' which, though 
unfamiliar in modern and Western literature, 
was largely represented during the period in 
question. The most important of them have 
only come to light during the last hundred 
years, and the study of them has shown that 
the very features which distinguish the book of 
Daniel from ordinary prophecy serve to connect 
it closely with this other class of writings. The 
most accessible example of 'apocalyptic' litera- 
ture is the Second book of Esdras in the 
Apocrypha. The principal work of the kind, 
however, is the book of Enoch, and in addition 
to it there may be mentioned the book of the 
Secrets of Enoch, the Assumption of Moses, the 
Ascension of Isaiah, the Apocalypse of Baruch, 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



INTRO. 



the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the 
Psalms of Solomon, and the Sibylline Oracles. 
Many of these in their present form are com- 
posite works, and embody Christian as well as 
Jewish elements. But in so far as the original 
groundwork can be separated from the later 
additions, it may be said in general that these 
' apocalyptic ' books were written in times 
when the Jewish religion seemed in danger 
of being overthrown by heathen oppressors. 
Their authors preferred (perhaps from pru- 
dential motives) to conceal their own per- 
sonalities and to put their messages to their 
contemporaries into the mouths of great figures 
in the past, such as Enoch, Noah, Moses, or 
Ezra. They based what they had to say about 
the present and the future upon a view of the 
world's history as providentially guided and 
controlled by G-od, and hence they frequently 
presented more or less extended surveys of the 
past under the form of predictions uttered by 
the great men of earlier times. It was also 
common for the history, thus disguised as 
prophecy, to be further wrapped up in symbolic 
visions. Thus, in the Second book of Esdras, 
which is to be dated shortly before or after 
100 A.D., there is a veiled, yet quite recog- 
nisable, description of the Roman emperors of 
the first Christian century, which is said to 
have been given in answer to the fastings and 
prayers of Ezra in Babylon. In the earliest 
portion of the book of Enoch (dating from the 
second century B.C.) a prediction of the 
Deluge is attributed to the patriarch whose 
name it bears. The Assumption of Moses 
(written about the beginning of the Christian 
era) tells how Moses addressed to Joshua a long 
account of the future history of the Israelites, 
including the destruction of Jerusalem by 
Nebuchadnezzar, the restoration of the Jews 
from captivity, the oppression of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, the rule of the descendants of the 
Maccabees, and that of Herod the Great. Now 
the predictive portions of Daniel have the 
closest resemblance to this kind of veiled his- 
tory, and this analogy of itself suggests that 

, the book may be reasonably regarded as a 
specimen of the ' apocalyptic ' class of literature, 
that it was written not earlier than the time of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, and that the writer chose 
Daniel, a great sage whom he placed in the 

; time of the Babylonian captivity, as the mouth- 
piece of his teaching. This view of the book of 
Daniel is borne out by its striking resemblance 

i in several other respects to the ' apocalyptic ' 

» writings. In common with them it makes a 
large and peculiar use of vision and symbol. 
These, indeed, are found to a certain extent in 
some of the regular prophets, especially in 

i Ezekiel and Zechariah, but it is only in Daniel 
and the ' apocalyptic ' books that they are 
employed to represent the prolonged course of 



history. In Second Esdras, and the Apocalypse 
of Baruch, as well as in Daniel, the visions are 
granted after fasting and prayer. The 70 
' weeks ' of Daniel mark out the course of time 
according to an artificial scheme, which finds 
parallels in the 10 'weeks' of the book of 
Enoch, the 250 ' times ' of the Assumption of 
Moses, and the 12 epochs of world-history in 
Second Esdras. Finally, Daniel is the only 
OT. book in which angels have names given 
to them (Gabriel, Michael), and special nations 
assigned to their care (8 16 9 21 10 13 > 21 12 1 ). This 
is a feature which is still further developed 
in the other ' apocalyptic ' books, where 
additional angelic names (Raphael, Phanuel, 
Uriel, etc.) appear. While these resemblances 
between Daniel and the ' apocalyptic ' writ- 
ings are undeniable, it has been supposed by 
the supporters of the older view of the book 
that Daniel is a Work containing genuine pre- 
dictions of detailed history, and has simply 
provided the model after which the spurious 
predictions of later ' apocalypses ' were com- 
posed. But this leaves the special features of 
Daniel without any real parallel either in 
Scripture or outside of it, and it seems to be a 
more reasonable deduction from the facts that 
Daniel not only has supplied the pattern of the 
other ' apocalyptic ' writings, but is actually a 
member, though the earliest and greatest one, 
of the same class of literature to which they 
belong. 

(3) The Absence of External Evidence for the 
Earlier Date of Daniel. Along with the fore- 
going considerations there must be taken the 
important fact that there is nothing to show 
that the book of Daniel existed before the age 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. The mention of 
Daniel's name in Ezekiel (14 14 > 2 28 3 ) has no 
bearing upon the date of the book, since these 
prophecies of Ezekiel were uttered, the one 
before, and the other immediately after the fall 
of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., while the book of 
Daniel, at the earliest, cannot have been com- 
posed before the third year of Cyrus (536 B.C.) 
to which its narrative comes down (ll 1 ). Then, 
though in the English Bible Daniel appears 
among the prophetical books, it is not classed 
among them in the Hebrew Bible, but belongs 
to the miscellaneous group of ' Writings,' which 
forms the third division of the Jewish Canon. 
Now the Jewish Canon of the Prophets was 
not closed till after the date of Malachi (about 
450 B.C.), and if the book of Daniel was in 
existence then it is not easy to understand why 
it should not have been included in this col- 
lection. It is probable, indeed, that ' the books ' 
(9 2 ), among which Jeremiah was included, are 
to be understood of the Canon of the Prophets 
as already complete when the book of Daniel 
was written. Again, the book of Ecclesiasticus 
in the Apocrypha, written about 200 B.C., 



34 



529 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



contains (chs. 44-50) a list of the worthies of 
Israel, in which Daniel is not found, though 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor 
Prophets, Zerubbabel and Joshua (from Ezra), 
and Nehemiah, are all mentioned. The earliest 
references to the contents of the book of Daniel 
are those in the Sibylline Oracles, an ' apoca- 
lyptic ' work written about 140 B.C., and in 
1 Maccabees, a book of the Apocrypha, 
composed about 100 B.C. This silence about 
Daniel, previous to the age of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes (176-164 B.C.), is significant. Though 
the mere absence of allusions to the book before 
that time does not by itself prove that the 
book was not then in existence, it nevertheless 
lends an additional emphasis to the arguments 
for the ' apocalyptic ' character and later date 
of the work, which have been already given. 

(4) Historical Difficulties in Daniel. The 
book of Daniel seems to contain certain his- 
torical inaccuracies regarding the earlier period 
with which it deals, which present grave objec- 
tions to the view that it was written by the 
Daniel of the exile, or by one of his con- 
temporaries. These features, however, present 
no difficulty on the other view, and in no way 
diminish the value of the book of Daniel as an 
' apocalyptic ' work. It is not surprising that 
an ' apocalyptic ' writer, casting into the form 
of prediction a series of past events, should be 
more accurate in describing those which are 
more recent than in his account of those which 
are more remote. Thus in Second Esdras the 
author confounds Ezra with Zerubbabel, call- 
ing him the son of Salathiel, and placing his 
vision in the 30th year of the captivity, about 
a century before Ezra's real time. The Apo- 
calypse of Baruch, again, is dated in ' the 
twenty-fifth year of Jeconiah, king of Judah,' 
though Jeconiah (Jehoiachin) only reigned 
3 months and 10 days. In the same way while 
the visions of Daniel describe accurately and 
minutely the events of the age of Antiochus 
Epiphanes and his predecessors, the book is 
rather meagre and vague with regard to the 
history of Daniel's own time, and in particular 
its statements about the supposed date of 
Daniel's captivity, the position of Belshazzar 
and his relationship to Nebuchadnezzar, and 
the reign of Darius the Mede, are difficult to 
reconcile with our knowledge of the period 
derived from other reliable sources. 

( 5 ) Peculiarities in the Language of Daniel. 
The oame of the Babylonian conqueror of 
Jerusalem in always spelt in Daniel as Nebu- 
chadnezzar, while contemporary writers like 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel generally give the correct 
form Nebuchadrezzar ( Nab^'kudurri-iUsur)^ 
which is found on fche monuments. The 'Chal- 
deans, 1 who in Jeremiah and Bzekie] are fche 
same as the Babylonian! in general, appear in 
Daniel as a special class of Babylonian wise 



men. This usage is found elsewhere only in 
the later classical writers. It points to a time 
when the Babylonian empire had passed away, 
and when the name formerly borne by all its 
people was confined to the sages or magicians 
who were the only survivors of its lost civilis- 
ation. Lastly, in addition to the Aramaic 
section of the book, there are in Daniel certain 
Persian and Greek words, and the evidence of 
date furnished by the language has thus been 
summed up by Professor Driver : ' The Persian 
words presuppose a period after the Persian 
empire had been well established : the Greek 
words demand, the Hebrew supports, and the 
Aramaic permits a date after the conquest of 
Palestine by Alexander the Great (B.C. 332).' 

All these lines of enquiry lead to the same 
general conclusion, that the book of Daniel 
belongs, as to its literary character, to the 
extensive class of ' apocalyptic ' writings, and 
that its author lived not earlier than the age 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. The references to 
the setting up of the ' abomination of desola- 
tion ' show that it was written after Antiochus 
had set up his heathen altar in the Temple at 
Jerusalem in 168 B.C., while on the other hand 
the general terms in which the death of Anti- 
ochus (164 B.C.) is spoken of indicate that the 
writer was not acquainted with the exact cir- 
cumstances in which it took place. If the 
modern view of the character of the book be 
accepted its composition may be placed with 
certainty between these two dates. 

5. The Narratives of Daniel. On the ' apo- 
calyptic ' view of the book it is not necessary 
to regard these as literal history throughout. 
They are to be viewed primarily as stories 
with an instructive moral for the writer's own 
time. At the same time it is probable that 
they were, partly at least, founded on fact. 
The mention of Belshazzar, who is not named 
elsewhere in OT., shows that the w T riter had 
access to some independent sources of informa- 
tion about Babylonian history, and the picture 
given of the achievements and the character 
of Nebuchadnezzar is in perfect keeping with 
what is known of that monarch from his own 
inscriptions. As to Daniel himself, there is 
no doubt that his name was a famous one in 
Jewish history (Ezkl4 14 >' 2 ° 28 3 ), but it is not 
so clear from these references that he was a 
fellow-exile of Ezekiel. The name Daniel 
occurs in the list of exiles who returned with 
Ezra (Ezr8 2 ), and it is possible that this 
person may have come to be identified with 
the great Daniel of Ezekiel, and may have 
been placed by tradition in Babylon in the 
century before Ezra's day. It seems likely 
that many stories about Daniel had been 
banded down to the age of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes. and that the writer of our book 
selected and combined those which were best 



530 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



INTRO. 



fitted to stir up his oppressed and persecuted 
countrymen to courage and faithfulness to 
God. Examples of other stories about Daniel 
and his companions are found in the additions 
to the book contained in the LXX and 
the English Apocrypha. They include ' The 
Song of the Three Holy Children,' 'The 
History of Susanna,' and ' Bel and the 
Dragon.' 

6. The Right of an ' Apocalyptic ' Book to 
a place in Scripture. It is perhaps natural 
that the modern view of the book of Daniel 
should at first sight present difficulties to 
reverent Christian minds. It seems to in- 
volve a degree of fiction, if not of fraud, 
inconsistent with the divine inspiration which 
we attach to the books of Scripture, and 
especially inconsistent with the way in which 
the book has been used by our Lord. But it 
is coming to be more and more clearly recog- 
nised that the inspiration of the Bible, which 
guarantees the truth of its spiritual teaching, 
is compatible with the greatest variety of 
literary form, that God has used many kinds of 
human writing to convey His revelation to 
men, and that each kind must be judged and 
interpreted according to its own ordinary rules 
— history as history, poetry as poetry, parable 
as parable, etc. And if we find that the book 
of Daniel belongs to a class of literature com- 
paratively unfamiliar to us, but quite common 
at a certain period in the past, we must not 
assume that inspiration could not attach itself 
to such a form of composition, or that divine 
revelation could not be conveyed by it. We 
must rather seek to interpret it according to 
its own nature, when this has been understood, 
and learn to place its real value in the special 
religious truths in which it stands apart from, 
and above, other writings of the same kind. 
The objection of fraud would only have weight 
if the writer were supposed to have desired to 
deceive his readers. But when we read in 
'Paradise Lost' (Books 11, 12) the long 
account of the future history of the world 
which the angel Michael is represented as 
setting before Adam, we feel that Milton is 
only using a literary device which is as trans- 
parent to his readers as to himself — a device 
which had been used by poets like Virgil and 
Dante long before. And there is every reason 
to believe that the authors of the ' apocalyptic ' 
books meant their writings to be understood 
in the same way. Reference has already been 
made to the supposed predictions contained in 
the book of Enoch and the Assumption of 
Moses. Now both of these works are quoted 
in NT. (2 Pet 2 ii Jude vv. 9, 14, 15), but this 
does not compel us to take the story of their 
predictions as literally true. It is but a single 
step from these cases to the book of Daniel. 
If ' apocalyptic ' writings like those just 



mentioned can be quoted by NT. writers, there 
is no reason why a work of the same kind 
should be unworthy of a place in the OT. 
itself. The term ' prophet ' used by our Lord 
is not inapplicable to the writer of Daniel, 
and there is nothing in His reference to the 
book committing us to any view of its literary 
character which we are not compelled to adopt 
with regard to the book of Enoch and the 
Assumption of Moses. 

It is true that the character and claims of 
the book of Daniel must have been very 
early misunderstood. The age of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, in which it appeared, was a time 
when the real nature of OT. prophecy was 
largely forgotten, and when there was a 
growing tendency to confound prophetic 
revelation with that mere prognostication of 
the future which formed the heathen concep- 
tion of inspired oracles. Not only the book 
of Daniel, but the other ' apocalyptic ' writings 
as well, soon came to be regarded by the Jews 
as the actual utterances of the men whose 
names they bore, and the fact that Daniel 
was included in the OT. Canon caused this 
view of it to be taken over and long main- 
tained in the Christian church. But the mere 
length of time during which such a tradition 
is accepted without question is no guarantee 
of its correctness. Many errors, more serious 
than this, survived in the church for centuries 
before the progress of knowledge dispelled 
them. And in the new light which has been 
thrown on the book of Daniel in modern times 
it is right to acknowledge the guidance of the 
Holy Spirit, whose progressive work it is 
to lead the church of Christ into all truth. 
If the book of Daniel, when interpreted in the 
same way as other ' apocalyptic ' writings, is 
found 'profitable for teaching, for reproof, 
for correction, for instruction in righteousness,' 
its inspiration is not less real than on the older 
view which regarded its narratives as con- 
temporary history, and its apparent predictions 
as unique and miraculous disclosures of the re- 
mote future. Tried by this test the book, viewed 
as an ' apocalyptic ' work, appears well worthy 
of a place in Scripture. While it formed the 
model on which later books of the same kind 
were framed, it stands far above them all in 
simplicity, clearness, dignity, and freedom 
from tedious digressions and extravagant con- 
ceptions. It teaches in an incomparably supe- 
rior way the truths which they only feebly 
echo and obscurely reflect. Beneath its arti- 
ficial literary form we can read the great 
lessons that God presides over the history of 
the world ; that the Gentile nations as well 
as the Jews have always been under His con- 
trol ; that the succession of human empires is 
ordained by Him ; that He permits the pride 
and fury of oppressors for a time, but humbles 



531 



INTRO. 



DANIEL 



1. 1 



them in the end, and saves His own ; that His 
kingdom will come at length, and will endure 
for ever ; that faithfulness and constancy to 
Him lead to a life beyond death, and to an eter- 
nal reward of glory. 

7. Influence of Daniel on the New Testament 
Writers. Besides the reference to the ' abomi- 
nation of desolation,' a few other sayings of 
our Lord are based on the language of the 
book of Daniel, as, for example, the descrip- 
tion of the great tree in the Parable of the 
Mustard Seed (Mt 13 32 Mk432 Lkl3*9), the 
pictures of the Son of Man coming in the 
clouds of heaven (Mt2430 26 64 Mkl3 2 6 14 62), 
and other expressions in the great discourse on 
theLastThings(Mt24Mkl3Lk21). The angel 
Gabriel appears again in Lk 1 19 > 26 . St. Paul's 
description of the Man of Sin in 2Th2 in- 
cludes features derived from the portraits of 
Antiochus Epiphanes in Daniel. But it is in 
Revelation, itself an ' apocalyptic ' book, that 
the influence of Daniel is most manifest. The 
coincidences in language and imagery are too 
numerous to mention. We may notice, how- 
ever, the description of the appearance of the 
Son of Man (Rev 1 13-15) ; His coming in the 
clouds to judge the world (Revl4 14 ) ; the 
composite form, and especially the Ten Horns, 
of the Dragon (Revl2 3 ), and the Beast (Rev 
17 3 ) ; the part played by the archangel Michael 
(Revl2 7 ), and the repeated mention of the 
period of 3^ years (' a time, times, and half a 
time,' Revl2 14 ; ' forty and two months,' Rev 
112 135. '1,260 days,' Rev 11 3 126). I n con- 
trast with Dan 8 26 12 9 we have the command in 
Rev22 10 not to seal up the prophecy, since 
the time is at hand. 

CHAPTER 1 
Introductory. The Abstinence of Dan- 
iel and his Friends from Unclean 
Food 
Daniel is introduced as one of a band of 
Jews taken captive to Babylon by Nebuchad- 
nezzar in the third year of Jehoiakim (vv. 1 , 2). 
Along with three of his youthful countrymen 
he is chosen to be trained during three years 
for personal attendance on the king (vv. 3-7). 
As the food and drink provided for those in 
this position are ceremonially unclean Daniel 
resolves not to partake of them. After an 
unsuecessful appeal to the chief official in 
oharge, he persuades a subordinate official to 
give himself and his friends vegetable food 
and water for ten days. The results of the 
experiment are favourable, and the four 
Jewish youths continue to live on this fare 
during the three yean of their training 

(vv. 8—16). At the end of this time they are 
found superior to their fellow students both 
physically and intellectually, and indeed wiser 
than all the Learned men of Babylon. They 



are accordingly appointed to attend upon the 
king (vv. 17-20). Special emphasis is laid 
upon Daniel's understanding of visions and 
dreams, and the superiority of the Jewish 
youths is traced, not to their heathen training 
but to God (v. 17). A biographical note about 
Daniel is added in v. 21. 

Teaching. This c. emphasises the duty 
of abstaining from food contaminated by 
idolatry, or otherwise unclean, and teaches 
that firmness in this respect will bring its own 
reward from God. These lessons bore very 
plainly on the position of the Jews in the 
days of Antiochus Epiphanes (see lMacl 48 ' 
62,63 2 Mac 6 18 " 31 7 1 " 41 ), and were of practical 
importance also in the early days of Chris- 
tianity : see Ro 1 4 1 Cor 1 2 °. 2 < - 29 . The wider 
moral as to the grandeur of fidelity to principle 
is one for all time. 

1. The third year . . of Jehoiakim] presents a 
historical difficulty at the outset. Nebuchad- 
nezzar's supremacy over Palestine dated from 
the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.). This 
battle took place in the fourth year of Jehoia- 
kim (Jer46 2 ), which is also called the first 
year of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer25 1 ). The first 
question is how Nebuchadnezzar could be king 
of Babylon in the third year of Jehoiakim. 
The monumental evidence, however, makes it 
probable that the first year of Nebuchadnezzar 
coincided partly with the third and partly with 
the fourth year of Jehoiakim, so that the 
statements of v. 1 and Jer25* may both be 
correct. The second and more serious difficulty 
is as to a siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
nezzar in Jehoiakim's third year. The chas- 
tisement of Jehoiakim by ' bands of the Chal- 
deans ' (2 K 24 !. 2 ) took place when he revolted 
after serving Nebuchadnezzar for three years, 
i.e. not earlier than his seventh year. It is 
said in 2 Ch 36 5_6 that Nebuchadnezzar bound 
Jehoiakim in fetters to carry him to Babylon, 
and also took away the vessels of the house of 
the Lord, but there is no indication of the 
date of these events, while it appears from 
Jer25 9 36 9 » 29 , that in the fourth, and even in 
the fifth year of Jehoiakim a siege of Jeru- 
salem by Nebuchadnezzar was still a thing of 
the future. It has been thought possible that 
Nebuchadnezzar may have followed up his 
victory at Carchemish by a rapid excursion 
southwards, during which Jehoiakim may have 
averted attack by a timely submission, and • 
gift of captives and sacred vessels, and that 
this may be referred to in the words 'Nebu- 
chadnezzar came up' (2K24 1 ). This, however, 
is very doubtful. It is much more probable 
that the writer of Daniel mistook the three 
yeara of Jehoiakim's submission to Babylon 
(2K24 1 ) for the first three years of his reign, 
and placed the invasion of 2 Ch36 6 » 6 in the 
last of the three. 



532 



1. 2 



DANIEL 



Nebuchadnezzar] For the spelling see 
Intro. 

2. His god] The patron deity of Babylon 
was Marduk (Merodach, Jer50 2 ). Shinar] the 
old name of Babylonia (GnlO 10 ). 

3. Master of his eunuchs] The Heb. is rah 
sarisim, the same title as l Rabsaris 'in 2 K 18 17 . 

The king's seed . . the princes] It is un- 
certain whether Israelites or Babylonians are 
meant. 4. Children] RV ' youths,' and so in 
vv. 10, 13, 15, 17. Blemish] in. a physical 
sense. Cunning] intelligent. Science] know- 
ledge, so rendered in v. 17. Learning] lit. 
'book,' literature: so in v. 17. Chaldeans] 
not the Babylonians in general, but a special 
class of learned men. 5. Meat] RM 'dainties.' 
A Persian word occurring nowhere in OT. 
save in Daniel. Stand before the king] as 
court attendants. 

6. Children of Judah] Daniel and his friends 
belonged to the royal tribe. Daniel] The 
name means ' God is my judge.' Hananiah] 
' Jehovah is gracious.' Mishael] ' Who is what 
God is ? ' Azariah] ' Jehovah has helped.' All 
these names are found elsewhere in OT. : see 
especially Neh3 8 > 23 . 30 8 4 . 7. The changes 
of name have a parallel in the case of Joseph 
(Gn41 45 ). The new names had no refer- 
ence to the God of Israel, and perhaps con- 
tained the names of Babylonian deities. 

Belteshazzar] Balatsu-utzur, 'Protect his 
life.' Not to be confounded with Belshazzar. 

Shadrach] Perhaps Shudur-Aku, ' the com- 
mand of Aku,' the Moon-god. Meshach] of 
uncertain meaning. One suggestion is Mi- 
sha-AJcu, ' Who is what Aku is ? ' Abed-nego] 
Probably a corruption of Abed-Nebo, ' Servant 
of Nebo.' 

8. Defile himself] The king's food might 
consist of the flesh of unclean animals, or might 
not be freed from blood, or part of it might 
have been offered in sacrifice to idols. Part of 
the wine would have been poured out as a liba- 
tion to the gods. 10. Your sort] RV ' your own 
age.' 11. Melzar] RV 'the steward': so in 
v. 16. 12. Pulse] RM 'herbs': so in v. 16. 

17. Daniel had understanding, etc.] A special 
statement by way of introduction to what 
follows in the book. 20. Magicians] A word 
used only in Daniel, and of the Egyptian 
magicians in Gn418, 2 * Ex7 n > 22 8? 9 11 . 

Astrologers] RV ' enchanters.' The Baby- 
lonians had an elaborate system of magic, the 
I fame and practice of which survived long after 
the Babylonian empire had ceased to exist. 

21. The first year of king Cyrus] 538 B.C., 
f some 66 years after the third year of Je- 
hoiakim. 

CHAPTER 2 

Nebuchadnezzar's Dream-Image 
Nebuchadnezzar in his second year had a 



dream, which he required the wise men of his 
court to describe and interpret on pain of 
death. They said this was beyond their 
power, but professed their readiness to ex- 
plain the dream if the king would tell them 
its nature. Nebuchadnezzar persisted in his 
first demand, and as the wise men could 
not satisfy him he gave orders that they 
should be slain (vv. 1-13). Daniel, however, 
interposed and asked that the execution of the 
penalty should be delayed. In answer to his 
prayers and those of his three companions 
God revealed the dream and its meaning to 
Daniel, who gave thanks and praise for this 
favour (vv. 14-23). Daniel was then brought 
before Nebuchadnezzar, and after explaining 
the true source of his knowledge proceeded 
to describe and interpret the dream (vv. 24- 
31). What Nebuchadnezzar had seen was a 
great image with a head of gold, a breast and 
arms of silver, a belly and thighs of brass, 
legs of iron, and feet of iron mingled with 
clay. A stone fell on the feet and broke 
them in pieces, and the whole image crum- 
bled into fragments, and was carried away 
by the wind. The stone then became a 
great mountain, which filled the whole 
earth (vv. 31-35). The head of gold re- 
presented Nebuchadnezzar's empire (vv. 36- 
38). The parts of the image made of silver, 
brass, and iron represented three other king- 
doms that should arise, with characteristics 
corresponding to their various materials (vv. 
39-43). In the days of the last of these God 
would set up a universal and everlasting king- 
dom (vv. 44, 45). On hearing the interpreta- 
tion of the dream Nebuchadnezzar acknow- 
ledged the greatness of the true God, and 
made Daniel governor of the province of 
Babylon, and chief of the wise men (vv. 
46-48). At Daniel's request his three com- 
panions also received posts of honour and 
authority (v. 49). 

Teaching. On any interpretation of this 
c. its central truth lies in the prophecy of 
the divine kingdom, which is to supersede 
all human empires — a prophecy which in NT. 
times is receiving an ever-increasing fulfilment. 
The reasons for regarding the fourth kingdom 
as the Greek empire have been given in the 
Intro. The first three are usually taken to be 
the Babylonian, the Median (represented by 
' Darius the Mede,' whom the writer of Daniel 
places before Cyrus), and the Persian. An- 
other interpretation supposes that Nebuchad- 
nezzar and Belshazzar were the only Baby- 
lonian kings known to the author (see on 
5 7 ), and makes the first two kingdoms to be 
those of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar, fol- 
lowed by the Medo-Persian empire as the 
third. 

1. The second year] seems inconsistent 



533 



2. 2 



DANIEL 



with the statement in l 5 , that Daniel and 
his companions were under training during 
three years of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. But 
it appears from the monuments that the Baby- 
lonian kings counted the year after their ac- 
cession as their first year. The 'second' year 
might therefore be really the third, while the 
k three ' years of l 5 might include, by an- 
other mode of reckoning, the year of accession, 
the following year, and part of the next. The 
' three ' years might, therefore, be over before 
the end of the ' second ' year. 

2. Sorcerers] another class of wise men. 
Astrologers . . Chaldeans] see on 1 4 > 20 . 

3. Was troubled] RY ' is troubled.' 4. In 
Syriack] RM ' in Aramaic.' The Aramaic 
portion of the book begins with the words 
k O king.' The phrase k in Aramaic' should 
probably be regarded as a parenthesis indicat- 
ing that at this point a change of language 
takes place : see Intro. 5. The thing is 
gone] RM ' the word is gone forth.' Nebu- 
chadnezzar had not actually forgotten the 
dream, but he was resolved to test the wise 
men's power by insisting that they should 
describe as well as interpret it : so in v. 8. 

Made a dunghill] cp. Ezr6 n . 8. Gain 
the time] RY ' gain time.' 9. Till the time be 
changed] till something should divert the king's 
purpose. 10. Therefore there is] RY 'foras- 
much as.' 

14. Arioch] Eri-Aku, 'servant of Aku,' an 
old Babylonian name (Gn 14 1 ). 16. Give 
him time] RY ' appoint him a time.' Daniel's 
request was very different from the temporis- 
ing of the wise men in v. 9. 27. Soothsayers] 
still another class of Babylonian wise men. 

28. Maketh known] RY ' he hath made 
known ' : so in v. 29. 29. The dream was 
an answer to Nebuchadnezzar's waking 
thoughts. 30. For their sakes that shall make 
known the interpretation] RY ' to the intent 
that the interpretation may be made known.' 

38. Thou art this (RY ' the ') head of gold] 
The golden head may be identified either with 
the Babylonian empire which Nebuchadnezzar 
represented, or with Nebuchadnezzar person- 
ally. The latter is the more natural inter- 
pretation. 

39. Another kingdom inferior] either the 
Median rule of Darius, which the writer of 
Daniel mistakenly supposed to come before 
that of Cyrus the Persian (see on 8 20 ), or 
the kingdom of Belahazzar, who is contrasted 
with Nebuchadnezzar in c. 5. Another third 
kingdom] either the Persian empire, begin- 
ning with Cyrus, or the Medo Persian empire, 
which is represented by a single animal (the 
ram) in c. H. 40. The fourth kingdom] is the 

Greek empire, founded by the conquests of 
Alexander the Great. 41. The feet and toes] 
represent Alexander's empire as broken up 



after his death. Miry clay] RM ' earthen- 
ware.' There were elements both of strength 
and weakness in the rival kingdoms of the 
Seleucidae and Ptolemies. 43. They shall 
mingle themselves with the seed of men] refer- 
ring to the royal marriages by which these 
kingdoms sought to establish alliance : see 
116,17. 

44. The Messianic kingdom of God will 
overpower and succeed the kingdoms of Syria 
and Egypt. And the kingdom . . other people] 
RY ' nor shall the sovereignty thereof be left 
to another people.' The Messianic kingdom 
will be in the hands, not of foreigners, but of 
the Jews. Both the national limitation and 
the foreshortening of view in this v. are char- 
acteristic of OT. prophecy, and do not affect 
the value of the central truth which is taught. 

45. The dream is certain, and the inter- 
pretation thereof sure] Note the absoluteness 
of the prediction, so unlike the conditional 
utterances of the prophets in general : see 
Intro. 

46. Nebuchadnezzar worshipped Daniel, but 
it is plain that, though Daniel is not said to 
have prevented him, the king really meant to 
give the glory to God. 47. Of a truth, etc.] 
RY ' of a truth your God is the God of gods 
and the Lord of kings.' On the view that 
this narrative is literal history it is difficult to 
account for Nebuchadnezzar's conduct in c. 3. 

48. Chief of the governors] RY ' chief 
governor.' 49. Sat] RY l was.' In the gate 
of the king] RM ' at the king's court ' : see 
Esth2i9.2i32. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Golden Image and the Fiery 
Furnace 

Nebuchadnezzar sets up a colossal golden 
image, and summons to its dedication all the 
officials of his empire, who are commanded to 
fall down and worship the image at a given 
musical signal, on pain of being cast into a 
furnace (vv. 1-6). They all do so, with the 
exception of Daniel's three friends, whose 
refusal is reported to Nebuchadnezzar (vv. 
7-12). They are summoned before the king, 
and persist in their refusal (vv. 13-18). 
Nebuchadnezzar commands the furnace to be 
heated seven times hotter than usual, and the 
three Jewish youths are bound and cast into 
it, the flames slaying their executioners (vv. 
19-22). The king sees them walking in the 
fire unbound and accompanied by a divine 
figure (vv. 23-25). He summons them forth, 
finds them unharmed, magnifies their God, 
decrees that He be held in universal reverence, 
and L,'ives them further promotion (vv. 2G-30). 

Teaching. This story of religious constancy 
and its reward was specially fitted to instruct 
and encourage the Jews in the days of 



53 1 



3. 1 



DANIEL 



5. 



Antiochus Epiphanes. There is a similar 
legend about Abraham and Nimrod. 

i. Of gold] not necessarily solid, but 
perhaps overlaid. Threescore cubits . . six 
cubits] 90 feet by 9, or rather more. Dura is 
represented by the mounds of Dura, some 12 
m. SSE. of Babylon. 2. Princes . . govern- 
ors . . captains] RV f satraps . . deputies . . 
governors ' : so in vv. 3, 27. ' Satraps ' is a 
distinctly Persian term. Judges] RM ' chief 
soothsayers.' Sheriffs] RM ' lawyers.' 

4. People] RV 'peoples.' 5. Sackbut] 
properly trigon, a stringed instrument with a 
triangular frame : so in vv. 7, 10, 15. 

Psaltery] psanterin = Gk. psalter ion — a 
stringed instrument. Dulcimer] RM ' bagpipe ' : 
so in vv. 7, 10, 15. 6. Burning fiery furnace] 
a form of death penalty mentioned in Jer 29 22 
as inflicted by Nebuchadnezzar. 

8. Chaldeans] a special official class, moved 
by jealousy. 12. See 2 49 . 14. Is it true.. 
do not ye serve] RV ' Is it of purpose . . that 
ye serve not.' Nebuchadnezzar is willing to 
put a favourable construction on their first 
refusal, and to give them another opportunity 
of obeying. 16. Are not careful] RV ' have 
no need.' 17. If it be so, etc.] read, 'If our 
God . . is able . . he will deliver us.' The 
words do not really question God's power, but 
mean rather, ' If our God sees fit,' etc. 

18. But if not] The refusal is absolute, come 
what will. 

20. The most mighty men] RV ' certain 
mighty men.' 21. Coats . . hosen . . hats] 
RV ' hosen . . tunics ' (RM ' turbans ') . . ' mantles.' 

23. In LXX the ' Song of the Three Holy 
Children ' is inserted after this v. 

25. The Son of God] RV 'a son of the gods,' 
a heavenly being, called an angel in v. 28. 
Nebuchadnezzar could not have used the 
expression in the definite Christian sense 
suggested by AV. 29. Made a dunghill] 
see on 2 5 . 

CHAPTER 4 
Nebuchadnezzar's Dream and its 
fulfilment 
In the form of a proclamation Nebuchad- 
nezzar records his experience of the power of 
the Most High God (vv. 1-3). He had a 
dream which none of his wise men could 
interpret (vv. 4-7). He then called Daniel, 
and told him the dream, in which he had seen 
a lofty and spreading tree, which at the 
bidding of an angel had been cut down, its 
stump being bound among the grass for seven 
' times ' (vv. 8-18). Daniel explained that the 
tree was Nebuchadnezzar in his greatness, that 
he would lose his reason and live a beast's 
life for seven years, after which he would be 
restored to his throne (vv. 19-27). All this 
has come to pass (vv. 28-33), and Nebuchad- 



nezzar now magnifies the King of heaven who 
is able to abase the proud (vv. 34-37). 

The picture here given of Nebuchadnezzar's 
pride is in keeping with the evidence of his 
own boastful inscriptions. The form of mad- 
ness attributed to him is not an uncommon 
one, and is generally known as ' lycanthropy.' 
No historical record of such an event in his 
life has come to light. There is, however, a 
tradition, quoted by the church historian 
Eusebius from Abydenus, a Greek writer of 
the 2nd cent. A.D., which, though quite differ- 
ent as a whole from the story in this c, has 
one or two points of contact with it. 

Teaching. The example of pride brought 
low which this c. contains would afford a 
significant lesson to the Jews under the tyranny 
of Antiochus. It is suggestive also that the 
conduct of Antiochus led some to substitute 
for the title Epiphanes (' the illustrious ') that 
of Epimanes (' the madman '). 

1. People] RV 'peoples.' 2. High] RV 
'Most High.' 7. Astrologers] RV 'enchant- 
ers.' 8. According to the name of my god] 
This is merely an assonance, not a strict de- 
rivation. The chief god of Nebuchadnezzar 
was Marduk (Merodach). The word Belte- 
shazzar does not contain the name of the god 
Bel : see on 1 7 . 9. Master of the magicians] 
see on 2 48 . 13. A watcher and an holy one] 
Both terms refer to the same being. The 
name ' watcher ' is first used for ' angel ' in 
Daniel, and is common in the later apocalyptic 
books. 16. In this v. the figure of the tree 
is dropped. Times] years. 17. Matter] RV 
' sentence.' The angels are represented as 
entrusted with the power of deciding the 
destinies of men. 19. One hour] RV ' a while.' 

The dream be\ i.e. be fulfilled on. 27. If 
it may be] RV ' if there may be.' 

28-33. I n these vv. the narrative, which 
has hitherto been in the terms of Nebuchad- 
nezzar's proclamation, passes into the third 
person. The first person is resumed in v. 34. 

30. House of the kingdom] RV 'royal 
dwelling place.' 

CHAPTER 5 

Belshazzar's Feast 
Belshazzar, king of Babylon, holds a great 
feast, at which he profanely uses the sacred 
vessels taken by Nebuchadnezzar from the 
Temple at Jerusalem (vv. 1-4). He is terrified 
at seeing part of a human hand writing mys- 
terious words on the wall of the banqueting 
room, and vainly offers great rewards to the 
wise men of Babylon if they can read and ex- 
plain the writing (vv. 5-9). The queen tells 
him of Daniel, and of his fame for wisdom, 
acquired in Nebuchadnezzar's days. Daniel is 
accordingly sent for, and Belshazzar repeats to 
him his request and his promises (vv. 10-16). 



535 



5.1 



DANIEL 



Declining the offered reward Daniel rebukes 
Belshazzar for neglecting the lessons of humil- 
ity taught by Nebuchadnezzar's history, and 
interprets the writing as a message of doom 
(vv. 17-29). That night Belshazzar is slain 
and Darius the Median receives the kingdom 
(vv. 30, 31). 

Teaching. The profanations of Belshazzar 
were very similar to those of Antiochus Epiph- 
anes (1 Mac 1 s " 24 2 Mac 5 15 " 17 ), and Belshazzar's 
fate would encourage the Jews in the time of 
Antiochus to hope that their oppressor would 
be similarly cut off. 

i. Belshazzar the king] These words raise 
another historical difficulty. We learn from 
the inscriptions that Belshazzar was the son of 
Nabuna'id (Nabonidus), the last king of Baby- 
lon, and never occupied the throne himself. 
As Nabuna'id, however, was much occupied 
with antiquarian pursuits Belshazzar was 
practically ' prince-regent.' See on I 1 8 1 . 

2. Vessels] see l 2 . His father Nebuchad- 
nezzar] another historical difficulty. Nabu- 
na'id was the father of Belshazzar, and was a 
usurper, who did not belong to the same family 
as Nebuchadnezzar. It is possible that he may 
have married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, 
but of this nothing is known. In that case 
1 father ' would have the general sense of 
' forefather ' which it often bears in OT. But 
the emphasis laid on 'father' (vv. 11, 13, 18) 
and ' son ' (v. 19) seems to indicate that the 
writer had the literal relationship in view, and 
regarded Belshazzar as the actual son and im- 
mediate successor of Nebuchadnezzar. 

7. Scarlet] RV l purple ' : so in vv. 16, 29. 

Be the third ruler] RM ' rule as one of three ' : 
so in vv. 16, 29. The meaning is illustrated 
by the arrangement described in 6 2 . 

12. Hard] RV ; dark.' 13. Jewry] RY 
'Judah.' 19. People] RY 'peoples.' 

25. The words are names of weights. The 
U in Uphars'm stands for ' and,' and P(h)ar$in 
is the plural of Peres (v. 28). The literal 
meaning of the writing was ' a mina, a mina, a 
shekel, and half minas.' 26-28. The inter- 
pretation given by Daniel is connected with 
the derivation of two of the terms. Me ne sig- 
nifies ' numbered ' ; Tekel ( = shekel) suggests 
the process of weighing ; and Peres is doubly 
explained, first by its etymology ('division'), 
and second \\\ its assonance with 'Persian.' 

30. Chaldeans] here used in the national 
sense, as equivalent to ' Babylonians.' 

Was Belshazzar .. slain] The traditions 
abonl the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, which 

classical historians liave preserved, :ire now 
known from the inscriptiona of Cyrus himself 
to be incorrect. The army <>f Cyrus occupied 
Babylon without fighting, and Nabnna'id was 

captured. Cyrus himself afterwards entered 
the city in peace. A little later, however, there 



was a night assault made by Gobryas, the 
governor under Cyrus, in which ' the king's 
son ' was slain. 

31. Darius the Median (RY ' Mede ')] pre- 
sents the greatest historical difficulty in the 
book. In this v. he receives the kingdom of 
Babylon upon the death of Belshazzar. In 
g 1,2, 25, 26 ne ac t s and speaks as a supreme 
sovereign ; in 6 28 he appears as a predecessor 
of Cyrus the Persian ; in 9 1 he is called 
1 Darius the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of 
the Medes, who was made king over the realm 
of the Chaldeans.' No such person, however, 
is mentioned in any other historical source, and 
the inscriptions leave no room for an inde- 
pendent king of Babylon between Nabuna'id 
and Cyrus. Cyrus had conquered Media before 
invading Babylon, and his army comprised both 
Medes and Persians. Gobryas, the general of 
Cyrus, who acted under him as governor of 
Babylon, was probably a Mede, and the author 
of Daniel has apparently mistaken his subor- 
dinate office for an independent monarchy, and 
has confounded his name with that of Darius 
Hystaspes (the Darius of the book of Ezra), 
who was the father, and not the son, of Ahasu- 
erus (Xerxes). 

Took] RY ' received.' 

CHAPTER 6 

The Den of Lions 

Darius the Mede divides his kingdom into 
120 satrapies, the whole being superintended 
by three higher officials, of whom Daniel was 
one (vv. 1, 2). Daniel is in special favour, and 
Darius meditates giving him a still higher 
office (v. 3). This rouses the jealousy of his 
colleagues, who plot his ruin (vv. 4, 5). They 
persuade Darius to make a decree that no one 
shall ask anything for 30 days from God or 
man, save from the king, on pain of being cast 
into the den of lions (vv. 6-9). Daniel, as 
his enemies expect, disregards this rule, and 
being accused he is found guilty, and is cast, 
much against the king's will, into the den of 
lions (vv. 10-17). Afterasleeplessnight Darius 
comes to enquire for Daniel, and finds him 
alive and unhurt (vv. 18-22). Daniel is taken 
out of the den, and his accusers, with all their 
families, are thrown to the lions and instantly 
slain (vv. 23,24). Darius then makes a decree 
to all the world in honour of Daniel's God 
(vv. 25-27). A biographical note is added in 
v. 28). 

Teaching. Apart from the question about 
Darius the Mede (see on 5 31 ) this c. pre- 
sents oilier difficulties if taken as literal his- 
tory. The decree of Darius seems one which 
even a heathen king would not be likely to 
make. If, however, the writer's purpose was 
to construct a situation for Daniel similar to 
the circumstances of the pious Jews under 



536 



6. 1 



DANIEL 



7.9 



Antiochus Epiphanes, and to read them an 
encouraging lesson by this imaginative use of 
the past, the c. well fulfils this object : see 
especially 1 Mac 1 50 . 

i. Princes] RY 'satraps ' : so in vv. 2, 3, 4, 6, 
7. The division of the Persian empire into 
20 satrapies was actually made by Darius 
Hystaspes. Gobryas, however (see on 5 31 ), is 
said in the inscriptions to have appointed 
governors in Babylon, and this may have led 
to the confusion between him -and Darius. 
Cp. the 127 provinces of Estill 1 8 9 . 

2. Was first] RY 'was one.' This was 
the arrangement contemplated by Belshazzar 

(57,16,29). 

7. Governors . . captains] RY ' deputies . . 
governors.' Decree] RY ' interdict ' : so in 
vv. 8, 9, 12, 13, 15. God] RV ' god ' : so in 
v. 12. 8. Medes and Persians] see on 5 31 . 

Which altereth not] cp. Esthl 19 8 8 . 

10. Toward Jerusalem] cp. 1K8 35 Ps57 28 2 . 
The Talmud says that the Jews in foreign lands 
turn in prayer towards the land of Israel, those 
in the land of Israel towards Jerusalem, and 
those in Jerusalem towards the Temple. The 
Mohammedans turn in the same way towards 
Mecca. 11. Praying] RY ' making petition.' 

12. Ask a petition of] RY ' make petition 
unto.' This exact rendering brings Daniel's 
conduct into sharp opposition against the in- 
terdict in v. 7. 14. Displeased with him- 
self] RY ' displeased.' 17. That the purpose 
might not be changed] RY ' that nothing 
might be changed.' 18. Instruments of mu- 
sick] RM ' dancing girls.' 23. Believed] RY 
' had trusted.' 25. People] RY ' peoples.' 

26. Every dominion] R Y ' all the dominion.' 

CHAPTER 7 
The Yision of the Four Beasts 

In the first year of Belshazzar Daniel sees 
in a dream four beasts rising out of the sea 
(vv. 1-3). The first is like a lion, with eagle's 
wings (v. 4), the second like a bear (v. 5), 
the third like a leopard (v. 6), while the fourth 
is a unique and ferocious monster with ten 
horns (v. 7). Among the horns of the fourth 
beast there comes up a little horn with human 
eyes, which displaces three of the other ten, 
and carries itself proudly (v. 8). God then 
appears sitting on His throne of judgment 
(w. 9, 10). The fourth beast is slain (v. 11). 
A human figure appears in the heavens, and 
receives an everlasting kingdom (vv. 13, 14). 

At Daniel's request an angel explains the 
vision (vv. 15, 16). The four beasts represent 
four kings (or kingdoms : see on v. 17) which 
are to appear in succession, and are to be fol- 
lowed by the kingdom of the people of God 
(v. 18). Daniel's interest centres specially in 
the fourth beast and the conclusion of the 
vision (vv. 19-22). The fourth beast is ex- 



plained as a conquering kingdom (v. 23), the 
ten horns are ten of its kings, and the little 
horn is an eleventh king who shall put down 
three of the former ten (v. 24), and shall blas- 
phemously persecute the saints for ' a time, 
times, and half a time ' (v. 25). In the day 
of God's judgment the little horn will lose his 
dominion (v. 26) and the everlasting kingdom 
of the saints will follow (v. 27). 

Interpretation. The four kingdoms in this 
c. are presumably the same as those in c. 2. 
The reasons for regarding the fourth as the 
Greek (rather than the Roman) empire are 
given in Intro. See also on c. 2. 

Teaching. This c. contains a prophecy of 
the Messianic kingdom of God. It is expected 
to appear after the overthrow of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, and to be in the hands of the 
Jewish people. 

1. Belshazzar king of Babylon] For the his- 
torical difficulty see on 5 1 . Belshazzar is 
clearly regarded as actual king, since the years 
of his reign are reckoned by both here and in 
8 1 . 

2. Strove] RY 'brake forth.' The great 
sea] the Mediterranean. 3. The imagery re- 
calls the figures, so often found on Babylonian 
bas-reliefs, of winged lions and other monsters. 
The sea symbolises the confused welter of 
nations before the Babylonian empire arose. 

4. The first] beast is either the Babylonian 
empire, or more probably Nebuchadnezzar 
himself (see on 2 38 ), the changing of the beast 
from the brute to the human condition refer- 
ring possibly to Nebuchadnezzar's improve- 
ment under God's discipline (c. 4). The feet] 
RY ' two feet.' 5. The second beast may be 
either the alleged Median empire of Darius 
(the three ribs in its mouth being perhaps three 
nations conquered by it before the taking of 
Babylon), or Belshazzar (the picture of the 
bear describing his sluggish and sensual 
nature) : see on 2 39 . 6. The third beast is 
either the Persian empire founded by Cyrus, as 
distinguished from the Median rule attributed 
in this book to Darius, or the Medo -Persian 
empire regarded as one. The four heads are 
perhaps the four Persian kings who are men- 
tioned in OT. — Cyrus, Darius (Hystaspes), 
Xerxes (Ahasuerus), and Artaxerxes. 7. A 
fourth beast] the conquering Greek empire of 
Alexander the Great. Ten horns] see on v. 
24. 8. Another little horn] Antiochus Epiph- 
anes. The description of this horn is con- 
tinued in vv. 24, 25. Three of the first horns] 
see on v. 24. 

9, 10. The judgment scene is presented in 
the form of a material spectacle, which is first 
found in Daniel, though it is common in other 
apocalyptic books and in the NT. Cast down] 
RY ' placed.' His wheels] RY ' the wheels 
thereof ' (of the throne). Ancient of days] An 



537 



7. 12 



DANIEL 



8. 



expression for God peculiar to Daniel. The 
book of Enoch has, ' The Head of Days.' 

12. The rest of the beasts] the former king- 
doms, survived as nations, but without power. 

13. One like the Son of man] RV ' one like 
unto a son of man ' — a human figure as opposed 
to the four brute figures, and coming from 
heaven as opposed to their coming from the 
sea. This figure denotes, not the Messiah as 
an individual, but the kingdom of God as the 
successor of the kingdoms of this world. 

14. People] RV ' peoples.' 



17. Four kings] This statement must be 
taken loosely. The fourth beast is not strictly 
a king, but a kingdom with various kings (vv. 
23, 24). 18. Take] RV 'receive.' 

19-22. A recapitulation of vv. 9-14. 

23. The fourth kingdom] RV 'a fourth 
kingdom,' the Greek empire of Alexander the 
Great. 

24. The ten horns] are to be sought among 
Alexander and his successors. The following 
table of the Greek kings of Syria and Egypt 
may be useful here : 



Syria. 

Seleucus I (Nicator) . . . 

Antiochus I (Soter) . . . 

Antiochus II (Theos) . . 

Seleucus II (Callinicus) . . 

Seleucus III (Ceraunus) . . 

Antiochus III (the Great) . 

Seleucus IV (Philopator) 

Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) . 



b.c. Egypt. b.c. 

312-280 Ptolemy I (Soter) 305-285 

280-261 ) 

> Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) . . 285-247 
261-246 ) 
246-226 ) 

Ptolemy III (Euergetes) . . 247-222 
226-223 ) 

( Ptolemy IV (Philopator) . . 222-205 
223-187 < 

( Ptolemy V (Epiphanes) . . . 205-181 
187-176 ) 

\ Ptolemy VI (Philometor) . . 181-146 
176-164 ) 



Antiochus Epiphanes was the son of Antiochus 
the Great, and the younger brother of Seleu- 
cus IV, whom he succeeded on the throne. 
Seleucus IV was murdered by a usurper named 
Heliodorus ; but Antiochus speedily drove out 
the latter. The real heir to the throne was 
Demetrius, the son of Seleucus IV, but he only 
obtained the kingdom after the death of Antio- 
chus. Another rival of Antiochus is said to 
have been Ptolemy VI, of Egypt, whose 
mother, Cleopatra, was a daughter of Antiochus 
the Great. These relationships are shown in 
the accompanying table : 

Antiochus the Great 

I 



Seleucus IV 

I 

Demetrius 



Antiochus 
Epiphanes 



Cleopatra, 
m. Ptolemy V 

Ptolemy VI 



The ten horns are variously reckoned as in- 
ducting or excluding Alexander the Great, and 
as comprising only Syrian, or both Syrian and 
Egyptian kings. Including Alexander, the 
firsi seven may be Alexander the Great, Seleu- 
cus I. Antiochus I. Antiochus II. Seleucus II, 
Seleucus IN. Antiochus IN. and t lie last 
three Seleucus IV (whose murder may have 
been instigated by Antiochus Epiphanes), 
ELeliodorus, and Demetrius. If Alexander be 
omitted, the first seven will include Seleucus IV; 

while the last three- may be Heliodorus. Deme 

fcrius, and Ptolemy VI. The cumber ten may 
be a round one, and the exact interpretation of 



the ten horns is of less consequence than the 
recognition of the little horn as Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

25. The v. exactly describes the conduct of 
Antiochus (lMacl 41 -50). Laws] RV'the law.' A 
time, times, and the dividing of (RV ' half a') time] 
Three years and a half appears all through the 
book of Daniel as the period appointed for the 
tyranny of Antiochus. It is to be regarded as a 
round period (the half of seven years), denoting a 
short and incomplete interval of time. 27. Of 
the kingdom] RV ' of the kingdoms.' People of 
the saints] Here and in v. 18 these are spoken 
of as the rulers of the future kingdom of God. 
The ' Son of man ' is not a personal king, but. 
a symbolic figure for God's kingdom in its 
superiority to the other kingdoms symbolised 
by the four beasts. 28. Hitherto] RV l here.' 

The table on next page sums up the general 
interpretation of chs. 2, 7 adopted in the notes. 

CHAPTER 8 

THE Vision ok THE Ham and the HE-GOAT 
In the third year of Belshazzar Daniel has a 
vision iu which he seems to stand by the river 
Ulai, near Susa (vv. 1, 2). He sees a two- 
horned ram which behaves aggressivel}' for a 
time (vv. I'), 4), but is attacked and overthrown 
by a lie goat which comes rapidly from the W. 
(w. 5-7). The he-goat has a notable horn 
(v. 5), which is presently broken, and instead 
of which four others come up (v. 8). From 
one of these there springs a little horn, which 



538 



8. 2 



DANIEL 



8.25 



Identification 


c. 2 


c. 7 


Compare c. 8 


The Babylonian em- 


The head of gold 


The lion 




pire, or Nebuchadnezzar 








himself 








The ' Median ' em- 


The breast and arms 


The bear 




pire, or Belshazzar 


of silver 






The Persian, or the 


The belly and thighs 


The leopard 


The ram (the Medo- 


Medo-Persian empire 


of brass 




Persian empire) 


The Greek empire of 


The legs of iron and 


The beast with 10 horns 


The he-goat 


Alexander and his suc- 


the feet of iron and clay 






cessors 








The Messianic king- 


The stone cut from the 


The human figure 'a 




dom 


mountain. 


son of man ' 





prospers greatly, and behaves arrogantly and 
wickedly, especially against the sanctuary and 
the continual burnt offering (vv. 9-12). An 
angel proclaims that its oppressions will last 
for 2,300 evenings and mornings (vv. 13, 14). 
The angel Gabriel then explains the vision to 
Daniel (vv. 15, 16). It relates to ' the time of 
the end' (vv. 17-19). The ram is the Medo- 
Persian empire (v. 20), and the he-goat the 
Greek empire (v. 21). The notable horn is the 
first Greek king (Alexander the Great), and 
the four horns which succeed it are the rulers 
of the four divisions of his empire (vv. 20, 21). 
The little horn is a king of one of these divisions, 
and the description plainly points to Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Gabriel foretells his various acts 
of oppression and blasphemy and his sudden 
overthrow (vv. 23-25). The last two vv. con- 
tain Gabriel's parting message to Daniel, and 
describe the effect of the vision on the latter 
(vv. 26, 27). 

2. A vision] RY ' the vision.' Shushan . . the 
palace] Susa, the capital of the Persian kings 
(Nehl 1 Esthl 2 ). Elam] a region NW. of 
Persia proper, frequently mentioned in OT. 
(GnlO 22 Isall 11 Jer49 34 , etc.). Ulai] the 
Eulaeus, a large canal in the vicinity of Susa : 
cp. the ' Chebar ' in Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 1 3 ), 
and the 'Hiddekel' (10 4 ). 8. For it] RV 'in- 
stead of it.' 9. Pleasant (RY 'glorious') land] 
Palestine. 

10. The host of heaven] the stars, symbolis- 
ing in Daniel the righteous Israelites (12 3 ), 
some of whom were slain by Antiochus : see 
v. 24 1 Mac 12^, 30, 57, 63). 

11. The prince of the host] God. And by 
him, etc.] RY ' And it took away from him ' 
(God) ' the continual burnt offering ' : see 1 1 31 
1 Mac 1 45 » 59 . The place of his sanctuary was 
cast down] see 1 Mac 1 21-23, 39 3 45 4 38. 1 2 . The 
rendering of this v. is uncertain. RY ' And 
the host ' (of the Israelites) ' was given over 
to it ' (the little horn), ' through transgression ' 
(the apostasy of the heathen party in Jerusa- 
lem, lMacl 11 " 15 ). Practised] RY 'did its 
pleasure.' Similarly in v. 24. 13. Saint] RY 



'holy one,' angel: see 4 13 . Transgression of 
desolation] see 9 2 Ul3i 12 u 1 Mac 154, 59. 

14. Days] RY ' evenings and mornings,' 
1 , 1 50 days. The period between 1 Mac 1 54 and 
lMac4 52 > 53 , when the Temple was cleansed, 
was 3 years and 10 days. The 1,150 days 
may be reckoned from a slightly earlier start- 
ing-point in the profane career of Antiochus. 

16. Gabriel] the first mention in Scripture 
of an angelic name. 17. At the time of the 
end, etc.] RY ' The vision belongeth to the 
time of the end.' This defines the limit of 
Daniel's outlook upon the future. The termina- 
tion of this vision is therefore that of all the 
visions in the book. 18. Was in] RY 'fell 
into ': see Ezk2!> 2 . 19. Last end] RY ' latter 
time.' Indignation] the troubles of Israel 
are tokens of God's displeasure : see ll 36 
1 Mac 1 64 . At the time appointed, etc.] RY ' It 
belongeth to the appointed time of the end.' 

20. Kings of Media and Persia] The Medo- 
Persian empire is symbolised here by one 
animal, but its two portions are distinguished, 
and the Persian rule is regarded as succeeding 
the Median, since the higher of the two horns 
comes up last (v. 3). 21. The king of Grecia 
(RY ' Greece ')] ' King ' is evidently used 
loosely for ' kingdom ' (as in 7 17 ), since the 
kings are particularised as horns in what 
follows. The first king] Alexander the Great. 

22. Four kingdoms] those of Alexander's four 
generals — Macedonia, Thrace, Egypt, and Syria: 
see Intro. In his power] RY 'with his power.' 
These kingdoms were severally inferior to 
Alexander's empire. 

23. A king of fierce countenance] Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Understanding dark sentences] 
skilled in deceitful intrigues. 24. Not by his 
own power] This rendering may mean ' by 
God's permission,' or, ' by craft rather than 
force.' But RM has, ' not with his ' (Alex- 
ander's) 'power,' as in v. 22. Mighty] RY 
'mighty ones.' 25. By peace] RY 'in their 
security.' Some of the worst outrages of 
Antiochus upon the Jews had this treacherous 
character: see 1121,24 1 Mac 1^30. The 



539 



8.26 



DANIEL 



9.25 



Prince of princes] God. Broken without 
hand] destroyed by God's power : cp. 2 34 > 35 . 

26. Evening . . morning] RV ' evenings . . 
mornings.' The reference is to v. 14. 

Wherefore] RV ' but.' Shall be for many 
days] RV ' belongeth to many days to come,' 
to a future remote from Daniel's time. 

CHAPTER 9 

The Seventy Weeks 
In the first year of Darius the Mede, 
Daniel, studying the prophetical books, finds 
that Jeremiah has predicted that the desolation 
of Jerusalem will last for seventy years 
(vv. 1, 2). He prays, confessing the great 
sin of Israel, and entreating God to have 
mercy on His people (vv. 3-19). Thereupon 
the angel Gabriel explains to him (vv. 20-24) 
that Jeremiah's seventy years are seventy 
'weeks,' or 'sevens,' of years ( = 490 years), 
which are to be made up of (7 + 62 + 1) ' weeks.' 
The seven ' weeks ' begin with ' the going 
forth of the commandment to restore and 
to build Jerusalem,' and end with ' the anointed 
one, the prince,' and the sixty-two ' weeks ' 
include the building of the city in troublous 
times (v. 25). The events of the last ' week ' 
are more minutely described. An anointed 
one is cut off, and a hostile prince destroys 
the city and the sanctuary (v. 26). He makes 
a covenant with many for the one ' week ' ; 
for the half of the ' week ' he makes the 
sacrifice and oblation to cease, an ' abomination 
of desolation ' appears, and finally the desolator 
comes to a sudden end (v. 27). 

Interpretation. The interpretation of this 
c. is not without difficulty on any view of the 
book. Its explanation of the 70 years 
(Jer25 11 > 12 29 10 ) is of course an artificial one. 
Jeremiah meant that the dominion of Baby- 
lon over all the nations of Western Asia 
would last for 70 years from the fourth year 
of Jehoiakim (605 B.C.) (Jer25 1 . 11 ), 70 
years being a round number for two genera- 
tions : cp. the 40 years of Ezk4 6 29 n > 13 . In 
this c. the meaning is extended so as to refer 
to the humiliation of Jerusalem under a long 
succession of heathen powers. There are two 
main interpretations to be considered. The 
first places the beginning of the last 'week' in 
the time of Christ, and starts in its reckoning 
of the 70 ' weeks ' from the mission of Ezra 
(468 H.c.) or that of Nehemiah (444 B.C.). But 
though the end of the 70 'weeks' is to be 
placed 490 instead of 70 years after Jeremiah's 
time, yet the beginning of this period ought 
to coincide more closely with the beginning of 
Jeremiah's To years. And apart from other 
difficulties this new tails to give any clear 
explanation of the different events of the last 
'week. 1 The death of Christ abolished the 

OT. sacrifices not merely for 'half a week' 



but for ever, while the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem (70 A.D.) was much more than seven years 
(one ' week ') after the crucifixion. The 
second interpretation finds in the events of 
the last 'week' another picture of the last 
seven years of Antiochus Epiphanes, and in 
the first seven ' weeks ' the time (49 years) 
between the captivity (586 B.C.) and the edict 
of Cyrus (538 B.C.). That the Jews already 
reckoned Jeremiah's 70 years from the date 
of the final captivity is shown by 2Ch36 20 - 21 . 
The difficulty of this view relates to the 62 
'weeks.' The time from the edict of Cyrus 
(538 B.C.) to the beginning of the last seven 
years of Antiochus Epiphanes (171 B.C.) is 
only 367 years, which is less than 62 ' weeks ' 
(434 years) by 67 years. To this it may be 
replied either that the 62 ' weeks ' are merely 
a broken period, not to be reckoned exactly, 
or that the writer of Daniel was not in a 
position to know the precise length of this 
interval. Josephus and other writers make 
similar errors in the chronology of that time. 

I. Darius] see on 5 31 . Chaldeans] Here 
in the national sense. 2. Books] RV ' the 
books,' evidently referring to a collection of 
sacred writings. The Canon of the Prophets 
was not completed at the time assigned to 
Daniel. 

4-19. The prayer of Daniel contains many 
expressions found elsewhere in the OT., 
which may be traced by the aid of a reference 
Bible. 21. Being caused to fly swiftly] RM 
' being sore wearied.' For Gabriel see 8 16 . 

24. Seventy weeks] or, 'sevens' — 490 years. 
The expressions that follow certainly form 

a true description of the results of the sacrifice 
of Christ, but their terms are general, and they 
contain nothing that is not included in the 
pictures of the Messianic salvation which all the 
prophets connected with the restoration of the 
Jews to God's favour : see Isa4 3 32 16 > 17 45 17 
60 21 . To finish the transgression, and to make 
an end of sins] to bring Israel's time of guilt 
and punishment to an end. To bring in ever- 
lasting righteousness] to introduce a new era 
of obedience. To seal up the vision and pro- 
phecy] read, ' to seal ' (ratify) ' vision and pro- 
phecy,' to fulfil the anticipations of all the 
prophetic books. To anoint the most Holy 
(RV ' holy ' )] to consecrate a most holy thing, 
an altar or a sanctuary. 

25. The going forth of the commandment, 
etc.] Jeremiah's prophecy of restoration (Jer 
29 10 " 14 31 38 - 4U ), viewed as delivered at the time 
of the captivity. The Messiah, the Prince] 
RV ' the anointed one, the prince.' Probably 
Cyrus, who is called God's anointed in Isa45 1 . 
Possibly Joshua the high priest, or Zerubbabel 
(Ezr3 2 Hag2 2 °-23 Zech 31-10 6 9 "i 5 ). Seven 
weeks, and threescore and two weeks] read, 
4 seven weeks ; and for threescore and two weeks, 



540 



9.26 



DANIEL 



11.2 



etc. The 7 ' weeks ' refer to what precedes, the 
62 ' weeks ' to what follows. The street . . 
times] RY ' it ' (the city) ' shall be built again, 
with street and moat, even in troublous times ' 
(the days of Ezra and Nehemiah). 

26. After threescore, etc.] RY 'after the 
threescore,' etc. Messiah] RY ' the ' (better, 
' an ') ' anointed one.' A different person from 
the ' anointed one ' of v. 25 is evidently meant. 
The one appears at the end of 7, and the other 
at the end of 69 'weeks.' The reference is 
probably to the high priest Onias III, who was 
deposed by Antiochus in 175 B.C., and murdered 
by a rival in 1 7 1 B.C. (2 Mac 4 ™> 23-27, 32-35). But 
not for himself] RY ' and shall have nothing,' 
an obscure phrase, meaning perhaps, ' shall have 
no legitimate successor.' The prince that shall 
come] Antiochus Epiphanes. See on 8 n . 

The end thereof] RY ' his end.' Unto the 
end of the war] R Y ' Even unto the end ' (see 
817,19) ' S hall be war.' 

27. Confirm the covenant] RY ' make a firm 
covenant.' There was a party among the Jews 
which supported the heathenising policy of 
Antiochus : see 1 Mac 1 11 ' 15 . One week] The 
last seven years of the reign of Antiochus 
(171-164 B.C.). In the midst (RY 'for the 
half) of the week] The same period of 3£ 
years elsewhere assigned to the profanations 
of Antiochus : see 7 25 8 14 12 7 . Sacrifice and 
. . oblation] see on 8 11 , and cp. II 31 12 11 . For 
the overspreading of abominations, etc.] A 
slight change in the Heb. gives the clearer 
sense ' and in its place shall be the abomination 
that maketh desolate ' : see on 8 13 , and cp.l 1 31 
12 n . Desolate] RY ' desolator,' Antiochus. 

CHAPTERS 10-12 
The Final Yision 
These chs. form a connected whole, with 
three sub-divisions. Chs. lO^-ll 1 are intro- 
ductory; chs. 11 2-1 2 4 contain a detailed 
account of future events down to the ' time 
of the end.' This time is further defined in 
the concluding section, c. 12 5 - 13 . 

(a) Introduction (chs. lOi-ll 1 ) 

In the third year of Cyrus, after three weeks 
of mourning and fasting, Daniel has a vision 
by the river Hiddekel of a glorious angelic 
being (vv. 1-10), who addresses him in en- 
couraging words (vv. 11, 12). This angel has 
been delayed by a conflict with the guardian 
angel of Persia, in which he has been helped 
by Michael, the guardian angel of the Jews. 
He is about to return to the conflict, and 
will afterwards have to oppose the guardian 
angel of Greece (vv. 13-21). Michael has 
formerly been indebted to the speaker for 
help (111). 

This conception of guardian or patron angels 
of the different nations is not found elsewhere 



in the OT., but is prominent in the book of 
Enoch (chs. 6-15). 

1. The third year of Cyrus] 536 B.C., the 
latest date mentioned in Daniel's life. But the 
time appointed v)as long] RY ' Even a great 
warfare.' 4. Hiddekel] the Tigris (Gn2 14 ) : 
see on 8 2 . 7. Cp. Ac9 7 . 9. See8 18 . 11. Cp. 
Ezk2i. 12. For thy words] RY 'for thy 
words' sake.' 

13. Prince] guardian angel : cp. vv. 20, 21, 
12 1 . One and twenty days] the period of 
Daniel's fasting (v. 2). The conflict with the 
angel of Persia explains the speaker's delay. 

Michael] a second angelic name. In Daniel 
Michael is the guardian angel of the Jews 
(v. 21, 12 1 ). One of the chief princes] a 
distinction in rank among the angels is here 
recognised, which other apocalyptic books carry 
out in great detail. In Jude v. 9 (in a quota- 
tion from the Assumption of Moses) Michael 
is called an 'archangel,' and in Rev 12 7 he 
appears as a leader among the angels. 

Remained] RM 'was not needed.' The 
arrival of Michael enabled the speaker to come 
to Daniel. 

20. Grecia] RY ' Greece.' The interests 
of the Jews would have to be maintained 
against the Persian and Greek powers in suc- 
cession. 21. Scripture] RY' writing,' the book 
of destiny. In these things] RY ' against 
these ' (the ' princes ' of Persia and Greece) 

C. 11. 1. Darius the Mede] see on 5 31 . 

Him] Michael. 

(&) History of Persia, Greece, Syria, and 
Egypt (chs. 112-124) 

The angel describes the reigns of the first 
Persian kings up to the Greek wars of Xerxes 
I (ll 2 ). Then he passes to the conquests of 
Alexander the Great (v. 3) and the subdivi- 
sion of his empire (v. 4). Next follows a very 
minute account of various episodes in the 
history of the Greek kingdoms of Syria and 
Egypt (the kings of the N. and S. respectively, 
vv. 5-20). Finally we have a full description 
of the career and fate of Antiochus Epiphanes 
(vv. 21-45), and a picture of the troubles 
which will follow his death and will usher in 
the resurrection and the reward of the 
righteous (12 1 " 4 ). 

It has been supposed by some that vv. 36-45, 
on account of their resemblance to 7 25 9 26, 27^ 
refer not to Antiochus, but to Antichrist, but 
this view does violence to the plain continuity 
of the sense. The resemblances only go to 
prove that the other passages allude not to 
Antichrist but to Antiochus. 

2. Yet three kings] in succession to Cyrus 
who is already reigning (10 1 ). The three 
are Cambyses, Darius I (Hystaspes), and Xerxes 
I (Ahasuerus). The fourth] including Cyrus I, 
is Xerxes I, who was a king of vast wealth, 



541 



11. 3 



DANIEL 



11. 20 



and prepared a great army and navy for the 
invasion of Greece (Herod, vii, 20-29). The 
expedition was an utter failure, and the battles 
of Thermopylae and Salamis (480 B.C.) and 
those of Plataea and Mycale (489 B.C.) are 
among the most glorious events in Greek 
history. 3. A mighty king] Alexander the 
Great (333-322 B.C.). 4. The partition of 
Alexander's empire is described : see c. 8 8 ' 22 . 

5-20. Along with the notes on these vv. the 
table of Syrian and Egyptian kings on p. 538 
should be consulted. 

5. The king of the south] Ptolemy I (Soter), 
the first Egyptian king. One of his princes] 
Seleucus I (Nicator), the first Syrian king, was 
originally an officer under Ptolemy I. He] 
Seleucus. Above him] above Ptolemy. 

6. The king's daughter of the south] Bere- 
nice, the daughter of Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) 
was given in marriage to Antiochus II (Theos), 
the king of the north, who divorced his former 
wife Laodice. On the death of Ptolemy II 
Antiochus divorced Berenice and took Laodice 
back. Laodice poisoned Antiochus, and their 
son Seleucus (afterwards Callinicus) murdered 
Berenice and her child. She shall not retain . . 
she shall be given up] allusions to the fate of 
Berenice. Neither shall he stand] referring 
to the murder of Antiochus by Laodice. He 
that begat her, and he, etc.] read, ' he that begat 
her and strengthened her.' Ptolemy II is meant. 

7. 8. Ptolemy III (Euergetes), the brother 
of Berenice, in revenge for his sister's death, 
invaded Syria (then ruled by Seleucus II, Calli- 
nicus), captured Seleucia, and returned to 
Egypt with much spoil. 7. A branch of her 
(Berenice's) roots] her brother Ptolemy III. 

In his estate (RV 'place')] in place of 
Ptolemy II. The fortress] Seleucia. 8. Con- 
tinue more years than] RV ' refrain some 
years from.' 9. Seleucus II (Callinicus) in- 
vaded Egypt in 242 B.C., but had to retreat. 

So the king of the south, etc.] RV ' And 
he' (Seleucus II) 'shall come into the realm 
of the king of the south ' (Ptolemy III). 

10-12. Seleucus II (Callinicus) was suc- 
ceeded by his two sons, Seleucus III (Ceraunus) 
and Antiochus III (the Great). The war de- 
scribed was really conducted by the latter. 
A fi«r some preliminary campaigns, Antiochus 
III was defeated by Ptolemy IV (Philopator) 
at Raphia (217 b.c> 

10. But his sons] Seleucus III and Antio- 
chus III, tile sons of ScleiKUS II. And ('//(] 

RV • which.' Then shall he] RV 'and fchey 
shall. 1 His (Ptolemy's) fortress] probably 
Gaza. 11. And he ( Antiochus) shall set forth 
..into his (Ptolemy's) hand] alluding to the 
battle of Raphia. 12. ELefers to Ptolemy IV. 
13. 14. Twelve years later Antiochus joined 

with Philip, icing of Maeedon. in an attack on 
Ptolemy V(Epij)lianes). the son of Ptolemj I V. 



13. After certain years] The actual interval 
was 12 years. 14. Many] referring to the 
Macedonian and other allies of Antiochus 
III. The robbers, etc.] RV ' the children of 
the violent among thy people.' The allusion 
seems to be to some faction among the Jews, 
which took the side of Syria, and thus helped 
indirectly to ' fulfil the vision ' by establishing 
the power afterwards abused by Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

15, 16. Scopas, a general of Ptolemy V, 
was shut up by Antiochus III in Sidon, and 
compelled to surrender after a siege (198 B.C.) 
Antiochus then overran Palestine and menaced 
Egypt. 

15. The most fenced cities] RV ' a well- 
fenced city,' Sidon. 

16. He that cometh] Antiochus III. Against 
him] against Ptolemy V. The glorious land] 
Palestine : see 8 9 . So in v. 41. Which . . con- 
sumed] R V ' and in his hand shall be destruction.' 

17. Antiochus III now gave his daughter 
Cleopatra in marriage to Ptolemy V. And 
upright ones with him ; thus shall he do] read, 
with LXX, ' but shall make an agreement with 
him ' (Ptolemy V). 

Corrupting her] better, ' to destroy it.' 
Antiochus in this alliance aimed at the ulti- 
mate conquest of Egypt. 

18. 19. Antiochus III next overran Asia 
Minor and invaded Greece. This brought him 
into contact with the Romans, by whose 
general, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, he was de- 
feated at Magnesia in Asia Minor. Three 
years later he was slain in Persia (187 B.C.). 

18. The isles] RM ' coastlands,' the coun- 
tries on the shore of the ^gean Sea. 

A prince for his own behalf] RM'a captain,' 
the Roman general Scipio. Without his own 
reproach, etc.] RV 'Yea, moreover, he' 
(Scipio) ' shall cause his reproach ' (the insults 
of Antiochus to the Romans) 'to turn upon 
him.' 

19. Fort (RV 'fortresses ')of his own land] 
After his defeat at Magnesia Antiochus with- 
drew to Syria. 

20. Antiochus III was succeeded by Seleu- 
cus IV (Philopator), who sent his chief minister 
Heliodorus to take possession of the Temple 
treasures at Jerusalem (2 Mac 3). Heliodorus 
murdered Seleucus IV and attempted to usurp 
the kingdom, but was dispossessed by Antiochus 
IV (Epiphanes). the brother of Seleucus. 

Estate] RV ' place ' — in place of Antiochus 
III. A raiser of taxes in] RV ' one ' (Seleucus 
IV) ' that shall cause ;m exactor' (Heliodorus) 
'to pass through.' The glory of the (Syrian) 
kingdom] Palestine: see v. 1G. 

21-45. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) (176-164 

H.C.). 

21-24. A general account of Antiochus, 
describing his accession, his deceitful policy, 



542 



11. 21 



DANIEL 



11.44 



his hostility to the Jewish religion, his pros- 
perity and his ambitious plans. 

21. Vile] RV ' contemptible.' Shall not 
give] RV ' had not given.' Though Antiochus 
seized the kingdom, the real heir was Deme- 
trius, the son of Seleucus IV: see on 7 24 . 

Peaceably] RV ' in time of security ' ; so in 
v. 24 : cp. 8 25 . 22. They] the opponents of 
Antiochus. The prince of the covenant] the 
high priest Onias III, deposed by Antiochus in 
175 B.C. : see on 9 26 . 

25-27. The first campaigns of Antiochus in 
Egypt. The king of Egypt was now Ptolemy 
YI (Philometor), the son of Ptolemy V and 
Cleopatra (see on v. 17), and thus the nephew 
of Antiochus. In 170 B.C. Ptolemy was pre- 
paring to recover Palestine, but was attacked 
by Antiochus, who defeated and captured him. 
Physcon, the brother of Ptolemy YI, was pro- 
claimed king by the Egyptians, and Antiochus 
in 169 B.C. again made war on Egypt, pretend- 
ing to act in the interest of Ptolemy VI. whose 
friend he now appeared to be. 

26. The defeat of Ptolemy VI in 170 B.C. 
is traced to the treachery of his subjects. 

Overflow] rather, ' be swept away.' 

27. Describes the friendship which was 
afterwards professed between Antiochus and 
Ptolemy, but which was insincere on both 
sides. 

28. Returning from Egypt after his first 
campaign Antiochus heard of disturbances at 
Jerusalem, due to the struggles of two rivals 
for the office of high priest. He came to the 
city, slew many of the Jews, entered the 
Temple, and carried away the greater part of 
its sacred vessels and other treasures to Anti- 
och (1 Mac 120-28 2 Mac 5 n - 16 ). 

29. 30 a . Another Egyptian campaign of 
Antiochus. This was caused by the news that 
Ptolemy VI and his brother Physcon had been 
reconciled. The Romans, however, interfered. 
Their legate Q. Popilius Laenas met Antiochus 
four miles from Alexandria and demanded the 
recall of his forces. When Antiochus said 
that he would take time to consider, the Ro- 
man legate drew a circle round him in the sand 
with his staff, and insisted on his replying 
before he should leave the spot. Antiochus 
then yielded and withdrew (168 B.C.). 

29. As the former, etc.] RV ' in the latter 
time as it was in the former.' 30. Ships of 
Chittim] the Roman fleet. Chittim is Cyprus. 

3° b -35- The persecution of the Jews by 
Antiochus. After the failure of his Egyptian 
campaign he vented his disappointment and 
anger on the Jews, who resisted his attempts 
to introduce heathen worship among them 
(1 Mac 1 29-64). i n particular he abolished the 
Temple sacrifices (lMacl 45 ), and on the 
15th of Chisleu (December), 168 B.C., he caused 
a small heathen altar to be set up on the 



great altar of burnt offering (lMacl 54 ). 
This altar was used for sacrifice on the 25th 
of the same month (lMacl 59 ). The severest 
measures were taken against those who 
adhered to the practices of the Jewish religion. 

30. Intelligence with] RV 'regard unto.' 
Antiochus favoured the apostate Jews who 
supported his policy: see 9 27. 31. See 8 n > 13 
927. 32. The people, etc.] referring to the 
heroic resistance of the Jews, even to death 
(1 Mac 162-64). 33. Understand] RV 'be 
wise.' Similarly in v. 35 : see 12 3 > 10 . 

34. A little help] the Maccabsean revolt 
(1 Mac 2-4). Many .. flatteries] The strict 
Jewish party had insincere adherents of its 
own. 35. The martyrs included leaders 
whose death tested and developed the faithful- 
ness of their followers. The time of the end] 
see 817,19 926. 

36-39. The blasphemous pride of Antiochus. 

36. According- to his will] like Alexander 
the Great (8 4 ll 3 ) and Antiochus the Great 
(ll 16 ). And magnify himself, etc.] Antiochus 
IV called himself on his coins Basileus Antio- 
chus Theos Epiphanes (' King Antiochus, God 
Manifest'). The indignation] of God against 
Israel : see 8 19 . That that (RV ' which ') is 
determined] see 9 27. 37. The God (RV 
' gods ') of his fathers] All the Greek kings of 
Syria were heathens, but Antiochus honoured 
the Greek Zeus (Jupiter) more than the 
Syrian deities of his forefathers. The desire 
of women] probably the Syrian god Thammuz, 
who was specially worshipped by women 
(Ezk8 i4 ) 38. In his estate (RV 'place')] 
instead of Thammuz. The God (RV ' god') of 
forces (RV ' fortresses ')] probably Zeus 
(Jupiter), to whom Antiochus built a temple at 
Daphne near Antioch. 39. Whom he shall 
acknowledge, etc.] RV 'Whosoever acknow- 
ledgeth him he will increase.' Gain] RV ' a 
price.' Offices were disposed of for bribery. 

40-43. A final Egyptian campaign of Antio- 
chus. He invades Egypt with a great army 
and navy. Palestine is overrun and many 
countries are overthrown, but Edom, Moab, 
and Ammon escape. The treasures of Egypt 
are seized, and the conquest extends west- 
wards to Libya and southwards to Ethiopia. 
Nothing is known of this expedition from 
contemporary historians. 

40. At the time of the end] This expedition 
introduces the historical crisis which terminates 
Daniel's prospect of the future. 

44, 45. The sudden end of Antiochus. He 
is recalled from Egypt by tidings of trouble 
in his Asiatic dominions, returns in anger and 
encamps between the Mediterranean and Jeru- 
salem, and perishes helplessly. The death of 
Antiochus actually took place at Tabse in 
Persia (164 B.C.). The vague account of his 
end is in striking contrast with the minute 



543 



11.45 



DANIEL— HOSEA 



INTRO. 



historical description of the rest of his reign, 
and suggests that the author is here writing of 
the future and not of the past. For the bear- 
ing of this on the date of the book see Intro. 

45. Seas in] RY l sea and.' 

C. 12. 1-4. These vv. describe the final tribu- 
lation of Israel which follows the death of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, the deliverance of the faithful 
Jews, the subsequent resurrection of the dead, 
both good and evil, and the glorious reward of 
the righteous, especially of their eminent 
leaders. The last-mentioned ideals are part 
of the Christian faith, but, in accordance with 
the limited view of all OT. prophecy, they 
are presented in connexion with the Jewish 
race, and without reference to their distance 
from the prophet's horizon. 

1. Michael] see on 10 13 . His intervention 
at this point indicates a special crisis in the 
fortunes of the Jews. The book] cp. 7 10 . 

2. Many] The resurrection contemplated 
is not universal, though it will include both 
the righteous and the wicked. 3. They that 
be wise] see 1133,35. 4. Knowledge] better, 
with LXX, ' evils.' The last half of the v. 



sums up the confusions and calamities of the 
long period which has been described, between 
Daniel's days and the ' time of the end.' 

(c) Concluding Explanations (12 6 - 13 ) 
The angel who has spoken throughout the 
vision has now two companions, one on either 
side of the river. In reply to one of these he 
states that 'a time, times, and an half' shall 
elapse before the end to which the vision 
points. In answer to Daniel he explains that 
from the taking away of the daily sacrifice 
and the setting up of the abomination of 
desolation 1,290 days are first to be reckoned, 
and then 45 days more, making in all 1,335 
days. The 1,290 days seem to correspond to 
the general distress under Antiochus Epiph- 
anes, and the 45 days to the further period of 
tribulation spoken of in v. 1. As the author 
is here writing of the actual future no exact 
correspondence of these numbers with histori- 
cal dates is to be looked for. 

9. repeats v. 4, and 10. repeats ll 35 . 

10. The wise] RV ' they that be wise,' as in 
1133,35 123. u. See 8 n > 13 9 27 ll 31 . 



HOSEA 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Man and his Message. The book 
of Hosea is for several reasons one of excep- 
tional interest. With that of Amos, his older 
contemporary, it marks the beginning of liter- 
ary, as distinct from purely oral, prophecy. 
By this is not meant that Hosea was a com- 
poser in the sense that the word would be 
applied to a Macaulay or a Bishop Butler; 
but that his discourses, some or all of them at 
first delivered orally, were afterwards written 
down in a collected form, together with such 
incidents of his life as had a direct bearing 
upon his teaching. This fact is of great im- 
portance. We know that Elijah and Elisha 
exercised a great influence upon the religious 
history 0* their time; but we can only to a 
small extent gauge that Lnflnenoe, because we 
can form only a crude notion of what their 
beaching was really like. 1' « their acts, 
rather than their words, which claim the 

render's interest. With Hosea it is \erv 

different. It is impossible not t<» see that he 

Was a living force ; and if his actual influence 
Was not great, that was due to no weakness 
Or omission on his part, hut to the fatuity and 
moral degradation of the people. 



Like Amos Hosea was a prophet to the 
northern kingdom, but unlike him he was also 
a prophet of the north. His sympathy was 
unquestionably with Israel : the fortunes of 
Judah have only a subordinate interest for 
him. His mission was to check, if possible, 
the growing corruption of morals, religion, 
and politics ; and to rouse the nation to 
repentance, in order to ward off the impending 
catastrophe. The nation had acquired great 
prosperity and wealth under Jeroboam II; 
but these, without moral character and re- 
ligious purity, only tended to disruption and 
decline. 

What gives quite a unique and pathetic 
interest to the book is the personal history of 
the prophet, and its influence on the form 
which his early and, to some extent, all his 
teaching took. Other prophets performed 
various symbolical acts to explain or enforce 
their teaching (see e.g. Isa 20 2, 3 J er 1 3 l f - Ezk 4), 
but Hosea's domestic life was itself an acted 
parable. Sweet and noble as that life was, its 
importance, as the prophet understood it, lay 
not in itself, but in the religious truth which 
it symbolically expressed. In early life he 



544 



INTRO. 



HOSEA 



INTRO. 



married a woman who proved a faithless wife, 
and he seems to have made many fruitless 
efforts to reclaim her (1 2 > 3 ). 

After bearing him three children, to whom 
he gave symbolic names, she deserted him for 
her lovers (2 2 ). So forbearing was he, how- 
ever, that he redeemed her for the price of a 
slave (3 *), and tried to win her back to purity 
and love by gentle restraint (3 3 ). 

As Hosea looked abroad on the idolatry and 
wickedness of his time, he realised that ' the 
state was the individual writ large,' and that 
here was being repeated on a larger scale his 
own domestic tragedy. In G-omer's unfaithful- 
ness to him, he saw a parable of Israel's un- 
faithfulness to God ; in his own love and 
tenderness, he saw the reflection of God's love 
to Israel ; and in his own forgiveness and 
continued efforts for his wife's salvation, he 
saw a parallel to Jehovah's loving-kindness 
and tender mercy towards the faithless nation 
(3 3 " 5 ). Israel, the paramour of heathen gods, 
had been wooed and wedded by Jehovah, but 
had proved faithless, going back again to idols, 
and coquetting with foreign powers. But 
ever and again, and now most of all, Jehovah 
was seeking to win the nation back ; even 
though, as with G-omer, a painful discipline 
might be necessary (4 1 * 4 ). 

Tenderness may, in fact, be described as the 
keynote of Hosea's prophecy. It was a neces- 
sary attribute of God, without which He would 
not be true to Himself. Those who imagine 
that the God of the Old Testament is only a 
God of justice and wrath might well study 
this book attentively. 

Though we find no such definite Messianic 
pictures as those of Isaiah, more than once the 
prophet foretells the restoration of Israel from 
captivity, the union of Israel and Judah in 
one kingdom under a Davidic king, and the 
establishment of a purer worship and a fuller 
knowledge of God, as constituting a glorious 
hope. This hope appears sometimes as immi- 
nent, as succeeding a short period of captivity, 
or even as an alternative to it ; sometimes as 
belonging to a far-off, or possibly ideal, future : 
see especially l 10 > n 3 5 6 ^ 144-8. gt. Paul 
explains some of Hosea's prophecies as ful- 
filled in the Christian church : see Ro9 25 > 26 
lCorl5 55 . 

The style of the book is very terse and 

1 difficult, and marked by rapid changes of 

thought and feeling. In some cases it may be 

conjectured that we have before us fragments 

, of teaching, rather than complete discourses. 

'In many verses the meaning is so obscure 

that the explanations offered must be regarded 

as far from certain. In some few no really 

. satisfactory explanation has been yet given, and 

that partly because our knowledge of many of 

the events alluded to is very meagre. 



35 



2. The Historical Situation. Hosea lived 
and prophesied in the last period of the 
northern kingdom of Israel, and probably 
witnessed, perhaps even shared, the captivity. 
His work began in the closing years of Jero- 
boam II (782-741), and was continued under 
his successors : see 1 1 . In Jeroboam's hands 
the government was firm and stable, and the 
northern kingdom extended its boundaries as 
far as the borders of Hamath (2 K 1 4 25 ) on the 
north, and to the Dead Sea and ' the brook of 
the wilderness ' (Am 6 14 ) on the south. The 
death of Jeroboam was followed by a period 
of anarchy and terror, which was only ended 
by the Assyrian captivity. Zechariah, the 
son of Jeroboam, reigned for only six months, 
when his career was closed by assassination at 
the hands of Shallum, an adventurer, who 
mounted the throne only to be slain and 
succeeded a month later by Menahem, the 
general commanding the troops at Tirzah 
(2 K 1 5 10 - 14 Hos 73-7). i n or a e r to strengthen 
his position, Menahem seems to have asked 
assistance from Tiglath-pileser III, king of 
Assyria (the Pul of 2K15 19 ), who took 
advantage of the weakness of the king's 
position to claim a tribute. Menahem' s reign 
extended only over four or five years. He 
was succeeded by his son Pekahiah (2K15 23 ), 
who reigned two years when Pekah, one of 
his generals, murdered him in his palace and 
seized the throne. Pekah was probably the 
leader of the party in the state that was 
opposed to Menahem's alliance with Assyria, 
and preferred to seek the aid of Assyria's 
rival Egypt (Hos7 n ). In 735 Pekah joined 
with Rezin of Damascus in an expedition 
against Ahaz, king of Judah (2K16 5 Isa7!- 9 ). 
Ahaz invoked Assyrian aid, and Tiglath- 
pileser came to his assistance, ravaging Galilee 
and Gilead (2K15 29 ), and taking the inhabit- 
ants into captivity. Pekah, who had reigned 
for about three years, fell a victim to a con- 
spiracy headed by Hoshea, whom the Assyrian 
ruler recognised as king. Hoshea ruled quietly 
for nine years (731-722) ; but, on the death of 
Tiglath-pileser, he entered into a conspiracy 
with Seve or So, king of Egypt, and ceased 
his tribute to Assyria. Shalmaneser, the new 
king of Assyria, thereupon invaded his terri- 
tory, and laid siege to Samaria, which fell to 
his successor Sargon (722), when the kingdom 
of Israel came to an end. 

3. Politics and Religion. There seem to 
have been two political parties in the kingdom 
of Israel in the latter years of the nation, just 
as there were in the kingdom of Judah, one 
of which favoured alliance with Assyria, the 
other alliance with Egypt and resistance to 
Assyria (Hos7 n ). Sometimes one of these 
was in the ascendant and sometimes the other, 
but the prophets looked upon the policies of 



545 



INTRO. 



HOSEA 



1.4 



both parties as unfaithfulness to God (Hos8 9 ). 
Isaiah told the people of Judah that their true 
policy was to trust in Jehovah, and not 
entangle themselves in foreign bonds. The 
prophets of Israel took up a similar attitude, and 
maintained that every movement after outside 
help was a movement away from God, who 
would watch over them and preserve them, if 
they repented and put their trust in Him. 

The religious condition was also extremely 
corrupt. "Worship was offered to Jehovah at 
many high places throughout the land. These 
were probably in many cases the old Canaanite 
shrines, and it was but natural that when the 
Israelites first came into possession of the land 
they should worship Jehovah at the places 
where the Canaanites had worshipped their 
gods. In Hosea's day Jehovah was wor- 
shipped at these high places. He was symbol- 
ised by the figure of a bull — the natural 
symbol to an agricultural people of life and 
power. Jeroboam I set up two such symbols, 
one at Bethel and one at Dan, where he 
established the northern kingdom ; and in 
all probability similar symbols were erected at 
other holy places : cp. Am4 4 5 5 Hos4 15 5 10 " 15 
12 n . The temptation to combine the worship 
of Jehovah with elements borrowed from the 
worship of the Canaanite nature-gods was too 
strong for the Israelites, who had adopted 
many of the old religious festivals in celebra- 
tion of the agricultural seasons. 

Their familiarity with the worship of the 
Canaanite local deities or Baalim (Hos2 17 ) 
made the lapse into idolatry easy for them, 
especially as the Israelites were in the habit 
of addressing Jehovah as Baali (my Lord) 
(2 16 ), a title innocent and proper enough in 
itself, but improper and dangerous in view of 
its heathen application. It was no great step 
from worshipping Jehovah symbolised by a 
bull to worshipping the bull-image as a symbol 
of the local Baal : consequently they came to 
identify Jehovah with the local deity, and 
assimilated the worship of God to the wor- 
ship of the Baalim in such a way that the 
former was practically lost sight of, and they 
became to all intents and purposes idolaters 
(2 5 ). • For they served idols, whereof the 
Loud said unto them, Ye shall not do this 
thing ' (2 K 1 7 12 ). This worship of ' the bull- 
images (or 'calves,' as AV renders) is the 
idolatry which Rosea so vehemently denounces 

( 4 1J,17 gfi 9M 101.8 H2 131.2,8). 

The religious condition of the people was 
reflected in bheir moral state. The sanctuaries 
were scenes not only of idolatry, but of gross 
immorality. The whoredom and adultery of 

which Hosea speaks ( 1 "'• |: » . r > 3 > 4 , etc.) are not 
only figurative of the departure of Israel from 
the service of God ; they BIS also descriptive 
of actual moral degradation. The priests were 



men of no principle (4 6 ) ; they let the people 
destroy themselves for lack of teaching (4 6 ) ; 
they rejoiced at the sin of the people, because 
they benefited by their sin-offerings (4 8 ) ; and 
they provided temptations to induce them to 
evil (5 i). And so it came to pass, as the pro- 
verb has it, ' like people, like priest ' (4 9 ). The 
worshippers were only too ready to abandon 
themselves to the sensual rites of debasing wor- 
ship, and thus degradation and decay spread 
through the nation. ' The heathenish, secular 
worship and heathen immorality overpowered 
it, and brought about the premature dissolution 
of the state.' 

4. Contents. The book falls into two parts. 

1. Chs. 1-3 describe in different ways and at 
different stages the domestic tragedy of Hosea's 
life and its symbolical interpretation. 

2. Chs. 4-14 contain separate prophecies 
dealing with Israel's moral, religious, and poli- 
tical faults, the impending calamity, and the 
possibility of averting it by repentance or re- 
covering from it after punishment has done its 
work. 

The first part belongs to the time of Jero- 
boam II (see 1 i), when the judgment had not 
yet overtaken the dynasty of Jehu (l 4 ) ; the 
second, for the most part at least, tc that of 
his immediate successors, but especially Mena- 
hem. There are passages which imply a change 
of dynasty effected by violence (cp. 8 4 and 7 5_7 ), 
a state of general disorder such as is naturally 
associated with a weak government (4 10 » 18 6 8 - 10 , 
etc.) and the heavy taxation exacted under 
Menahem (79-11 810). 

CHAPTERS l-2i 
Hosea's Marriage and its Lessons 
1. A general heading. 2-9. The prophet's 
marriage with Gomer, the birth of her three 
children, and the symbolical meaning attached 
to them. 10-C. 2 1 . The future material and 
religious prosperity of the people. 

1. A general heading, perhaps the work of 
a late Judaean editor. Chs. 1-3 probably be- 
long to the time of Jeroboam II ; but i + ?« 
extremely improbable that any of the prophe- 
cies belong to so late a date as the days of 
Hezekiah, when the punishment foretold at the 
hands of Tiglath-pileser (Pul) had already been 
partially fulfilled on Israel (2K15 2 9). That 
Hosea wrote the book is clear from 3 *. 

2. The beginning- . . LORD] RV ' When the 
Lord spake at the first by Hosea.' A wife of 
whoredoms] Hosea is probably speaking in the 
light of his later experiences. His wife was 
probably innocent of this evil when he married 
her — or if not the prophet was ignorant of 
her true character. 

4. For the giving of names for a prophetic 
purpose cp. Isa7 8 "i 4 8 1 * 4 . The name Jezreel 
( l God will sow ') signified, (1) the town which 



54G 



1.6 



HOSEA 



2. 10 



was the capital of Israel during Jehu's dynasty, 
and the scene of the murders by which he 
established his rule (2 K 9) ; (2) the re sowing 
of the restored Israel (v. 11). The name was 
given to the child as a reminder of the punish- 
ment due for the massacre. I will avenge the 
blood] This prophecy was fulfilled by the over- 
throw of the ruling dynasty when Jeroboam's 
son, Zechariah, had reigned six months : see 
2 K 15 10 , and cp. Am 7 9 . Hosea looks at Jehu's 
murders from a different point of view from 
that of Elisha and the editors of the book of 
Kings : see especially 2 K 10 30 . They regarded 
chiefly his outward religious policy and his pro- 
bably genuine detestation of Baal - worship. 
Hosea sees mainly the motives of personal 
ambition and lust of cruelty which underlay his 
actions. Time had shown that neither Jehu nor 
his descendants had justified his zeal by any 
high religious principle. Will cause to cease] 
This and v. 5 extend the prophecy to the final 
destruction of the kingdom at the hands of the 
Assyrians : see 2K17 6 . The valley of Jezreel 
was the battlefield of Palestine, and nothing 
would seem more probable to the prophet than 
that the final overthrow would take place there. 
6. Lo-ruhamah] i.e. ' not pitied.' But . . 
away] RY ' that I should in any wise pardon 
them.' 7. The verdict on the kingdom of 
Judah is in the earlier portions of the book 
more favourable than in the later : cp. 5 10 > 14 , 
etc. This prophecy was fulfilled by the de- 
struction of Sennacherib's army (2K19 35 ). 

9. Lo-ammi] i.e. ' not my people.' By their 
sin and perfidy Israel had ceased to act as G-od's 
people. They had refused the responsibilities 
of their calling, and could not expect its privi- 
leges. 

10. Here, as elsewhere, Hosea cannot bear 
to dwell upon God's punishments without 
looking beyond them to His greater mercies. 
Here he evidently contemplates a restored 
people, fulfilling the promise of earthly great- 
ness made to Abraham (Gn32 12 ), and brought 
into even closer relation to God, that of son- 

feiftp : cp. Ro9 26 . Living God] i.e. God 
inanifesting His power in action. 11. As 
with many other prophecies, the vision of the 
future includes the union once more of Israel 
and Judah in one people (cp. Isall 13 Ezk 
37 19 ), a prophecy unfulfilled except so far as 
the church is symbolised by the whole of 
Israel. The day of Jezreel] The union of 
Israel and Judah is to be marked by a pros- 
perity which shall take away the reproach from 
Jezreel (see on v. 4). This is more fully 
explained in 2 23 . 

C. 2. 1. Ammi . . Ruhamah] This v. is 
closely connected with l 10 > n , and must be 
read along with them. As Jezreel is to 
become a name of honour in the predicted 
future, so also the old names of the other two 



children will have become quite inappropriate. 
The not will have to be omitted, and they will 
become ' My people,' ' Pitied.' 

CHAPTER 2 

The Discipline and Restoration of 
Faithless Israel 

The unfaithful conduct of Gomer and the 
prophet's gentle treatment of her are regarded 
as an analogue of the nation's faithlessness 
and God's gentle correction, a proof of the 
love which will triumph in the end. But the 
acted parable and its interpretation are so 
blended that they cannot always be separated ; 
and frequently the prophet's personal experi- 
ence is overshadowed by the larger thought of 
God's dealings with His people. 

2. Plead] addressed to Gomer's sons. The 
people Israel in this acted allegory are some- 
times the sons, as in 2 1 , but more generally 
the wife. "When as here distinguished we 
may suppose that the prophet is appealing to 
those willing to hear to remonstrate with the 
faithless majority. There is a somewhat 
similar mixture of figure in Isa62 5 . She is 
not my wife] The people by their idolatry 
had put themselves into a false relation with 
Jehovah. He was no longer their God, nor 
they His people : cp. 1 9 . 

3, 4. As a punishment for her faithlessness, 
the country would be made desolate by an 
invading enemy, and the inhabitants slain with 
the sword. So would she be put to shame. 

Children of whoredoms] By their idolatries 
the people had proved themselves to be 
children of other gods, the lovers of v. 5. 

5. They worshipped the gods of the land — 
the local deities who were supposed to give 
abundant crops if propitiated. See Intro. 
They did not ascribe the fertility of the land 
to Jehovah, but to the local Baalim, who were 
personifications of the reproductive powers of 
nature, and in whose worship they had practi- 
cally merged the worship of Jehovah. 

6, 7. Through the disasters brought by a 
foreign enemy, including the siege of their 
cities, the people would discover the impotence 
of their idols, and seek Jehovah in earnest : 
cp. 14 3 , etc. Make a wall] RY 'make a 
fence against her.' 7. Lovers] i.e. the Baalim. 

8. They prepared for Baal] RM ' made into 
the image of Baal.' How absurd and how 
insulting to use God's gift in this way ! 

9. Will I . . take away] RY < will I take 
back.' In the time thereof] i.e. when it should 
be ripe, the crop would fail. God would thus 
punish them for the abuse of His gift. 

10. Her lovers] The idols would be ashamed, 
unable to help their devotees, when the land 
was laid waste. 11. Jehovah would put an 
end to her religious feasts of all kinds. New 
moons and sabbaths were the most distinctive 



547 



2.12 



HOSEA 



3.4 



feasts in connexion with the worship of Jehovah 
in the N. (1S205 2K423). 

12. Rewards] RV 'hire': the bribe for 
which Israel had worshipped the idols (lovers) 
under the mistaken belief that they gave 
them these things : see on v. 5. 

13. Baalim] RV ' the Baalim,' i.e. the images 
of Baal : cp. v. 8. The allusion here is to 
heathen or heathenish festivals looked upon 
as acts of faithlessness to Jehovah. They are 
spoken of as past in relation to the future 
judgment which Hosea has in mind, or because 
idolatry had from the first been the besetting 
sin of the northern kingdom. 

14. Therefore, etc.] ' This being her miser- 
able condition, I will entice her to repent by 
gentle discipline.' The key to such expres- 
sions lies in the tenderness felt by Hosea for 
his sinning wife (see Intro.). The wilderness] 
either the land of captivity in which she realises 
her sin and turns to God, or the land wasted 
by the enemy. Men allure to destruction : 
God allures to punishment, to make the out- 
pouring of love possible. Comfortably] Heb. 
'to her heart,' as in Isa40 1 , etc. 15. I will 
give] The vineyards destroyed by the enemy 
(v. 12) would be restored. Achor] i.e. trouble. 
Achor was the valley where Achan was stoned 
for his sin (Josh 7 26 ). It was on this account 
called the valley of Achor, or trouble. What 
is meant by its use here is that, while the 
Israelites would find that as of old sin would 
be followed by punishment, the punishment 
was meant to purify and discipline, and the 
1 trouble ' was thus the ' door of hope.' 
Though Israel had been again unfaithful, 
God was still ' plenteous in mercy.' Sing-] 
RV k make answer,' i.e. listen to the call of 
God. 16. Ishi . . Baali] Both words were 
used by a wife to her husband. The first, 
' my man,' implied a relation of intimacy : the 
second, ' my lord,' that of servitude, or at 
least ownership. But the passage seems to 
imply that Baal, a common name for all 
heathen gods, had in common practice been 
used also of Jehovah. This would account 
for its appearing in several place-names, such 
as Baal llamon, Baal-Shalisha. 17. Baalim] 
RV ' the Baalim.' Whether they represented 
Jehovah or heathen gods, the names with 
their debasing associations would be utterly 
discarded. 

18. Make a covenant] Jehovah is here re- 
presented poetically as making an agreement 
with, or laying a command upon, noxious 
animals, that tiny will not. it may ho supposed, 
hurt either man or the fruits of his labours : 
cp. Isa 1 1 '\ Break the bow, etc.] destroy the 
weapons of warfare no Longer needed in a 
land of security : cp. Isa'.i (RV). 

19, 20. The idols had hired Israel's love 
with L, r ifts of worldly prosperity, and even 



these they could not really give (v. 12). Je- 
hovah would woo Israel in the first place with 
much higher gifts, righteousness, judgment, etc. 

21, 22. I will hear, etc.] The natural order 
of thought is reversed, because Jehovah 
(through the prophet) is speaking of His work. 
The whole thought is highly poetical. Jezreel 
(' God-so weth,' used for Israel, for the sake of 
the play on the word) cries for the corn and 
wine and oil. These cry to the earth to pro- 
duce them. The earth in its turn cries to the 
heaven for rain, and the rain cries to Jehovah 
to send it. Jehovah hears the cry, and so the 
heart's desire of the people is granted, even 
without their expressly asking Jehovah for it. 

23. I will sow] With reference to the name 
Jezreel see on l 4 . Jehovah promises the re- 
newed increase of the population : cp. Jer31 27 . 

I will have mercy] a repetition of the pro- 
mises of 1 10 2 1 . 

CHAPTER 3 

The Attempts to reclaim the erring 
Wife 

In an episode in the life of Hosea and his 
relations with Gomer (cp. 2 14 ) the prophet 
finds a parable of Jehovah's punishment of 
Israel. Having bought back his erring wife, 
as though she were a slave, he subjects her to 
gentle restraint, depriving her for a time of 
conjugal rights, in hope of securing her love 
(1-3). So Israel, deprived in exile of forms 
of government and of outward worship, would 
be ready to receive her true king and spouse 
(4, 5). 

1. Her friend] rather, 'neighbour,' i.e. a 
guilty lover. To refer it to Hosea involves a 
clumsy tautology. Yet, etc.] RV ' and an 
adulteress, even as the Lord loveth.' The 
love of the prophet for his adulterous wife, 
here as before spoken of as a direct inspiration 
of God, is a symbol of the love of Jehovah 
for Israel, who nevertheless coquets with idols. 

Flagons of wine] RV ' cakes of raisins.' 
such as were offered to idols. 2. Bought her] 
She appears to have become the voluntary slave- 
concubine of her paramour. Fifteen . . silver] 
presumably the ordinary price for a female 
slave. Joseph was sold for twenty (Gn37- S ). 

3. For me] i.e. as my property. For an- 
other man] RV ' any man's wife.' For awhile 
Gomer was to live as though unmarried. 

4. Gomer's isolation is the symbol of that of 
exiled Israel, deprived of political organisation 
and religious services. Sacrifice, etc.] cp. 2 11 . 
All forms of religious symbolism are included 
in this v. Image] RV ' pillar.' A religious 
symbol, probably borrowed from the Canaan - 
ites. Ephod] The word is most frequently 
used of the high priest's dress, but in Jg8 27 
of a golden or gold-plated image set up by 
Gideon, and that would appear to be the 



548 



J. 5 



HOSEA 



4. 19 



meaning here. Teraphim] small household 
images, probably something like Roman Lares : 
see Gn31 34f - Jerl7 5 , etc. Their use was 
probably general in early times. Even David 
did not discard them in his early life (1 S 1 9 13 f -), 
and they were in use at the time of Josiah's 
reformation in Judah (2K23 24 ). 5. Return] 
often used of a new line of action or change of 
life: cp. 14 7 . David their king] The idola- 
trous worship of Israel was closely connected 
with their political schism : see. 1 K 1 2 2i-%9. 
Hosea contemplates once more a united king- 
dom under the Davidic monarchy. It is quite 
possible, however, that by David is here meant 
the Messiah ; cp. Jer 30 9 Ezk 34 2 * 37 2i . In the 
latter days] lit. 'In the after part of the days,' 
i.e. at the end of time, used of the Messianic 
age : cp. Isa2 2 Mic4 1 . 

CHAPTER 4 

Condemnation of the Priesthood 
An arraignment against Israel as a whole, 
because of all manner of wickedness against 
G-od and man. Prophet and priest, who ought 
to have taught them better, are only too like 
them in character, and must share their doom. 
In vv. 15-17 there is an appeal to Judah not 
to follow the idolatrous practices of Israel. 

1. Controversy] i.e. a lawsuit : cp. 
Isa 3 13 > 14 . 2. By swearing] R V ' There is 
nought but swearing.' Break out] commit 
acts of violence. Blood toucheth blood] The 
whole land is covered with the blood of the 
murdered, a strong expression to denote the 
frequency of murder : cp. Isa 28 8 . 3. The 
whole land (with its animal and vegetable life) 
is polluted by their sin, and must share their pun- 
ishment : cp. Jer4 23 , etc. 4. Thy people, etc.] 
The reading here seems corrupt. We should 
probably read, ' thy people are as they that 
strive with Me. priest, thou shalt stumble,' 
etc., vv. 5, 6 being addressed to the priest. 

5. The prophet] i.e. the class of prophets 
who said what they knew would please their 
hearers : cp. 1K221M2 Isa30 10 Jer5 31 . 

Mother] i.e. the nation: see on 2 2 . 

6. Lack of knowledge] The priests should 
1 have instructed the people in God's law (i.e. 

His moral teaching), and were therefore re- 

! sponsible for their ignorance. Instead of that 
they had wilfully refused even to learn them- 
selves. Thy children] i.e. the whole body of 

I priests, who only sinned worse as they in- 
creased in number. 8. They eat up] RV 
' they feed on.' The priests enriched them- 
selves with the sin-offerings, and with this 

j aim encouraged instead of checking sin : cp. 
Ezk 34. Set their heart] i.e. took delight in, 
because it paid so well. 9. Like . . priest] 
Priest and people had sinned alike, and would 

I be punished alike. 10. Eat . . enough, etc.] 
Greed and lust were both violations of God's 



natural laws, and would therefore have an un- 
natural result. 11. Heart] here probably as 
the seat of { the understanding ' (RV). 

12. Cp. Jer ll 27 . Idols were frequently 
made out of stumps and stems of trees, and 
were not only worshipped, but sometimes used 
for oracular purposes. Such a thing proved 
how senseless the people had become. 

Whoredom is here faithlessness to Jehovah ; 
but as such rites as those referred to were 
characterised by gross licentiousness, the meta- 
phor is especially appropriate. 13. The sum- 
mits of hills were the most frequent situations 
for sanctuaries in primitive times ; hence the 
' high places.' Elms] RV ' terebinths.' Trees 
were often connected with sacred rites : cp. 
Isa 1 29 57 5 . Therefore] Such faithlessness 
towards Jehovah would be punished by the 
faithlessness of their daughters. 14. I will 
not punish] They have no right to ask Jeho- 
vah to punish sins in their daughters or their 
brides, which in another form they commit 
themselves in their impure rites. 

15. Let . . offend] Hosea appeals to Judah 
not to imitate Israel's sins. Gilgal (that of 
Benjamin: cp. lS13 8f -) and Bethel (' house 
of God,' here contemptuously called Beth-aven, 
' house of vanity,' i.e. idolatry) were two of the 
most important Israelitish sanctuaries : see Am 
4 4 > 5 . The latter had been a sanctuary since the 
days of Jacob (Gn28 22 35 ^ 8 Jg21 2 ). Nor 
swear . . liveth] Hosea is here condemning the 
use of Jehovah's name in oaths, because that 
name has been so profaned by its association 
with idolatrous symbols. 16. Slideth back. . 
heifer] RV ' hath behaved himself stubbornly 
like a stubborn heifer,' as yet not fully trained 
to bear the yoke, which jibs instead of going 
obediently forward. Now the LORD will feed 
them, etc.] better, 'now would the Lord feed 
them,' etc. He would gladly have treated 
them as docile lambs, not as stubborn heifers. 
Others understand it as an exclamation : ' Israel 
is stubborn and self-willed. How then can the 
Lord feed them as a lamb in a wide pasture ! ' 

A large place] always in Scripture used as a 
symbol of safety (Ps 1 8 19 1 1 8 5 ). 1 7. Ephraim] 
i.e. Israel. Let him alone] a general exhort- 
ation to any who might seek to meddle with 
idolatrous Israel. 

18. Their drink is sour] RM 'their carouse 
is over.' Hosea is referring to some idolatrous 
festival. With shame . . Give ye] RV ' dearly 
love shame,' with reference probably to licen- 
tious practices connected with idolatrous 
feasts. 

19. Wings] RM 'skirts': a curious meta- 
phor to express the completeness of their 
punishment. They would be carried off without 
reprieve by the wind of judgment. They . . 
sacrifices] RM ' Their altars shall be put to 
shame,' i.e. by being destroyed. 



549 



5. 1 



HOSEA 



6.5 



CHAPTER 5 
Predictions of Punishment 

The priests, the people, and the royal 
dynasty have alike sinned, and will alike be 
punished. Their coquetting with Assyria will 
prove utterly futile. Judah has also sinned, 
and would will their punishment. But there 
is ever yet hope in the future, if they will but 
repent. 

i. Toward you] RY ' unto you.' Judgment 
belongs to you by right, and having abused your 
privilege you deserve greater punishment. 

Mizpah and Tabor are both spoken of as 
ancient sanctuaries: cpjg21 1 » 8 1S7 5 ' 10 , and 
see on 4 13 . The assemblies for religious and 
political purposes had been made occasions 
for robbing the people by unjust judgments 
and perhaps by extortionate demands for sacri- 
fices : see on 4 8 . 2. Are profound . . slaughter] 
lit. 'have gone deep to slaughter,' i.e. have 
committed horrible slaughter. It refers prob- 
ably to the violence of political factions : cp. 7 7 . 

Though I have bee?i] RV ' but I am.' Their 
violence will not escape punishment. Them 
all] priests, people, and rulers (v. 1). 

3. I know . . from me] Israel and Ephraim 
are in this book synonymous. The people had 
corrupted themselves by sins of impurity, but 
Jehovah had seen it and would punish : cp. 
Ps 10 14 . 4. They . . doings] RV ' Their doings 
will not suffer them.' To repent would mean 
to give up their cherished vices. 5. The 
pride . . face] Worse still ; they were actually 
proud of themselves and their doings. Their 
vaunting of their wickedness was its most 
obvious proof. 6. The time would come when 
they would in vain offer sacrifices to Jehovah. 

7. Strange children] Some see here an allu- 
sion to intermarriage with the Canaanites : cp. 
Ezr 9, 10. But it may be merely metaphorical. 
The result of their faithless union with 
heathen gods was a race of people who were 
not true Israelites, acknowledged and loved of 
Jehovah. A month] RV ' the new-moon.' ' The 
profanation of their festivals would be punished 
by the enemy destroying them and their land. 

Portions] RV ' fields.' 

8. With this begins what is probably a new 
prophecy. Hosea ironically bids the herald call 
the people to arms to defend themselves against 
an invading foe. Gibeah (' a hill ') and Ramah 
('a high place') would both be suitable spots 
for sounding ;m alarm. Beth-aven] see on 1 '■'. 
After thee . . Benjamin] RV ' behind thee.' etc. 
Prom Jg 5 ' ' it is supposed that this was the 

battle cry of the Ben jamites, used by the 
soldiers in following their leaden. K would 

have been B summons to the Benjamites to 

battle. 9. Hut such preparations would be 

quite useless. The judgment was surely eoming. 
10. The princes . . bound (R V ' landmark ')] 



They had abused their power to oppress and 
rob the people. The prophet here includes 
Judah in his denunciations and threats of 
consequent punishment. The Assyrians who 
demolished the northern kingdom crippled 
Judah in the days of Hezekiah. The deliver- 
ance of Judah, temporary as it in fact proved, 
was a later revelation of prophecy. 1 1 . Broken 
in judgment] i.e. defeated in his suit and con- 
demned. After the commandment] RM l after 
vanity,' i.e. # idolatry. 

13. Assyrian . . Jareb] cp. 10 6 . This refers 
probably to Menahem paying voluntary tribute 
to Tiglath-pileser (Pul, 2K15 19 ). The name 
Jareb (' adversary ') is coined by Hosea to 
point out the absurdity of their seeking help 
from such a source. In the words, when 
Judah saw his wound, Hosea seems to hint at 
a similar policy on the part of Judah, which 
was afterwards pursued by both Ahaz and 
Hezekiah (2 K lG'.s 18 l±-l«). 14. See on 
v. 10. 15. The prophet still hopes that these 
calamities will produce repentance and the 
remission of the full calamity. Meanwhile 
Jehovah will leave them to the discipline of 
His punishment. 

CHAPTER 6 

The Shallowness of Israel's Repentance 
Hosea now represents the people as coun- 
selling one another to repentance in presence 
of the impending danger ; and goes on to point 
out the futility of a hurried repentance, and 
the greatness of their sin. 

2. After two days] This is probably a pro- 
verbial expression for a very short time. 

3. Then . . know, etc.] RV k And let us 
know, let us follow on.' His going forth] 
Just as the morning will dawn after the darkest 
night, so God will arise bringing brightness and 
hope. As the rain] The land of Palestine 
was absolutely dependent on its winter rains : 
the former rain beginning about the end of 
October with fair intervals which permitted 
the seed to be sown, becoming heavier about 
the end of December and continuing at inter- 
vals during the winter ; the latter rain coming 
in showers in March and April refreshing the 
ripening crops. 

4. The thought of the possible future stands 
in deep contrast to the gloomy present, and 
the note of joy passes into a note of wailing. 

Morning cloud] As the morning cloud and 
the dew rapidly disappear, so the efforts of 
[srael after real goodness (especially 'kind- 
ness, RM) lack endurance. 5. Hewed . . 
slain them] The prophets are here spoken of 
as themselves doing what their language 
threatened. Thy judgments .. forth] It is 
better to read with LXX, " My judgment goeth 
forth as the light.' The reference is to the 
(deal- manifestation of the judgment. 



r>r»o 



6.6 



HOSEA 



7. 11 



6. God cared more for goodness and piety 
— the knowledge and doing of His will — than 
for formal offerings and sacrifice, and nothing 
at all for religious observances that were in- 
sincere and corrupt: cp. Isal 13 " 15 1S15 22 . 
Our Lord twice quotes the first clause in 
justification of doing good on the sabbath 
day: cp. Mt9 13 127. 7 . Like men] RV 
1 like Adam.' In regarding mere sacrifice as a 
substitute for goodness which God had made 
the condition of His covenant they had broken 
it as much as Adam had done by his disobedi- 
ence : cp. Gn2 1( 3,i7 Ex20 21 -24 n . There] in 
the land given them on condition of a good 
and holy life. 

8. Gilead] cp. 12 n . Probably Ramoth- 
Gilead. Being a city of refuge it was doubt- 
less the place of an early sanctuary. But 
holy cities were now become notorious for 
their wickedness. 9. In the way by consent] 
RV ' in the way toward Shechem.' At 
Shechem also, as we know from Josh 24 x , 
there was an ancient sanctuary. In the time 
of Jeroboam I it was the capital of the 
northern kingdom. Hosea here appears to 
refer to some definite act of robbery and 
murder in which some priests were actually 
implicated. 11. He hath set] RV 'there is 
appointed.' When I returned] RV ' when I 
bring again.' This v. is often understood of 
the harvest of judgment (cp. Joel 3 13 ), but the 
phrase ' to turn, or bring again, a nation's 
captivity,' means its restoration. The words, 
however, should probably be taken with what 
follows. 

CHAPTER 7 
Corruption of the Court 

In this c. the tone again becomes despondent. 
How can Israel be saved when her iniquity is 
so deep, so glaring, so obstinate ? Samaria is 
especially instanced as the centre of a wicked 
and corrupt government sustained by a lawless 
people and false teachers. Hosea dwells 
chiefly on some plot which ended in regicide 
and the reliance on foreign powers which 
meant want of faith in God. 

2. They fail to realise how patent in God's 
sight their iniquity is, while they attempt to 
combine a profession of religion with sins of 
the worst type. Now they are ' holden with 
the cords of their sins ' (Prov 5 22 ). 3. They 
induced their rulers not only to connive at, 
but to take part with delight in their wicked 
practices. 4. The fire of lust is likened to a 

1 baker's oven. But the simile seems also to 
include the passion of anger which worked in 
the heart and produced acts of violence, such 
as regicide. 

5-7. A scene from the palace. The king 
carouses with his courtiers, who have formed 
a plot against him, and wait the fitting moment 



to rise and put him to death. It would appear 
that Hosea has in his mind the assassination 
of a king at a feast, or just after a feast, 
in the early morning. The case is perhaps 
that of Zechariah, son of Jeroboam II (see 
Intro.). 

5. The day . . king] some royal feast, pro- 
bably the king's birthday. Have . . wine] RV 
' made themselves sick with the heat of wine.' 
By their drunken carouse they heaped up fuel 
on the fire of their malicious hate. He 
stretched out] i.e. in hospitality. The hand 
is stretched out by the host to offer the cup 
to his guests. Scorners] those who in their 
heart despise the king and are ever plot- 
ting his death. 6. Their baker] Perhaps we 
should follow the LXX, etc., and read, ' their 
anger.' Their anger sleeping would mean 
that they manage to control it, until it can 
work with effect. If we keep the reading 
' baker,' it will mean that just as the baker 
sleeps when once he has made up his fire and 
heated his oven ready for use in the morning, 
so they wait for the morning to execute their 
purpose. 

7. Judges . . kings] whatever definite event 
the prophet has in his mind this describes the 
general character of the northern kingdom, 
a restless disloyalty to kings and rulers. The 
only dynasties of any duration were those of 
Omri and Jehu. None . . calleth unto me] 
Irreligion lay at the root of this constant 
disloyalty. 

8. Ephraim, he hath mixed himself among 
the people] RV ' the peoples ' or nations. 
Another fault, and another evidence of a 
want of patriotism, the tendency to court 
foreign alliances and foreign influences, such 
as was seen in the policy of Menahem with 
reference to Tiglath-pileser (2K15 19 ). A 
cake not turned] which is therefore burnt 
on one side, and half raw on the other, 
and so spoilt. 9. Strangers . . strength] the 
natural consequence of seeking help from a 
foreign alliance, which meant the exaction 
of what was practically tribute, and conse- 
quently heavy taxation (2 K 1 5 20 ). Israel did 
not realise that these signified the beginning of 
national decrepitude, just as grey hairs here 
and there are the first signs of old age. 

10. The pride . . face] see on 5 5 . He is so 
besotted with pride that he recognises neither 
the evil itself nor its true remedy. 

11. A silly dove] As the dove flies helplessly 
one way and another, so Israel turns to one 
power after another, only eventually to make 
enemies of both. The only recorded alliance 
with Egypt was that of Hoshea (2K17 4 ); but 
it was a common policy of Judah, and is 
frequently condemned by the prophets. There 
was a natural temptation to play off Egypt 
against Assyria, and such an alliance may have 



551 



7.12 



HOSEA 



9.3 



been already projected by those opposed to blade.' If so be . . up] Again Hosea formally 



Menahem's action. Heart] RV ' understand- 
ing,' as in 4 11 . 12. They shall go] i.e. for 
help. This courting of alliances will inevita- 
bly, by God's providence, end in their destruc- 
tion. The metaphor of the dove suggests 
that of the fowler. Jehovah will through their 
own folly lure them to their ruin. As their 
congregation hath heard] Hosea had warned 
them beforehand of what was to befall. 

14. Howled . . beds] Their prayers do not 
proceed from any reverential fear of God. 
They are like the howling of an animal from 
pain. They cry out because they are in 
trouble, but their prayers are for material 
blessings, and they are still rebellious at heart: 
cp. Job35 9f . They assemble themselves] i.e. 
meet in religious exercises, but RM has ' cut 
themselves,' referring to heathen practices 
in time of tribulation: cp. 1K18 28 . 

15. Bound] RV ' taught,' by chastisement. 

16. They return, etc.] Their turning is ever 
farther away from God. Their princes shall 
fall] As a punishment for their insolence they 
would perish amidst the derision of the very 
people whose aid they had sought: see v. 11. 

CHAPTER 8 
The long-merited Retribution 
The enemy is coming immediately to destroy 
their temples and palaces and desolate the 
land, and as a punishment for their idolatry 
and disloyalty to God. In vain will they 
appeal to Jehovah. 

1. RM ' The trumpet to thy mouth ! As 
an eagle against the house of the Lord.' 

2. RV l They shall cry unto me, My God, 
we Israel know thee.' They use the name 
Israel with its sacred associations, as an in- 
ducement to God to help them. 3. Israel] 
Hosea answers their appeal by saying that the 
name is worthless without the character which 
God requires. 4. In the constant changes of 
dynasty there was no thought for the religious 
character of the king, nor counsel asked of 
God's prophets. Revolution and idolatry had 
all along been the besetting sin of Israel. 

That . . off] Had self-destruction been their 
object, they could not have achieved it more 
effectually. 

5. Thy calf . . off] RV ' He hath cast off thy 
calf. Samaria ' ; meaning that the calf would 
be taken off by the enemy. Samaria, the capi- 
tal, being put for the whole people. The 
allusion is. of course, to the golden bull at 

Bethel, under which symbol they worshipped 
Gtod. 6. From Israel] The idol was the mere 
• nation of [grael. Therefore. . God] RV'and 
it is no God.' It h;is no real existence: cp. 
I Cor 8 4 . 7. The wind] i.e. idolatry. It., 
stalk] RV 'he hath no standing corn,' as tin- 
result of his sowing. The bud] RV ' The 



modifies his previous statement, only to hint 
more plainly at the fate of the nation. 

8," 9. The condition of Israel in the land of 
captivity is here described. A vessel wherein 
is no pleasure] i.e. a cheap and worthless piece 
of pottery. 9. Hired lovers] with reference 
to the tribute paid to Tiglath-pileser by Mena- 
hem (cp. 7 9_11 ), and the attempts made by others 
to coquet with Egypt. 10. This courting of 
foreign princes will be of no avail. Very soon 
the people will be gathered for judgment by 
God and taken into a strange land. 

They shall . . little] They already begin to 
feel the oppressive tribute exacted by Tiglath- 
pileser : see on 7 9 - n . King of princes] perhaps 
with reference to the many small dependencies 
under the Assyrian sway : cp. Isa 10 8 . 11. The 
multiplication of altars and sacrifices only led 
to increased wickedness. 

12. I have written . . law] RV l Though I 
write for him my law in ten thousand precepts.'' 
It mattered not how emphatically God's teach- 
ing should be made known to Israel ; they would 
ignore it. 13. The sacrifices to Jehovah are a 
merely formal act, only killing and eating. Such 
sacrifices without repentance are not acceptable 
to Him, and will not induce Him to forget 
or overlook their sins : cp. Isa 1 12 . They . . 
Egypt] The prophet in God's name here 
threatens to undo the greatest act that God 
had ever done for His people : cp. 7 16 . Hosea 
evidently contemplated the possibility of the 
punishment which he foresaw coming from 
Egypt. More frequently he speaks of Assyria 
as the instrument of God's vengeance. 

14. Temples] RV ' palaces.' The building 
of fenced cities by Israel and Judah implied a 
want of faith in God's power to save. 

CHAPTER 9 
Exile is at hand 

This prophec} r appears to have been written 
in a time of rejoicing over a good harvest and 
vintage. Israel need not rejoice, says the 
prophet, with the wild joy of the heathen. 
Their praises to the local Baals are insults to 
Jehovah, whom they have denied. Their re- 
joicing will end in disaster, culminating in 
captivity either in Egypt or Assyria. 

1,2. People] RV ' peoples,' i.e. the heathen 
nations around. The allusion is probably to the 
orgies of the heathen festival. The sins of the 
people called rather for sorrow and contrition. 

Reward] RV 'hire,' the bounteous crops 
being regarded as due to the favour of the idols 
in return for Israel's worship. As a punish- 
ment the corn and wine would fail. 3. See 
on 8 13 . Egypt and Assyria were the nations 
which assailed them on either side. By one 
of them they would be taken captive. 'Un- 
clean food' (RV), in contrast to the fertile 



552 



9.4 



HOSEA 



10. 8 



products of their own land: cp. 2K18 27 " 31 
Ezk4i2,i3. 

4. Bread of mourners] Instead of being 
joyous festivals they would be like funeral 
feasts. For their bread, etc.] RV 'for their 
bread shall be for their appetite : it shall 
not come,' etc. A further step in their misery. 
They would only have enough bread to satisfy 
the pangs of hunger, and have none left to 
offer to G-od. The reference here appears to 
be to the horrors of a siege. 5. The feast 
days come, but no one is ready or able to 
observe them. Their only concern is to escape 
destruction. 6. Egypt . . up] Their efforts to 
escape are useless. They would be captured and 
brought to Egypt, with only death and burial 
to look forward to : see on 8 13 . The pleasant 
. . silver] RY ' their pleasant things of silver.' 
While they die in captivity, all their treasures 
are laid waste and overgrown with weeds : cp. 
Isa34 13 . Tabernacles] RY 'tents.' 

7. Israel shall know . . it] The people have 
refused to believe the prophet's threats ; they 
would realise the truth very soon, when the 
calamities came upon them. The prophet is a 
fool] The meaning is doubtful. Some inter- 
pret thus : ' Into such excesses have they 
fallen that their prophets have gone mad, so 
that they utter no clear message, but only the 
incoherent muttering of frenzy.' In this case 
the prophet would refer to the false prophets. 
Or it may mean that their iniquity and enmity 
had hitherto made them ignorant of the real 
character of the true prophet, who appeared 
to them a mad fool. The spiritual man] lit. 
' the man of the spirit,' an unusual synonym for 
prophet. 8. The watchman] ' Watchman ' is 
similarly used metaphorically of a prophet in 
Isa21 6 > n . The meaning is very uncertain. 

Was with my God] perhaps, ' is with my 
God,' i.e. is in the keeping of my God. A 
snare of a fowler . . ways] Wherever he goes 
he is in danger of being trapped. Hatred in . . 
God] The enmity of the people dogs him in 
his most sacred duties. 

9. Gibeah] The reference is to the glaring sin 
of the Gibeonites described in Jgl9 : cp. 10 9 . 

10. Grapes in the wilderness] the last place 
to find grapes. But God had found these poor 
tribes in the wilderness, and made them His 
people. Time] RY ' season.' The first ripe 
fruit is eaten with peculiar relish, all the 
more so if it be the first crop of the figs : 
cp. Isa 28 4 . Israel was the first nation which 
God had chosen. Baal-peor] see Nu25. 
God's love even at the beginning did not 
hinder them from acts of idolatry and gross 
impurity. Separated . . shame] RY ' conse- 
crated themselves unto the shameful thing,' i.e. 
the idol and the licentiousness which its wor- 
ship involved. 

11-13. The prophet threatens them with 



barrenness as the punishment for immorality : 
cp. 4 10 . Even if children should be born, they 
would fall by the sword of the enemy. 13. As 
I saw Tyrus] i.e. like Tyre. Pleasant place] 
perhaps fold, as in Jer23 3 , the reference being 
to security rather than natural beauty. 

14. The prophet here appeals to God's justice 
to carry out the punishment foretold. The 
prophet has his moods ; at one time an earnest 
hope for the nation's repentance, at another 
a disgust at their hopeless irreligion and immo- 
ralities. Even here the language implies a 
struggle of different feelings. He seems to 
begin with a prayer and to end with some- 
thing like a curse. 15. Gilgal] cp. 4 15 . Gilgal 
was the home of idolatry and its accompanying 
iniquity. There Israel called forth the wrath 
of God. Mine house] These words show that 
the worship at Gilgal was at least in theory 
paid to Jehovah. 

CHAPTER 10 
Denunciations and Entreaties 
This prophecy appears to have been uttered 
at a later date than the last. There is no 
longer any mention of Egypt, but the calamity 
from Assyria seems imminent. Again Hosea 
urges them to repent while there is time, and 
again gives way to despair. 

1. Empty] RY ' luxuriant,' with reference 
to the prosperity of Israel. The more he 
prospered, the more he multiplied his heathen- 
ish altars and symbols. Fruit unto himself] 
RY ' his fruit.' Images] RY ' pillars ' : see 
on 34. 

2. Their . . divided] It is no simple worship of 
Jehovah, but a confused heathenish worship, 
which God will altogether destroy : see Intro. 

3. What . . us] RY ' and the king, what can 
he do for us ? ' They have no king, because 
they have not submitted themselves to their 
natural king, Jehovah ; and they realise too 
late the impotence of him who is a king only 
in name (i.e. probably Hoshea). 4. They . . 
covenant] They have spoken words, i.e. mere 
words not followed by deeds, and sworn falsely 
to agreements which they have not kept. The 
reference is probably to their commercial deal- 
ings with each other as in 4 2 . Hemlock . . 
field] Judgment will come upon them like the 
rank growth of a noxious weed. 5. Samaria] 
as in 8 5 f • , for the whole people. Calves of Beth- 
aven] see on 4 15 . They will be terribly afraid 
lest their God be taken away. Priests and 
people alike will mourn for sorrow. 6. King 
Jareb] see on 5 13 . There is a fine touch of irony 
in the suggestion that a god is sent off as a 
present to a king. 7. Samaria is doomed, and 
her king disappears, like a foam-bubble bursting 
on the water. 8. A picture of the desolation 
and terror following invasion. Aven] for Beth- 
aven : see on 4 15 . They . . us] In their despair 



553 



10. 9 



HOSEA 



11. 10 



they would welcome the most violent death. 
The words are quoted by our Lord in His pro- 
phecy of the destruction of Jerusalem (Lk 
23 30 ): see also Rev 6 16 . 

9. From the days] KM ' more than in the 
days.' Gibeah] see on 9 9 . The battle] RV 
' that the battle.' Hosea finds a parallel be- 
tween the battle of vengeance against the Ben- 
jamites in Gibeah ( Jg 20) and the judgment that 
is coming against Israel. They remain impeni- 
tent, hoping that a similar calamity may not 
overtake them. 10. It . . should] RV k when 
it is my desire, I will,' etc. There may be 
some delay, but, when God wills, the punish- 
ment must come. When . . furrows] RV l when 
they are bound ' (RM ' yoked ') ' to their two 
transgressions,' usually explained of the two 
' calves.' For a somewhat similar figure cp 
Isa5 18 . But translation and interpretation 
are both very uncertain. 

11. See on 5 3 . Ephraim is like a heifer ac- 
customed only to the light work of threshing ; 
but both she and Judah must now bear the 
yoke of a foreign oppressor. I passed . . neck] 
a rather curious but forcible way of saying, ' I' 
have put the yoke upon her neck.' It is an 
instance of the prophetic past, describing as 
done an event only determined by God. The 
images which follow express the same general 
thought, the dominion of a foreign power. 

Jacob] instead of Israel or Ephraim. 

12, 13. The metaphor of ploughing leads to 
that of sowing and reaping. Hosea uses it to 
make another appeal for repentance. In the 
past they had devoted themselves to iniquity, 
and were beginning to reap the consequences. 
Let them now devote themselves to righteous- 
ness, and they will receive mercy. Rain righ- 
teousness] RM ' teach you righteousness.' 

Trust . . way] i.e. you chose your own path 
instead of allowing yourselves to be directed 
by God. Another reading is, ' in thy chariots,' 
which is a better parallel to the next clause. 

14. Among] RM 'against.' Their confidence 
would be found misplaced. The fortresses 
manned by their mighty men would be destroyed 
by the enemy. Shalman . . battle] Nothing is 
known of this event, and neither the man nor 
the place can be identified with certainty ; but 
the sack of Beth-arbel had evidently created a 
terrible impression of the horrors of war. 

15. So shall Beth-el do] RM ' so shall it be 
done unto yon ;ii Beth <■!.' 

CHAPTER 111-" 
Tin: [NOBATITUDE ok Israel 
Jehovah had been like a tender father and a 

kind master to Israel from tin- first, yet had 

they ever rejected Him and turned to idols. 
He cannot bear the though! of punishing them, 

but punish them He must. Yet punishment 
will be tempered with mercy, and lead at last to 



repentance and deliverance. The tenderness of 
the whole passage and the changing phases of 
feeling are very characteristic. 

1. The allusion, of course, is to the deliver- 
ance out of the bondage of Egypt, a proof of 
God's fatherly love to Israel. St. Matthew 
refers the last clause to the recall of the Infant 
Jesus from Egypt : see on Mt2 15 . 2. As 
them] An interesting example of the terse style 
of Hosea. It is God who calls, but He calls 
by the instrumentality of others, Moses and 
the prophets. The call is the call out of bond- 
age to the service of God. 3. I] RV ' Yet I.' 
Jehovah is here compared to a father teaching 
his child to walk, and carrying it when tired. 

Taking . . arms] RM ' He took them,' etc. 
The prophet sometimes speaks as the mouth- 
piece of God in the first person ; less frequently 
he speaks of God in the third. 4. Cords . . 
man] not with cords used in drawing a beast 
which is being broken in, but something more 
gentle, the kindly discipline needful for win- 
ning a man's allegiance. And I was . . unto 
them] In the evening, when work is over, the 
kind master takes off: the yoke, gently passing 
it over the animal's face, and then gives it food. 

5. Kindness has failed to lead them to re- 
pentance ; therefore they must be purified by 
punishment. Not to Egypt, however, shall they 
go, but the Assyrians shall conquer and carry 
them away. Not . . into . . Egypt] In 8 13 9 6 the 
prophet spoke of Egypt as a possible place of 
captivity ; but now, at this later date, it was 
evident that Assyria was to be the instrument 
of God's vengeance 6. The mention of 
apostasy produces a severer tone of threaten- 
ing. Abide on] RY ' fall upon.' His branches] 
RV ' his bars,' i.e. his defences, meaning either 
his strong cities or his nobles, on whom he de- 
pended for safety. But their evil counsellors (if 
we take it in the latter sense) would prove their 
ruin. 7. Though . . him] Though they form- 
ally called on God, they do not really exalt 
Him in their hearts. 

8. Hosea's feeling again turns to tenderness. 
How can the loving Father bear to chastise 
His people as they deserve ! Admah . . Zeboim] 
with reference to the destruction of the cities 
of the plain : cp. Dt 2{) - 3 . My repentings] RV 
' my compassions.' 9. Jehovah's feelings grow 
stronger still. He will not punish His people. 

I dm God] therefore more long-suffering 
and less vindictive than man : cp. Ps 130 4 and 
Collect, ' Who declarest Thy almighty power 
most chiefly in showing mercy and pity.' Enter 
into the city] RM'come in wrath.' 10. Hosea 
is confidenl (hat the people will make them- 
selves descrying of Jehovah's love and follow 
Him. Roar . . lion] In Am3 8 the same figure 
is used of God's threatening through the pro- 
phet. Here it is used of His calling for His 
people out of captivity, the point of comparison 



554 



11.11 



HOSEA 



IS. 1 



being the earnest longing on God's part, rever- 
ential awe on man's. Shall tremble] RY v shall 
come trembling.' West] i.e. Egypt, as distinctly 
stated in the next v. n. They .. Egypt] Taken 
literally, it is in contradiction to v. 5 ; taken 
together, they may be paraphrased thus : They 
shall not go into Egypt ; and even should they 
go, thence will I bring them — a form of thought 
similar to that in 9 n > 12 , etc. Dove] The 
timidity of the dove is what is probably thought 
of. For another use of the simile see 7 n . 

CHAPTERS 1112-1214 
A Reproof of Commercial Dishonesty 

The Hebrew text divides the c. more cor- 
rectly at this v. The prophet returns to the 
subject of the unfaithfulness both of Israel 
and of Judah. They have sought help where 
it was not to be found, and neglected G-od, the 
only source of help, in forgetfulness of the ex- 
ample of their ancestor Jacob. 

12. Judah . . saints] EM better,' and Judah 
is yet unstedf ast with God, and with the Holy 
One who is faithful.' 

C. 12. i. Ephraim . . east wind] an attack on 
Israel's foreign policy and cunning commercial 
dealings with foreign powers. The wind 
stands for what is useless and unsatisfying. 
The east wind was noted for its violence and 
destructiveness : cp. Ps48 7 . They seek eagerly 
to obtain what in the end will destroy them. 

Oil . . Egypt] Oil was one of the richest 
products of Palestine : see Dt8 8 2 K 18 32. 

2. Jacob] as before used to introduce the 
personal history of the Patriarch, from which 
Hosea seeks to draw an analogous lesson for the 
people. Jacob had begun life by cunningly sup- 
planting his brother, but afterwards had made 
a covenant with God. Israel is now exhorted 
to do likewise. 3. By his strength] RY ' in 
his manhood.' It refers to Jacob's wrestling 
with the angel at Penuel (Gn 32 24-30). 4 . He 
wept] Not mentioned in Gn32 2 5. He found 
him] the subject is Jehovah. In Beth-el] The 
reference is probably to Jacob's dream (Gn 
28 i°-22). With us] Hosea here regards God's 
promises to Jacob as made to the people Israel, 
whom in fact they chiefly concerned. 5. Lit. 
' And Jehovah is the God of armies. Jehovah 
is His memorial.' The thoughts emphasised 
are, (1) the protective power of God ; (2) His 
faithfulness. Hosea has probably in his mind 
Ex3i 5 . Jehovah was the God of the Patri- 
archs, who would keep the promises which He 
had made to them. Memorial] that by which 
a person is known, his name : see Ex3i 5 . 

7-14. Israel, too, is unjust and unmerciful. 
In the pursuit of gain they are no better 
than the heathen, though they pride them- 
selves on their honesty. Jehovah has long 
warned them : now He will pmnish them : 
their sanctuaries will be utterly destroyed. 



7. He is a merchant] RM 'as for Canaan 
the balances,' etc. Balances of deceit] cp. 
Am8 5 . 8. And Ephraim] The Israelites had 
only too readily learnt the tricks of cheating 
from the Canaanites. Yet] RY ' surely.' It 
is the natural consequence of his unjust deal- 
ing. In all . . sin] Israel is nevertheless per- 
fectly self-satisfied and has no pangs of con- 
science. 9. And] RY ' But.' In spite of all 
this I will not leave you to your evil ways. 

Tabernacles] RY 'tents.' Israel had learned 
nothing since the days in the wilderness. In 
religion and morality they were still like those 
who came out of Egypt. Therefore they 
would have to go back to captivity and begin 
their discipline anew. Solemn feast] i.e. the 
Feast of booths (Tabernacles). 10. The 
moral degradation of the people was not from 
want of warning. Visions and similitudes] 
two of the commonest modes of prophetic 
utterance. We have instances of the first in 
the vision of Micaiah (IK 22 19-22), the basket 
of summer fruit (Am8i), etc. ; of the latter 
in the simile of the baker in Hos7. A defi- 
nitely acted parable became a common feature 
of later prophecy, e.g. Ezk4. 

n. Gilead . . Gilgal] both sanctuaries : see 
4i 5 6 8 . Is there iniquity, etc.] RY 'Is Gilead 
iniquity ? ' The question is only a rhetorical 
way of stating an astounding fact. 12. The 
idolatry of Israel implies a forgetfulness of God, 
by whose providence Jacob was rescued from 
servitude. The reference is to Jacob's servi- 
tude under Laban in order to win Rachel 
(Gn29, 30). 13. The rescue of Jacob was re- 
peated in the deliverance of Israel out of 
Egypt by Moses, and their preservation in the 
wilderness. Moses, as Israel's first inspired 
teacher, was their first prophet : cp. Dtl8i 5f - 
341°. 14. Ephraim . . bitterly] In spite of all 
this kindness Ephraim had provoked God to 
great anger. His blood] plural, meaning 
' bloodshed.' The blood which he has shed 
shall not be wiped off, but remain in God's eye, 
a witness of his crime. For a somewhat similar 
idea cp. Gn4i°. His reproach] God will 
punish him for his reproach, i.e. for his scorn- 
ful contempt of God: cp. 2K19 4 , 22. 

CHAPTER 13 
Israel's Idolatry and its Consequences 

The main thought of this c, which is a 
continuation of the last (cp. 12 9 13 4 ), is the 
folly of Israel incurring the enmity of God, 
who had shown Himself such a loving friend, 
but might become so terrible an enemy. The 
sudden change of tone in v. 14 is highly 
characteristic. 

1. When . . trembling] RY 'When Ephraim 
spake, there was trembling.' Ephraim was a 
strong and powerful tribe, which could com- 
mand obedience, as especially in the days of 



555 



13. 2 



HOSEA 



14. y 



Joshua. He died] Baal-worship was the cause 
of the national decay and its final doom. 

2. Kiss] as an act of worship. For men 
that sacrifice RM has ' sacrificers of men.' 
Murder is combined with sacrifice : cp. Isa 
l 15 . 4. Yet . . Egypt] see on 12 9. 5, 6. I . . 
thee] In the wilderness Jehovah became their 
friend. He knew them, and bade them know 
Him. But when they prospered in a land of 
fertility, they became proud and forgot Him. 

10. I . . king] RV ' Where now is thy king ? ' 
What use. would the king and princes whom 
they had so clamoured for be in their trouble ? 

11. I . . anger] This has often been referred 
to Saul, but the Hebrew tenses suggest re- 
peated action, and the allusion may, therefore, 
be to the frequent changes of dynasty in the 
northern kingdom. 12. Hid] RV ' laid up in 
store.' The sin of Israel is kept stored in 
God's remembrance, and will surely bring 
about its own punishment. 13. He is an un- 
wise son, etc.] Ephraim is like a foolish child 
that delays his own birth by staying in the 
passage from the womb. In other words, he 
has not the wisdom to rouse himself in this 
great crisis. 

14. With a startling transition of thought, 
Hosea contemplates the power of Jehovah to 
save, even from death itself : cp. Isa 26 19 . If 
it is too much to regard it as a definite pro- 
phecy of the resurrection, it is at least an ex- 
ample of faith in the unbounded mercies of 
God, and His power to trample even upon 
death and Hades. 

O death . . destruction] RV ' death, where 
are thy plagues ? O grave ' (RM ' Sheol '), 
'where is thy destruction?' Cp. v. 10, where 
the same negative answer to the rhetorical 
question is intended. See lCorl5 55 , where 
St. Paul, quoting freely from LXX, gives a 
better rendering than AV. Sheol is the place 
of departed spirits, Hades, as in Isal4 9 , etc. 

Repentance . . eyes] i.e. I will not relent in 
my purpose. 

15. Suddenly again the hope vanishes. Eph- 
raim in his prosperity is compared to a fertile 
country suddenly dried up by the east wind 
from the desert, and the failure of water. 

Wind . . LORD] RV « breath of the Lord,' 
the wind being poetically conceived of as 
God's breath, just as the thunder was His 



voice : cp. Gn 1 2 . He shall spoil] i.e. the east 
wind, or rather the enemy whom it typifies. 

16. Shall become desolate] RV 'shall bear 
her guilt,' i.e. be punished for her sin. Their 
. . up] Ephraim would have to bear the cruelties 
inflicted by a merciless foe in a barbarous age. 

CHAPTER 14 

Israel will surely repent and be 
forgiven 

Hosea makes a touching final appeal for re- 
pentance. He assures Israel of God's mercy, 
and closes with a description of the blessings 
that will follow the renewal of His favour. 

2. Take . . words] go to Him, prepared to 
confess your sins. Receive us graciously] RV 
' accept that which is good,' i.e. what is good 
in us, in contrast to the iniquity which God is 
asked to take away. Render] i.e. offer. The 
calves . . lips] better, ' our lips as bullocks ' — 
that sacrifice of penitence which is outwardly 
expressed not in the sacrifice of animals, but 
in confession of sin: cp. Ps51 17 . 3. Israel 
would no longer depend upon the help either 
of foreign powers or of the idols, but trust in 
Jehovah, the helper of the fatherless. 

5. Dew] a frequent metaphor to express 
spiritual blessing : cp. Dt32 2 . The paucity of 
rain made the land dependent on frequent and 
heavy dews : cp. 1K17 1 . Grow] RV 'blos- 
som.' 6. Olive] the emblem of fatness and 
fertility. 

8. This v. passes into a sort of dialogue 
between Ephraim and God. Thus : 

Ephraim. What have I to do any more with 
idols ? i.e. I will in future have nothing more 
to do with them. 

Jehovah. (RV) ' I have answered, and will 
regard him,' i.e. I have heard his prayer, and 
will answer it. 

Ephraim. I am like a green fir tree] I am 
strong and prosperous. 

Jehovah. From me is thy fruit found, i.e. 
do not in prosperity once more forget that it 
comes from Me : cp. Jnl5 4 . 

9. A general reflection on the teaching of 
the book, which cannot be understood except 
by the wise and prudent, but in the end will 
be found to be true wisdom: cp. Psl07 43 . 
This epilogue may have been added at a 
later date, to point the moral of the whole book. 



556 



JOEL 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Author. Nothing is mentioned concern- 
ing the personality of the prophet Joel beyond 
the name of his father, Pethuel (1 *) ; but he 
clearly lived in Jerusalem, since the Temple 
appears ever present before him (19,13,14,16 
2 17 ), and the sound of alarm is given from 
Zion (2 !), and the people are summoned thither 
for a solemn assembly (2 l7 ). He also does not 
notice the northern kingdom, but speaks of 
Judah and Jerusalem having suffered from 
their enemies (3 1 ' 6 ), and promises to them a 
recompense (3 8 > 17 f - 20 ). 

2. Date. The date of the book of Joel is 
determined alone by internal evidence. A 
terminus a quo is fixed by the dispersion and 
wrongs mentioned in 3 1 " 6 . Many have seen 
in these a reference to the sacking of Jeru- 
salem during the reign of Jehoram (about 850 
B.C.) by the Philistines and Arabians, recorded 
in 2Ch21 16f - In that case the book would 
probably be one of the earliest of the pro- 
phetic writings, a formerly prevalent view, 
suggested by its position in the Canon after 
Hosea. Agreeable to this early date have 
been pointed out, (1) that the condemnation 
of Egypt and Edom for having shed innocent 
blood (3 19 ) may refer to the invasion of Shi- 
shak during the reign of Rehoboam (IK 14 25 ), 
and to the revolt of Edom under Jehoram 
(2K8 20 ) ; (2) that the mention of the valley 
of Jehoshaphat preserves a lively recollection 
of that king's victory at the valley of Bera- 
chah (2Ch20 26 ) ; (3) that the simplicity of 
the teaching of Joel indicates an early period 
of written prophecy ; (4) especially as fixing 
the date of his book in the early part of the 
reign of Joash (837-801 B.C.), that it is 
silent concerning the king — then in his min- 
ority ; (5) that idolatry and Baal worship are 
not mentioned, since they did not flourish when 
the king was under the influence of Jehoiada 
the priest (2K12 2 2Ch24i7f-); (6) that the 
priests and the worship of Jehovah are made 
prominent (1 13 2 17 ), something also to be ex- 
pected at the same time through the influence 
of Jehoiada ; and, finally, (7) that the failure 
to mention the Syrians, Assyrians, or Chal- 
deans as enemies of Judah, is also agreeable 
to this date, since only late in the reign of 
Joash did the Syrians, through Hazael, threaten 
Judah(2K12i7f.). 

But, in spite of this apparent accumulation 
of evidence, it is doubtful whether the dis- 



persion and wrongs of 3 1 " 6 , where the parti- 
tion of the land is definitely stated (3 2 ), 
can refer to any other event than the Chal- 
dean conquest of Judah, and the following 
considerations also are in favour of a post- 
exilic date. (1) The words of Joel stand in 
strong contrast to those of the early prophets, 
Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah, 
who emphasised the defection of Israel from 
Jehovah through deeds of violence and op- 
pression, political alliances and idolatry, and 
based almost wholly upon these their calls for 
repentance or forebodings of divine judgment. 
But these features are entirely wanting in the 
book of Joel. Human agencies, also, are not 
found as instruments of divine judgments, as 
in the earlier prophets, except in the slightest 
degree, but supernatural manifestations take 
their place, and thus the book is of the nature 
of an apocalypse, a kind of writing prevalent 
from the captivity and onward. One feature 
of the apocalyptic literature is the use made 
of parallels from earlier writings, and these 
are frequent in the book of Joel. (2) The 
stress laid upon sacrifices and the prominence 
given to the priests (1 9 > 13 > 2 17 ) reflect a highly 
developed ecclesiastical community, which the 
Jews became after the exile. (3) The mention 
of the Grecians in connexion with the slave trade 
(3 6 ) points strongly to the post-exilic period 
when Syrian slaves were in request in Greece. 
(4) The silence concerning the northern king- 
dom and the Syrians, Assyrians and Chaldeans, 
and a king in Judah, already mentioned, favour 
a post-exilic date. (5) The references to 
Edom and Egypt can also readily be explained 
from the post-exilic point of view, since bitter 
feeling then continued toward Edom, and 
Egypt might be mentioned typically : see 3 19 . 
And, finally, (6) the language favours a post- 
exilic writer. Hence the more prevailing view 
among scholars now is that the book of Joel 
belongs to the post-exilic period, and was 
written circ. 500 B.C., though possibly con- 
siderably later. 

3. Subject and Occasion. The general 
subject of Joel is divine judgment, or the 
Day of Jehovah. This is depicted in 1-2 17 
under the form of a locust plague, which 
undoubtedly was the occasion of the prophecy. 
So vivid is the description of the locusts, 
especially under the figure of an army (2 6 ' 11 ), 
that some have supposed the language figurative 



557 



INTRO. 



JOEL 



1.8 



and have taken the account as presaging a 
future invasion or experience of Israel after 
the analogy of that of the hosts of Gog and 
Magog described in Ezk 38, 39. But the 
prophet is rather speaking of literal locusts, 
addressing his contemporaries in view of 
present distress. His description of the ad- 
vent of these insects as a Day of Jehovah and 
as a destruction from the Almighty (1 15 ) with 
terrifying natural phenomena (2 10 ) is none too 
strong to express the feeling awakened by the 
presence of real locusts. The fearfulness of 
their devastations has been attested again and 
again by travellers and scientific observers. 
Locusts darken the sky, their sound is like 
that of a rushing wind or falling water ; no- 
thing can break their ranks or turn them back ; 
neither fire nor water as ordinarily applied 
stays their progress ; they devour all vegeta- 
tion ; they penetrate into houses ; and finally, 
when their work is accomplished, driven by 
the wind into the sea their dead bodies have 
been cast up in heaps to putrefy the atmo- 
sphere and produce disease. Thus the inter- 
pretation that finds literal locusts is justified, 
and yet, doubtless, in the prophet's mind the 
scourge itself was a figure of a great and final 
day of judgment, and that thought intensified 
his language and made it somewhat ideal. 

After a two-fold description of this day of 
judgment through locusts, with calls for fast- 
ing and prayer (l 2 -2 1>r ), it is said, 'Jehovah 
had pity on his people ' (2 18 RV), implying 
that the people had fasted and prayed and 
that their intercession had availed. Then the 
promises are given of the removal of the 
locusts and the restoration of the fruitfulness 
of the land (2 19- 2 ?), an( j f the bestowal of the 
divine spirit of knowledge (2 28 ' 32 ). In con- 
nexion with this latter promise a glimpse of 
the already suggested terrible day of final 
judgment is given (2 30-32 ), and this becomes the 
direct theme of the remainder of the book in 
two different forms : first, a judgment re- 
stricted to the immediate neighbours of Israel 
(3 1-8 ) ; and then, secondly, one embracing all 
nations (3°- 21 ). 

4. Teaching. The book of Joel addresses 
the Christian Church under visitations of evil 
with a call for humility and intercession both 
through outward form and ceremony and 
through the inward motions of the heart, with 
the assurance that God hears and answers 
prayer, turning the day of calamity into one 
of prosperity. It heralds Jehovah as the 
judge of all mankind to right wrongs, giving 
temporal and spiritual blessings unto His 
faithful people without distinction, and punish- 
ing evildoers. Thus it appeals to our innate 
sense of justice and becomes a source of hope 
and strength when the righteous are tried. A 
final blissful salvation is assured to the people 



of God. But, at the same time, the book has 
limitations in fostering a spirit of retaliation 
(3 8 ), in presenting no salvation for the 
heathen (cp. in contrast Isa2 2 " 4 1 9 18 * 25 ), and, 
while doubtless the assumption is that the 
saved Israelites are righteous and the other 
nations are wicked, yet the distinction between 
the saved and unsaved is racial rather than 
spiritual and moral, and the narrow feeling of 
the Jews, which the book of Jonah was written 
to counteract, is reflected, and its universal 
judgment scene (3 9-21 ) needs to be supple- 
mented by that of Mt25 31 * 46 , even as its 
promise of the outpouring of the Spirit (2 28f «) 
finds fulfilment in spiritual gifts to the Church 
which are far wider than those of the single 
day of Pentecost (Ac2 14f -). 

CHAPTER 1 

The Coming of the Locusts a Harbinger 
of the Day of the Lord 

After the title (v. 1), the prophet announces an 
unheard of and long to be remembered ruin, 
wrought by locusts (vv. 2-4), and summons the 
users of wine to bewail the destruction of 
vineyards (vv. 5-7). He calls for lamentation, 
like that of a widowed bride, over the loss of 
sacrificial offerings, and wasted fields and 
orchards (vv. 8-12). He commands the 
priests to lament and to appoint a fast and a 
meeting for prayer (vv. 13, 14), and then he 
vividly describes the failure of crops and 
distress of cattle (vv. 16-20). 

1. Joel] see Intro. Pethuel] entirely un- 
known. 

4. The palmerworm, cankerworm, caterpiller, 
and locust, are not different insects, but in the 
original four different names of the locust, 
possibly representing it in different stages of 
growth]; yet here in a climactic description, i.e. 
' swarm upon swarm.' The use of synonyms for 
a common object is characteristic of Hebrew. 

5. New wine] RV ' sweet wine,' primarily 
the freshly pressed juice of the grape or other 
fruit. 6. A nation] figurative of the locusts : 
cp. similar figure for ants and conies in 
Prov30 2)f . My land] i.e. of Jehovah since 
the prophet gives His message. The teeth of 
a lion] in destructiveness. The cheek teeth] 
RV ' The jaw teeth.' The lion was common 
in ancient Palestine. 

7. Locusts consume not only plants and 
vegetables, but also small branches and tender 
bark, thus exposing the white wood. Cast it 
away] i.e. the unedible fragments of bark and 
wood which fall to the ground. 

8. A general address to the people. The 
simile may contain an underlying reference tc 
the abandonment of the people by Jehovah, 
since the union between them was often 
typified by the marriage relation, and the 
disaster of the locust plague implied that 



558 



1. 9 



JOEL 



% 16 



Jehovah had forsaken the land. 9. The meat 
offering (RV ' meal offering ') and the drink 
offering] Two daily offerings which went with 
the morning and evening sacrifice of a lamb, 
the one consisting of fine flour mingled with 
oil and the other of a libation of wine : cp. 
Ex 29 s8 - 42 Nu28i" s Lv2i-i<\ Is cut off] i.e. 
cannot be provided. 10. The land mourneth] 
Nature is represented in the OT. with the 
same feelings as those of man. Cp. for 
mourning Isa 33 9 Jer 12 *, U 23 10 Am 1 2 . 

Corn, wine, and oil, the three principal 
products of the soil of Palestine, frequently 
mentioned together as from Jehovah (2 19 
Dt7!3 1114 2851 Jer31i2 Hos2 8 >28). The 
corn (ARY ' grain ') was principally wheat, 
barley, and spelt or vetch. Rye and oats 
were not grown. The oil was that of the 
olive. 11. Be ye ashamed, etc.] RM 'The 
husbandmen are ashamed, the vinedressers 
howl.' 12. Palm tree] Symbol of glory or 
beauty (Ps92i2 Song 7™ JerlO 5 ), but here 
mentioned as a fruit tree. Its dates are very 
valuable. The apple] sometimes rendered 
' apricot,' although apples are found in Palestine : 
cp. Prov25H Song 2 3, 5 7 9 . 13. Gird your- 
selves] i.e. with sackcloth : cp. Isa 32 n . Lie all 
night] cp. David (2S12^), Ahab (IK 21 27). 
Nothing was more terrible to the Jewish mind 
than the failure of the daily sacrifice. 

14. Sanctify . . a fast] i.e. keep a holy fast 
unto Jehovah. As feasting is a natural 
expression of joy so fasting is of grief, and 
fasts were observed in times of distress along 
with confession of sin and prayer for divine 
favour (Jg2026 1S76 2S 1216 1 K21 27 Ps69io f - 
EzrlO 6 Neh9i Jon3 5 ' 9 Dan9 3 ), and entered 
also regularly into the Jewish calendar 
(Lvl6 29 Zech7 3 - 5 8I 9 ). Gather the elders, 
etc.] better, ' Gather, elders, all the inhabit- 
ants,' or omit ' elders.' 

15. The day of the LORD] early in popular 
thought a time when Jehovah granted victory 
unto Israel (Am 5 iS ), but in prophetic discourse 
a time of signal divine manifestation in 
judgment (as here in the locust plague, 2 Ml, 
cp. Isa 2 12 13 6 Am5 18 Zephl7,i4 Mai 45), and 
especially in connexion with the final consum- 
mation of Jehovah's plan for Israel, and thus 
a day of salvation (2»i f - 3 i4f - Mai 4 5 f .). 

16. Meat] i.e. food. Many of the celebra- 
tions at the Temple were occasions of rejoicing 
over abundant harvests and the like (Dtl6i° f - 
13-15 126,7 26i f -io f -) 17. RM 'The seeds 
shrivel,' from the drought, which seems to have 
accompanied the locust plague. 19. Fire . . 
flame] figurative of the drought. 

CHAPTER 2 
Repentance followed by Restoration 
Yv. 1-17 are another description of the 
locust plague. An alarm is sounded as though 



the Day of Jehovah had come (vv. 1-3). The 
advance of the locusts into the city is described 
under the figure of an invading army (vv. 4-11). 
A message to the penitent is given from Je- 
hovah (vv. 12-14), and a call is issued for a 
fast of supplication (vv. 15-17). Then follow 
the announcements that Jehovah has had pity 
on His people, and that He will remove the 
locusts (vv. 18-20), and restore abundantly the 
prosperity of the land (vv. 21-27), and after- 
ward pour out His spirit and grant deliverance 
in His great day (vv. 28-32). 

1. The blown trumpet was a signal of dan- 
ger ( Jer 6 1 Ezk 33 3 f - Am 3 6 ). Day of the LORD] 
cp. l i5 . 2. Darkness, etc.] caused either by 
the clouds of locusts, or a figure of calamity : 
cp. Am 5 i8 Zeph 1 5 . 

3. The devastation wrought by the locusts 
was as though the country had been swept by 
afire. Garden of Eden] Gn2 8f -; called also 
'garden of Jehovah,' Gnl3i°: cp. Ezk 28 1 3 
36 35 . 4. The head of a locust resembles 
somewhat that of a horse, hence the German 
name heupferd and Italian cavalletta. So shall 
they run] RY ' so do they run.' The descrip- 
tion in this and the following vv. is not of a 
future but a present catastrophe, hence the 
verbs are to be rendered in the present, as in 
RY. 5. Shall they leap] RY ' do they leap.' 
The rustling noise of locusts has been likened 
by travellers to the sounds ' of the dashing of 
waters by the mill wheel,' and ' of a great 
cataract,' and their feeding to the noise ' of 
the crackling of a prairie fire.' 6. RY 'At 
their presence the peoples are in anguish : all 
faces are waxed pale.' 7. RY ' They run . . 
they climb . . they march . . they break not.' 

8. RY ' Neither doth one thrust another ; 
they march every one in his path : and they 
burst through the weapons, and break not off 
their course. 1 Thus compact is the march of 
locusts. No weapons avail to stem their ap- 
proach. 9. RY ' They leap upon the city ; they 
run upon the wall ; they climb up into the houses ; 
they enter.' 10. ' The earth quaketh . . heavens 
tremble . . are darkened . . stars withdraw.' The 
advent of the locusts is idealised as though 
with them came also the earthquake and 
the eclipse. The Hebrews conceived of the 
heavens as solid, and hence spoke of their 
trembling. 11. RY ' uttereth.' The voice of 
Jehovah is thunder (Ps29), hence the thought 
is that of a great storm accompanying the 
locusts. 

12. With all your heart] cp Dt 6 5 . 13. Rend 
your heart] even as the Psalmist speaks of a 
broken heart (Ps51i7). 14. The divine will 
is neither arbitrary nor fixed, but is deeply 
affected by human intercessions and conditions, 
and hence a purpose of destruction may be 
changed (Jer 18 1 8 42 10 Am 7 3 > 6 ). 15. Cp.v. 1,1 1 4 . 

16. Closet] The same, of course, as the 



559 



% 17 



JOEL 



3.2 



chamber of the bridegroom. The Heb. word 
means 'canopy' or 'pavilion,' and its usage 
comes from the primitive nuptial tent provided 
for the wedded pair. 17. The porch of the 
Temple, in front of which stood the altar in 
the court of the priests. That the heathen, 
etc.] EM ' that the nations should use a by- 
word against them,' i.e. that they should become 
a byword through their wretched abandon- 
ment by God. RV ' among the peoples.' On 
the taunt, cp. Ps42io 79 10 1152. 18. ARV 
' Then was Jehovah jealous for his land and 
had pity on his people.' It is implied that the 
fast and solemn assembly were held, and that 
Jehovah responded to the cry of His people 
with the promises of vv. 19-32. 19. RV ' and 
the Lord answered and said unto his people.' 

20. The northern army'] or, ' the northerner,' 
i.e. the locusts, which might possibly have 
come from the N., although usually in Pales- 
tine from the S. or SE. Probably they are 
idealised as typical of the enemies of Israel, 
who are frequently spoken of as coming from 
the N. (Jerl" 46 10*2 Ezk38M5 392). Land 
barren and desolate] the deserts S. and SE. of 
Judah. With his face] RY ' his forepart.' The 
east sea] i.e. the Dead Sea. The utmost sea] 
RY ' the western sea,' i.e. the Mediterranean. 

And his stink, etc.] See Intro. Hath done, 
etc.] i.e. in destruction. The same phrase is 
used of the beneficent acts of Jehovah in v. 21. 

21. Introduces the promise of renewed pros- 
perity. 22. Be not afraid] of famine. Do 
spring] i.e. are renewed with fresh grass : cp. 
l 7 > 12 > 18f ., where the desolation is described. 

23. Moderately] RY ' in just measure.' 

The former . . and the latter rain] the rains at 
seedtime in early winter and before the harvest 
in early spring. In the first month] RM ' at 
(= as at) the first,' i.e. before the calamity of 
drought and locusts. 25. Cp. I 4 2 11 . 

26. And my people, etc.] probably by copy- 
ist error from next v. 27. The rain and 
the harvests are evidences of Jehovah's pre- 
sence. Israel] the Jewish community so 
called after the exile. None else] an assertion of 
monotheism : cp. Dt 4 35, 39 1 K 8 60 Isa 45 5 - ». 18 . 

And my people, etc.] The glorious climax. 
Under the figure of the locust plague and the 
promised years of plenty, the prophet saw 
the final judgment and felicity of Israel, and 
thus he is naturally led to the thought of 
w. 28 32. 

28. Afterward] The prophets saw the fu- 
ture purposes of God realised one after the 
other without fixed intervals of time. Material 
blessings imply spiritual ones : both nature 
and man are to be renewed. My spirit] of 
knowledge or divine revelation, since it results 
in prophecy, dreams, and visions : a spirit of 
obedience is presupposed: cp. Jer24" '.\\ :vu - 
3229 Ezklps 30^7 39 M Iga32« 448 All 



flesh] all classes of society, as the context 
shows. Your daughters] Women frequently 
h#d the prophetic gift in Israel. Under 
prophecy we may understand an utter- 
ance, through divine ecstasy or compulsion 
(lSlO^-AmSSIsaSU Jerl? f 209). Dreams, 
although belittled by Jeremiah (23 28 ), and 
visions were frequent means of divine revela- 
tion: cp. Dreams, G-n20 3 28 12 37 5 > 9 ; Visions, 
Isa 6 * Am 7 M, 7 8 1 Jer 1 " Ezk 1 1 f -, etc. Since 
young men are dreamers and old men seers, it 
may be implied that youth shall have the 
knowledge of age and age the enthusiasm of 
youth. 29. All persons, even menials, receive 
the spirit. 30. Great events, according to 
the thought of the ancient world, were 
accompanied with striking historical and na- 
tural phenomena ; hence the great Day of 
Jehovah, which involved the destruction of 
His enemies and the redemption of His people, 
would be heralded with wonders. Blood, and 
fire, and pillars of smoke] indications of war- 
fare are the wonders in the earth. 31. Eclipses 
are the wonders in the heavens : cp. Am8 9 
Isal3io Ezk327 Mt2429 Lk21io*. 32. RV 
1 In Jerusalem shall be those that escape as 
Jehovah hath said, and among the remnant 
those whom Jehovah doth call.' In the gene- 
ral destruction the condition of escape is 
calling on Jehovah, and the saved remnant of 
Israel is at Jerusalem, and among them are 
those whom Jehovah has called from else- 
where, i.e. the Jews of the dispersion: cp. Isa 
27121 6619. Vv. 28-32 are applied in Ac2^ f - 
to the day of Pentecost. This application 
shows that this OT. prophecy is fulfilled in 
facts of divine manifestations rather than in 
an identity of form. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Judgment of the Heathen and 
the grlory of israel 

A general judgment of all nations, for their 
mistreatment of Israel, is announced in the 
valley of Jehoshaphat (vv. 1-4). Tyre, Zidon, 
and Philistia, immediate neighbours of Israel, 
are arraigned for robbery and slave trade, and 
sentenced according to the lex talionis (vv. 5-8). 
All nations are then summoned as though to a 
tryst of arms before Jehovah (vv. 9-13), whose 
terrible Day is described (vv. 14-17), ending 
with the blessing of Judah through the fertility 
of its land, and with the doom of desolation 
for Egypt and Edom (vv. 18-21). 

1. In those days, etc.] i.e. the period of 
the Day of Jehovah just mentioned. Bring- 
again the captivity] restore the prosperity, a 
technical phrase for an epoch-making change: 
cp. A mil" Psl4- Job 42™ Ezk 16 53 . 

2. Valley of Jehoshaphat] an ideal valley in 
the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, called Jeho- 
shaphat from the meaning of the name, 



5G0 



3. 3 



JOEL 



3. SI 



'Jehovah judges.' This prophecy probably- 
occasioned the name (not traced earlier than 
300 a.d.) of the modern valley of Jehoshaphat, 
S. of Jerusalem. 3. Captives of ancient war- 
fare were distributed by lot (Obad 1 1 Nah 3 10 ) 
and bartered in connexion with carousals. 

4. Coasts of Palestine] RV ' regions of 
Philistia '? ' The question implies a protest 
against punishment by Tyre, etc. Will ye 
render, etc.] RM ' Will ye repay a deed of mine, 
or will ye do aught unto me ? swiftly,' etc. 
Do you think to repay me a wrong which I 
have done you ? or will you wrong me ? In 
either case vengeance will be speedily executed 
upon you. 

5. My silver, etc.] not necessarily from the 
Temple, but the property of the people was 
reckoned as Jehovah's. Temples] i.e. palaces, 
the dwellings of the rich. 6. The Phoenicians 
(Tyre and Zidon) were famous as slave traders 
(Ezk 27 13 Am 1 9 ). Grecians] Heb Jevanim, i.e. 
' Ionians,' the name by which the Greeks were 
commonly known amongst the Hebrews : cp. 
Gnl02-4 Ezk 27 is Isa66i9 Zech9i3. That 
ye might, etc.] and thus increase your gain ; 
since the further a slave from home, the greater 
his value, owing to his less opportunity to escape. 
Vv. 5, 6 do not necessarily refer directly to any 
specific events, but to a long course of conduct 
whereby these peoples profited by every disaster 
that befell Judah. 7, 8. The captives are to 
be returned ; the enemies in turn are to be 
taken captive and sold by the Jews to the far 
distant Sabeans in Arabia, a people famous 
for traffic in spices and gold (Isa60 6 Jer6 20 
Ezk 27 22 Job6 19 ) : cp. for story of their queen 
1K10. 

9. The theme of the general judgment an- 
nounced in vv. 1, 2 is resumed. Heralds are to 
summon the nations as though to a trial of arms 
with the hosts of Jehovah (vv. 9-11). Gentiles] 
RV 'nations.' Prepare] RM' sanctify' with 
sacrifices or other religious ceremonies (1 S7 8f - 
Jer6 4 Mic3 5 ). 10. Instruments of peace are 
to be made those of war, the reverse of the 
promise of Isa2 4 Mic4 3 . 11. Assemble your- 
selves] RY ' Haste ye.' Jehovah also is to bring 
His heavenly hosts (Ps68i7 103 20 ZechU*). 

12. Jehovah now speaks announcing His 
advent for judgment. According to the NT. 
the advent of Jehovah is fulfilled in the first 
and second advents of Christ : cp. Mt25 31f -, 
and see below. 13. The heavenly host is 



addressed. The harvest, ordinary symbol of 
joy and bounty (Ps 4 7 ), is here one of terror 
(Isa63 lf - Rev 14 is) : C p. also Mt 13 30, 39. 

14. The valley of decision] determination, 
judgment: the valley of Jehoshaphat (vv. 2, 12). 

15. Cp. 21°. 31. 16. Roar] suggests the 
lion. His voice] the thunder: cp. Ps29. The 
figure is of a great tempest with the cry of the 
beast and thunder combined. Shake] cp. 21°. 

The hope . . the strength] RV ' a refuge . . 
a stronghold': cp. Psl4« 27i 31* 43 2 46 1. 
The very sounds announcing the doom of the 
nations will herald a place of safety for Israel. 

17. The prophet knew of no heavenly Jeru- 
salem, and he thought of the final consummation 
cf the people of God in Palestine. Holy] in- 
violable. No enemy should again pass through 
Jerusalem. 

18. Judah shall be wonderfully productive : 
cp. Am 9 13. The perennial spring of the 
Temple mountain, which Isaiah (8 6 ) and the 
author of Ps46 had mentioned as a symbol of 
Jehovah's presence, Joel saw, after the manner 
of Ezekiel (47 1 f -), issuing as a stream to water 
the dry and desert portion of the land symbol- 
ised under the valley of Shittim, or, RM, 
' Acacias ' (which is the meaning of Shittim), 
since the acacia grows in very dry places. A 
Shittim E. of the Jordan is mentioned (Nu25i 
33 49 Josh 21), but it is not probably referred 
to here. 19. As a foil to the fertility of Judah 
is the desolation of Egypt and Edom, probably 
mentioned as typical examples of the countries 
hostile to Judah, and from which Israel had suf- 
fered the cruelties of warfare and massacre from 
the outset of their history. Edom, after the exile, 
was the object of bitter feeling for recent hos- 
tilities. Egypt, it may have been thought, had 
never adequately suffered for its treatment of 
Israel when in bondage, since it had escaped 
the overthrows of Assyria and Chaldea. 

20. In their felicity, as described in vv. 17 f. 

21. For I will cleanse, etc.] Either the city 
will be cleansed from all bloodguiltiness, cp. 
Ezk 22 3 f . Isa 4 4 Mai 3 3 ; or, more probably, we 
must render, with RM, ' and I will hold as 
innocent their blood which I have not held as 
innocent,' i.e. the blood of Israel will be held 
to have been shed innocently, and hence will 
be avenged upon their enemies. The guarantee 
is, For the LORD dwelleth in Zion : cp. v. 17. 
' Joel, in his little book, passes from the City 
of Destruction to the City Celestial.' 



36 



561 



AMOS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Man. We have but one trustworthy 
source of information concerning Amos, viz. 
the book which bears his name. Happily it is 
so written as to convey a sufficiently full and 
clear impression of the man and his career. 
He was born in the land of Judah, of unnamed 
and unimportant parents, during the first half 
of the 8th cent. B.C. His possessions consisted 
of a few sycomore trees, and a small flock of 
sheep which belonged to a peculiar breed, ugly 
and short-footed, but valuable for the excel- 
lence of their wool. These he pastured in the 
neighbourhood of Tekoa, in the wilderness 
of Judah. Although his means were but 
meagre, his position was independent, and 
when he wished to leave his flock he was 
able to do so, entrusting them perhaps to some 
lad, like that son of Jesse who in the same 
neighbourhood had followed the ewes great 
with young. 

2. His Call. Three causes combined to turn 
the shepherd into a prophet. First, his know- 
ledge of the deplorable state of affairs in the 
northern kingdom. The victories won by 
Jeroboam II (2K14) had brought wealth and 
power to the ruling classes in Israel. But 
luxury, impurity and intemperance were rife 
amongst them (2 ". 8 6 4 " 6 ). And as to the poor, 
their case could hardly have been worse. They 
groaned under the most oppressive exactions ; 
they were totally unable to get justice ; they 
were treated as chattels, not as men (8 4-6 ). 
And the warnings sent by Providence — drought, 
locusts, famine, pestilence — were not under- 
stood by the well-to-do oppressors of the poor 
(4 6f -). There is nothing to wonder at in the 
fact that Amos, a subject of Uzziah of Judah, 
knew all this. And the shepherd's soul was 
stirred with deep indignation, like Nehemiah's 
at a later day (Neh 5). Secondly, he had heard 
of the campaigns against Western nations, 
waged by the great kings of Assyria ; he could 
not help foreboding that God would use this 
mighty instrument for chastising the crying 
sins of Israel (f>~ 7 6). Thirdly, and most i in 
portani of all. (Jod's spirit communed with him 
and impelled him to speak. Amos was as con- 
scious <>f a direct call from heaven as St. Paul 
was (7 1 -' Gal I ' ). lie knew himself to be in 
possession of the divine counsel ; he could not 
refuse to declare it (3 8 ). 

3. The Prophet's Work. It is impossible 
to state precisely when the call came. If we 



could determine the date of the earthquake 
(l 1 Zechl4 5 ). there would be no difficulty. 
We must be content to know that it lay within 
the period when Jeroboam II and Uzziah 
occupied contemporaneously the thrones of 
Israel and Judah, about 775-750 B.C. It was 
at Bethel, the religious centre of the former 
kingdom, that his voice was heard. But Ama- 
ziah, chief priest of that famous sanctuary, 
soon intervened, sending a message to the king 
to accuse the uncourtly prophet of treason, and 
trying meanwhile to frighten away the preacher 
(Am 7 10 - 17 ). Jeroboam does not seem to have 
taken any notice. Probably he cared as little 
for Amos as Leo X did for Martin Luther. 
And the prophet was not to be frightened. 
He explained his position, completed his mes- 
sage, turned upon the worldly-minded priest 
with a threat of divine retribution, and then 
withdrew unmolested. An unreliable Christian 
tradition of the 6th cent, asserts that Amaziah's 
son struck him on the forehead with a club, 
and that he died from the effects of the blow 
soon after reaching home. 

4. The Book. One thing is certain. On 
his return to Judah he reduced to writing the 
substance of his speeches at Bethel ; not, indeed, 
giving us a verbatim report of each several 
address, not indicating precisely where one 
ends and another begins, but furnishing, rather, 
copious notes of these weighty discourses. 
And the exclamation, ' Oracle of Jehovah ' 
(see on 2 16 ), is the Nota Bene of the writer, 
calling attention to peculiarly grave words. 
Besides writing out his message he added to it. 
He had preached against the crimes of Israel ; 
he writes of the sins and punishments of sur- 
rounding nations (l 3 -2 lli ). 

Remembering that the book of Amos is in 
all probability the earliest of the prophetic 
writings, it helps our comprehension of him 
and his successors to keep four points in 
view. 

(a) His Idea of God. His faith in the Unity 
of God was not won by reasoning. He had a 
deep sense of the nearness, greatness, righteous- 
ness of One Holy Being ; there was no room 
for another. The One God is all-powerful in 
Heaven and Hades, Carmel and the depths of 
the sea, Caphtor and Kir, Edom and Tyre. 
His mightiness appears in the control of human 
history, espeeially in His direction of the for- 
tunes of Israel. It directs all that happens; 



562 



INTRO. 



AMOS 



INTRO. 



there is no such thing as chance ; calamity, 
equally with prosperity, is of His ordering. 
This implies dominion over Nature ; drought, 
dearth, mildew, pestilence, locusts obey His 
orders. He is not a mere Power, however 
great ; but a distinctly Personal Being, who 
can be spoken of as rising up against the wicked, 
sword in hand, or as moved by pity to change 
His purpose. 

{b) The Relation between Jehovah and His 
People. In common with all other Hebrews, 
the prophets believed that Jehovah was in a 
peculiar sense their God. But in their eyes 
the bond was a natural and indissoluble one, so 
that if they paid His dues in the form of sacri- 
fices, He was under an obligation to protect and 
bless them. Amos, on the contrary, insisted 
that the tie was a moral one, inevitably dis- 
solved by unrighteousness (3 2 9 7 ). Here his 
splendid originality comes out. Ceremonial 
worship has no intrinsic value (4 4 5 21 ). Justice 
and righteousness form the true service of 
God (5 24 ) : if His worshippers are immoral 
and oppressive, He shrinks from contact with 
them as a defilement (2 7 ); inhumanity and 
unbrotherliness are hateful to Him, whether 
displayed by heathen or Hebrew (chs. 1, 2). 
To Amos, Jehovah is above all else the God 
of Righteousness. 

(c) The Coming Judgment. This is the first 
Scripture in which ' the Day of Jehovah ' is 
mentioned. Not but what it had already be- 
come a current phrase. The Israelites thought 
that when the Lord should arise in judgment 
it would be to their advantage — their sufferings 
would terminate, their dominion would be ex- 
tended. Now they were told that this ' Day ' 
would be one of judgment upon themselves, 
and that its advent was nigh (5 1S > 19 ). Repent- 
ance would have averted destruction, but they 
have put it off too long. 

(d) The Picture of a Happier Future (9 8 " 15 ). 
This is quite unlike the general tenor of the 
prophecy. Israel has been the almost exclu- 
sive subject oFThe prophet's thought. Here 
Judah comes into the foreground, or, if Israel 
is in view, it is only as reunited to Judah. 
The Davidic kingdom is to be restored, but no 
stress is laid on the person or the character 
of the monarch. The ancient bounds of the 
empire will be reestablished, Edom and other 
foreigners being reduced to subjection. The 
restored exiles rebuild the wasted cities. Agri- 
culture and kindred pursuits flourish to a 
miraculous degree on an extraordinarily fertile 
soil. And the people will never be dispossessed 
from this earthly paradise. Whether this 
appendix was added by Amos himself or by a 
later patriot need not be discussed here. 

'The style is the man.' It is so in this 
case. When the shepherd from the south of 
Judah interfered in the social and religious 



life of Israel, he displayed extreme boldness. 
His style is a bold one. His language is clear, 
vigorous, direct. The imagery, as might have 
been expected, is drawn from rural affairs — 
threshing-sledges, wagons, harvests, cattle, 
birds, lions, fishing. But the Oriental shep- 
herd, though he be not familiar with books, is 
not necessarily uncultivated. The poetic struc- 
ture of c. 4 is quite perfect : the refrain, ' Yet 
have ye not returned unto me, saith Jehovah ' 
(46,8,9,10,11)^ i s use( i w ith great effect ; the 
technical arrangement of the dirge is perfectly 
understood (5 2 8 10 ), and Amos knows how to 
work up to a climax. 

5. Contents. We have already shown what 

is the substance of the prophet's teaching, but it 

will interest some readers if we roughly trace 

the order of his ideas as they appear in the 

book. It opens with a denunciation of the 

cruel wrongs done by the surrounding nations 

to each other and to Israel. All of these shall 

have their due recompense of reward (l 3 -2 3 ). 

Judah's turn comes next : her offence is more 

directly against God, but her punishment is 

no less certain (2 4 > 5 ). When Israel is reached, 

the note is struck which resounds all through 

the book : it is the oppression of the poor, 

unchastity, a wrong idea of the character and 

requirements of Jehovah which will bring 

down chastisement (2 6 ' 8 ). These sins are due 

to ingratitude for God's mercies, and are 

aggravated by attempts to silence the voice of 

truth. They will bring on an attack and utter 

defeat at the hands of an enemy (2 9-16 ). The 

next section teaches that the closeness of the 

relation between Jehovah and Israel itself 

involves the punishment of the people (3 1 * 8 ). 

The neighbouring nations are summoned to 

witness the oppressions which are going on : 

the doom of palaces and altars is pronounced 

(3 9-15 ). The rich women are rebuked and 

threatened (4 1-3 ) ; the futility of superstitious 

worship is proclaimed (4 4 > 5 ) ; the failure of 

God's attempt to reform Israel is bewailed 

(4 6_12 ). A bitter lament over Israel is followed 

by some account of the injustice practised by 

the powerful ; then the fond hopes cherished 

respecting the ' Day of the Lord ' are shattered, 

and the elaborate ritual with which it was 

sought to please Him is sternly rejected (c. 5). 

The luxury of the higher classes is the main 

theme of the next address, which ends with an 

intimation of Assyrian invasion (c. 6). Three 

visions set forth in pictorial form the speedy 

end of the nation (7 1 ' 9 ). Amaziah, the priest 

of Bethel, attempts to drive Amos out of the 

country (7 10_1 ' i '). Another vision is described, 

and the common theme of dishonesty and 

injustice is again taken up : from the penalty 

thus provoked there will be no deliverance 

either in man or God (c. 8). None shall escape 

(9 1-6 ). Jehovah repudiates a special interest 



563 



1.1 



AMOS 



2.1 



in Israel (9 7 ). The final paragraph rejoices in 
the hope of a happier future, a restoration of 
the kingdom in the line of David, a fertile 
land, an undisturbed security of tenure (9 11 ' 15 ). 

CHAPTERS 1-25 

The Sins of Israel's Neighbours and the 

Punishments which should follow 

i. "We may paraphrase the main part of the 
sentence thus : ' The words of Amos, de- 
scribing what he saw in prophetic vision.' 

Herdmen] or rather, ' keepers of a peculiar 
breed of sheep called naqad? There must 
have been a number of these sheepowners in 
and near Tekoa. Mesha, king of Moab, is 
called by the same name uoqed (2 K 3 4 ), where 
our English Bible uses the word ' sheep- 
master.' Tekoa] 5 m. S. of Bethlehem, on a 
hill 2,788 ft. high, was at the border of the 
' wilderness of Tekoa' (2Ch20 2 <> lMacl9 33 ), 
which was fit only for pasturage and largely 
used for this. Palestine has always been 
subject to earthquakes, but the one here 
referred to. which occurred in the reign of 
Uzziah (Zechl4 5 ), seems to have been of 
exceptional violence. The language of many 
passages in the poetical and prophetical books 
is derived from the alarming movements of 
the earth-shaken ground (Ps 46 2 > 6 60 2 Isa 24 w 
etc.). 

2. The threatening character of this v. 
gives notice beforehand of the tone of the 
whole prophecy. Zion and Jerusalem are 
G-od's abode, from which His voice is heard 
like a lion's roar. The burning wind is His 
voice. A modern traveller speaks of the 
simoom ' caressing you like a lion with flaming 
breath.' Habitations] RV ' pastures,' i.e. the 
sheep, which mourn because the grass is 
parched (Joel 1 18 > 20 Isa 3 2 6). The summit of 
Carmel is usually wet with heavy dews ; even 
it becomes withered. 

3. Amos was sent to preach to Israel, but 
he here (l 3 -2 5 ) prefixes to his records of that 
preaching a section which shows that Je- 
hovah is the Guardian of Righteousness, the 
Avenger of wrong and cruelty, amongst all 
the neighbouring races as well, Syria, Philistia, 
Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab. 

For] i.e. because of. Three transgressions . . 
and . . four] an indefinite and considerable num- 
ber (Job 5 19 ). For the attacks made by Da- 
mascus see 2 K 8 ' 2 10 Ba 1 3 22 . Gilead, being the 
nearest Israelite district, bore the first brunt. 
The threshing-sledge, a thick wooden board 
with pointed pieees of iron or of basalt on the 
under aide, and B heavy weight or a driver 
above, is the figure f'<>r the harshest severity. 

5. The bar is that by which the city gate 
was secured. The plain (RV \ alley ') of Aven] 
the plain of Ccele Syria in which Heliopolis 
(since called Baalbek), the greal seat of bus 



worship, was situated. Beth-Eden (the house 
of Eden) was in Syria, but its precise locality 
is uncertain, and we can only say of Kir that 
it must have been not far from Elam in the 
distant east (Isa 22 6) : cp. 2 K 1 6 9 Am 9 ?. 

6-8. During the troubles with Syria the 
Philistines doubtless made raids, carrying off 
the whole captivity, i.e. the whole of the popu- 
lation of the district, at one swoop. The cap- 
tives were sold to their bitterest enemies, the 
Edomites. Gaza] richest and strongest city 
of Philistia, on the caravan route to Petra, the 
capital of Edom. The expression the remnant 
of the Philistines indicates that a portion of 
them had already been destroyed. In 2 Ch 26 6 
Uzziah's victories over them are enumerated. 

9, 10. Tyre became the leading city in 
Phoenicia about 900 B.C. The Phoenicians 
were the great slave-dealers of antiquity : see 
1 Mac 3 41 2 Mac 8 25 . The ' covenant of breth- 
ren ' (RM), or brotherly covenant (AY), 
is the friendly agreement which always sub- 
sisted between Tyre and the Hebrews (2 S5 11 
1 K5 1 9 11 ' 14 , etc.), and doubtless had occasion- 
ally been cemented by formal treaty. We 
never read of wars waged by the Israelites 
against Tyre or Sidon. 

11. 12. Edom's crimes were hostility against 
a kindred nation, his brother (Mai 1 2 ) ; the 
casting off all pity, or, as RM has it, ' the cor- 
rupting his compassions' (cp. Ezk28 17 ), i.e. 
the doing violence to his own better, kinder 
nature ; the tearing his prey continually, like 
an infuriated beast (1 K 13 2 » Job 16 9 ) ; the in- 
satiableness of his revenge. We know that in 
later times Israel had no more relentless foe 
(Obad 10-14 Psl37<). 

12. Teman was the name of a city and dis- 
trict of Edom, 15 m. from Petra. The ruins 
of Bozrah are 4 m. SE. of the Dead Sea. 

13. Jgll and Jer49* show how eager the 
Ammonites were to ' enlarge their border.' 
Such barbarities as are here mentioned were 
quite common in Oriental warfare (2KB 12 
HosH 1 ), but the OT. seems to represent the 
Ammonites in a peculiarly unfavourable light 
(1 S 1 1 2 2 S 10). 14. Rabbah] on the banks of 
the Upper Jabbok (2 S 11 , 1 2). The shouting 
means the war-cry. 15. Some of the ancient 
translations, with which Jer49 3 (see RV) 
agrees, understand this v. as referring, not to 
the king, but to the Ammonite god Malcam. 
with his priests and his princes. This involves 
no alteration in the consonants of the principal 
word, which in either case is Malcam. 

C. 2. 1-3. Jehovah will punish the wrongs 
which these petty nations do each other, as 
well as their outrages upon Israel. 

I. Burning the kind's bones into lime was 
a gross indignity (Josh 7 '-'' 2 K 23 "'•• 18 ). Their 
thorough destruction prevented the man'sbeing 
w ga I hered to his fathers.' And there may have 



564 



1 



2.3 



AMOS 



3.3 



been a belief that the spirit suffered when the 
corpse was abused (Job 14 22 Isa 66 24 ). Jewish 
tradition looked on this cremation as an act of 
vengeance for the part taken by Edom in the 
campaign described 2K3. Kirioth] RY 'Ke- 
rioth.' Perhaps to be identified with Ar, the 
capital of Moab : when one of these is named 
the other is omitted. It is mentioned in the 
famous inscription of Mesha, who was king of 
Moab in Ahab's time, and seems to have been a 
sanctuary. His words are, ' before Chemosh in 
Keriyyoth.' 3. Judge, sceptre-holder (1 58 ),king 
(1 15 ), are all practically identical in meaning. 
4, 5. The surrounding nations are charged 
with violations of the law written in the heart, 
Judah with offences against a law set forth in 
positive commandments. Their lies] the un- 
real, imaginary deities, the Baalim and Ash- 
taroth, who have no existence save in the 
mind of the worshipper, and therefore are 
sure to disappoint his hopes. 

CHAPTER 26-16 
Iskael's Sins and Ingeatitude 
6-8. Israel is now threatened in the same 
form as the rest, but vv. 6-16 were not spoken 
by Amos at Bethel ; they form the conclusion 
of the preface which he wrote after his return 
home. 

6. The unrighteous judges condemn the in- 
nocent for the sake of a bribe. A pair of shoes 
would have been too paltry a present, but for 
the fact that the shoe was a symbol of property 
(Ruth 4 7 Ps60 10 ). To hand over the shoes 
was equivalent to our delivery of title-deeds. 

7. They begrudge the very dust, a sign of 
mourning, which a poor man has sprinkled on 
his head : they hinder the man who is in a 
lowly position from attaining his modest pur- 
pose. To profane . . name] The religion of 
many of the nations of antiquity sanctioned 
unchastity and even adopted it as part of the 
worship of the gods, but if Jehovah's wor- 
shippers are morally unclean they pollute His 
Holy Name. 8. The poor in the East sleep 
in their day-clothes. Garments taken in pledge 
should therefore be restored ere nightfall (Ex 
22 25 Dt24 12 ) ; but these creditors, undeterred 
by their supposed nearness to their god, treat 
the needy man's clothes as if they belonged to 
themselves. Possibly, however, Amos wrote, 
' And they stretch out beside every altar 
clothes taken in pledge,' meaning that they 
hung them up as a votive offering in honour 
of their god. 

They drink the wine of the condemned in the 
house of their god] that is to say, at their sac- 
rificial banquets they drank wine obtained by 
unjust fines, and whilst they imagined them- 
selves to be worshipping the God of Israel He 
disclaimed them : they were really worshipping 
an idol of their own imagination. 



9-16. The ingratitude thus evinced and the 
judgment which it provokes. 

9. We may exhibit the emphasis designed 
by Amos by rendering thus : ' Yet it was / 
who destroyed . . and it was i" who brought 
you up,' etc. The Amorite here is a name for 
all the earlier inhabitants of the Holy Land. 
Instead of fruit from above, etc., we say ' root 
and branch.' But the Canaanites were not 
utterly extirpated (Josh 1313 igio Jg 119-36 
2S5 7 ). 11. The accounts we have of Samuel, 
Elijah, Elisha, and the ' schools of the pro- 
phets,' show that prophets, declaring God's 
will by word of mouth, had been more numer- 
ous in the northern than in the southern 
kingdom. The 'Nazirites' (RY) showed their 
obedience to His will by self-control, austeri- 
ties, renunciations of pleasant things (Nu6). 
God's most precious gift to His people con- 
sisted in true men, and, above all, in inspired 
prophets. 12. It was exceedingly base to 
tempt the Nazirite to break his vow. For 
the silencing of the prophets see IK 22 Isa 
30io.il Mic 2 6, u 

13. The v. may be understood in two ways. 
First, as in AY, which represents Israel as a 
burden on God (Isa 1 14 7 13 etc.). Secondly, 
and better, as in RY, ' Behold, I will press 
you in your place, as a cart presseth that is 
full of sheaves.' As the ground reels under 
the loaded wagon so shall they under God's 
heavy hand (Ps 32 * Job 33 2 ). 16. The stress 
lies on the word naked. In headlong flight 
the long, outer garment would be cast away as 
a hindrance. 

Here, and at 3 13 > 15 4 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 gs gn 97, 
8 » 12 » 13 , the expression rendered saith the 
LORD is a kind of exclamation, thrown in 
parenthetically to call attention to the gravity 
of what is said. Utterance of Jehovah ! the 
prophet cries. 

CHAPTER 3 

The First Address 
1-8. A call to attention. 9, 10. The op- 
pressions practised by the powerful. 11-15. 
The disasters which should overtake them, 
their sanctuary and their palaces. 

1. ' Race ' would be a more correct word 
than family. Judah is included in the appeal, 
but immediately drops out of sight again. 

2. In the Bible to know frequently means 
to care for, to be deeply interested in (Gnl8 19 
Hosl35 Nahl? Job 22 13 p s ie 7311 p rov 2io 
Gal4 9 ): at Jerl 5 and here it has the allied 
sense ' to choose.' Jehovah chose Israel alone 
to be His people. And they argued as Dr. 
Arnold did when he was a child : ' I could 
not make out how, if my mother loved me 
more than strange children, she should find 
fault with me and not with them.' 

3. Be agreed] RY 'have agreed,' have made 



565 



S. 4 



AMOS 



4.4 



an appointment. If two people were seen 
walking together in the desolate regions with 
which Amos was familiar it might be assumed 
that they had not met by chance. Nothing 
happens by chance. There is a reason and 
cause for Israel's calamities. 4. ' Thicket ' is 
preferable to forest : wild and broken country 
is in view. Amos intimates that a prophet's 
threats are not idle sound, any more than a 
lion's roar is. 5. Shall one take up a snare 
from the earth ? etc.] R V ' Shall a snare spring 
up from the ground ? ' etc. The snare is the 
bird-trap as a whole : the gin (the word is a 
contraction of ' engine ') is the mechanism by 
which the trap acts. But the trap does not 
go off till the bird starts it. The thought is 
that when the time of misfortune arrives 
Israel will be caught in it as the bird in the 
trap. 6. Israel cannot plead lack of warning 
(Ezk33 4 > 5 ). All things are ordered by God, 
and therefore His prophets are able to give 
such warning. Evil here means disaster. 

7. His secret is the purpose He has formed : 
cp. Gnl8 17 . 8. Luther said, at the Diet of 
AVorms : ' Here I stand : I can do no other.' 

9. In the palaces] RM ' upon ' ; the procla- 
mation is made from the flat roof: cp. Lkl2 3 . 
Those who dwell in palaces are to be judged 
by their peers. Possibly Amos wrote, ' Asshur 
and Egypt,' the two great nations, Assyria 
and Egypt, the hammer and anvil, between 
which Israel lay. The mountain of Samaria 
(the capital of Israel) is surrounded by loftier 
ones, on which the spectators are supposed to 
stand. The oppressed] RV ' oppressions.' 

10. They have lost the power to do equity. 
Their eyes gloat over treasures of gold and 
silver in their palaces : a prophet's eye sees 
only stores of violence and robbery (Ro2 5 
Jasf>i-4). 

12. Even the wealthiest will escape with 
nothing but bare life. ' They sit in Samaria 
in the corner of a couch, and on the silken 
cushions of a bed ' (RV). These cushions 
formed the divan, which is often the sole 
article of furniture in an Oriental reception 
room : the corner seat is the place of honour. 
The shepherd prophet loathed these modern 
luxuries. 

14. Beth-el had been a sanctuary prior to 
I hf [sraelite occupation of the land. In the 
• lavs of Amos it was the undisputed religious 
capita] of the northern kingdom (7 18 ), whose 
subjects gathered there for seasons of special 
worship (1 1 ). No doubl the sacred pillar and 

post which We read of so often in connexion 

with the high places stood near the altar. 
The i'lol to which devotion was paid as the 
representative of Jehovah was the golden calf 
set up by Jeroboam I (IK L2»). Bunri 
offerings, thank offerings and meal offerings 
were presented <>u the altars (."»"). and the 



service was made more attractive by singing 
and the music of the viol. But all this was 
vitiated by two faults. First, the god whom 
the worshippers adored was not the Holy One 
who alone is worthy, but a mere nature-god, 
dispenser of corn and wine and oil, of water, 
flax and wool (Hos 2 5 9 l ). And, secondly, the 
worship was not of a kind to make men better, 
it was closely associated with immorality and 
with luxurious eating and drinking (Am 2 o s ) ; 
it did not promote either justice or generosity 
to others (Am2 8 5 24 ). The horns were the 
most sacred part of the altar : to cut them off 
was to desecrate it thoroughly. 

15. Winter and summer house were in some 
cases distinct buildings, but in others were 
parts of the same structure differently situated 
(Jg3 20 Jer3 22 ). The houses of ivory remind 
us of Nero's ' Golden House ' at Rome : ' The 
interior was decorated in the most lavish way, 
with gold, precious stones and ivory. . . The 
supper rooms had panelled ceilings, overlaid 
with ivory.' It was a valuable commodity. 
Sennacherib, on one of the inscriptions which 
have come down to us, states that Hezekiah 
gave him ' a couch of ivory, thrones of ivory, 
an elephant's tusk.' 

CHAPTER 4 
The Second Address 

1-3. The heartless luxury of the rich 
women. 4, 5. The elaborate sacrifices and 
pilgrimages. 6-12. The failure of God's 
chastisements to produce amendment. 

1. These pampered women are compared to 
cows grown fat through feeding in the rich 
pastures of Bashan (Nu 321-5 Dt32 J 4 Mic7 14 ). 

Masters] RV ' lords,' i.e. husbands (1 Pet 
3 6 ). 2. He] RV ' they,' i.e. the conquerors. 

Your posterity] RV ' your residue.' Those 
farthest removed from danger will be dragged 
out of their retreats like fish from the water. 

3. Like excited cattle each woman would 
make for the nearest breach in the city wall 
and endeavour to escape through it. The 
second half of the v. is corrupt. Possibly it 
may have run : ' And ye shall be cast out of 
your palaces ' (Mic 2 9 ). 

4. This v. shows that the pilgrimage to a holy 
place was then, as it has been in almost all 
times and lands, one of the popular forms of 
devotion. The pious Jew delighted in the 
annual visit to Jerusalem for the Feasts of 
Passover or of Tabernacles. Jeroboam I set 
apart Bethel and Dan as the two sanctuaries 
to be visited by his subjects ( 1 K 1 2 -"•'• 3 '-) for 
the same purpose. Other places were vene 
rated in like fashion. Amos mentions Beer- 
shel.a (*") and Gilgal. The latter place, 
which was situated between Jericho and the 
Jordan, derived its name. l a circle,' from the 
circle of sacred stones which existed therefrom 



566 



4. 5 



AMOS 



5. 11 



time immemorial. Josh 4 and 5 speak of it as the 
site of the first camp of the Hebrews in west- 
ern Palestine and the scene of the circumcision 
of the great mass of the people. 

The prophet asserts that these journeys to 
the holy places, for the purpose of worship, 
failed to win the favour of God : the more 
zealously they were engaged in the greater the 
guilt of the pilgrims. The reason was that 
men substituted such devotions in place of 
good morals. There is an Arabic proverb 
concerning the ceremonies performed by pil- 
grims to Mecca : ' Circumambulate, and run, 
and commit the seven deadly sins ! ' Another 
plays thus on words : Al-hardmfil Haramayn = 
'Unholiness dwelleth in the two holy cities.' 

Every morning- . . after three years] ' in the 
morning . . on the third day,' seems preferable. 
On the morning after arrival the pilgrims 
brought an oblation : on the next day — the 
third, according to Heb. reckoning — they paid 
the tithes. In the great Mohammedan pilgrim- 
age to Mecca the observances due on each day 
are strictly defined. 5. According to the Levi- 
tical legislation leaven might not be burned as 
part of a sacrifice (Ex23 18 Lv2i 2 ) ; but even 
in those laws there are traces of some degree 
of freedom (Lv 7 13 23 17 ). And in northern 
Israel it would seem that leavened cakes were 
consumed on the altar as a praise or thank 
offering. This liketh you] i.e. this is what 
you like. 

6. Doughty speaks of an Arab who ' would 
often show that he had nothing left to eat . . 
in crackling the thumb nail from the backward 
upon the upper front teeth.' Yet have ye not 
returned unto me] a pathetic refrain, express- 
ing His disappointment and His appealing love. 
All warnings have been in vain. 7. In the 
plains harvest comes at the end of April ; a 
month later in the hills. Heavy rains are 
necessary from Nov. to Jan. to soften the 
ground sufficiently for ploughing and sowing. 

One piece was rained upon, etc.] cp. Gideon's 
fleece ( Jg 6 37 " 40 ). 8. Cities} i.e. the inhabitants. 

9. Blasting] the effect produced on grain by 
the burning wind from the desert (Gn41 6 ). 

Palmerworm] or locust. 10. After the man- 
ner of Egypt] ' Life and death march in 
"double companies" through Egypt. All epi- 
demics revel here.' 2 K 13 7 is an illustration 
of the loss of horses. We are to think of the 
people as shut up in a fetid camp, with decay- 
ing bodies of men and horses, and all the 
other foul odours of the East. 11. The over- 
throw of these cities had become a type of 
utter destruction (Dt 29 23 Isa 1 7, 8 1 3 ^ Jer 49 18 
50 40 ). The brand plucked out of the burning is 
a figure for grievous damage. 

12. Thus] but we are not told how. Im- 
agination is to fill up the blank, and the par- 
tial overthrow already inflicted is enough to 



indicate what the final and total ruin will be. 
They must meet God as a foe (Josh 5 13 ). 

13. This verse, 5 8 > 9 , and 9 6 , were probably 
written on the margin by an admirer of Job 
94-10. His thought] i.e. the determination 
He has arrived at. He darkens the heavens 
with storms and eclipses. He marches majes- 
tically over the mountains in clouds and 
thunder (Dt 33 1 3 Micl 3 Hab3*9 Job9 8 ). 

CHAPTER 5 
The Third Address 
1-6. A lament, a warning, and an invitation. 
7, 10-20. Denunciation of injustice and op- 
pression, with threats of pestilence and judg- 
ment. 21-27. A repudiation of their attempt 
to please God by mere ritual. 

I, 2. Lamentation] a technical term for 
mournful poetry consisting of short lines of 
unequal length : here, for instance (v. 2), the 
dirge consists of four lines, the first and third 
having three accents, the second and fourth 
two. Virgin] because, though often defeated, 
Israel had not yet been thoroughly conquered. 

5. Pass not to Beer-sheba] People living 
in the northern kingdom would have to ' pass,' 
to cross over, the territory of Judah to reach 
the famous sanctuary in the extreme S. of 
the land. In the reference to Gilgal there is 
one of those plays on sound which are so 
common in impassioned speech : ' Hag-Gilgal 
galoh yigleh.' And in that to Beth-el a play 
on ideas : Bethel (' House of God ') shall be- 
come Aven (' Nothing '). Hosea actually calls 
it Beth Aven, 'House of Nothing' (415 5 8 iQ5) ? 
and also Aven (10 8 ). Bethel is now called 
Beit-in. 6. The better reading would be : 
'Lest he send forth fire' (cp. 1 4 > 7, 10, 12 2 2, 5) 
' upon the house of Joseph and there be none 
to quench it for Bethel.' Israel is entitled 
the house of Joseph, because Ephraim, the de- 
scendant of Joseph, is the chief tribe in the 
northern kingdom. 

7. Instead of justice there is injustice, bitter 
as wormwood. 

8, 9. Cp. 41 3 , and see Job38 31 Isal3 1( > 
25 2 > 12 . 8. The seven stars] RY ' the Pleiades,' 
lit. ' the heap.' The shadow of death] RM 
' deep darkness,' is better. 

10. The subject of v. 7 is now resumed : 
they who turn justice into wormwood, etc., 
hate in the gate the man who reproves injustice. 
The gate is the broad, open space before the 
city wall, where all business is discussed and 
justice is supposed to be administered : cp. v. 12. 

II. Burdens of wheat] RV 'exactions of 
wheat.' These remind us of the way in which 
the French nobility used to ' grind down the 
peasantry to the utmost farthing to extort 
money to spend in debauchery and riot in 
Paris': cp. also 2S12 3 . Houses of hewn 
stone were a mark of great wealth (Isa 9 10 ). 



567 



5. 12 



AMOS 



6. 10 



12. RY ' For I know how manifold are your 
transgressions and how mighty are your sins ; 
ye that afflict the just, that take a bribe, and 
that turn aside the needy,' etc. Bribe] The 
word -means 'ransom' (see Ex21 30 Nu25 31 
Prov6 35 ) ; on many occasions it would defeat 
the ends of justice if a ransom was accepted. 

13. What is the use of talking? As a 
modern writer says : 

' For what avail'd it, all the noise 
And outcry of the former men ? ' 

14. As ye have spoken] RY ' as ye say,' 
i.e. as ye say He is, as ye flatter yourselves He 
is. 15. The remnant] At best a mere fraction 
will escape. 16, 17. Streets] RY ' broad 
ways ' : what we call squares and open spaces. 
The wailing- is the tremulous, high-pitched 
lament for the dead. The most necessary 
occupations are suspended because of the great 
number of deaths. Where the merry shout of 
the grape -gatherers had been common, sounds 
of woe may now be heard. The skilful of 
lamentation are the professional mourners 
(Mt923 : C p. 2S331 Jer345 Ezk26^ 2732). 

I will pass through, etc.] as the destroying 
angel passed through Egypt (Ex 12). 

18-20. Day of the LORD] see Intro., and cp. 
I sa 530 822 Joel 2 2 Obad v. 15. 

21. Festivals such as Tabernacles (1 K 12 33 ) 
are meant. I will not smell] RY ' I will take 
no delight.' The original words refer to the 
smelling the pleasant odour of the sacrifice 
(Gn 8 21 Lv 26 31 ). 22. The burnt offering was 
the costliest of sacrifices, and in early times was 
not often presented by private individuals. 

Meat offerings] RY ' meal offerings ' : flour, 
or flour mingled with salt, oil, and incense. 

Peace offerings] The ' thank offerings ' of 
RM is better. These were partly eaten by the 
worshippers. Fat beasts were, of course, a 
costly sacrifice. 23, 24. Yocal and instrumental 
music was employed in the Temple service at 
Bethel, but was utterly distasteful to God 
because of the unrighteousness of the singers 
and the people generally : cp. Isa 1 13 Ezk26 13 . 

Viols] a kind of lute or guitar, with ten or 
twelve strings and a sounding-board. Mighty 
stream] RM ' ever-flowing.' 

25. Have ye offered?] RY ' Did ye bring ? ' 
The answer is ' No.' So far is God from being 
influenced by sacrifices that all the time when 
His Providential care over them was most 
marked they were in the habit of presenting 
Him no oblations at all: cp. Josh;") 5 -' 7 1 S 1 f>'-" 2 

Jer7 2 ' 2 - -' :{ . 26, 27. Render , ( And ye shall take 
up Sikkuth your king, and Kewdn your images, 

the star of your l,'o<1 which ye made for your- 
selves. And I will cause' tie. KetO&n is the 
name of one of the Baly Ionian planetary 

deities who has been variously identified with 

Saturn or Mars. Another title of tin; same 
god, Txalme, is probably concealed under the 



508 



words rendered ' your images.' It is at present 
uncertain who is meant by Sikkuth. The 
idolaters will have to carry their idols into 
exile, beyond Damascus, i.e. into Assyria, 
which is thus vaguely indicated. 

CHAPTER 6 

The Fourth Address 
1-3. False security of Judah and Israel. 
4-6. Carelessness and luxury. 7-1 1. Capti- 
vity, siege, death, ruin. 12, 13. Preposterous 
errors. 14. The coming of the avenger. 

1, 2. Render, ; Woe to the easy-going in Zion 
and to the secure in the mountain of Samaria ! 
Make the round of the foremost nations and 
come to them, house of Israel. Pass over 
to Calneh and see, and from thence go to 
Hamath Rabbah : then, etc. Are you better 
than these kingdoms ? or is your border,' etc., 
that you should be so favoured. The site of 
Calneh is uncertain. Hamath is the well- 
known city on the Orontes. 3. They refused 
to think of the coming retribution ; they en- 
throned violence in their midst. 

4. Reclining at meals was a custom intro- 
duced from the farther East : contrast 1 S 20 2i . 
The grandees now ; stretched themselves,' etc. : 
cp. Spenser's ' Poured out in loosnesse on the 
grassy ground ' ; luxury and idleness are im- 
plied. Eat the lambs, etc.] To a frugal shep- 
herd the feeding up of beasts for food seemed 
shameful extravagance : ' Seldom the nomads 
eat other flesh than the meat of their sacrifices ; 
but it be some beast that will not thrive, or is 
likely to die on their hands ' (Doughty). 

5. Chant] RY ' sing idle songs ' is an im- 
provement. The musicians were lazy triflers. 

Invent to themselves, etc.] In the psalm 
which closes the Greek Psalter, David is made 
to assert : ' My hands fashioned an instrument, 
and my fingers fitted together a psaltery ' : see 
also 2 Ch 29 26, 27. 6. The goblet is not enough, 
they must have bowls to drink out of, bowls 
of costly material such as were generally used 
in divine service (Zech9 15 14 2 0). The threat- 
ened ruin of the nation did not move these 
unpatriotic feasters to dispense with costly 
unguents, as men in trouble were usually ready 
to do (2 S 142). 

7. First in sin, first in punishment. The 
banquet, etc.] RV 'The revelry of them that 
stretched themselves shall pass away.' A play 
on sounds : Sar mirzach seruchim. 8. Excel- 
lency] i.e. the excellent things of which the 
nation was proud. 9. The city is besieged, 
and if there is a house in which the pestilence 
has loft ten men alive their turn shall come. 

10. And a man's uncle, etc.] RY is a little 
different : ' And when aman'suncle'(RM' kins 
man ') ' shall take him up, even he that burnet) 
him, to bring out the bones out of the house, anj 
shall say unto him that is in the innermost part 



6. 12 



AMOS 



7.4 



of the house, Is there yet any with thee ? and he 
shall say, No ; then,' etc. Taking this difficult 
v. as it here stands, we must remember that it 
was the duty of the next of kin to see to the 
disposal of the body, and that, whilst interment 
was the almost universal rule, cremation might 
be resorted to in special circumstances (1 S31 12 ). 
The plague -stricken man in the inner rooms of 
the house must not defile the Lord's name by 
uttering it in the immediate presence of death, 
as a Mohammedan may not say his prayers in 
an unclean spot. A simpler form of the v., 
suggested in part by LXX, would be : ' A rem- 
nant shall be left' (in the plague-swept house), 
' and when men break through to bring out the 
bones from the house it shall be said to him 
who is in the recesses of the house, Is there 
yet any with thee ? and he shall say, None.' 

12. Read, ' Shall horses run upon the cliff ? 
Will a man plough the sea with oxen ? ' No ! 
but in moral and religious matters they will 
do things as absurd as these. 13. No altera- 
tion of the original is required to obtain the 
following : ' Ye which rejoice in Lo-Debar, 
which say, Have we not taken for us Karnaim 
by our own strength ? ' For Lo-Debar see 
2S9 4 17 27, and for Karnaim Gnl45 Dtl* 
Josh 2 127 1 Mac 5 26 : both towns lay E. of the 
Jordan and may have been taken by Jero- 
boam II. 

A great change had come over the fortunes 
of Israel during the reigns of Joash of Israel 
and his son, Jeroboam II. Israel had been 
reduced to a very low ebb in the time of 
Jehoahaz by the repeated and successful assaults 
of the Syrians (2 K 13 ?> 22). with the advent 
of Joash all this was altered. He recovered 
ten cities which Hazael had taken, and gained 
three victories (2 K 1 3 25 ). Jeroboam II carried 
these successes still further. ' He restored the 
border of Israel from the entering in of Hamath 
unto the sea of the Arabah ' (RV) and appears 
to have been uniformly victorious. This was 
largely due to the fact that he never came 
into collision with Assyria, whereas the power 
of Syria had been greatly reduced by the cam- 
paigns of Shalmaneser III and Assurdan. 

Such a collision was, however, inevitable 
(v. 14). The earliest contact between Israel 
and Assyria of which we have any record was 
when, Ahab, as an ally of Hadadezer of Damas- 
cus, shared in the disastrous defeat inflicted on 
the Syrian king by Shalmaneser II at the battle 
of Karkar, 854 B.C. On the famous obelisk of 
black basalt, now in the British Museum, am- 
bassadors from Jehu are represented bringing 
tribute to the same Assyrian monarch at 
Hamath, 842 B.C. Tiglath-pileser III, called in 
the Bible ' Pul,' marched against Northern Syria 
in 738 B.C. and Menahem gave the king a 
1 thousand talents of silver, 'that his hand might 
'■be with him to confirm the kingdom in his hand ' 



(2 K 15 19 ). In 732 B.C. Tiglath-pileser III in- 
vaded Israel, took a number of towns, including 
the whole district of Naphtali (2 K 15 29), and 
compelled Pekah, king of Israel, to pay a con- 
siderable tribute. The kingdom of Israel was 
destroyed in the year, 722 B.C., when Samaria 
was taken by Sargon in the first month of his 
reign, after a siege which was begun by his 
predecessor, Shalmaneser IV, and had lasted 
three years. 

14. The entering in of Hemath] the ideal 
northern boundary of the Holy Land (Nul3 2 i 
2 K 14 25-28) : it is the great depression between 
the N. end of Lebanon and the Nusariyeh 
mountains. The river of the wilderness] RV 
' the brook of the Arabah,' the Wadi-el-Ahsih, 
the southern boundary. 

CHAPTER 7 

Three Visions and an Interruption 

1-9. The visions. 10-17. The interruption. 

There are two senses in which the word 
' Vision ' may be used of one of the forms of 
Hebrew prophecy. In the first sense a state 
of mind closely akin to that of a dreamer is 
intended : ' I the Lord will make myself 
known unto him in a vision, I will speak with 
him in a dream ' (Nu 12 6 ). The prophet falls 
into a kind of ecstasy, and has no control over 
the pictures which pass before his mind. 
Every one will remember the language ascribed 
to Balaam : ' He saith . . which seeth the vision 
of the Almighty, falling down, and having his 
eyes open ' (Nu 24 4 > 16 ). In the second sense of 
the word it is meant that the subject-matter 
of the preaching was divinely inspired, but the 
prophet's own mind and will played an im- 
portant part in throwing this matter into the 
form of a picture. The visions of Amos be- 
long to the latter class. God's Spirit made the 
coming destruction of Israel certain to this 
man. Amos drew, and then explained, the pic- 
tures which were emblems of that destruction, 
the locusts, the devouring flame, the measure- 
ment with a plumb-line, the basket of summer 
fruit, the fall of temple and column. 

1. Grasshoppers] RV ' Locusts.' The latter 
growth may possibly mean the grass which 
springs in Palestine after the late rains in 
March-April. We cannot be quite certain 
whether the king's mowings or ' shearings ' are 
here mentioned. Sheep-shearing in N. Palestine 
takes place about April. The king's mowings 
would be a portion of the crops taken to feed 
his horses. 2. Render, ' And as they were 
about to make an end of eating . . Who shall 
raise up Jacob ? ' The question is equivalent 
to an exclamation : ' Oh that Jacob might be 



raised 



up 



4. He would not conduct His controversy 

with words, but with a consuming fire (Isa 66 16 ). 

The great deep] the abyss on which the earth 



569 



7.7 



AMOS 



8. 14 



was supposed to rest (Gn7 n Ps24 2 ). A part] 
RV ' the land,' the portion appointed to Israel : 
this, also, the fire was about to consume. 

7, 8. Upon a wall] RY ' beside a wall.' The 
testing of the wall is a symbol of the searching 
investigation into the people's conduct, which 
would be followed by a strictly just recom- 
pense (2S82 2 K 21 is Isa34H JerHMZ 
Lam 2 s ). 9. The high places of Isaac] i.e. 
Beer-sheba (5 5 ), which was especially asso- 
ciated with Isaac (Gn27 23 28™). 

10, 11. Amaziah, being a royal official, inter- 
venes as soon as the king's name is brought in 
(v. 9). He sends a message to Jeroboam II at 
Samaria (2K14 23 ), charging the prophet with 
stirring up sedition at the very centre of the 
national life. And he exaggerates. Amos had 
not said that the king himself should be 
killed. 12, 13. How contemptuous Amaziah is ! 
His words literally are : ' Seer, go, flee thee 
away/ etc. There is a proverbial saying, 'Eat 
your pudding, slave, and hold your tongue.' 

The king's chapel] RV ' The king's sanc- 
tuary ' : his ' Chapel Royal.' The king's court] 
RV ' a royal house ' : one of his residences 
(Dan 4 30). 

14. We catch the emphasis if we render: 
k No prophet am I, and no son of a prophet 
am I.' The latter expression may mean that 
he had not been trained in one of the schools 
for prophets (1S19 24 2K438 91^ but it is 
better to understand it as referring to the 
Oriental custom of the son following his father's 
occupation. A gatherer of sycomore fruit] RV 
' A dresser of sycomore trees.' The sycomore 
fig required pinching or scraping to bring it 
to ripeness. It was not thought much of in 
Palestine. 15. Cp. 2S7S 1K19™ Ps78™.n 
Gall 1 . 16. Thou sayest] in opposition to 
what the LORD said (v. 17). Drop not thy 
word] don't let it drip, drip, drip, in imbecile 
and wearisome fashion (Mic2 6 > n Ezk21 2 .7). 

17. An harlot] violated by the victorious 
soldiers. The greatest disaster that can befall 
an Eastern is to leave no son to continue his 
name. The ample domain of the wealthy 
priest would be divided into small properties 
for the new settlers ( Jer 6 2 Mic 2 4 ). A polluted 
land] or, ' a land that is unclean ' (RV), is our 
where Jehovah, not being its recognised lord, 
could not be Legitimately worshipped (1S2G 1<J 
2K5" HoB9»-fi Ezk4«). 

CHAPTER 8 
THE Vision OF THE RlPB Fur it, FOLLOWED 
i'.v a Fifth Addbi 3S 
1-3. The vision. 4-14. The address, de- 
nouncing dishonest traders (v v. 4-6), threatening 
earthquakes, eclipse, mourning, a painful sense 
of abandonment by God, an utter destruction 
.»f the superstitious (w. 7-14). 

1-3. Not withstanding the interference of 



Amaziah, the prophet finishes the recital of 
his visions. 

I, 2. Another play on words — qayits is the 
word for basket, and qets for end. We might 
represent it by, ' A basket of ripe fruit. My 
people are ripe for judgment.' 3. The literal 
translation of this picturesque v. is, ' And the 
songs of the Temple shall howl in that day — 
utterance of the Lord Jehovah ! Many the 
corpses ! In every place they cast forth ! 
Hush ! ' Temple] RM 'palace.' The building 
is regarded as the palace of the Great King ; 
the word came to the Hebrews from Babylonia, 
and literally signifies ' Great House.' The pesti- 
lence is so fatal that men have no time either 
to burn or bury the dead, and no inclination to 
talk. 

4. To make the poor of the land to fail] i.e. 
to exterminate those who are in lowly circum- 
stances. ' They make a solitude and call it 
peace.' 5. The new moon was originally a more 
important festival than the sabbath. For points 
in its observance see 1S20 6 2K4 23 Isal 13 
Hos 2 13 , and cp. the Levitical ritual in Nu 28 n . 

The ephah] the measure by which they sold, 
was fraudulently small ; the weight by which 
they tested the money paid them was as dis- 
honestly great. Money was not coined, but 
was weighed on every business occasion (Gn 
23 16 ). The ephah contained about 65 Imp. pts. ; 
the shekel of 252 grs. would be worth about £2 Is. 
of our money. 

7. Jehovah Himself is the Excellency, the 
Pride and Boast of His people. 

8. The movements of the land shaken by 
the earthquake, or whatever other calamity 
was divinely inflicted, are compared to those 
of the Nile : ' Yea, it shall rise up wholly like 
the River ; and it shall be troubled and sink 
again, like the River of Egypt' (RY). The 
word for ' river ' is regularly employed of the 
Nile. 

9. The eclipse of June 15th, 763 B.C., may 
have impressed his imagination powerfully. 

10. Feasts] religious, not secular. The 
cloth of camel's or goat's hair was bound round 
the loins with a cord. Shaving the head was 
a sign of mourning (Lv 2 1 5 Isa 4 - 4 22 12 ). This 
day would end as badly as it began. 

II. The word which they craved was not one 
of spiritual instruction, bul of guidance out of 
trouble : cp. 1 S3 1 . 12. From sea to sea] i.e. 
from the .Mediterranean to the Dead Sea. 

14. The sin, or, rather, the 'guilt 'of Samaria, 
is the idolatrous object worshipped by the Sa- 
maritans, either the calf at Bethel (1 K 1229 Hos 
8 U 10'), or the Asherah at Samaria (2K 13 ,; ). 

The manner] RV 4 the way of Beer-sheba ' 
may perhaps mean the pilgrimage thither. Mo- 
hammedans swear by the pilgrimage to Mecca. 
But Amos not improbably wrote, ' By the life 
of the deity of Beer-sheba.' 



570 



9. 1 



AMOS— OBADIAH 



INTRO. 



CHAPTER 9 

The Concluding Vision and a Discourse. 
Comfortable Words 

i. The vision. 2-10. The discourse, de- 
claring that none shall evade God's judgments 
(vv. 2-6) ; that Israel stands in no peculiar 
relationship to Jehovah (v. 7) ; that all the 
sinners amongst them shall perish (vv.8-10). 
11-15. Comfortable words, predicting the 
restoration of the Davidic kingdom in all its 
former extent (vv. 11, 12) ; the exuberant fer- 
tility of the land (v. 13) ; the complete and 
final establishment of the nation on it (v. 15). 

1. Read, k I saw Jehovah standing beside the 
altar ; and he said, " Smite the capitals of the 
pillars, so that the thresholds may shake, and 
break them in pieces on the head of all of 
them . . there shall not one of them flee away, 
and there shall not one of them escape." ' The 
altar is that at Bethel, the chief sanctuary of 
the kingdom (1K12 33 Am7 13 ) ; assembled 
there for worship, the great mass of the people 
meet with destruction, like the Philistines in 
the house of their god (Jg 16 29 > 30 ). The blow 
from heaven shakes the building throughout, 
and its loftier parts come crashing down on the 
worshippers. 

2. Hell] Heb. Sheol, the abode of the de- 
parted. 3. Carmel's lofty, rough, wooded 
summit would be an ideal place to hide in. 
Fugitives had the right of asylum on this 
sacred mountain. The reference to the ser- 
pent reminds us of the Babylonian myth in 
which the dragon of chaos is vanquished by 
Merodach : cp. also Isa 51 9 Ps 74 13 . 5, 6. This 
may have been a note written on the margin, 
suggested by 5 8 8«. 6. RY 'It is He that 
buildeth His chambers in the heaven, and 
hath founded His vault upon the earth.' The 
vault of the sky appears to rest on the 
ground. 

7. At 3 2 Amos admits that there is a special 



bond between Israel and the Lord ; here, with 
splendid boldness, he repudiates it. Their 
conduct has dissolved the connexion. Not 
only so : Providence has guided other races 
as well as the Hebrews : cp. Mt3 9 Jn8 33 Ac 
17 26 ). The Ethiopians inhabited that part of 
the Nile Valley which stretches from Assouan 
southwards. Caphtor] probably the island of 
Crete (cp. Ezk25 16 ) ; but some authorities 
identify it with the coast of the Egyptian 
Delta. 

8-10. The qualifications at the end of vv. 
8, 9 rob the threat of much of its force, and 
are not quite in the manner of Amos. At all 
events, we have three stern messages here : 
the kingdom is to be utterly destroyed, the 
people are to be wanderers amongst all nations, 
the sword is to slay all the sinners. 

11. The dominion exercised by David's de- 
scendants is spoken of as the tabernacle of 
David, and is figured as a small, dilapidated 
house, part of which has fallen in, the rest 
being full of gaps: cp. IK 12^ Ezk34 23 > 24 
37 24 . 12. The remnant of Edom is an expres- 
sion which implies that this people has been 
much weakened ; the victories of Amaziah 
greatly reduced its power (2K14 7 * 22 ). Over 
other nations, also, Jehovah's name had been 
proclaimed as victor and owner : cp. Dt28 10 
2 S 1 2 2 » Isa 63 !9 2 Ch 6 33 . 1 3. Vintage comes in 
the dry months of autumn, and is soon over. In 
the happy future the grapes will be so plentiful 
that this work will last till the rainy season, 
when the grain is sown. Sweet wine] the 
newly expressed juice of the grape. 14. To 
bring again the captivity is an expression which 
does not necessarily imply exile. It often 
means a favourable change in one's fortunes. 
But the mention of the waste cities, and the 
land gone out of cultivation, agrees with the 
idea of a real captivity, and the promise in 
the closing v. suggests that Israel had been 
' plucked up out of their land.' 



OBADIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Contents. The book of Obadiah, as the 
title in v. 1 states, is a prophecy against Edom. 
The main divisions are as follows : — Vv. 1-9, 
Edom is about to be driven out of its land by 
a confederacy of nations ; vv. 10-14, this is in 
punishment for its participation in the capture 
of Jerusalem ; vv. 15, 16, a day of judgment is 
coming upon all nations ; vv. 17-21, in that 



day Judah and Israel shall escape, and shall 
regain the lands that the Edomites and other 
enemies have taken from them. 

2. Composition. All criticism of this book 
must set out from the remarkable correspond- 
ence between it and parts of Jer49. The 
parallelism is as follows : — Obad l a = Jer 7 a , 
Obadl b 2 = Jer 14, 15, Obad3, 4 = Jer 16, Obad 



571 



INTRO. 



OBADIAH 



1 



5 a = Jer9 b , Obad 5 b = Jer9 a , Obad 6 = JerlO, 
Obad8 resembles Jer7 b slightly, Obad 9 re- 
sembles Jer22 slightly. 

(a) The theory that this parallelism is due to 
quotation of Obadiah by Jeremiah is open to 
a number of formidable objections. (1) Obad 
10-14 seems to refer to the capture of Jerusa- 
lem by Nebuchadrezzar in 586 B.C., but Jer49 
is commonly supposed to have been composed 
immediately after the battle of Carchemish in 
605 B.C. In that case Jeremiah wrote before 
Obadiah, and therefore cannot have quoted him. 
The words of Obadiah cannot be referred to the 
capture of Jerusalem by Shishak (1K14 25 " 28 ), 
nor by the Philistines and Arabians (2 Ch 2 1 16 f -), 
nor by Israel (2K14 13f ), for in none of these 
cases is there any record of a participation 
of Edomites. The pre-exilic prophets never 
accuse the Edomites of assisting in the sack of 
Jerusalem: cp. Amos 19- 12 Jer 9 26 25 21 49 7'. 
Only in the post-exilic prophets is this charged: 
cp. Ezk35 Psl37 Lam4 21f . It seems im- 
possible, therefore, to refer Obad 10-14 to 
anything else than the capture of Jerusalem 
by Nebuchadrezzar. (2) Obad 7 states that 
the allies of Edom have expelled him from 
his land. This event is anticipated in Ezk 
25 10, 12, 14^ an d it is an accomplished fact in 
Mai 1 3 . There is no event before the exile 
to which these, words can be referred ; con- 
sequently Obadiah cannot be earlier than 
Jeremiah. The view that Jer 49 is a late post- 
exilic interpolation in the book of Jeremiah is 
inconsistent with the fact that Obad 7, 10-1 4 and 
all other allusions to late events in the book of 
Obadiah are absent from the parallel in Jer 49. 
(b) The reading of Jer49 15b is preferable to 
Obad 2. Jer 49 9 lacks the clumsy addition 
found in Obad 5. Jer49 10 is a more natural 
sequel to Obad 5 than is Obad 6. These facts 
indicate that in several particulars the text of 
Jer 49 is more primitive than that of Obadiah. 

(d) The theory that Jeremiah is quoted by 
Obadiah is also untenable. (1) Because the 
order of the vv. is more primitive in Obadiah 
than in Jeremiah. Obad 1 is evidently the 
beginning of the ora"cle, and this is logically 
followed by w. 3—6, 8, 9. The different order 
of the vv. in Jer 49 is unnatural and cannot be 
primitive. (2) The text of Obad 1,3, 5, 8 is 
more primitive than the parallel vv. in Jere- 
miah. (.'>) The form of the prophecy in Obadiah 
is much briefer than that in Jeremiah, and is 
therefore probably more primitive. Moreover, 
the vv. in .Jer 49 that are not found in Obadiah 
show the characteristic language of Jeremiah. 

(c) In view of these facts the only possible 

themy of the relation of Obadiah to Jer 49 is 
that both prophets quote a third earlier prophet. 
The vv. that are found both in Jeremiah and 
Obad 1-6, 8, '•'. are the only ones that can be 
ascribed with certainty to the older prophecy. 



3. Date. How long before Jeremiah the 
prophet lived who wrote Obad 1-6,8, 9 and the 
parallels in Jeremiah can only be conjectured. 
Some regard him as a contemporary of Isaiah, 
and refer the disaster threatened in these vv. 
to the humiliation of Edom by Amaziah 
(2 K 1 4 7 ). It seems, however, that the enemies 
of Edom in this passage are not Israelites but 
Gentiles, and it is perhaps better to understand 
the danger as the Arabian invasion mentioned 
in -2Ch26 7 . The same disaster apparently 
threatened Moab according to Isal5-16 12 . 
The second half of the book of Obadiah 
(vv. 10-21) was written during the exile, 
while the memory of Edom's wrong was still 
fresh. 

4. Value. The purpose of the book of 
Obadiah is to express Judah's hatred of 
Edom and its confidence that Edom will 
ultimately be destroyed. This conviction rests 
upon a recognition of the fundamental differ- 
ence between the national characters of the 
two nations. The Edomites were famous for 
their secular wisdom, but no allusion to their 
religion is ever made in the OT. Esau figures 
in Hebrew tradition as a profane person, 
destitute of spiritual instincts. The confidence 
that Edom shall not ultimately triumph over 
Israel is, therefore, no mere expression of 
Jewish patriotism, but is a spiritual conviction 
that the religion of Jehovah cannot be extin- 
guished by the forces of evil. As an expression 
of this conviction the book of Obadiah has 
permanent value. 

1-9. The question has been much discussed 
whether vv. 1-9 are prediction or description. 
Y. 7 is clearly description, and on the strength 
of this some seek to explain the whole passage 
as descriptive ; but, as we have just seen, v. 7 
is not found in Jer 49, and is, therefore, no 
part of the old prophecy that Obadiah quotes. 
It is to be attached to v. 10, and is part of 
Obadiah's addition to the original oracle. 
Apart from this v. there is no reason for 
regarding vv. 1-6, 8, 9 as predictive. The 
expression l we have heard ' (v. l b ) does not 
indicate that the disaster of Edom is past, but 
only that the news that it is impending has 
just reached the speakers. ' I have made ' (v. 2) 
also does not indicate that the disaster is 
accomplished, but merely that it is determined 
in the divine purpose. V. 3 clearly implies 
that Edom it still dwelling in his rocky strong- 
holds, and does not believe that he can ever be 
expelled from them, and in v. 4 the words 'I 
will bring thee down from thence ' show that 
the catastrophe still lies in the future. To 
understand these words as a purpose of God 
uttered in the past is very unnatural. Accord- 
ingly . Ave conclude that the ruin of Edom 
predicted in w. 1-6, 8, 9 lies in the future, 



572 



OBADIAH 



10 



but that knowledge that it is impending has 
already reached Israel. 

i. Vision of Obadiah] A title added by the 
collector of the Minor Prophets. Who 
Obadiah was is unknown. The name means 
' Servant of Jehovah.' Thus saith the Lord 
GOD concerning' Edom] a remark by the author 
of Obad7, 10-21 designed to introduce his 
quotation from the older prophet. We have 
heard] a better reading than ' I have heard ' 
(Jer 49 u ). This sentence is not a natural 
continuation of the introductory formula in 
v. l a , and it shows that the passage quoted was 
not originally an oracle spoken by the Lord, 
but a report heard by the Israelites. Rumour] 
a correct translation of the original. This 
word is never used in the sense of ' oracle.' 
This meaning is rendered certain by the paral- 
lelism of the next clause, an ambassador is 
sent among the heathen. The added words, 
from the Lord, do not indicate that the 
' rumour ' is an utterance of the Lord, but 
only that the coming disaster is caused by 
Him. The ' rumour ' is news of the impend- 
ing attack of the nations upon Edom. In v. l b 
the language of Obad. is more original than that 
of its parallel Jer 49 14 . Heathen] better, EY 
' nations.' The allusion is probably to Arabian 
tribes that menaced Palestine in the time of 
Uzziah (2Ch26 7 ). The names of the kings 
of Edom in the Assyrian inscriptions in com- 
parison with the list of Gn36 31-39 show that 
a new Arabian population entered the land of 
Edom by the middle of the 8th cent. B.C. 
To this impending migration the author of 
this ancient prophecy probably refers. 

2. Behold, I have made thee small] does not 
refer to an accomplished overthrow of Edom, 
since in v. l b the nations are summoned to come 
against him, and since in vv. 3, 4 he still feels 
secure in his strongholds ; but it refers to a 
divine determination already made. The 
parallel in Jer49 15 omits 'thou,' thus making 
it more clear that the whole v. refers to the 
divine purpose. Small and despised refer to 
the condition in which Edom will be left after 
the conquest by the nations. The word greatly 
is a textual corruption of ' among men ' that 
is preserved in Jer49 15 . 

3. The confidence of Edom that he cannot 
be dislodged from his rock-dwellings and 
fortresses. The land of Edom was full of 
caves, artificially enlarged and fortified, whose 
remains are still to be seen in great numbers 
at Petra and elsewhere throughout the land. 

4. The divine determination to dislodge 
Edom from his land in spite of the inaccessi- 
bility of his strongholds. 

5. States that even thieves leave something 
behind them, and that grape-gatherers leave a 
few grapes. The thought is the contrast in 
the condition of Edom after it has been 



invaded. The nomads of the desert will leave 
nothing behind when once they have overrun 
the land. In Obad. the thought is expressed 
in the form of a question expecting an affirma- 
tive answer, but in Jer49 9rm it is expressed 
as an affirmative statement. The form in Obad. 
is obviously the more poetic and original. 
The words ' how art thou cut off ' are not 
found in the parallel in Jer., and are a weak 
addition made by the writer of the second 
half of the book or by a later scribe. 

6. Things] EY ' treasures.' After v. 5 we 
naturally expect a statement of the contrast 
between the treatment of Edom and the 
conduct of thieves and grape-gatherers in 
leaving a remnant, but this is not found in the 
v. This leads some to reject it as a gloss and 
to regard v. 7 as the original continuation of 
v. 5 ; but, as we have seen, v. 7 is not found 
in Jer 49 and refers to an event after the fall 
of Jerusalem, so that it is unquestionably an 
addition made by the writer of the second 
half of the book. The best solution of the 
difficulty is to regard Jer 49 10 , which is parallel 
to v. 6, as the original continuation of v. 5. 
This v. is much more perfect than the parallel 
in Obad., and contains a statement of the 
complete destruction of Edom that the context 
requires. Obad 6 is apparently merely a 
broken-down form of the text in Jer49 10 . 

7. Brought thee] EM 'driven thee out.' 
The v. refers to the complete expulsion of 
Edom from his territory by the Nabatsean 
Arabs at some time during the exile of Israel. 
The event is spoken of in the past tense, and 
shows that the writer lived after the fall of 
Jerusalem. This v. is not found in Jer 49 
and must come from the hand of the author of 
Obad 10-21. It joins on naturally to v. 10. 
The word translated in AY ' they that eat thy 
bread ' is omitted by LXX. It is a dittograph 
of the last letters of the preceding word. 

8. 9. Some reject these vv. as glosses be- 
cause the verbs are in the future, instead of 
the past tense, as in v. 7 ; but, as we have seen, 
v. 7 is not part of the original prophecy, and 
vv. 1-6 regard the fall of Edom as still future. 
These vv. join on logically to v. 6. Jer 
49 7b, 22 contain slight resemblances to these 
vv. The text of Obad. appears to be more 
original on account of the use of the first 
person and the expression ' saith the Lord.' 
The worldly wisdom of the Edomites was 
proverbial among the Hebrews: cp. Jer 49 7 . 

10-14. The vv. describe the co-operation 
of the Edomites in Nebuchadrezzar's destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem and state that the foregoing 
prediction of destruction is due to this un- 
brotherly conduct. These vv. together with 
v. 7 and vv. 15-21 come from the hand of 
the later writer. It is clear that he is ignor- 
ant of the original meaning of the ancient 



573 



10 



OBADIAH 



21 



prophecy in vv. 1-6 and 8, 9, and regards it as 
a still unfulfilled prediction of the destruction 
of Edom. The last word of v. 9 is to be 
attached to the beginning of v. 10, translating 
' because of the slaughter, because of the 
violence.' 

io. The imperfects in Hebrew describe 
the present condition of Edom, and should be 
rendered ' shame covers thee, thou art cut off 
for ever.' The allusion is the same as in v. 7 
to the recent Nabataean migration through 
which Edom has been dispossessed. 

ii. This is a clear reference to the de- 
struction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. 
The Edomites are blamed for assisting in the 
work of destruction. The past tenses show 
that we are dealing with description, not with 
prediction. Thou stoodest on the other side, 
in a hostile sense (RM l aloof) as in Ps38 n . 
Forces] RY ' substance,' i.e. wealth. 
12-14. These vv. describe poetically in the 
form of a warning what Edom has actually 
done. 12. Looked on, with the sense of gloat- 
ing over misfortune as in Mic7 10b . The day 
is evidently the day of the fall of Jerusalem. 
The details of the hostility of Edom sup- 
plied by this v. are the same that are empha- 
sised in Ezk, Lam, Pss, and other writings of 
the post-exilic period. This v. is partly iden- 
tical with v. 14, and belongs logically after 13. 
It is, therefore, open to suspicion of being an 
editorial insertion. 14. The word translated 
crossway by RV and AY is of unknown 
meaning. In LXX ' a mountain pass.' 

15, 16. These vv. describe an impending 
day of judgment upon all the heathen. The 
expression day of the LORD is the technical 
term used by all the prophets for a turning- 
point in history when the new era of 
blessing for Israel shall be inaugurated. In 
the older prophets this day is ushered in by 
the assault of Assyria, Babylon, or one of the 
other foreign nations, upon Israel. In Ezk 
and the prophets that follow him it is a day 
of judgment upon the heathen. This is 
the conception of this passage and shows that 
it cannot be earlier than Ezk. In v. 15 b Edom 
is addressed in the second person singular, as 
in the preceding vv., and is told that he shall 
be included in the general catastrophe of the 
nations. V. 16 is not to be understood of the 
Edomites, as is generally done, since the 
address is in the second person plural, and 
since the Edomites are included in all the 
heathen of the preceding v. The Jews are 
addressed l who have drunk of the cup of the 
wrath of Jehovah,' and they are told thai all 
the heathen shall be forced to drink the cup 
that they have drunk of. Instead of swallow- 
down, a slight textual emendation will give 



1 stagger,' which is more consistent with the 
context. 

17-21. These vv. describe the happy destiny 
of Israel. 17. Deliverance] RY ' those that 
escape,' i.e. in the coming day of judgment, and 
regain the land that they have lost at the time 
of the exile. This suggests that they are 
still in captivity. 18. Jacob is a designation 
of the kingdom of Judah, Joseph is a desig- 
nation of the kingdom of Israel. Israel had 
certainly not returned at the time when this 
prophecy was written, and there is no more 
reason to think that Judah had returned. The 
thought of the reunion of the divided king- 
doms of Judah and Israel is common in the 
prophets from the days of Amos onward. 
The closing words of the v., for the LORD hath 
spoken it, seem to be a reference to the ancient 
prophecy in vv. 1-6, 8, 9, which the author 
regards as still unfulfilled. 

The text of vv. 19, 20 is very corrupt, and 
neither the AY nor the RY gives a satisfactory 
sense. The LXX allows us to restore the 
text and translate as follows : 

' The Negeb (i.e. south Judah) shall possess 
Mount Esau (i.e. Edom), and the Shephelah 
(i.e. the inhabitants of the maritime plain of 
Judah) shall possess the Philistines, and the 
Mountain (i.e. the people of the mountain 
district of Judah) shall possess Ephraim and 
the open countr.y of Samaria, and Benjamin 
shall possess Gilead. And the exiles of this 
host of the sons of Israel shall possess the 
land of the Canaanites unto Sarephath, and 
the exiles of Jerusalem who are in Sepharad 
shall inherit the cities of the Negeb (i.e. south 
Judah).' 

20. Sepharad was probably the name of a 
district in the north of Asia Minor. 

The historical situation here assumed is that 
Edom has been expelled from its own land, 
and has occupied the S. of Judah left vacant 
by the captivity. The maritime plain has been 
seized by the Philistines, the Samaritans have 
occupied the land of Judah, and the Arabs 
from E. of the Jordan have seized the territory 
of Benjamin. This condition of things shall 
be reversed in the good time coming. The 
invaders shall be expelled from the lands that 
they have unjustly seized, and the tribes of 
Israel shall occupy their ancient territory. 

21. This v. describes the glory of Israel after 
Edom and all the other nations have fallen. 
Saviours refers to the monarchs that are to be 
raised up to rule the restored nation. The 
closing words, the kingdom shall be the LORD'S, 
show that the author's confidence of the fall 
of Edom and Ihe triumph of Israel is based 
upon the conviction that the religion of Israel 
cannot perish. 



574 



JONAH 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Book and its Hero. This little book 
stands alone amongst the writings of the 
prophets with which it is grouped. It does 
not contain any prophecies, except the mes- 
sage of Jonah to the Ninevites, yet it is placed 
with the books of Amos and Micah, which 
contain hardly anything else. It is written in 
prose, except the Psalm in c. 2, and appears 
at first sight to be a simple narrative of fact, 
yet it is separated from both the groups of 
books to which the histories of the OT., Samuel 
and Kings, Chronicles and Ezra, belong. 

The hero of the story lived in the reign of 
Jeroboam II, king of Israel, in whose time 
Amos's work was accomplished. According 
to 2K14 25 , he prophesied the recovery from 
Syria of the lost border possessions of Israel. 
That fixes the date of his activity, as there 
recorded, in the first half of the 8th cent. B.C. 
He is said to have belonged to Gath-hepher, 
a town of Zebulon, and his grave is still shown 
in the vicinity of Nazareth. 

2. The Author of the Book. But the author 
of the book before us cannot have been the 
hero of the story. That is proved, (1) by 3 3 . 
' Nineveh was an exceeding great city.' The 
Hebrew makes it plain that the writer is look- 
ing back on a time already past, writing to those 
who are no longer familiar with the greatness of 
Nineveh. But as Nineveh was the metropolis 
of the world till its fall in 607 B.C., this book 
must have been written after that date. Fur- 
ther, no writer of the time when Assyria was 
the greatest of the world-powers would have 
described its ruler as c the king of Nineveh,' 
any more than Napoleon at the height of his 
power could have been called king of Paris. 
(2) As is shown in the notes, the Psalm in c. 2 
is full of allusions to various Psalms. Most of 
these are certainly later than the 8th cent. (3) 
The language of the book contains words 
and phrases which were unknown before the 
captivity. Hence it is generally agreed that 
the book was not written earlier than the 5th 
or 4th cent. B.C., in the period following the 
reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah, three centuries 
after Jonah's day. 

3. Character of the Book. Many Christian 
and Jewish expositors formerly considered the 
whole book a literal narrative of actual facts. 
At the present time nearly all scholars judge 
it to be an OT. parable, or instructive story, 
made to convey in pictorial form great spiritual 



truths. Against the strictly historical view of 
the book may be urged, (1) the complete 
silence both of the OT. and of other history 
as to any such conversion of the Ninevites as 
that described in c. 3. On the contrary, they 
are uniformly described as idolaters, and 
threatened with the direst punishment : cp. 
especially the whole prophecy of Nahum, or 
Isaiah, chs. 10, 37, etc. (2) The book breaks 
off most abruptly, giving no account at all of the 
future fortunes either of Jonah or of the re- 
pentant people. From the literary point of 
view this is one of the beauties of the book 
(see on 4 n ), but it seems to show that the 
design of the writer was not the writing of 
history. (3) To many readers the whole book 
suggests inevitably that we are in the world of 
parable, as surely as does the ' Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress ' or the ' Holy War.' 

A modern reader may find difficulty in 
understanding how in such a parable an in- 
cident like that of the great fish could be 
introduced ; to him its very strangeness might 
suggest that it was not mere invention. But 
to a Jew of the 4th or 5th cent, no such 
difficulty would appear. In Jer51 34 " 44 (the 
whole passage should be carefully considered) 
the Babylonian captivity had already been 
compared to the swallowing of the nation by 
a huge dragon, and the deliverance from the 
exile to being cast out alive from the devour- 
er's maw. Other OT. passages, such as Job 
712 26 12 (RY) Ps74!3, show how familiar was 
the thought and the dread of the monsters 
of the deep. To represent a great disaster 
occurring to a man who ran away from duty 
by such an image, was as natural as was the 
picture of the Slough of Despond to a man 
who lived in a marshy and ill-drained locality. 
Against this view devout Christian thinkers 
used to urge the references of our Lord in 
Mtl2 3 9- 4 i 16 4 Lkll 29,30^ w hich they supposed 
compelled us to accept the narrative as his- 
torical. It must be carefully observed that 
those who hold the position advocated here, 
do not challenge the authority of our Lord, 
but only the justness of this method of in- 
terpreting His words. It may fairly be said 
that He is using an illustration which is equally 
forcible whether it is drawn from fact or from 
poetry. Just as we refer to the Prodigal Son, 
or the G-ood Samaritan, in precisely the same 
terms we should use were their adventures 



575 



INTRO. 



JONAH 



1.3 



historical facts, so may Christ have done here. 
On the whole, then, we conclude with confidence 
that though it is possible that a historical 
tradition of the mission of Jonah to Nineveh 
suggested the writing of the book, its author 
has freely worked on this material, and has 
subordinated everything to the conveying of 
spiritual truths. So in the parable of the 
pounds (Lkl9 11-27 ), our Lord starts from the 
well-known incidents of the visits of Herod 
the Great and Archelaus to Rome, ' to receive 
a kingdom,' and from that point develops the 
story with its urgent lessons. So in his his- 
torical plays Shakespeare uses the old Chron- 
iclers. But the historical parts of Macbeth 
or Richard the Second are of little interest to 
us, compared with the analysis of motive and 
the insight into character that are of such 
abiding value. It is of great interest to ob- 
serve that in the OT. as in the NT. the natural 
human love for a story is so often appealed to, 
so that ' truth embodied in a tale may enter 
in at lowly doors.' 

4. Aim and Teaching - of the Book. The 
one pervading aim of the book is to exhibit 
the true relationship between man and God, 
only realised by understanding what men are, 
and what God is. In opposition to the teach- 
ing of later Judaism, with its bitter contempt 
and hatred of the heathen world, and its belief 
that God regarded it in the same way, the 
author is eager to show how kindness of 
heart and readiness to repent of sin may be 
found everywhere amongst men, and are always 
acceptable to God. So in the story of the 
voyage the heathen sailors shrink from the 
thought of violent or unjust dealings with 
Jonah, and both they and the people of 
Nineveh reverently own the power of Jehovah, 
so soon as His claims are put before them. 
With this may be compared our Lord's words 
in Mtll 20 " 24 Lkll3i,32 ? and His choice of the 
Good Samaritan as the type of brotherly 
kindness, in contrast with the priest and the 
Levite. 

From such teaching about mankind follows 
naturally the teaching about God. He is re- 
vealed as full of infini te compassion, looking piti- 
fully upon the thousands of innocent little 
children and helpless cattle in the great city, 
swift to hear and receive the cry of penitence. 
It is in accordance with this general view 1l1.it 
God's individual dealingB with His disobedient 
servant are set forth. He may punish, but is 
always at hand to deliver. He is willing to 
reason with His messengers as He does with 
Jonah in c. \. Again, we compare OUT Lord's 
picture <>(' the pleading <>f the father with the 
elder brother 1 Lk IS 88 * 3 ). 

One other truth is brought out with <_rn at 
beauty in c. 1. where .Jonah's pity for the 
gourd is made an image of God's pity for 



Nineveh. We are taught that man may trust 
his nobler instincts as being true revelations of 
God, and from his own compassion argue up- 
wards to find such qualities in perfection there. 

' Though He is so bright, and we so dim, 
We are made in His image to witness Him.' 

Nowhere else in the OT. is there so close 
an approximation to the great saying of 1 Jn4 7 , 
' For love is of God, and every one that loveth 
is begotten of God and knoweth God.' 

We see, then, that in this little book of 48 
vv. we reach the high-water mark of OT. teach- 
ing. It is of priceless value, and will remain 
so as long as men need to learn what God 
thinks of the teeming masses in the world's 
great cities, what we ought to think of them, 
and how God judges us by our judgment of 
them. 

5. It should be noted that many scholars 
give a more particular application to the story 
than has just been set forth. To them it is an 
allegory, teaching the meaning of the history 
of the nation. Jonah stands for Israel, in- 
tended from the first by God to be the mis- 
sionary people to the rest of mankind, but 
refusing to recognise its destiny. The swal- 
lowing by the fish represents the captivity, 
the deliverance the return from exile. Read 
thus, the book is at once a reproof and an 
appeal to those who, like the community in 
Jerusalem, even after their marvellous restor- 
ation, were still narrow and bigoted, hating 
the nations round them, not able even yet to 
understand the breadth of God's love. k Who 
is blind, but my servant, or deaf as my 
messenger that I send ? ' 

It is claimed that this permits a closer ap- 
plication of the vv. quoted from Jer51. 
Against this, however, must be set the sig- 
nificant fact that the rest of that passage 
breathes the old bitter spirit of hatred against 
the heathen world. Further, the perfection 
of the allegory is certainly spoilt if both the 
great fish and the great city have to represent, 
in different connexions, the same thing. 

Doubtless national implications are not ex- 
cluded. But one is disposed to think that the 
real appeal of the book is to the common con- 
science of the people, perhaps also to some 
who claimed to be prophets, but could do 
nothing but repeat the harsh and cruel denun- 
ciations of days that ought to have been left 
behind for ever. 

CHAPTER 1 
The Disobedience op Jonah 
2. Nineveh] the world- famous capital of 
Assyria, on the Tigris. For its wickedness 
op. Xah3. 3. Jonah seeks to escape from the 
unwelcome task, both because he hates the 
Ninevites, and because he fears that, after all. 
God may spare them. Tarshish] Tartessus, 






1.5 



JONAH 



4.6 



in SW. Spain, probably an old Phoenician 
colony. It would be in the opposite direction 
to Nineveh. Joppa] Jaffa, the only port of 
any size on the Palestinian coast. 5. The 
ship's crew is composed of a blend of nation- 
alities. Each man appeals to his own god. 
Jonah, however, declares his God to be the 
Creator of all things (v. 9). For the story of 
the sleeper in the storm cp. Mk4. ' Jonah 
was peaceful because he thought he was far 
from God's hand, Jesus was confident because 
He knew He was hidden in God's hand' 
(Marti). 6. The captain thinks that the 
deity of their passenger might deliver them. 

11. Wrought, and was tempestuous] RY 
' grew more and more tempestuous.' 

14-16. The natural piety of the heathen 
sailors is strikingly shown. Compelled to be- 
lieve, by the rising of the storm, the impos- 
sibility of reaching land, and the falling of the 
lot, that Jonah is guilty, they make a last 
appeal to be held innocent if a mistake has 
been made. Then, convinced of the power 
of Jehovah, they at once offer sacrifices on the 
deck, and vow further offerings if they arrive 
safely from their voyage. For the vow cp. 
Gn28 2 1S1 11 , etc. 

17. A great fish] Nothing is said of the 
species of the fish ; either a giant shark or a 
cachalot whale could swallow a man. But the 
Intro, shows that it is needless to argue whether 
the miracle of Jonah's remaining alive has ever 
been paralleled. "We have given reasons for 
our view that the author never meant or ex- 
pected his story to be regarded as anything 
but a parable. If that is so, it is useless for 
us to bring in a difficulty which never even 
occurred to him. 

CHAPTER 2 

His Prayer of Thanksgiving 
This beautiful song of deliverance shows 
clearly the familiarity of the writer with earlier 
Psalms. It reflects very plainly the horror 
inspired by the sea in the minds of an inland 
people. It is not necessary, on the interpreta- 
tion adopted, to argue whether or not it is 
suitable to Jonah's position. Advocates of 
the national view of the book think it specially 
suitable to describe the sorrows of the people 
when drowning in the deep gulf of exile. If 
so, the references to ' thy holy temple ' are not 
happy. On the whole, a personal application 
suits best the quotations from the Psalms, 
especially v. 4 = Ps 31 22, v. 9 = 42 4 50 14 . 

2. Out of the belly of hell] hell = Sheol, the 
realm of the dead, thought of here as a 
devouring monster. The phrase is purely 
pictorial : cp. ' from the jaws of death.' 

3. Both parts of this v. are echoes from Pss 
88 6 >7 427. 4. Cp. Ps3122. Toward thy holy 
temple] cp. IK8 35 - 38 , and for the longing for 



the Temple Ps84, etc. 5. Even to the soul] 
cp. PS69 1 . The meaning is that the waters 
so press in that life itself is threatened. The 
weeds] Floating sea-weed entangles him as he 
sinks. 6. The bottoms of the mountains] 
their roots or foundations lying deep in the 
heart of the sea : cp. Milton, ' Hymn on the 
Nativity ' : ' While the Creator great . . Cast 
the dark foundations deep.' Was about] RV 
' closed upon.' The thought is that as he 
sinks he goes far from the earth, the home of 
the living, and its doors are closed and barred 
against him for ever. No return to the light 
and sunshine seems possible. Corruption] RV 
' the pit,' i.e. of Sheol, as in v. 2. 7. Cp. Pss 
107 5 142 3m g- 18 6 . 8. Lying vanities] cp. 
Dt 32 21 = idol gods. ' Vanity,' lit. ' a breath,' 
means something evanescent and worthless. 

Their own mercy] This is used as a name 
for Jehovah. In Psl44 2 the same word is 
rendered 'my goodness,' RV 'loving-kindness.' 
It is here a pregnant use describing Jehovah 
as the sum and source of mercy. 9. Cp. Pss 
42 4 5014-23. For vowed cp. also 1 ™. 

CHAPTER 3 

Repentance and Pardon of the 

NlNEVITES 

3. An exceeding great city] lit. ' great unto 
God,' i.e. regarded as great by God: cp. GnlO 1 . 

Of three days' journey] i.e. in breadth. 

8. Even the cattle join in the mourning. 
Neglected by their owners, they fill the air 
with their groanings. Cp. Joel 1 20 , ' The 
beasts of the field pant unto thee,' and for an 
interesting parallel, Judith 4 9 " 15 . The Per- 
sians are said, by Herodotus, to have clipped 
the hair of the horses and baggage animals 
that they might seem to share in the mourning 
for a general. 10. For the term 'repentance ' 
= ' change of purpose,' as applied to God, cp. 
Jerl8 8 , and for the action Ex 321*. 

CHAPTER 4 
Jonah's Jealousy contrasted with Jeho- 
vah's Compassion 
1. Jonah's anger has a double cause, 
wounded pride that his words are proved 
false, and indignation that the God of Israel 
should pity heathen, only fit to be fuel for 
fire. 3. A striking parallel to the dejection 
and disappointment of Elijah (IK 19). 

4. Doest thou well to be angry ?] RM ' Art 
thou greatly angry ? ' A kindly remonstrance 
to awake better feelings. Jonah makes no 
reply yet, but goes and sits in his booth to 
watch whether, after all, God will not change 
His mind again. 5. The booth, like those 
used at the Feast of Booths, or Tabernacles, 
would be a rough structure made of poles and 
leaves. 6. Gourd] most likely the bottle- 
gourd, often planted to grow over trellis-work, 



37 



577 



4.8 



JONAH— MICAH 



INTRO. 



whose broad leaves would form a good protec- 
tion against the sun. 8. Vehement] RV 
1 sultry' = the sirocco. 9. See on v. 4. Jonah 
transfers his pity for himself, as an ill-used 
prophet, to the gourd which likewise has been 
hardly treated. A wonderfully true touch of 
human nature. 

10. The argument is very fine. Jonah's 
feeling of pity for the gourd is just enough, a 
withered tree is always a sad sight. Yet on 
this gourd, ' child of a night' (so the Heb.), he 
had spent neither labour nor strength. How 



much more should God, of whose goodness 
man's highest virtue is but the faintest shadow, 
pity and spare the helpless and ignorant works 
of His own hands, who now fill the streets of 
Nineveh with pathetic appeals for forgiveness ! 
11. That cannot discern] i.e. little children. 
There is no finer close in literature than this 
ending. The divine question, ' Shall not I 
have pity ? ' remains unanswered. Its echoes 
are heard still in every crowded haunt of men. 
Above the stir and din and wickedness the 
Infinite Compassion is still brooding. 



MICAH 



INTRODUCTION 

I. Date and Period. Micah the prophet was were greatest. Increased trade made the rich 



a younger contemporary of Isaiah. His work 
began, according to l 1 , in the days of Jotham, 
and may have lasted right through the reign 
of Hezekiah (726-697 B.C.), into the time of 
Manasseh his successor. This date is con- 
firmed by the historical reference in Jer 26 17 " 19 , 
where the prophecy of 3 12 is quoted in defence 
of Jeremiah, and is said to have been spoken 
in the days of Hezekiah (see notes). The 
period of Hezekiah was marked by great out- 
ward changes. Northern Israel was finally 
overthrown when Samaria was captured by 
Sargon of Assyria. During Sargon's reign and 
the early part of that of Sennacherib his suc- 
cessor (705-680 B.C.) Judahalso was constantly 
threatened by Assyria. Then came the great 
deliverance of Jerusalem (701), which formed 
the crowning triumph of Isaiah's life (see notes 
in loco). Micah must have lived through this, 
if, as seems probable, the last two chapters of 
the book come from him. 

As it stands, the book consists of a number 
of short oracles which were uttered separately 
and brought together later. Unless the reader 
remembers this, he will be bewildered by the 
abrupt transitions. There are two main divi- 
sions, widely separated in time. The earlier, 
chs. 1—6, belong to 1 1m- period of Jotham and 
Hezekiah ; the later, chs. 6, 7. probably to that 
of Manasseh. 

2. Social Condition of Judah. The inward 
changes in the social conditions of the people 

of .Judah during tins period were as greai as 

the outward. Jndafa had been forced out of 
its isolation. Trade relations had sprung ap 
with the neighbouring peoples. The best in- 
telligence and energy left the country for the 
capital, where the opport unities of advancement 



and clever richer, the poor relatively poorer. 
Power became centralised in Jerusalem. It 
was the seat of the Temple, which had won a new 
importance through Hezekiah' s reforms, the 
heart of the national defence against Assyria, 
and the chief centre of the new wealth. The 
country districts and the city had lost touch 
with each other. Besides, whether Judah 
succeeded in maintaining a precarious inde- 
pendence, or became a vassal state to Assyria, 
its condition under Hezekiah required money, 
either to pay tribute or maintain its fortresses 
and army ; and these charges fell specially on 
the peasantry. 

3. Personality and Teaching of Micah. His 
Relation to Isaiah. Micah belonged to the 
country. He was a native of Moresheth-gath, 
a village among the low hills between the 
highlands of Judah and the Philistine plain. 
Prophesying at the same time as Isaiah, he 
speaks from a different standpoint. Isaiah 
was one of the ruling class in the capital : 
Micah was one of the oppressed peasantry. 
The vices of the city he selects are almost the 
same as Isaiah scourges, avarice (2 2 ), oppres- 
sion of the poor (2 '•'), and luxury (2 11 ). But 
Micah is specially severe on the religious 
leaders (3 5 " 11 ). Evidently, when Hezekiah 
made the Temple the centre of the national 
religion, he unintentionally made the religious 
teachers more dependent on the ruling class. 

Isaiah preached, however, the security of 
.Jerusalem. God will intervene to»deliver His 
city from Assyria. Micah found men mis- 
understanding this promise, and believing that 
God would not destroy city and Temple, no 
matter what they did. He told them the only 
reason why the city was to be preserved was 



578 



INTRO. 



MICAH 



1.5 



that it might become the centre of a better 
morality and a purer faith. Samaria and 
Jerusalem, the centres of the nation, ought 
to be the centres of justice and true religion. 
Instead they were the centres of irreligion 
(15 2 1 " 11 3 1 " 10 ). Therefore Samaria has fallen 
(16) and Jerusalem shall fall (3 12 ). 

But this does not mean that Judah shall 
pass away. Judah's mission does not depend, 
like that of Assyria, on money and arms. 
There was a time when Jerusalem .was a mere 
hill fort, when the ' glory of Israel ' could 
house in the cave of Adullam (1 15 ), when 
Bethlehem, an open village, was a king's birth- 
place. This ' former kingdom ' could not 
compete with the other nations in chariots, 
fortresses, and a wealthy capital, but it was 
rich in a great ideal, the ideal of a king who 
shepherded his people, and received their 
willing obedience. Though this time should 
come back, and the pomp of the capital dis- 
appear, the result will be to show the nation 
their true mission of teaching religion to the 
world (4 6 " 10 5 io-i5). G-od is not casting away 
His people, though He destroy Jerusalem. 
There shall arise One from the old stock to 
represent the divine ideal. Messiah cannot 
arise in the soil of Jerusalem, full of vulgar 
ideals of vain glory, but in Bethlehem, where 
power is turned to unselfish uses and the 
eternal because divine hopes can be cherished 
(o 2 - 5 ). 

Then Israel will have a mission to the world. 
So long as she tries to compete with it in 
chariots (5i° _ i 5 ), she is doomed to failure, and 
has nothing which Assyria cannot give better. 
But, when she stands for true religion, she 
offers what the world needs, and becomes the 
source of Messiah and the world's light (4 1 ' 5 ). 

It should be added that Micah seems to vary 
in his prophecy of the result of Israel's mission. 
This is due, (a) to the idea he has of true reli- 
gion, as no mere observance of a ritual, but as 
implying a moral claim (6 5 " 8 ), in this showing 
a striking resemblance to the strong ethical 
teaching of Amos ; (b) to his view of the nations 
as free agents, who determine their own atti- 
tude to religion. Hence he now sees the 
peoples joyously accepting Israel's God, and 
sharing in Israel's peace and blessedness (4 1_5 ) ; 
again he sees them pursuing their own ideals 
and coming to ruin (4 n- 13 ). But, because these 
truths are divine, they cannot fail of their 
effect, either in curse or in blessing (5 7_9 ). 

4. Micah's Later Ministry. Chs. 6, 7 date 
from the time of Manasseh (690-641 B.C.), but 
the exact dates are very uncertain (cp. 2K21). 
Sennacherib retreated from Jerusalem, but 
Esarhaddon — his successor — returned, sub- 
dued Phoenicia in 678, Tyre in 671, and made 
Judah tributary in 676. The old misery and 
uncertainty continued in Jerusalem. Men 



turned against the faith which seemed to have 
promised more than it could give. There was 
a reaction against Hezekiah's reforms. Men 
were not irreligious, only they doubted the 
supremacy of Jehovah. Their nation's impo- 
tence against Assyria seemed to prove the 
existence of other gods, whom it were wise also 
to propitiate (6 i6 ). Their worship of Jehovah 
took on darker elements. They construed 
their misfortunes as the evidence of His anger, 
and, like their heathen neighbours, offered 
their children to propitiate this anger (6' r ), 
The gloomy terror led them to persecute those 
who worshipped Jehovah only (7 2 ). Against 
this Micah raised his noble and simple defini- 
tion of true religion (6 8 ). He rebuked anew 
their inhumanity to one another (6 g ~ 15 7 3 ' 6 ). 
He insisted on the historic facts which proved 
the grace of God (6i' 5 ). 

The prophet speaks, however, like a man 
who is almost alone in his faith in Jehovah's 
supremacy. The basis on which a new Israel 
can be built is almost gone (7 1-6 ), since the 
faithful are so few and dispirited. But Micah 
rallies on his trust in God. God's purpose for 
and through Israel cannot fail (7 ^i 3 ). And the 
prophecy closes with prayer and a confident 
doxology. Though he has none save God, he 
will lean the more on God (7 14-20). 

CHAPTER 1 

Judgment on Samaria and Judah 
Sargon destroyed Samaria, the capital of 
North Israel, 722 or 721. Micah, about 720 B.C., 
declaring (v. 6) that Samaria's fall has been 
due to its sin, announces a like fate for Jeru- 
salem, guilty of a like sin (v. 9). To the 
prophet this ruin of the people is not like that 
of the other nations Assyria has destroyed. 
Since God is manifesting Himself in it, Micah 
summons the nations to witness the event 
(vv. 2-4). The scourge will fall most heavily 
on the capitals, because the sin of the people 
has centred there (v. 5). 

Micah sees the route of the invaders through 
Philistia and SW. Judah, and as he was a native 
of the district, he laments the fate of the vil- 
lages he has known (vv. 10-1 6). Sargon may 
have marched along this route to attack Egypt 
at Raphia, 720 or 719 B.C. 

1. Micah] A shortened form of Micaiah, 
' who is like Jehovah.' Morasthite] native of 
Moresheth-gath : cp. v. 14. Which he saw] 
The revelation was made to his inward eye : 
cp. IS 99. 

2. All ye people] RV 'ye peoples, all of 
you.' His holy temple] i.e. heaven, as in Hab 
2 20 Isa 63 1 5 . Israel's ruin is to be an object- 
lesson to the nations. 4. God's judgments in 
figures taken from earthquake, storm, and 
lightning. 5. The first Jacob must mean the 
whole nation, the second the ten tribes. High 



579 



1.6 



MICAH 



2. 5 



places of Judah] LXX and Syr. read, ' sin of 
the house of Judah.' The capitals, Samaria 
and Jerusalem, were the centres of moral and 
religious corruption. 6, 7. The verbs should 
be read as presents, ' I am making,' etc. 

6. Plantings of a vineyard] Samaria is to 
become heaps of stones, like the stoneheaps 
over which vines were trained. Into the valley] 
Samaria stood on a hill (IK 16 24 ). 

7. The hires thereof] the offerings at the idol 
shrines. For she gathered, etc.] The wealth of 
the offerings and plating on the idols, part of 
which has been gathered through the unchaste- 
ness of their women at the idol shrines (cp. 
Dt23 17 ' 18 ), will be carried to foreign lands, and 
dedicated to similar idolatries and similar foul 
rites. 

8. Stripped and naked] i.e. without the outer 
garment (cp. 1 S 19 24 ) ; here used as a sign of 
mourning. Dragons] RV jackals.' Owls] RV 
• ostriches.' As a patriot Micah laments the 
calamities he predicts. 9. He is come] RY ' it ' 
(i.e. the wound) ' reacheth.' The gate was the 
seat of the old men, the scene of justice. 
Jerusalem is called the gate of the people, as 
the centre of its wisdom and justice. 

10-16. The vv. contain a series of word- 
plays on the names of villages in SW. Judah. 
The text is often obscure, and the point of 
some of the references depends on local 
allusions which we have lost. The district may 
have suffered when Sargon marched by this 
route to attack Egypt at Raphia, and when he 
captured Ashdod in 711 B.C. 

10. At Gath] cp. 2S1 20 . In both cases the 
meaning is, ' Let us in our defeat be spared 
the malicious glee of our foes.' There is a 
word-play in the Hebrew here which may be 
imitated by saying, l Tell it not in Tell-Town.' 
The Heb. for ' tell ' and for ' Gath ' being 
somewhat similar in sound. Weep ye not at 
all] read, ' in Akko (or Bokim) weep ye 
not.' ' Bokim ' means ' weeping.' House of 
Aphrah] or, Beth le Aphrah. Aphrah and 
dust (Heb. aphar) are very similar. ' In 
House of Dust, roll thyself in dust.' 

11. Saphir] 'beauty-town ' with its beauty 
shamed. Zaanan] in sound like the Heb. for 
'outgoing.' The town of outgoings shall 

raitly shut up. In the mourning, etc.] 
\\\ ■ the wailing <>f Beth-ezel shall take from 
you the stay tin reof. Beth-ezel may mean 
1 the house of stay.' Beth-ezel shall be so 
busy lamenting its own fate that it cannot 
support any <>nr. 12. For the inhabitant, etc.] 
i;.M • lor tiie inhabitant <>f Maroth is in travail 
(labour) for good, i" cause evil is come down.' 
This fresh bitto mess -jives a new justification 
bo the name of Maroth -• bitternesses ' when 
good was so much desired. 13- Bind the 
chariot to the swift beast] i o. 'you shall need 
your >wifUst Leasts for your flight.' Lachish 



suggested by similarity of sound, the Heb. 
reckesh, i.e. ' swift beast.' "We have not the 
key to the allusion in the end of this verse. 
It may mean that Israel's idolatry made its 
first entry into Judah through Lachish. 

14. Presents] RY 'a parting gift,' the 
marriage portion ©f a bride : cp. 1 K 9 16 . 
Judah shall be obliged to relinquish Moresheth- 
gath (' the possession of G-ath '), once her 
possession, to the conqueror. The houses of 
Achzib] shall be aehzab, ' deceitful,' i.e. the 
kings of Judah shall no longer be able to 
rely on their support. 15. Mareshah] which 
may mean possession. ' I will bring to 
the possession a new possessor,' i.e. the king 
of Assyria. He shall come, etc.] read, ' the 
glory of Israel shall come even unto Adullam.' 
David, the glory of Israel, had already found 
shelter there (IS 22 !). If those who are the 
glory of Israel return thither for refuge, it 
may be to rise with new vigour as David did. 
The threat is also a promise. 16. Make thee 
bald] artificial baldness was a sign of mourn- 
ing (Lv 19 2 7 Dt 14 1 ). Eagle] probably griffon 
Aulture. Judah is here addressed as a woman 
mourning over the loss of her children. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Sins that bring Ruin 
Chs. 2 and 3, as dealing with the same sub- 
ject, should be read together. 

Micah now enumerates the sins which 
must bring punishment on Judah. He in- 
veighs bitterly against the rapacity of the 
rich towards their poorer neighbours. The 
leaders in the capital, judges, prophets, and 
priests alike are destitute of the religion 
which makes a man interpret his power as a 
means of helping men and so glorifying God. 
Instead they regard it as a means to win money 
and position to themselves. The national 
institutions have been degraded into a means 
by which selfish men aggrandise themselves 
(2 1, 2, 8, 9 3 1-5, 9, 10). Therefore these shall not 
continue (2 3 - 5 ), and even Jerusalem shall be 
plowed as a field (3 12 ). The leaders reproach 
Micah as no patriot since he utters such 
things against his people, and no prophet since 
he forgets that God must save His chosen 
nation (2 6 »*). Micah replies that God will 
keep His nation, but that Jerusalem is not 
essential to God's purpose. When the capital 
is ruined, the nation may only be made more 
fit to fulfil its true ends in the world (2 12 « 18 ). 

2. Cp. 1 K21 forthe Israelite's attachment to 
his heritage. 3. This family] cp. ' The whole 
family which I brought up out of the land of 
Bgypi ' (Am3 1 ). I devise] as contrasted with 
their devising ( v . 1). 4. Turning away] RV 
'to the rebellious,' i.e. God divides the ill 
gotten fields to heathen and idolaters. 5. This 
may mean that the oppressor nobles shall have • 



f)80 



% 6 



MICAH 



4. 



none to cast the measuring line on an allot- 
ment, when the periodical redistribution of 
the land took place, and some respect was had 
to old family rights. Their line is to fail. 

The text of vv. 4 and 5 is uncertain, but the 
sense is clear. It shall be rendered to them 
as they have rendered to others. 

6. Cp. Isa30 9 - n . Translate: 'prattle not, 
thus they (the nobles) prattle. They (the 
prophets) should not prattle of these things ; 
their scoldings are unceasing.' The nobles 
turn on Micah. Prophets have no right to 
meddle with social and political questions, but 
should leave them to men whose business it is 
to deal with them. We are weary of this 
eternal scolding. 7. The first part of the 
v. probably continues the speech of the nobles: 
' Shall it be said, O house of Jacob, is the 
spirit of the Lord straitened ? are these 
His doings ? ' Can we, a nation whom God 
called the house of Jacob, endure to hear a 
prophet foretell its ruin ? Micah replies 
abruptly, ' Your sins are blinding you. My 
words are good to men who bring a conscience 
to their appreciation.' 

8. Even] KV 'but.' With the garment] 
RY ' from off the garment.' The robe is a 
mantle, the garment what is usually called 
the upper garment. Men averse from war] 
quiet, peaceful people. Micah seems to refer 
to some merciless treatment meted out by 
creditors to their debtors : cp. Ex 22 26 > 27 '. 

9. My glory] i.e. their inheritance in the 
holy land. The prophet implies that women 
and children are being sold into foreign cap- 
tivity. 10. Because it is polluted, etc.] better, 
' because of uncleanness ye shall be destroyed 
with a sore destruction.' They shall be driven 
from the land from which they have driven 
others. Their guilt makes the land no resting- 
place for them. 11. In the spirit and falsehood] 
better, ' after wind and lies.' What promises 
material benefits alone appeals to them. 

12, 13. An oracle of restoration, which has 
been inserted between the two denunciations, 
when the separate oracles were collected in 
writing. Micah promises restoration, when 
the judgment has done its work. The ex- 
pulsion from the land (v. 10) shall not be 
permanent. 1 2. The sheep of Bozrah, etc.] 
better, ' as sheep into a fold, as a flock into the 
midst of the pasture.' The great noise is 
the noise of the joy at return. 13. Read 
the verbs throughout as perfect. The writer 
speaks as though what he promises had already 
taken place. The breaker] or, 'deliverer': 
they have been shut up as in a prison. One 
will come to open their way. 

CHAPTER 3 

Wickedness in High Places 
Micah returns to his indictment against the 



people's leaders. Their power was given for 
the sake of justice, and they have abused it for 
extortion (vv. 1-3). Their time shall be short 
(v. 4). The prophets have abused their trust 
in order, by flattery of the rich, to make a 
good living for themselves. To them Micah 
prophesies judicial darkness (vv. 5-7). He de- 
clares his own ideal of the prophetic office 
(v. 8). Finally, he accuses all the leaders of the 
nation of having followed their own appetites 
and trusted in their being necessary to God. 
God will prove by the ruin of Jerusalem 
that He loves righteousness more than Jeru- 
salem (vv. 9-12). 

1. Is it not for you, etc.] i.e. is it not the 
reason for your holding power, to declare 
right to the people ? 2. From off them] i.e. 
the common people. 4. When God comes to 
judgment, they will find no mercy. 5. That 
bite with their teeth, and cry, Peace] i.e. any 
one who fills the prophet's mouth secures his 
silence about his patron's sins. 6. Judicial 
darkness shall fall on these prophets. When 
men play fast and loose with principle for the 
sake of money, they lose all sense of principle. 
Right and duty become empty words. 

7. Cover their lips] a sign of mourning : 
cp. Lvl345Ezk24i7,22. 

8. Micah's ideal of the prophet's function, viz. 
to call sin by its right name. 10. i.e. they make 
the common people sweat blood to build their 
mansions in the capital, u. Is not the LORD 
among us?] the same mechanical faith in the 
presence of the Temple as in Jer7 4 : cp. 1 S4 3 . 

12. Cp. Jer26 1 7- 19 . The people of Jere- 
miah's time, angered by his prophecies of dis- 
aster, wished to put him to death. Some of 
the elders reminded them that, when Micah 
denounced a like judgment, Hezekiah, instead 
of killing him, repented at his words, and so 
averted the disaster. This implies that the 
religious minds of that time recognised how 
true prophecy is always conditional, and how 
the fulfilment of its predictions is conditional 
on the attitude men take to them. High places 
of the forest] better, ' heights in a wood.' The 
slopes of the ravines shall be overgrown with 
brushwood, out of which the bare scalp of the 
Temple-hill will rise. 

CHAPTERS 4, 5 
Bright Yisions of the Future 
Micah's view of Israel's future, especially in 
relation to the nations. He believes that God 
chose Israel to maintain and teach true religion, 
and that in this lies Israel's greatness. The 
people have forgotten this and have tried to 
emulate the other nations in wealth and pride 
and armed strength. Such a contest was hope- 
less, and God will prove its hopelessness by 
bringing ruin on Jerusalem, where these pomps 
were gathered. But, when the chastisement 



581 



4. 1 



MICAH 



5.1 



has done its work, the nation will return to its 
divinely-given task. It will have a mission to 
the nations. 

The chs. appear to contradict each other as 
to the result on the nations' fate. This is be- 
cause Micah regards the peoples as free agents, 
and the religion Israel teaches as no mere cere- 
monial observances. The nations may recog- 
nise Israel's message, and, submitting to God's 
will, receive the blessing He gives (4 1 " 5 ). They 
may refuse it. But, if they obstinately oppose 
it, they shall be overthrown (4 11 " 13 ). For, 
since the truths Israel represents are divine in 
their origin, these must be a blessing or a 
curse, according as men accept or refuse them 
(5™). 

CHAPTER 4 

zlon the spiritual centre of the 
Earth 

i-io. Here purified Israel is the light to 
the nations, which joyously acknowledge the 
supremacy of its G-od. The Temple shall be 
glorified, because known as the source of a 
help which all men need. When men grow 
eager for this, their wars shall cease (vv. 1-4). 
Because Israel is holding its faith as a trust 
for all men, Micah bids his people hold it more 
resolutely (v. 5). Though their very national 
existence is threatened (vv. 9, 10), let them not 
despair, God can restore them. Their being 
driven out of their own land may be His means 
for making them see themselves as bearers of 
His religion (vv. 6-8,10). The oracle may have 
been uttered when Sennacherib was threatening 
Judah, 701. 

1-3. Cp. Isa2 2 " 4 . The great Messianic pro- 
phecy of the OT. which has been fulfilled since 
Jesus Christ of the stem of Jesse became the 
Light of the world. Some think that this 
locus classicus of Messianic prophecy was taken 
by both Micah and Isaiah from an older pro- 
phet. Professor Cheyne thinks that it is a 
post-exilic utterance, and was inserted by 
compilers or editors into the works of these 
prophets. 

1. In the top] RM 'at the head.' The 
kingdom of God will be supreme. People] 
RV ' peoples ' : Micah means the heathen na- 
tions. 3. Judge among] RV ' between.' God 
shall be, the arbiter of their quarrels, and so 
war will cease. The nations shall be more eager 
for justice than aggrandisement. 4. This v. 
is not in Isaiah. Isaiah belonged to the city, 
.Mi<ah to the country. 

5. Translate : 'because all the peoples walk, 
every one in the name of his god, let us 
(or, we will) walk in the name of the Lord.' 
.Micah drops back into the present. Since 
Israel's faith is to enlighten the world, let 
them be the more <liligent to keep the faith. 

6. In that day] the latter days of v. 1. 



7. Here and in 2 12 Micah expects the return 
from the Assyrian captivity, not of all Israel, 
but of the remnant who, remaining faithful to 
their religion, shall become the stock from 
which the Messianic future will spring: cp. 
Isa6!3 10 20f < ll llf - 2413. 8. Tower of the 
flock, etc.] i.e. Jerusalem. Unto thee, etc.] 
RY ' unto thee shall it come ; yea, the former 
dominion shall come, the kingdom of the 
daughter of Jerusalem.' When the people 
have repented of the sins which brought their 
ruin, God will restore them as wide a dominion 
as in the days of David. 

9. The captivity which seems to destroy the 
kingdom with its king and counsellors will be 
the birthpangs of a better state. 10. Probably 
Thou shalt go even to Babylon was added to 
explain the prophet's meaning, by one who 
saw the Babylonian exile. Essentially he was 
right. But the enemy in Micah's time was, 
not Babylon, but Assyria. And what Micah 
means is that his people shall be cast out of 
Jerusalem, and, when they are compelled to 
dwell in the field, i.e. without a capital and a 
court, they shall learn that God's ideal of a 
kingdom can be realised without these. 

1 1-13. But Assyria is about to besiege Jeru- 
salem : cp. Isa36. Their aim is to destroy 
Jerusalem (v. 11). But they are only the in- 
struments in God's hand (v. 12). Their proud 
self-confidence shall bring them to shame be- 
fore Israel (v. 13). 

11. Many nations] the polyglot hordes of 
Assyria : cp. Isa33 3 . 

12. He shall gather] RY ' He hath gathered.' 
God has brought them to their ruin. 13. Hoofs] 
oxen were used to tread out corn (Dt25 4 ). I 
will consecrate] RY ' thou shalt devote ' : cp. 
Lv27 28 . 

The nations, which try to destroy Israel, 
shall be destroyed by Israel in the interest of 
the truth Israel represents. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Birth of the Messiah 
i~5 a . Jerusalem is besieged, its ruler in- 
sulted by the invader (v. 1). Micah proclaims 
not only deliverance, but a deliverer. He will 
arise from Bethlehem, David's birthplace (v. 2). 
God raised up thence a ruler who shepherded 
his people instead of fleecing them, and Avho 
represented God's eternal ideal of a ruler, not 
his own interests. He will send us in our 
new need another like the first. And this 
man shall be our peace (v. 5). It is Micah's 
prophecy of Messiah. Jesus Christ has taken 
away its temporary and local allusions, and 
made it greater than Micah knew. 

1. Now gather thyself] better, ' now thou 
mayest gather thyself in troops, thou daughter 
of troops.' The reference is to Assyria. Mi- 
cah sees the armies gather against Jerusalem, 
12 



5.2 



MICAH 



6. 5 



and foresees the possible overthrow of the 
dynasty (the judge of Israel). But Judah's 
future does not depend on Jerusalem. God 
can raise up from a village a deliverer. 

2. Thousands] or, families : cp. Nul 16 10 4 
Josh 22 14 > 21. Several such families made up a 
tribe. Unto me] or, 'forme,' i.e. to fulfil my 
will. The true ruler represents God's will in 
Israel. Since God's will has been the same 
from everlasting and must be manifested, the 
goings forth of one who lives to manifest it 
are equally from everlasting. When Israel's 
rulers fail Him, He raises up another. Beth- 
lehem] cp. 115 410. When Saul failed Him, 
God chose David from following the sheep, 
and set him to shepherd Israel. When the 
rulers of Jerusalem have failed Him, God will 
raise up even an obscure villager to represent 
His ideal of righteous government. 

3. Will he give them up] better, ' He is 
giving them up.' She which travaileth, etc.] 
the reference is to Isaiah's prophecy of Im- 
manuel (Isa7 14 ). Then the remnant, etc.] 
better, ' and until the remnant of His, i.e. 
Messiah's brethren shall return unto the chil- 
dren of Israel.' 

As Messiah was to arise from Judah, this 
means ' until the tribes are reunited.' The 
reference is to Isaiah's name for his son, Shear- 
jashub, ' a remnant shall return ' (Isa 7 3 ). Pro- 
bably the v. is a gloss from the exile : cp. 4 10 . 
Some one explained that Micah's promise of a 
deliverer from Bethlehem was delayed, and 
God was still giving His people to captivity, 
until Isaiah's prophecies had been fulfilled. 

4. Feed] not himself, but his flock. The 
figure of the shepherd-king is continued. 

5. Connect the first clause with the preced- 
ing, and put a full stop after peace. 

5, 6. The power of Assyria, which rests on 
brute force and has no sympathy with the mis- 
sion of Israel, can only last till God raises up 
a stronger than itself. It fell, as a matter of 
fact, before Babylon. 

5. Eight principal men] Seven was suffi- 
ciency, eight is super-abundance. ' We shall 
not want for leaders.' 6. Land of Nimrod] 
cp. GnlOn. 

7-9. Israel's dual mission. Its message has 
been trusted to it by God, and cannot remain 
without effect. To those who receive this 
truth gladly, it will come like refreshing dew. 
To those who oppose it, it will come like a 
ravening beast. 

7. People] RV ' peoples.' The influence of 
Messiah is not to be confined to Israel. Tar- 
rieth not for man] the mysterious dewfall, in- 
explicable by man, is meant. 9. Better read 
as a prayer : ' let thine hand be lifted up upon 
thine adversaries, and let all thine enemies 
be cut off.' 

10-15. Since war and pomp have driven 



any higher national ideal from their minds, 
God will strip them of the things in which 
they have trusted. Micah puts chariots and 
idols on the same level and under the same 
condemnation. 

11. As the centres of the oppression de- 
scribed in chs. 2, 3. 13. Standing images] the 
stone pillars of Lv26 J Isa 19 19 , etc. 

14. Groves] BY ' asherim ' : cp. Jg3 17 : em- 
blems of idol-worship. 15. Such as they have 
not heard] BV ' which hearkened not.' God 
will judge the nations according to their atti- 
tude to Messiah and Israel's faith. 

CHAPTEBS 6, 7 
God's great Controversy with Israel 
Note the change in the prophet's attitude. 
He speaks no longer to a united nation, but to 
parties. Now he speaks to a party, pious but 
discouraged (6i- 8 ) ; again, he testifies against 
men who have turned their backs on the Law 
(6 9 "i 6 ). Persecution for religion's sake has 
appeared, and taught men to distrust each 
other (7 2 " 6 ). Probably the chs. date from the 
time of Manasseh. Sennacherib recoiled baffled 
from Jerusalem, but Assyria was not exhausted. 
Esarhaddon succeeded in making Manasseh 
tributary in 676 B.C. Their religion had not 
brought Judah all the relief men expected. 
The heathen elements in the nation, repressed 
by Isaiah's and Hezekiah's influence, reasserted 
themselves. A reaction set in and found a 
leader in Manasseh : cp. 2K21. Especially 
men remembered that in his reign persecution 
for religion's sake was practised : cp. 2K21 i6 . 

CHAPTER 6 
God's arraignment of His people 
1-8. Micah's message to the discouraged 
believers. They have lost heart because 
of the apparent contradiction between the 
promises of their prophets and the hard facts 
of their history. They have lost faith in God's 
grace, and are trying to propitiate His favour 
by such sacrifices as the heathen offered to 
their gods. Micah appeals to nature, to 
history, and to the reasonable service God 
requires. He calls on the hills to witness 
what God has done (vv. 1, 2). He appeals to 
the great deeds of God's redemption for His 
people (vv. 3-5). He insists on the simpli- 
cities of God's requirements (vv. 6-8). 

2. Strong] RV ' enduring.' The mountains 
have outlived so many generations of dis- 
obedience and unwearied mercy : cp. Isa 1 2 . 

3. Wearied] God's demands are so simple 
(v. 8). 5. From Shittim unto Gilgal, etc.] 
BV ' Remember from Shittim unto Gilgal, 
that ye may know the righteous acts of the 
Lord.' Shittim was the last station of the 
desert-wanderings, Gilgal the first in Palestine 
itself. The prophet reminds them how in 



583 



6.6 



MICAH 



7.18 



their national history God has proved His 
compassion. 

6. 7. The people are represented as asking 
what more God requires from them. 6. Calves 
of a year old] a choice gift : cp. Lv 9 3 . 

7. Human sacrifice was practised (2K21 6 
Jer 7 31 9 5 ), especially in times of great national 

danger (2 K 327)- 

8. Micah brings forward to a generation 
which is seeking fantastic ways of propitiating 
its God, the grave and tender simplicities of 
His requirements. He does not want their 
wine and oil and children : He wants their 
obedience. The other things are only valuable 
to Him as the evidence of their willing obe- 
dience. Compare how, when Abraham has 
shown himself willing to surrender his son, 
Isaac is not required from him. 

9. The text is uncertain but the sense is 
clear. ' When God speaks in warning, it is 
the part of a wise man to fear (EM) and to 
seek to discover the reason why God uplifts 
His rod.' The reasons in this case follow in 
the succeeding questions. 10. The scant 
measure] cp. Dt24i* f - Am8 5 . II. Shall I 
count them pure] RY ' shall I be pure,' i.e. can 
any man be pure ? 13. RY ' Therefore I also 
have smitten thee with a grievous wound.' 

14. Thy casting down, etc.] KM ' thy 
emptiness shall be in the midst of thee,' i.e. 
thy famine shall continue, because thou shalt 
have food but not sufficient. Thou shalt take 
hold, etc.] RY ' thou shalt remove but shalt 
not carry away safe,' i.e. thou shalt fail in the 
effort to remove thy people from the enemy's 
power. 15. Sweet wine] RY ' vintage.' 
' Thou shalt tread the grapes, but shalt not 
drink the wine made from them.' 

16. The statutes of Omri and the works of 
Ahab's house are the worship of Baal : cp. 
1K16 31 " 33 . Manasseh has gone back to the 
sins of the northern kingdom, though its fate 
might have warned him : cp. 2K21 13 . The 
reproach of my people] better, with LXX, ' the 
reproach of the Gentiles,' which Ahab's house, 
through the captivity which was the punish- 
ment for its idolatry, is bearing. 

CHAPTER 7 

Confession and Contrition bring back 

Hon-: 

1-6. Jerusalem laments her estate. The 
righteous among her children are taken from 
her by violence (vv. 1, 2). The rulers misuse 
their position for their selfish ends (vv. 3, 4). 
Word of nil. the trust of a man in Ins neigh- 
bour's honour, which makes the cement of all 
society, Is gone. Even the ties of nature are 
disowned (vv. 5, 6). 

1. Desired the firstripe fruit] RY l desireth 



the firstripe fig,' which, now the harvest is past, 
is gone. The righteous (the early figs) have 
been gleaned out of the city. 2. Cp. IsaS? 1 . 
Both passages speak of a scourge which has 
specially fallen on the righteous, and so point 
to a period of persecution. 3. The probable 
sense is : ' their hands are busy in evjl, the 
prince asks the judge to do some knavery, the 
judge is ready to do it at a price, the great 
man needs but utter his bad desire to find 
ready instruments : so they weave together a 
web of fraud and violence.' 4. The day of 
thy watchmen and thy visitation] the day of 
God's visitation foretold by the prophets : cp. 
Isa21 6 . It will confound such men, since its 
principles are the opposite of theirs. 5. Guide] 
RM ' familiar friend.' 6. The final proof of 
social corruption is the death of men's trust in 
each other. See our Lord's adoption of these 
words (MtlO 36 ). 

7-20. Everything seems lost but God: 
therefore Micah looks more to God (vv. 7, 8). 
His chastisements are tolerable, because they 
have meaning (v. 9). Their end will be that 
through her sufferings Israel shall rise glorious 
and purified (vv. 10-13). God who called 
them will restore them and work through 
them (vv. 14-17). Micah closes with a dox- 
ology. Even Israel's sin cannot weary God's 
faithfulness and compassion (vv. 18-20). 

7. Therefore] R Y ' but as for me.' In such 
evil days the true man finds refuge in God. 

8. When I fall] calamity, not sin, is meant. 
n. Decree] RM l boundary,' i.e. when God 

restores the nation and permits the walls to be 
rebuilt, He will give ample room : cp. Isa 
3317™. I2< R y < In that day shall they 
come unto thee, from Assyria and the cities of 
Egypt, and from Egypt even to the River,' i.e. 
Euphrates. From sea to sea is not meant of 
any specific sea : rather the exiles from West 
to East and from East to West shall return 
home. 13. The land] Canaan. Before this 
return must come chastisement. 

14. The prophet passes abruptly to prayer. 
Solitarily] Israel was always separated from 

the nations as the flock of God : cp. Nu23 9 . 

Carmel . . Bashan . . Gilead] perhaps chosen 
because they were districts devoted to pasture, 
as contrasted with the cities and their vices. 

15. According to] RY ' as in the days of.' 
God in answer points back to His past mercy. 

16. Confounded] RY 'ashamed' to see how 
impotent is their might. 17. RY ' they shall 
come trembling out of their close places' 
(their useless fortresses) ; ' they shall come 
with fear unto the Lord our God.' 18. Who 
As-, etc.] Micah's name means ' Who is like the 
Lord ? ' The prophet concludes with an out- 
burst of praise. 



584 



NAHUM 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The Man. All that we can learn con- 
cerning the prophet must be gathered from 
the brief superscription and from the contents 
of this small book ; the traditions relating to 
his dwelling-place are late, uncertain, and con- 
tradictory. The name Nahum (probably = 
' Comforter,' same root as in 3 7 ) occurs only 
twice in the Bible, here and in Lk 3 25 . ' El- 
koshite ' means belonging to Elkosh (cp. Mic l 1 ), 
but the identification of the place is quite un- 
certain. The suggestion that Nahum was an 
Israelite, dwelling near Nineveh, a descendant 
of one of the families that had been carried off 
to that region by the Assyrians, is interesting 
but unreliable. The same may be said of the 
attempts to find a home for the prophet in 
Galilee. Although the writer is wholly con- 
cerned with the fate of Nineveh and the idea 
of Jehovah as an avenger upon the outside 
oppressor, it is still probable from the subject 
of the book and the sympathies of the prophet 
that he was a resident of Judaea. 

2. The Date. The superscription gives us 
no help, and the date must be inferred from 
the contents of chs. 1 and 2. Here we have 
two fixed points, the destruction of No-Amon 
(Thebes) about 664 B.C. by Assurbanipal, king 
of Assyria (3 8 ), and the fall of Nineveh 
about 606 B.C. The capture of No-Amon 
lies behind the prophet, how far we cannot 
tell, while the destruction of Nineveh, or some 
great disaster to that city, was immediately in 
front of him. It is likely that the fall of the 
Egyptian fortress would long be remembered 
by the Jews, as many of them looked to that 
nation for help against Assyria. In that case, 
Assyria was the conqueror : and the prophet 
saw in the disaster to Egypt the hand of the 
same living God, the God of Judah and the 
world, who was now about to mete out to the 
proud conqueror a similar fate. Hence it seems 
probable that these strong, stirring words were 
uttered not long before the final struggle which 
transferred the supremacy from Nineveh to 
Babylon. 

3. Historical Situation. This was an im- 
portant period in the small kingdom of Judah. 
It was the period before the destruction of 
Jerusalem ; the Babylonian empire which be- 
came supreme for a while after the fall of 
Nineveh was destined to crush the kingdom of 
Judah and carry the people into captivity, but 
this lies beyond the ken of our prophet. It is 



probable that in his day Josiah, the good king, 
had attempted a religious reformation, and that 
Jeremiah was calling the people to a deeper 
life and a more spiritual service. But there is 
no echo of this in the book ; its patriotic pas- 
sion, its cry for vengeance, is all concentrated 
on the one hateful oppressor. 

4. The Book. Though the book is small it 
has been subjected to keen investigation, and 
the text has given rise to much critical discus- 
sion. The attempts at detailed analysis can- 
not be considered here. Many scholars regard 
1 2-15 2 2 as an eschatological psalm from later 
Judaism, describing Jehovah's judgment upon 
oppressors, and giving promise of salvation to 
Judah. Those who take this view have worked 
over this c. and discovered in it an alphabetic 
poem, but as a matter of fact, in the present 
state of the text, this alphabetic arrangement 
can only be discovered at the beginning. How- 
ever, there is one thing clear, the c. is of similar 
spirit to the rest of the book ; it gives a 
graphic poetic description of the coming of 
Jehovah to judgment, while the other part pic- 
tures in forcible language, a particular instance 
of such judgment, in the case of Nineveh. In 
chs. 2 and 3 there is a vivid description of the 
siege and a passionate denunciation of the 
blood-stained city. 

5. The Spiritual Significance of Nahum. 
This short prophecy may be looked upon as one 
permanent expression of the cry of humanity 
for justice. It is not mere Hebrew patriotism 
that expresses itself here, though that gives 
form and colour to the message ; this sharp 
cry might have come from any of the small 
nations of Palestine and Syria that had been 
trampled underfoot by the ruthless armies of 
Assyria. It is the cry of outraged human 
nature in the face of brutal oppression ; it 
is a cry that God will not allow violence to 
rule unchecked, that He will not look calmly 
on when the earth is drenched with in- 
nocent blood. If the answer to the pathetic 
cry of the saints ' Lord, how long ? ' could 
be ' for ever,' then faith would be driven 
to despair, both piety and patriotism would 
wither at the roots. The preacher to-day may 
need to warn the people against a spurious 
patriotism, a patriotism which counts only 
material success and selfish glory, but behind 
all this preaching there must lie the great be- 
lief which Nahum grasped with such intensity, 



585 



INTRO. 



NAHUM 



2.5 



that God does arise and come to judgment, 
that He does vindicate the struggling few who 
love truth and righteousness ; that with all our 
lofty Christian sentiment we must sometimes 
stand face to face with the sterner majesty of 
the law, and prepare to meet the God who 
comes in the terror of judgment. 

CHAPTER 1 

God's Yengeance on His People's 
Enemies. Deliverance for Judah 

i, 2. Superscription: 'Oracle concerning 
Nineveh. The book of the vision or prophesy- 
ing of Nahum the Elkoshite.' A theological 
introduction describing a theophany or a 
coming of Jehovah to judgment. Cp. the 
brief statements in a similar spirit, Ami 2 
Micl 3 ' 4 . The whole should be printed as 
verse : 

A jealous and avenging God is Jehovah ; 
Jehovah is avenging and wrathful ; 
Jehovah taketh vengeance on His adversaries, 
And He reserveth wrath for His enemies. 

3-6. The prophet sketches the character of 
Jehovah in terms suitable to his general theme ; 
it is the vengeance of God upon Israel's 
enemies, who are also His enemies, that we 
are here invited to consider : cp. Ex 20 5 34 14 
Dt4 24f . Note the terrible manner of His 
appearance when He comes to judgment. 

3. He is slow to anger, and great in power, 
yet He will not absolve the guilty, etc. 

The LORD hath his way] ' The meaning is 
not so much that Jehovah uses the whirlwind 
and storm as the vehicle of His movement as 
that these commotions and terrors in nature are 
created by His presence. The splendid words 
clouds are the dust of his feet, like the others, 
" the earth is His footstool," need to be con- 
ceived not explained ' (A. B. Davidson). The 
doings of God in history (Psll4) and His 
appearances in nature's most awful moods are 
mingled in this sublime description of His 
irresistible strength and impetuous fury. 

7-15. Jehovah will completely destroy the 
enemies of His people. 

7. Read, ' Jehovah is good towards those 
who hope in Him. A stronghold in the time 
of need.' An everlasting truth, but particu- 
larly appropriate in times of great shaking : 
cp. Pss25 3 37 9 . In the following vv. the text 
is difficult ; if we follow AV we must find a 
reference to Nineveh. 8. The place thereof] 
If this poem is an original part of the book 
we expect such references, though it comes 
abruptly here : cp. v. 14. On this view, the 
line of thought is the opposition of Jehovah 
to the proud oppressor and his favour towards 
judgment, with emphasis laid <>n the radical 
nature of the judgment. 9, 10. 'Not twice 
does He take vengeance on His enemies ; He 



makes a full end of them for ever.' You can- 
not easily set fire to the damp, closely packed 
thorns, but the fire of His vengeance will burn 
them up as dry stubble. 

13-15. These vv., along with 2 2 , must be 
grouped together. Read the last of these four 
vv., as in RY, 'For Jehovah bringeth again 
the excellency of Jacob,' etc. In these four 
vv. we have evidently an address to Judah ; 
she is called upon to rejoice over her ancient 
foe, to keep the feasts and carry out the vows 
made in the days of sorrowful oppression : 
cp. Isa52 7 . Y. 14 is a denunciation of the 
Assyrian. 

The whole c. is difficult from the linguistic 
point of view ; the technical problems have called 
forth much ingenuity, but the main outline is 
clear. Jehovah is coming to judgment ; this 
coming means a day of terror and darkness for 
the proud oppressors, but the lowly believers 
shall find new hope. When freed from narrow 
patriotism and sectarian bitterness this is a 
great and abiding truth ; behind it there lies 
a keen faith in the true meaning of history 
and a righteous order of the world. 

CHAPTER 2 
Attack and Conquest of Nineveh 
1. Description of the attack begins, and 
Nineveh is called upon to face the invader. 

k He that breaketh in pieces is come up 

against thee ; 
Guard the watch, look out upon the way, 
Gird up the loins, gather together thy 

strength.' 

Y. 2 seems misplaced, as it interrupts the 
sense. It should perhaps come after 1 15 . 

3-10. Poetic picture of the sack of the 
city. It dwells upon, (1) The approach of 
the hostile army in brilliant, terrible splendour, 
with flashing shields, furious horses and onrush 
of chariots. The general impression is vivid, 
though some of the details have become 
indistinct. (3. Shall bo with flaming torches] 
RY ' flash with steel.' Fir trees] RY fc spears.') 
(2) The attack upon the city. Here again 
individual features are uncertain : e.g. we are 
not sure whether v. 5 refers to the besiegers or 
the besieged. Recount his worthies] i.e. call up 
his bravest warriors. Defence] (R Y l mantelet ') 
is a word difficult of interpretation ; it may 
refer to the movable roof which protected the 
battering-ram. It is not easy to give a precise 
explanation of the phrase, ' The gates of the 
river are opened,' but it is clear that the great 
city is attacked and its inhabitants thrown into 
confusion. The actual siege was spread over 
a long period : here it is sketched with a few 
sharp strokes and represented in a few memor- 
able scenes. (3) The carrying away captive 
of the queen and her maidens ; the flight of 



586 



NAHUM— HABAKKUK 



the people and the spoiling of the city, (a) 
Huzzab is obscure ; we must take it to mean 
the queen of the city, or amend the text. 
RM has k It is decreed : she is uncovered,' etc. 
Tabering] i.e. beating, lit. ' drumming.' A 
taber was a small drum, (b) 8. The phrase 
translated of old is very awkward in the 
original. It may have arisen through ditto- 
graphy ; in that case we interpret ' Nineveh is 
like a pool of water,' whose waters rush away 
where the dam is broken down : thus do 
the inhabitants of the conquered city flee 
away. 

9, 10. Then all its rich treasures and its 
magnificent adornments are given to the spoil. 
All who had any hope or interest in the 
doomed city are confounded and put to shame. 

II. The prophet exults over the downfall 
of Nineveh. In this stern ironical question 
the prophet implies that Nineveh has vanished 
completely ; it is vain to seek for it. Thus 
does he express his full confidence in its utter 
destruction. 12. This destruction is justified 
by, pointing to the selfish, cruel career of the 
Assyrian empire. 13. An oracle of Jehovah 
containing a strong assurance of the judgment 
that is due and cannot be escaped. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Doom of Nineveh 
1-7. Another threat against Nineveh, show- 
ing that disaster has come upon her on account 
of her sins. The keynote of the whole c. is 
the fierce cry, Woe to the bloody city ! it is all 
full of lies, etc. In ancient states the capital 
was virtually the kingdom, and to Nineveh are 
here ascribed all the characteristics of the 
Assyrian monarchy. The cruelties perpetrated 



INTRO. 

by the Assyrians were shocking. Captive 
princes who had offered resistance in defence of 
their country were shut up in cages and exposed 
to the gaze of the populace ; the heads of those 
already executed were hung round the necks 
of those still living, and others were flayed 
alive. The Assyrians appear to have been the 
most ruthless people of antiquity (see Camb. 
Bible). 2, 3. Picture of the attack made by 
the enemy's cavalry and chariots, these instru- 
ments of the divine vengeance. 4-7. The 
reason for this doom, the evil influence which 
this great empire has exerted among the na- 
tions. Jehovah assumes responsibility for the 
execution of this judgment ; He will carry it 
out to the last extremity. 8-10. Nations and 
cities quite as proud and strong have fallen 
when the hour of divine judgment has sounded. 

Populous NoJ'RV 'No-Amon,' i.e. Thebes. 
See Intro. Rivers] RM 'canals.' The sea] 
i.e. the Nile. Her wall, etc.] The Nile was 
her protection. All the provinces of Egypt 
helped her (v. 9). 11. Strength] RY 'a 
stronghold.' 12-15. The outer defences have 
fallen ; it is the beginning of the end. 14. Go 
into clay, etc.] make bricks to strengthen the 
walls. 15-17. Cankerworm . . grasshopper] 
species of locusts. 

16-19. Prosperity and pride have been ' the 
cankerworm that spoileth,' so that in the great 
crisis there is no power of resistance ; it is a 
mortal wound. 

18. Thy shepherds slumber] Thy great rulers 
have passed away. Thy nobles, etc.] RY ' thy 
worthies are at rest.' 

19. No healing of thy bruise] RY 'No 
assuaging of thy hurt.' Bruit of thee] i.e. the 
report of thy downfall. 



HABAKKUK 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Author. Nothing whatever is known of 
Habakkuk other than what may be inferred 
from his book. The- inference, based on the 

' subscription ' on my stringed instruments ' 
(3 19 ), that he was a singer or player in the 
Temple choir is altogether precarious, if not 
untenable ; partly because there is no certainty 

I that this c. is Habakkuk's own (see on 3 1 *) ; 
partly because the text is probably faulty, the 
true reading being simply ' on stringed instru- 
ments ' ; and still more, because this subscrip- 

J tion is in all probability no part of the original 
poem which forms c. 3. All that we know of 



587 



the person of Habakkuk is that he was a great 
prophet who has left us one of the noblest 
and most penetrating words in the history of 
religion (2 4b ). 

2. Summary of Contents. (1 1-4) The prophet 
begins with a complaint to Jehovah touching 
the prevalent violence, oppression, and perver- 
sion of the law. ' How long,' he cries, ' and 
why ?' For answer (15-11) comes the divine 
word that the Chaldeans are to be raised up in 
chastisement, and the work which they will do 
is such as to be almost incredible. Then fol- 
lows a graphic description of their terrible 



INTRO. 



HABAKKUK 



INTRO. 



army, with their swift horses, their keen 
cavalry, their cruel and brazen faces. They 
laugh at all authority, and at every attempt to 
stop their advance. They worship might, not 
right. But in the next section (l 12 ' 17 ) the 
prophet's attitude towards this people (if it is 
the same people as in vv. 5-1 1) has changed. He 
shudders at their impiety, and is confounded by 
it. They have overstepped the limits of their 
commission ; how can Jehovah reconcile with 
His own holiness and purity the barbarities 
perpetrated by the conqueror ? 

(21-4) The divine answer to the prophet's 
perplexity comes when he climbs his tower 
(the tower of faith) and looks abroad. The 
answer is that the proud shall perish and the 
righteous shall ultimately live. It may not be 
obvious now : the visible solution may tarry a 
long time ; but faith sees it already. ' The 
just shall live by his faithfulness.' The next 
section (2 5 * 20 ) consists of five 'woes,' which 
elaborate the thought of 2 4a — the sure de- 
struction of the proud. Woes are denounced 
upon the cruel rapacity of the conquerors, 
the unjust accumulations of treasure, the pas- 
sion for building, the unfeeling treatment of 
the land, beasts, and people, and finally the 
idolatry. In contrast to the impotent gods 
worshipped by the oppressor, is the great 
Jehovah whose Temple is in the heavens, and 
before whom all the earth must be silent (2 20 ). 
He comes, and His coming is described in c. 3 
in rich and varied imagery ; and this ' prayer ' 
concludes with the expression of unbounded 
confidence and joy in Jehovah, even when all 
visible signs of His love may fail. 

3. Occasion calling forth the Prophecy. The 
prophecy of Habakkuk may be dated approxi- 
mately about the year 600 B.C. The last 
twenty-five years had been a time of great 
significance for Western Asia in general and 
for Judah in particular. At the beginning of 
that period Assyria had been the great world 
power ; but from the year 625 B.C., when 
Nabopolassar succeeded in establishing an in- 
dependent Babylonian monarchy, the Assyrian 
empire had rapidly declined, till at length, in 
607 B.C., Nineveh, the capital, was taken, and 
by the battle of Carchemish, in which Egypt, 
the great competing power in the West, was 
defeated, Babylonian supremacy was assured. 
Judah naturally became a vassal of Babylon, 
and about the year 601-600 was invaded be- 
cause of the rebellion of king Jehoiakim. 

Within Judah herself, much that was of 
first-rate importance both for history and reli- 
gion had happened. Zephaniah and Nahnm 
had prophesied, and Jeremiah was in the 
middle of his great career. In 621 B.C., on 
the basis of the newly-discovered book of 
Deuteronomy, king Josiafa had inaugurated a 
reformation which had raised the hopes of good 



men ; but its influence, as we learn from Jere- 
miah, had been, upon the whole, but brief and 
shallow. The death of Josiah upon the battle- 
field in 608 B.C. aggravated a situation already 
difficult enough. His son Jehoahaz, who reigned 
but three months, was succeeded by Jehoiakim, 
a man of extravagant tastes and contemptible 
character — the very last man to guide the state 
through the perplexities and perils of the time. 

It was in his reign, apparently, that Habakkuk 
delivered his message. Through his words we 
can clearly read the prevalent disregard of law 
and order, and the abounding political confu- 
sion and religious perplexity occasioned by the 
supremacy of the Chaldeans. The precise 
interpretation and occasion of the book, how- 
ever, are unusually hard to determine. We 
shall very briefly indicate the difficulties and 
the solution which seems the most probable. 
In 1 1_4 it is not clear who the oppressors are, 
whether foreigners or the ruling classes within 
Judah itself. As in l 5 ' 11 , the Chaldeans (i.e. 
the Babylonians) appear to be raised up to 
chastise them, it is more natural to suppose tj^at 
the oppressors are natives of Judah. But in 
1 12 " 17 the Chaldeans themselves seem to be the 
oppressors — though this is not expressly said — 
as they are described in terms very similar to 
the description in 1 5 " n ; and they bring fresh 
perplexity to the prophet by ' swallowing up 
the man that is more righteous than ' they 
(v. 13). The ' righteous ' would in this case be 
Judah, and that description of Judah, coming 
after such a picture of anarchy as we have in 
1 1 " 4 , would be somewhat strange. 

The difficulties may be partly met by assum- 
ing that the various sections were written at 
different times, 1 12 ' 17 , in which Judah is rela- 
tively righteous in comparison with the Chal- 
deans, being later than I 1 - 4 . The only real 
clue to the historical occasion of the prophecy 
is the mention of the Chaldeans in 1 5-n. Their 
appearance and their military methods are 
apparently well known, and this circumstance 
implies a date shortly before, or more probably 
shortly after, the great battle of Carchemish 
in 605 B.C., in which the Babylonian army 
under Nebuchadrezzar defeated the Egyptians, 
and established a supremacy, which lasted 
about seventy years, over Western Asia. The 
prophet welcomes the advent of the Chaldeans 
(vv. 5-11) as the divinely-appointed scourge 
of the evils among Jehovah's people in Judah 
(1 1A ) ; but this solution only heightens the 
horror of his problem, as he becomes better 
acquainted with the cruel and aggressive pride 
of the Chaldeans (1 12-17) . an( j he must find a 
deeper solution. He finds it finally, upon his 
watchtower, in the assurance that somehow, 
despite all seeming, the purpose of God is 
hasting on to its fulfilment, and that the moral 
constitution of the world is such as to spell 



588 



s 



INTRO. , 



HABAKKUK 



2. 3 



the ultimate ruin of cruelty and pride, and the 
ultimate triumph of righteousness (2 1 " 4 ). His 
faith was historically justified by the fall of 
the Babylonian empire in 538 B.C. 

4. Religious Ideas of the Book. The domi- 
nant ideas of the book shine most clearly out 
of the great vision which Habakkuk saw from 
his watchtower (2 1 " 4 ). Briefly, they are Pa- 
tience and Faith (2 3 > 4 ). The prophet had 
expected an adequate solution to. his doubts 
to arrive in his own day (cp. 1 5 , 'in your 
days ') ; and he welcomes the Chaldeans as 
divine avengers of sin. But Habakkuk is an 
independent and progressive thinker, and the 
more he watches the Chaldeans, the more he 
feels sure that the solution they bring is utterly 
inadequate. Then he lifts his sorrowful heart 
to God, and he is soothed and strengthened by 
a larger vision of the divine purpose and its 
inevitable triumph. He does not now know, as 
once he thought he did, by what human and 
historical means that triumph is to be secured ; 
but he knows that it is certain. ' It is sure to 
come, it will not lag behind.' That is faith, 
and the obverse of faith is patience. It is so 
sure that he can afford to ' wait for it, though 
it tarry,' and though it come not in his own 
day. It is ' trust ' in God that will carry the 
' righteous ' across his doubts and fears, and 
sustain his ' life ' even when he seems to per- 
ish (2 4 ). 'The righteous shall live by his 
faithfulness.' This is also the great lesson of 
the closing vv. of c. 3, that God may be trusted, 
even when all visible signs of His presence 
fail ; and this trust is not resignation, but joy 
unspeakable (3 17-19 ). 

CHAPTER 1 

The Peophet's Burden. The Answer 
of Jehovah 

1. Burden] EM ' oracle ' : see on IsalS 1 . 

2, 3. How long ? . . Why ?] Even a prophet 
(v. 1) can ask such questions. He never 
denies the existence of God, but he cannot 
understand His seeming failure to interpose 
in human affairs. In the end, however, the 
despondency merges into a faith which can 
believe where it cannot see (2 3 3 17f -). 

5. Behold ye among the heathen] For this 
we ought to read, ' Behold, ye treacherous ' 
(as in the quotation in Acl3 41 , 'ye despisers'). 
The despisers are those in 1 1A who trample 
upon moral and social law, thinking Jehovah 
will never intervene. In your days] The 
profounder solution in 2 3 contemplates the 
possibility of a long postponement of the 
issue. 6. The Chaldeans] possibly written 
after the battle of Carchemish, in 605 B.C., 
with reference to Nebuchadrezzar and his 
army, so graphically described in w. 6-10. 

7. The last clause means that the Chaldean 
recognises no master or judge : he is a law to 



himself. 9. RM ' Their faces are set eagerly 
forwards, and they gather captives as the 
sand.' 10. They shall heap dust] i.e. they 
shall throw up an enlargement of earth, to 
take the fortress. 11. The correct transla- 
tion should probably be : Then he sweeps by 
as a wind, and passes on and makes his might 
his God — an admirable climax to the descrip- 
tion of the Chaldeans. 
12-17. A new riddle. 

12. Habakkuk's faith is staggered by the 
conduct of the Chaldeans. He had welcomed 
them as ministers of the divine judgment, and 
lo ! they had shown themselves to be cruel 
and haughty, working out not God's will, but 
their own. How was this consistent with the 
holiness of God ? 

13. The cry of a perplexed heart : Thou 
art too pure to look upon evil, why then dost 
Thou look upon it ? God looks on in silence : 
He does nothing, says nothing ! The wicked 
(i.e. the Chaldean) swallows up one who is 
more righteous than himself (i.e. Judah). 

14. And makest] probably this should be 
'and makes.' It is, as vv. 15, 16 show, the 
Chaldean who makes men like fish, sweeping 
them into his net. 16. He sacrifices to his 
net] i.e. to his weapons of destruction, as to a 
god : for was not might his god? cp. v. 11. 

17. This v. should probably read, 'Will he 
draw the sword for ever, slaying nations 
mercilessly evermore ? ' 

CHAPTEE 2 

Faith Triumphant 
1-4. The view from the watchtower. 

1. The prophet climbs his tower, for he 
must reach a vantage point, if he is to con- 
template with real understanding and insight 
the confusion about his feet, i.e. occasioned by 
Chaldean aggressiveness and indifference to 
right. The tower is not, of course, a literal 
tower — some high and lonely place to which 
the prophet may retire ; it simply suggests the 
inner light of revelation, by the aid of which 
he contemplates the perplexing situation. The 
last clause should read, ' and what answer He 
will make to my complaint.' 

2. The answer which he expects is given, 
and he is instructed to write it down on tablets, 
because it is of permanent value, and to write 
it plainly so that any one might be able to read 
it fluently. Run] i.e. in his reading, read 



3. The ultimate moral issue is clear, though 
it may be far away. If it is slow, it is sure. 
It may not come ' in your days ' (1 5 ), but ' it is 
sure to come, it will not be late : and if it 
tarry, wait for it,' for in ' your patience ye shall 
win your souls.' When the kingdom will come 
is not clear, but come it will ; for some day 
' the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of 



589 



% 4 



HABAKKUK 



3. 



the glory of Jehovah, as the waters cover the 
sea' (2 14 ). That is the inevitable goal of 
history. 

4. The first few words of this vision, which 
is regarded as so important and reassuring, are 
very obscure, but the two clauses of the v. 
appear to contrast the destinies of the good 
and the bad respectively ; and the meaning 
probably is, ' As for the wicked, his soul is not 
straight, or is faint and feeble, within him,' 
that is, is doomed to death ; ' but the righteous 
shall live by his fidelity,' i.e. his faithfulness, 
his firm trust of Jehovah. In the long march 
of history, the nations of men that trust in 
their power and resources and defy morality, 
are doomed, they do not live. It is the right- 
eous that live, those who regard right and God. 
However much they suffer, and even when 
they seem to die, they live ; and they live by 
their faithfulness, i.e. by leaning firmly upon 
the God who lives for ever, and whose life is 
a guarantee of theirs. This in one of the pro- 
foundest utterances of the Old Testament. 

5-20. Woe to the oppressor. 

This section is an expansion of 2 4a : it de- 
scribes the oppressor — no doubt the Chaldean 
— and thereby justifies the doom pronounced 
upon him. The section takes the form of a 
series of woes, dramatically pronounced by the 
nations which the Chaldeans had crushed. 

5-8. Woe unto the lust of conquest ! Y. 5, 
which has nothing to do with wine, should 
probably read, ' Woe to the proud and the 
faithless, the haughty man who is never satisfied.' 

6, 7. Woe to him who takes upon himself a 
heavy burden of debt — referring to the pro- 
perty of which the Chaldeans had plundered 
the nations. Instead of heavy ' pledges ' (RV), 
AV (by dividing the single Heb. word into 
two) reads thick clay. Doubtless both senses 
are intended : the Hebrews were fond of such 
plays upon words. Suddenly will thy creditors 
arise. The ' biters ' are the creditors (the words 
are alike in the Hebrew), and the Chaldeans 
will in their turn be bitten, i.e. they will be 
punished in kind ; the plunderers will be 
themselves plundered (vv. 7,8). 8. Oftheland, 
of the city, etc.] RV ' done to the land, to the 
city,' etc. The city] perhaps Jerusalem. 

9-1 1. The third woe. 9. RV ' Woe to him 
that getteth an evil gain for his house.' The 
plunder was stored for security in great high 
buildings, but the very stone and timber cried 
out against the rapacity which had accumulated 
it. Their silent tongues were eloquent ; ac- 
cusing voices were everywhere. Considering 
the range of v. 10, however, it is possible, if 
not probable, that the whole passage has a 
larger meaning : for in v. 10 it seems best to 
interpret the house Dot as a literal house, but 
— as often in Hobrew — of the dynasty. In 
that case, the ruin of the Chaldean dynasty is 



predicted as the consequence of their cruel and 
unscrupulous ambitions. 10. Consulted] i.e. 
contrived : cp. Mic6 5 . 

12-14. The fourth woe. Every fabric reared 
upon iniquity is doomed to destruction. The 
triumph of the kingdom of God, and of that 
alone, is sure. The world-conqueror is not 
Nebuchadrezzar, but Jehovah. 13. The people 
shall labour in the very fire] RV ' The peoples 
labour for the fire ' : i.e. their cities, built with 
blood, will be consigned to the flames. The 
parallel clause (v. 13 b ) shows that the meaning 
is, their efforts are spent in vain. 

15-17. The fifth woe. The references* in 
vv. 15, 16 to intoxication must, as v. 17 shows, 
be taken figuratively. The meaning is that 
the Chaldeans have dealt with other nations in 
a spirit of contemptuous cruelty, depriving 
them of their strength, and doing with them 
what they would. They will, therefore, be 
punished, as before, in kind, being compelled 
by Jehovah to drink the cup they had held to 
the lips of others. A specimen of their high- 
handedness is given in v. 17: they had robbed 
the land and the beasts of their rights — for 
they, too, have rights — by destroying the 
cedars of Lebanon to secure material for their 
own palatial buildings. 

18. 19. The sixth woe. The real explana- 
tion of the immorality of the Chaldeans is to 
be found in their foolish conception of God 
(cp. I 11 ). They worshipped idols, gorgeous 
indeed, but stupid, impotent, dumb, and lifeless. 

19. Arise, it shall teach !] RV ' Arise ! Shall 
this teach ? ' The parallelism shows that Arise 
corresponds to Awake, and that, therefore, 
with the next words a new sentence begins. 
It is best to read this sentence interrogatively 
as RV, ' Shall this teach ? ' ' This ' — pointing 
with scorn to the motionless image — ' what 
power has this to give the needed instruction 
or help ? ' 

20. What a contrast to these idols is the 
majestic God of Israel, the God of all the 
earth, whose Temple is in the heavens ! He 
is about to appear (c. 3) ; hush ! before Him, 
all the earth. 

CHAPTER 3 

Jehovah comes to Judgment 
This is one of the most brilliant poems in 
the OT. It was written by a man of imagin- 
ation as well as of faith. It is not quite cer- 
tain whether 3 3 * 15 are intended to refer to a 
past or future manifestation of Jehovah : in 
any case, there is the hope, or rather prayer, 
that history may repeat itself (v. 2). The 
poem rests upon older theophanies : cp. Jg5 
Dt33. Long ago at the exodus Jehovah had 
shown His power to interpose in history against 
all hope. He had come in the terrors of judg- 
ment and taken vengeance on the enemies of 



590 



3. 1 



HABAKKUK 



3. 17 



Israel : and what he did then, the Psalmist 
prays that He will do again. The power which 
He revealed on Israel's behalf at the dawn of 
her history, He can make known again in the 
midst of the years. 

i. Upon Shigionoth] RV 'Set to Shigionoth.' 
This very obscure phrase (cp. Ps 7) has been 
supposed to mean l in a wandering, ecstatic 
manner,' implying that the poem that follows 
is a sort of dithyramb. Probably, as the LXX 
suggests, the original word simply meant, ' to 
the accompaniment of stringed instruments.' 

3. The storm which accompanies Jehovah's 
coming begins in Sinai, His ancient home, and 
sweeps northward. Teman] a district in the 
NW. of Edom. Paran] the mountain range 
between Sinai and Seir. 4. Horns coming out 
of his hand] RV ' Rays coming forth from his 
hand.' This clause some take with the next 
one, so that the meaning would be ' the rays 
at His side He makes the veil of His power,' 
that is, the brightness is so blinding that His 
real and essential majesty cannot be seen. 

5-8. Accompanied by His dread attendants, 
He takes His stand upon the earth, which reels 
and rocks beneath Him, and the nomad tribes 
are in terror. 5. Burning coals] RV ' fiery 
bolts.' 7. Cushan] Some identify this with 
Cush, i.e. Ethiopia. The parallelism suggests, 
however, that it may indicate some district in 
the neighbourhood of Sinai. 

8-1 1. Wherefore such wrath ? Why did 
Jehovah so confound the sea — perhaps the 
Red Sea — by means of His storm ? 9 a b 
probably ought to read, ' Thou didst bare Thy 
bow, and fill Thy quiver with shafts ' — an 
allusion to the thunder and the lightning. 
Fear kept sun and moon from shining (v. 11). 
12-15. It is to save His people that He 
comes. I3 b . Thou woundedst the head out 
of the house of the wicked, by discovering 
(RV ' laying bare ')the foundation unto the neck. 
There seems to be here a confusion of meta- 
phor — ' foundation ' suggesting a building and 
' neck ' a man. The situation may be par- 
tially saved by reading ' rock ' instead of 
j neck ' ; but even so, it is not quite clear 
whether head in the first clause refers to a 
building, as the second clause suggests, or to a 
man, as the same word is used unambiguously 
I of a man in the very next v. (14 a ). In any 
, case, the reference appears to be to the over- 
throw of Pharaoh. 



I4 a . Probably we should read, ' Thou didst 
pierce with Thy staves the head of his warriors.' 
In the next line the word me shows that the 
description is passing into the present : they 
come storming on to scatter-me. 

16-19. The triumph of faith. It is difficult, 
if not impossible, to translate v. 16 ; pro- 
visionally we may accept the following, ' I will 
wait for the day of distress which cometh over 
the people that distresses us.' But the v. seems 
to indicate the terror with which the Psalmist 
(or prophet) listens to the dying notes of the 
storm. He had prayed for God to reveal 
Himself : and He had come in His terrible 
majesty — come, however, to save : and though 
the poet trembles, his faith is radiant and 
glad. 

17. The connexion between this v. and the 
previous part of the poem is no doubt such as 
has just been suggested ; but it may be doubted 
whether it is an integral part of the original 
poem. With its flocks and fields and trees, it 
seems to presuppose a different situation from 
vv. 2-16 ; but, however that may be, the v., 
together with vv. 18, 19, expresses the same 
kind of faith as that of the poem, and indeed 
of the book at large, a faith which is inde- 
pendent of material evidences and supports 
(2 3 = 4 ). It teaches that God is better than His 
gifts, and that the possession of Him, even 
without them, makes the heart strong and 
glad. In its independence of things material, 
the OT. never uttered a grander or more 
emancipating word than these concluding vv. 
of Habakkuk. 

It is not certain that this poem was com- 
posed by the prophet. The title and musical 
directions seem to indicate that it was taken 
from a collection of Psalms : there are no 
references in it to the special circumstances of 
the age in which Habakkuk lived : while in 
vv. 14, 18, 19 the community rather than an 
individual is the speaker. The conclusion 
suggested by these features is that this poem 
belongs to a later date : it may be a Psalm 
composed for the post- exilic church in a time 
of distress. But, on the other hand, the as- 
cription of it to Habakkuk is confirmed by the 
fact that it is wholly in conformity with his 
spirit in the other chs. of this book : and it is 
appropriately placed in its present position, as 
it shares with the prophecy a pure faith in 
God and in the certainty of His coming. 



591 



ZEPHANIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



I. The Prophet and his Message. Zepha- 
niah, like his young contemporary, Jeremiah, 
was one of the first to break the long silence 
of more than half-a-century which followed 
the death of the great Isaiah. During the 
reactionary reign of Manasseh the Canaanitish 
Baal cults and the Assyrian star- worship and 
the other heathen institutions, to which the 
prophet alludas in his opening words, had been 
tolerated without rebuke in Jerusalem and 
Judah (2K21 3 - 6 ). King and people had re- 
pudiated the teachings of the earlier prophets 
and reverted to the old heathenism, or else 
adopted the religion and customs of their 
Assyrian conquerors, although they still, as a 
nation, continued to worship the Jehovah of 
their popular belief. 

At last, however, the Assyrian empire, which 
for centuries had stood as the embodiment of 
heathen might, began to show unmistakable 
signs of weakness and disintegration. The 
more thoughtful in Judah also commenced to 
weary of the crimes and excesses which fol- 
lowed in the train of popular idolatry. Prob- 
ably a small group of disciples had never 
ceased to cherish in secret the noble ideals and 
principles of the earlier prophets, and to work 
for their ultimate acceptance by the nation. 
When Isaiah recognised that his teachings 
were rejected by the princes and people, he 
had turned with confidence to his disciples and 
expressed the hope that they would treasure 
up his doctrine (Isa8 16 ). This expectation 
was fully realised, and the eternal principle 
illustrated that truth, clearly and courageously 
proclaimed, can never be permanently put 
down, but will in time surely become a power- 
ful factor in the life of mankind. 

Silenced in public, the followers of the true 
prophets appear to have devoted themselves to 
revising the primitive laws of their race, incor- 
porating the lofty principles laid down by Amos 
and Hosca and Isaiah, and adapting them to the 
new conditions presented by the reign of Manas- 
seh. Many hold that in the book of Deuter- 
onomy, which is a prophetic reformulation of 
the laws of Moses, designed to meet the needs 
of a new age, we have the supreme product 
of their activity. Later this became the basis 
of Josiah's great reformation in 62] B.C. 

Before there could be any effective reform, 
it was necessary to educate the people and to 
secure the support of Judah'a rulers. It is a 



surprising fact that Josiah, the son of Amon, 
and grandson of the reactionary Manasseh, 
should later become the leader in the great 
prophetic reformation. The records are silent, 
but there can be little doubt that the boy king, 
who was raised to the throne at the age of 
eight, early came under the influence of the 
prophetic party. The indications point strongly 
to Zephaniah as the one who was most promin- 
ent in exerting that influence, for the super- 
scription affixed to his prophecy traces his 
ancestry back for four generations to Hezekiah, 
who was in all probability the king under whom 
Isaiah prophesied. If so, Zephaniah himself 
belonged to the royal line. This inference is 
confirmed by the boldness and assurance with 
which he proclaims the guilt of the princes and 
members of the royal family (1 8 ). It is also 
significant that he says nothing about the sins 
of the king himself, but rather places all the 
responsibility upon his advisers (1 9 ). The most 
satisfactory explanation of the omission is that 
Josiah was still a young man, and already 
known to be amenable to the counsel of true 
prophets like Zephaniah. If these inferences 
be correct, the prophet commands our interest, 
because he stood very near both by birth and 
influence to the great reformer-king, and be- 
cause he was the pioneer in the religious move- 
ment which culminated in 621 B.C. Like 
Josiah and his prophetic colleague, Jeremiah, 
who calls himself a boy ( Jer 1 6 ), Zephaniah was 
probably still a young man when he first raised 
his voice in public. Youthful courage and un- 
daunted zeal for righteousness ring through his 
brief prophecy. With the eye of faith he sees 
the speedy passing of the heathen practices, 
which for half-a-century had stood in the way 
of the general adoption of the noble ideals 
proclaimed by Hosea and Isaiah. 

2. Occasion. The immediate occasion of his 
preaching appears to have been the advance of 
an enemy which threatened Judah and its neigh- 
bours with sudden and complete destruction. 
Evidently the dreaded foe is not their old 
masters, the Assyrians, nor their allies, the 
Egyptians, but the barbarous Scythians, who 
had already disturbed the politics of south- 
western Asia : ep. Herod, i. 105, Ezk38 8 > 17 . A 
detachment of these ruthless foes, who wor- 
shipped their swords and gloried only in murder 
and plunder, was evidently already sweeping 
down the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. 



592 



INTRO. 



ZEPHANIAH 



1.3 



The prophet had his text, and his audience 
good reason to listen. Their old complacency 
was shaken. The awakened national con- 
science found expression on the lips of the 
royal prophet. Rising above the terror of the 
moment, he announced that these pitiless de- 
stroyers were Jehovah's instrument of punish- 
ment, and the catastrophe that threatened His 
day of judgment. The horror and mystery 
that were inspired by the Scythians colour the 
prophet's picture of that day. It explains why 
the mediaeval church and Thomas of Celano, in 
his Dies Irce, Dies Ma, drew from Zephaniah 
the imagery of the last great Judgment Day. 
It was the influence of this same powerful pro- 
phecy that doubtless led the early Jewish and 
Christian writers to transform the original 
conception of the Day of Jehovah as a gradual 
process, working out in the life of nations, into 
the dramatic picture of one definite judgment 
scene, projected into the distant future. 

3. Teaching. Zephaniah, like all the true 
prophets, aimed to arouse the moral sense of 
his contemporaries, and thus to render un- 
necessary the fulfilment of his grim predictions. 
Unlike most of his colleagues, he soon saw the 
fruits of his efforts ; and yet through all his 
utterances rings the knell of seemingly irre- 
vocable doom. In its original form it is the 
most uncompromising of all the OT. prophecies. 
Like the passages from the Deuteronomic school 
of writers, who, in their version of the con- 
quest, picture the wholesale slaughter of the 
heathen, it reveals the intense moral earnestness 
and zeal of the reformers who rallied about the 
young Josiah. As a chapter in the religious 
history of Judah, the prophecy is of great 
value. 

Fortunately, it is also possible to date it 
with unusual exactness. It was probably de- 
livered only a few days before the Scythian 
hordes, in 626 B.C., swept down the Mediter- 
ranean coast plain, -devastating the Philistine 
cities. There is no evidence that they under- 
took the more difficult and less promising task 
of invading Judah itself ; but a deep impres- 
sion had been made upon the popular con- 
sciousness, and Zephaniah' s stern message of 
warning remained to remind Judahites of the 
doom that had impended. 

4. Contents. The book of Zephaniah con- 
tains two distinct themes : the one (1 2 -3 13 ) is 
that of universal judgment upon guilty Judah 
(c. 1) ; upon her neighbours the Philistines, the 
Moabites, and the Ammonites ; upon her allies, 
the Ethiopians, and upon her old oppressors 
the Assyrians (c. 2) ; and upon Jerusalem's 
corrupt rulers (3 1 " 13 ). The last judgment is re- 
presented as culminating in the purification of 
the surviving remnant. This introduces the 
second theme, which is the song of rejoicing 
over redeemed and restored Zion (3 14 -20). Thus 



the book in its present form is a complete liter- 
ary unit with its cycle of judgment, purification, 
redemption, and restoration. In striking con- 
trast to the dark thunderclouds of Jehovah's 
wrath with which it opens is the brilliant sun- 
shine of divine forgiveness and favour with 
which the book closes. This completeness is, 
however, probably due to a later prophet who 
appreciated both sides of the divine character. 
The original prophecy appears to have begun 
and ended with the same solemn message of 
warning, and to have included simply 1 2 -2 2 > 
4-7b, 12-15 31-7 11-13. The rest assumes the point 
of view and very different conditions of the 
Babylonian exile, and voices the hopes of re- 
storation which kept alive the faith of the 
scattered remnants of the Jewish race. Its 
language and vocabulary are also those of the 
later age. Like many other books of the OT. 
the prophecy of Zephaniah reflects the exceed- 
ingly diverse and yet significant religious ex- 
periences which came to the Israelitish race at 
various periods in their history. Each section, 
studied in the light of its historical setting, 
reveals certain important aspects of the divine 
character and purpose. 

In the older portion of the prophecy the in- 
fluence of Isaiah's brilliant figures of speech, 
as well as ideas, can frequently be recognised. 
Through Zephaniah the message of the great 
prophet again found fervent expression. The 
language is highly poetical. In several sec- 
tions, especially those which predict the pun- 
ishment and ruin of Judah, Moab, Ammon, 
Ethiopia, and Assyria, the lamentation metre, 
a line with three followed by a line with two 
beats, appears. Unfortunately the text of the 
first part of the prophecy has suffered con- 
siderably in transmission. In some cases the 
Gk. versions facilitate the restoration of the 
original. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Day of Jehovah a Day of Judg- 
ment FOR GUILTY JUDAH 
The prophecy opens with the declaration of 
universal destruction for all living things. In 
this way the prophet impresses upon his hearers 
the completeness and appalling nature of the 
impending judgment. In the succeeding vv. 
he defines in detail the character of the punish- 
ment and the guilty classes in Judah upon 
which it will especially fall. It is in keeping 
with the genius of the Semitic mind thus to 
pass from the general to the specific. The 
Hebrews, for example, began with God and 
then turned to note the evidence of His work 
in history and nature ; while the Aryan 
mind first gathered the evidence from life and 
a study of the universe, and then from these 
ultimately rose to the conception of a deity. 
3. Stumblingblocks] or, slightly correcting 



38 



593 



1.4 



ZEPHANIAH 



9, 15 



the text to bring it into harmony with the 
rest of the v., 'I will destroy the wicked.' 

4. I will also stretch out mine hand] cp. the 
similar powerful refrain in Isa5 25 9 12 > 17 > 21 . 
All traces of Baalism, together with the ' Che- 
marim ' (RV). the black-robed priests of Baal 
are first to be destroyed, as well as the wicked 
priests of Jehovah, who degraded His worship. 

5, 6. The sweeping judgment and refor- 
mation will also aff ect those who follow the 
example of their Assyrian masters and worship 
the stars upon the housetops (cp. 2K23 5 > 12 
Ezk8 16 ), those who bow down before the 
moon (Heb. Jehovah, but cp. Jer8 2 Dtl7 3 , and 
the parallelism), those who swear fealty to the 
Ammonite god, Milcom, and all those apostates 
who have ceased to worship Jehovah. 

7. Jehovah's Day is here conceived of as a 
day of judgment, as in Aju 5 18 , and is likened 
to a great sacrificial feast : cp. 1 S 9 13 , and the 
guests are Judah's enemies : cp. for the same 
figure of speech, Isal3 3 . 

8. The chief crime of the princes in the 
prophet's eyes is the introduction of foreign 
customs : see Isa2 6 " 8 . 

9. Leap on the threshold] Evidently here 
also the crime is that of the members of the 
court, perhaps a foreign religious custom : cp. 
1 S 5 5 . But as there is no reference to religious 
customs in the context, the words may simply 
refer to the retainers of the king, who were in 
constant attendance at his doors, and who used 
their influence to enrich themselves at the 
cost of others. Fill their masters' houses (Heb. 
1 house ') with violence and deceit] i.e. by then- 
acts of oppression and injustice. 

10. The reference is to the advance of the 
enemy against Jerusalem from the N. The fish 
gate was at the northern end of the Tyropcean 
valley (cp. Neh3 3 12 39 ), and opened into the 
second or new quarter : cp. 2 K22 14 RV. 

11. Maktesh] or, 'the mortar' : the local 
designation of the merchants' quarter, which 
probably lay in the Tyropcean valley, W. of 
the Temple area. 

12. Search . . with candles] i.e. thoroughly, as 
was required in the poorly-lighted houses of 
Palestine : cp. Lklo 8 . Settled on their lees] 
i.e. have received no infusion of new and noble 
teachings, but retain the old fallacies : cp. Jer 
48 11 - 12 . 13. Cp. Am5 n Mic6 15 . 14,15. Je- 
hovah's judgment day is compared with a 
fierce tempest rapidly advancing toward Judah. 
The figure was suggested by the swift approach 
of the hordes of Scythian invaders. 

CHAPTER 2 
Jehovah's impending Judgment upon 

Judah's Neighbours and Foes 
The universal note which is struck in l 2 - 3 
is now farther amplified. Jehovah's agents of 
punishment, the Scythians, shall carry desola- 



tion along the Philistine plain to Egypt (as 
they actually did), and to the nations E. of 
the Jordan and Dead Sea, and even to distant 
Assyria, which in 605 B.C. fell before them. 

1-3. Exhortation to repentance. The Heb. 
text is exceedingly doubtful. It is also not 
clear whether or not vv. 1-3 should go with 
the preceding or following section. If the 
latter, Philistia is the nation addressed : RV 
1 O nation that hath no shame.' 2. Before the 
day, etc.] The parallelism suggests that the 
original read, ' before you become like the 
passing chaff.' 3. The earnest exhortation in 
this v. must primarily have been addressed to 
the people of Judah, whether it comes from 
Zephaniah or from a later editor of his prophecy. 
In doing the will and winning the favour of 
God is man's only sure way of escape from all 
the dangers of life. 

4. As in Am 1 6 " 8 their chief cities represent 
the Philistines as a whole. Each name sug- 
gests the fate awaiting it. To reproduce the 
assonance in exact English is impossible : 
' Gaza shall be a ghastly ruin ; Ashkelon a 
deserted ash-heap.' The measure is elegiac, so 
that the literary form powerfully aided in con- 
veying the prophet's message. 5. Cherethites] 
a synonym of Philistines, as in 1 S 30 14 Ezk 
25 16 . 6, 7. The Philistine coast plain shall be 
desolate and given up to shepherds and their 
flocks. 

8. The nations of Moab and Ammon were 
hereditary enemies of the Israelites whom they 
treated with contempt on every possible occa- 
sion. Their hatred was returned by Israel, 
whose attitude is well expressed in their ac- 
cepted view of the origin of these nations 
(Gnl9 3 °- 3S ). The reproach of Moab, and the 
revilings of. . Ammon were the taunts and 
curses they had uttered from time to time, es- 
pecially when Israel was in danger from other 
foes : cp. Isa 1 6 6 Jer 48 26, 27, 29, 30, 42. Cp. also for 
the same attitude at a later date Ezk25 1 " 11 . 11. 
Famish] i.e. 'starve' ; hence it means ' weaken,' 
' cause to fail.' 12. Ethiopians] lit. ' Cushites.' 
i.e. the Egyptians who at this time were ruled 
by Ethiopian rulers. Ethiopia was the part of 
Egypt S. of the first cataract of the Nile. 

13-15. Assyria with its capital city, Nineveh, 
will also be destroyed. The cormorant and 
the bittern] R V ' the pelican and the porcupine ' 
(i.e. the hedgehog), both of them being signs 
of desolation, as they avoid the presence of 
man: cp. Isa34 n . Upper lintels] RV 'chapi- 
ters,' i.e. the capitals of the pillars, now lying 
with the other stones in heaps on the ground 
as they have fallen. Their voice shall sing] 
better, ' the little owl shall sing.' as many 
scholars read. For desolation read ' the 
raven.' 

For he shall uncover] RV ' for he hath laid 
bare.' 



594 



;. i 



ZEPHANIAH— HAGGAI 



NTEO. 



CHAPTER 3 

The Judgment upon the Evil Rulers op 
Jerusalem, and its ultimate Purifi- 
cation and Restoration 

Like Amos and Micah, the prophet sternly 
denounces the crimes of the ruling classes in 
Jerusalem, points out their ingratitude to Je- 
hovah, and announces the doom that is in- 
evitable. The gloom of the opening vv. is 
dispelled, however, by the hopes of -restoration 
which appear to reflect a later age. Yv. 9, 10, 
14-20 have the exultant ring of Isa 40-55. 

i. Her that is filthy and polluted] evidently 
Jerusalem. The cause is the crimes of her 
civil and religious leaders. 3. They gnaw not 
the bones till the morrow] LXX is more in 
accord with the context and the habits of wolves, 
' they leave nothing over till morning.' 

6. Towers] i.e. the fortified towers at the 



corners of the walls. 7. So their dwelling . . 
punished them] LXX renders, k And nothing 
that I have enjoined her will be cut off from 
her sight.' 

9. Pure language] cp. Isa 6 5 Hos 2 16 > 17 . They 
will no more call upon the names of the heathen 
gods: cp. I 5 . 10. RM reads, 'From beyond 
the rivers of Ethiopia shall they bring my 
suppliants, even the daughter of my dispersed, 
for an offering unto me.' 

14-20. A Messianic hymn, in which not the 
Messiah but Jehovah Himself is the promised 
King and Deliverer (vv. 17, 18). i8 b . RM 
' which hast borne the burden of reproach.' 

19. Her that halteth, and . . was driven out] 
i.e. the exiled Jewish race : cp. Mic4 6 > 7 Jer33 9 
Isa 42 7 . 

20. When I bring again (R V) your captivity] 
i.e. when I restore your captives : cp. Ps 53 6 
1261.2. 



HAGGAI 

INTRODUCTION 



1. The Prophet. Yery little is known con- 
cerning Haggai. He was a contemporary 
(Ezr6 u ) and colleague of Zechariah. His 
reference to the first Temple (2 3 ) has been 
made the basis for a not improbable inference 
that he was a very old man at the time of his 
public prophesying, one who had outlasted 
the Babylonian exile. But, like many others 
through whom God has spoken, we know 
Haggai only through the messages he delivered. 

2. The Date of the Prophecies. The book 
of Haggai is one of the few sections of Scrip- 
ture which can be dated with great accuracy. 
Its messages were delivered in the course of 
four months, during the second year of the 
reign of Darius Hystaspes, 520 B.C., nineteen 
years after Cyrus had proclaimed the freedom 
of the Jewish exiles to return to their homes 
in Palestine. On at least five occasions dur- 
ing this short period, the prophet appealed 
I to the people on behalf of what seemed to him 
to be the great and immediate need of the 
day. He was determined to carry it to com- 
pletion. 

3. The occasion of writing. The prophet 
jhad before him a very practical aim, the 
awakening of a popular enthusiasm among his 
fellow-countrymen for erecting or completing 
the second Temple. According to Ezra (chs. 
1-6) there had been an immediate return of 
exiles from Babylonia to Judah after the per- 



missive decree of Cyrus in 538 B.C. These 
exiles had promptly begun to build a new 
Temple on the hallowed site of the old one, now 
in ruins. They had been checked by Samari- 
tan opposition, and for sixteen years the work 
of rebuilding had been neglected. At best 
the work accomplished had been slight, and, 
as a whole, was still to be achieved. 

The prophet clearly addresses a people who 
need to be roused into activity. The hopes 
created by the generosity and friendliness of 
Cyrus had been crushed by the pressure of 
Samaritan jealousy in Palestine, and by the 
neglect of the successor of Cyrus. They had 
experienced a series of barren seasons, and 
were desperately poor. As a community they 
had lost heart, and needed some impelling 
power to give them renewed enthusiasm and 
hopefulness. 

The voice of Haggai was uplifted at just 
the right moment. Whether old or young, 
whether he had bided his time all these years, 
or was seized by his first inspiration for leader- 
ship, he was the man of the hour. He saw in 
a political crisis his people's opportunity to go 
forward with the enterprise which would be of 
supreme spiritual significance for them, the 
building of the Temple. 

The political crisis of which he took such 
instant advantage was the assumption of the 
throne of Persia by Darius Hystaspes, or Darius 



595 



INTRO. 



HAGGAI 



1.8 



the Great. Darius had no indisputable claim 
to the throne ; and found himself at the outset 
compelled to exhibit his ability to subdue and 
rule the far-reaching provinces of his empire. 
The outcome was for some time in doubt. 
There was a ' shaking of the nations ' on every 
side, and meanwhile the loyal peoples of Syria 
were left very much to their own devices. It was 
a crisis which seemed likely to become an op- 
portunity. Darius was likely to prove a friend 
to the returned exiles, and to secure their 
friendship by withdrawing the prohibition of 
the work issued by his predecessor (Ezr4 5 > 24 ), 
and Haggai seized the opportunity to rouse 
the dormant energies and ambitions of the 
people. 

4. The Prophecies. The book of Haggai 
contains four exhortations by the prophet. 
Three of these relate directly to the building 
of the Temple, and the last of all concerns 
Zerubbabel, the governor. These messages 
are direct and practical. They sound a fine 
ethical note, recalling the people to their 
manifest and immediate duty toward God. 
The first section (c. 1) is a summons to build 
the house of God, and its sequel ; the second 
(2 1_9 ), an encouraging word; the third (2 10 " 19 ), 
an acted parable of explanation ; and the 
fourth (2 20-23 ), a prediction regarding Zerub- 
babel. There is a unity of meaning from the 
beginning to the end, in harmony with the 
claims of the book that it represents the 
utterances of a brief period. 

5. Characteristic Features of the Book. 
There is much vigour and individuality in 
Haggai's addresses. His words are those of a 
leader who perceives a great opportunity and 
seeks to meet it. He does not enlarge our in- 
heritance of truth, nor give us new visions of 
God in His universe. He rather rendered a 
special service to his people at a time of need. 
He aroused them to their duty, dispelled their 
faintheartedness, sustained their flagging ener- 
gies, gave the achievement its true significance 
as the next step which God called upon them 
to take, and kept alive their loyalty to the 
great hopes which his famous predecessors had 
kindled in their hearts. Altogether Haggai 
was an Important link in the prophetic suc- 
cession. He just precedes Zechariah, whose 
first preserved prophecy (Zechl 1 ' 6 ) belongs 
chronologically to the time between the utter- 
ance of Haggai in 2™ and that in 2H>-h>. 

That the prophet's style differs from that 
of Isaiah or Jeremiah is not strange. His 
style fits the situation. A plain, insistent 
message of practical duty was what was needed. 
Spiritual life, hope for the future, loyalty to 
Q-od and to national traditions — all these sn 
preme aims waited on the erection of the 
Temple. That Haggai saw this was an un- 
doubted proof of his prophetic quality. 



CHAPTER 1 

A Call to begin Building the Temple 

I— II. Haggai repeatedly urges the leaders 
of Judah and the people to bend their energies 
to the rebuilding of the ruined Temple 
(August, 520 B.C.). 

1. Darius the king] This was unquestionably 
Hystaspes, who was raised to the Persian throne 
after the death of the impostor, Smerdis. 

Sixth month] the 6th of the Jewish year, 
i.e. the month Elul (August-September). 

Zerubbabel] A prince of the royal line of 
Judah, and the accepted civil leader of the 
people, just as Joshua was the religious leader. 
He ruled Judah as a Persian province. 

2. This people] Haggai, like other prophets, 
did not need to create a sense of wrongdoing, 
but only to awaken conscience. He challenged 
their idle excuses. The time is not come] 
Evidently this was no sincere desire to await 
some specified date, but a wilful delaying of 
duty. In the interests of religion it demanded 
attention. 4. Time for you, O ye] lit. ' for 
you, you,' the repeated pronoun being very 
emphatic, so as to make a sharp contrast be- 
tween them and the God they dishonoured. 

Cieled houses] houses panelled with costly 
cedar planks. They could seem to afford 
luxuries for themselves, but were indifferent 
to the ruined state of the Temple. 

5. Consider your ways] lit. ' Set your heart 
on your ways,' i.e. consider thoughtfully the 
situation in which you find yourselves. An 
appeal made four times by the prophet. 6. Ye 
eat, but ye have not enough] lit. ' but not to 
satisfy.' This v. formulates a series of vigor- 
ous comparisons, indicating that their labour 
had been ill rewarded. They had experienced 
failures of crops, continuous poverty, and 
lessening of physical vigour. Bag with holes] 
No one gets ahead, but seems to lose his money 
as fast as he accumulates it. A vivid picture 
of alluring hopes and baffling disappointments. 

8. Go up to the mountain] They were to 
act at once. The prophet was in earnest. 
The mountain would be ' the hill -country of 
Judah,' the mountainous neighbourhood. 
Compare Neh 2 8 and 8 16 . Bring wood] i.e. 
timber suitable for building. The house] the 
Temple of Jehovah, which had been lying in 
ruins since being destroyed at the command 
of Nebuchadrezzar (2K25 9 ). And I will be 
glorified] better, ' and that I may display my 
glory.' Here the prophet first interprets these 
calamities as being due to God's anger at their 
selfishness. The two following w. emphasise 
this explanation. The people were zealous 
enough over their own affairs, but wholly 
neglectful of their obligations to God. 

12-15. The leaders and people, their con- 
sciences awakened, encouraged by Haggai, 



596 



1.12 



HAGGAI 



% 13 



begin work upon the Temple (September, 520 

B.C.)- 

12. The remnant of the people] i.e. the rest 
of the people ; those who had returned from 
Babylon were but a fraction of the once 
numerous nation. Did fear] It was a real 
religious change that came over them. They 
obeyed, not because of terror, but from a new 
sense of reverence for God. 13. The LORD'S 
messenger] This v. is rejected by many 
scholars as superfluous. They also question 
this title as needless. It is the only instance 
in Scripture where a prophet uses such a title 
concerning himself. Nevertheless, it is not 
incongruous. I am with you] This encour- 
aging word assured the people that they were 
acting as God would have them do. 14. Stirred 
up the spirit] The first result of Haggai's un- 
sparing sermon was a spiritual change in the 
hearts of his hearers. A zealous purpose was 
once more kindled. The second result was 
practical. Within three weeks from the date 
of his first appeal the work upon the Temple 
had begun, with unanimity and heartiness. 
What more searching test could a preacher 
have or what more convincing proof of his 



power 



CHAPTER 2 






Words of Encouragement. The Glory 
of the Second Temple 

1-9. An encouraging message in counter- 
action of disparaging comments upon the 
Temple structure, setting forth the significance 
and glory of the new Temple. 

1. Seventh month] i.e. Tishri, September- 
October. This message was delivered just 
four weeks after the beginning of the work. 
So heartily had every one united in it that the 
general outline and character of the new 
edifice had become apparent. The Feast of 
Tabernacles was in progress. Haggai spoke 
to the people on the last day of this feast, 
when all were gathered in one great assembly. 

3. Who is left among you] More than 66 
years had passed since the destruction of the 
first Temple, but it was quite possible that 
there were some who could describe that 
glorious structure as they had known it. 
These elders referred to the newer Temple 
with disparagement, to the dejection and 
dismay of the people. Gold and silver and 
rare woods made Solomon's Temple splendid ; 
the edifice now rising was of rough stone. 
No wonder the elders became reminiscent. 

First] better, ' former.' 4. Be strong] or, 
'have courage.' And work] keep at your 
task : cp. David's words to Solomon, 1 Ch28 20 . 

5. My spirit remaineth] RM l abideth,' is 
standing in your presence. What a basis for 
continuing courage ! cp. Zech4 6 . Jehovah 
was in their midst, as He had always been in 



times of need. Moreover, they would soon 
have adequate proof of His presence. 6. Yet 
once, it is a little while] This is literal, but it 
evidently means k But a little while.' It 
seems to refer to the shaking, which might be 
soon expected. 

7. Shake all nations] This clearly refers to 
political overturnings. The prophet expected 
that the great empire, all aflame with rebellion, 
would be broken up, and that the Jewish com- 
munity would have its coveted opportunity. 
His language, probably figurative, implies cor- 
responding convulsions of nature. The general 
idea is that God will soon take hold of the 
situation and deal with it. The desire of all 
nations shall come] Through Jerome and the 
Yulgate the old Rabbinical Messianic interpre- 
tation of this phrase was given to the Christian 
church, as if it referred directly to Christ, but 
the verb ' shall come ' is a plural. More likely 
the meaning in Haggai's mind was (as RV), 
' And the desirable things of all nations shall 
come.' These were under Jehovah's control. 
As the nations came to know Him and to render 
Obedience, they would bring with joy to His 
Temple their choicest gifts. With glory] The 
Temple then would seem glorious enough. 

9. The glory of this latter house] RV ' The 
latter glory of this house . .than the former,' 
a prediction involving courage and foresight. 
It was spoken to a community politically in- 
significant, without resources, tributary to the 
powerful monarch of Persia, engaged in erect- 
ing a simple building for religious purposes. 
It was a. triumph of religious idealism. As a 
permanent promise it beautifully phrases the 
assurance of the supremacy of Christ and the 
church in the world. Will I give peace] Where 
God is established, there is a peace which cannot 
be disturbed (Jnl6 33 ). 

10-19. A symbolical message emphasising 
the significance of the long-continued neglect 
of God by the community and promising bless- 
ings for obedience. 

10. Ninth montK] i.e. Chislev, or Nov. -Dec. 
The work on the Temple had now been under 
way for three months. 11. Ask now the 
priests . . the law] better, ' ask of the priests a 
tborah,' or deliverance. In the absence of a 
definite statement in the written Law covering 
a case it was the custom to submit a question 
of usage to the priests (Dt 17 8 " 13 ). Their reply 
was a ' thorah ' or law. The passage in the 
written Law most resembling the judgment 
here rendered is Lv6 27 > 28 . 12. Holy flesh] 
flesh that has been offered in sacrifice and is 
being taken home to be consumed. Shall it be 
holy ?] i.e. is the garment in which such holy 
food is being carried capable of giving holiness 
to other food ? The priests replied that holi- 
ness could not be communicated in that way. 

13. Unclean by a dead body] A corpse was 



597 



2. 14 



HAGGAI— ZECHARIAH 



INTRO. 



regarded as making every one who came in 
contact with it ceremonially unclean. The 
priests declared that this pollution would 
extend to whatever these infected persons 
touched. Uncleanness, then, could be pro- 
pagated readily ; holiness could not. 

14. That which they offer there] An effective 
application of these decisions to the situation. 
The restoration of the ritual service, as de- 
scribed in Ezr 3, was good in its way but 
insufficient to make them holy as a people, 
while then actual neglect of the Temple was 
enough to pollute everything they did. In 
God's sight they could only be regarded as 
unclean and worthy of punishment. 

15. From this day and upward] better, 'and 
onward.' He then bids them think of their 
past sufferings and resumes the thought here 
begun in v. 18. There should be a full stop 
after upward. From before, etc.] A better 
translation is that of Nowack, ' Before a stone 
was laid upon a stone in the Temple of the 
Lord, how did ye fare ? When one came to a 
heap of twenty,' etc. 16. Twenty measures] 
Realisations were but half the expectations*. 
Pressfat] wine vat. Fifty vessels] rather, ' mea- 
sures.' 18. And upward] better, 'onwards.' 

The day that the foundation of the LORD'S 
temple was laid] Probably the day on which 
he was speaking. Haggai refers to their 
bitter experience up to the day of active 
work. 



19. Is the seed yet in the barn?] Evi- 
dently he means to draw out a negative reply. 
Yet his word is encouraging. God is going to 
bless them. It takes time to recover from the 
ill effects of selfishness, but a brighter future 
was before them. 

20-23. An inspiring declaration to Zerub- 
babel that in him rested the ancient hopes of 
Israel. 

20. Four and twentieth day] the same great 
festal day. 22. The throne of kingdoms] 
LXX ■ thrones.' Haggai looked forward 
to a disruption of the great Persian empire 
into its tributary nations and to struggles 
between them, which would give Israel its 
opportunity. 23. In that day] The day of 
general political convulsion, would be the day 
of Messianic advance, and of the establishment 
of Jehovah's kingdom. The forwarding of 
Israel's spiritual hopes seemed to Haggai, as 
to earlier prophets, to necessitate the opening 
of political freedom. Make thee as a signet] 
the sign of authority. So far as we know 
Zerubbabel never exercised any real, inde- 
pendent power. He served, however, to em- 
body and keep alive the Hope which gave 
permanence and power to Israel's ideals. 

Haggai contributed but little to the volume 
of prophecy, but that little was of great value. 
At a critical moment in Israel's history he said 
the timely, vigorous, ethical word, and put 
into apprehensible form the great ideal. 



ZECHARIAH 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Historical Background. Zechariah was 
the grandson of Iddo, who is mentioned in 
Nehl2 4 ' 16 as the head of one of the priestly 
families that returned from the exile. The 
Jews had been carried captive to Babylon in 
597 and 586 B.C. ; but Cyrus the Great, soon 
after the capture of Babylon in 538, promul- 
gated a decree permitting them to return to 
their native land and restore Jerusalem, under 
the governorship of Sheshbazzar (called also 
Sanabassar), probably a prince of their own 
royal line (Ezrli-n 2Ch3622,23 l sa 4428 45 13 ). 
It is uncertain how many of the Jews took 
advantage of the liberty granted them, as the 
numbers given in the book of Ezra may be 
taken from a census of Judaea made at some 
time subsequent to the return. Certainly the 
returned exiles included some of the best 
Jewish families, and among them Zechariah, 



then only a boy, probably accompanied his 
grandfather. 

The religious and patriotic spirit of the 
exiles had been stirred by Ezekiel (1117-20 
1660-63 3411-31 3622-38 3721-28) an d by such 
writings as Isa48 2 o 498-17 527-12, e t c . ; but in 
the difficulties of the return, and the weary 
task of rebuilding their ruined homes, their 
enthusiasm soon died away. Their efforts were 
watched and hindered by enemies (Ezr4 5 > 6 ), 
who tried to prejudice them at the Court of 
Babylon by reporting that they were plotting 
to obtain political freedom (Ezr4 9 -i6). The 
years slipped past. Cyrus, the Jews' best 
friend, died in 529 B.C. His son Cambyses, 
who succeeded him, did nothing to help them ; 
and when Darius, his successor, ascended the 
throne in 521, the Jews at Jerusalem had 
altogether lost heart. Through the misrepre- 



598 



IXTKO. 



ZECHARIAH 



INTRO. 






sentations of their enemies they had been 
forbidden to rebuild the city walls. Their 
Temple, which had been burned in 586 by the 
Assyrian general, still lay a blackened ruin 
(although some maintain that the foundation- 
stone was laid as early as 537) ; nor did they 
see how it could be restored. At this critical 
moment God sent them a message which mar- 
vellously encouraged and uplifted them. The 
prophets Haggai andZechariah were the bearers 
of this message. 

These two prophets were contemporaries, 
and their prophecies were delivered almost 
simultaneously. They are mentioned together 
in Ezro 1 6 14 , as having been raised up by God 
to encourage the Jews to rebuild the Temple. 
Haggai appeared first, and in August 520 B.C. 
charged the Jews with neglecting the building 
of God's House : cp. Hagl. This appeal had 
immediate results. Within a month the foun- 
dation of the Temple was laid. Soon after, 
Zechariah uttered his first prophecy (Zech 1 1_6 ). 
Towards the close of the year 520, Haggai in 
two oracles finished his recorded prophecies ; 
and early in 521 Zechariah delivered the famous 
series, comprising eight symbolical visions, 
which appears in Zech 1 "-6 8 , with an appendix, 
g9-i5 Two years afterwards chs. 7, 8 were 
spoken in response to an enquiry by the men 
of Bethel, or perhaps a deputation from Baby- 
lon, as to the observance of a fast ; and these 
are now regarded in most quarters as complet- 
ing the prophecies of Zechariah, as chs. 9-14 
can hardly be ascribed to him. 

2. Zechariah's Method. Haggai was a lay- 
man, Zechariah was of priestly descent. These 
facts, to a certain extent, explain the different 
methods of the two. Haggai is practical, plain, 
clear, in unfolding his message : Zechariah is 
equally practical, but his method is not so 
plain. He clothes his message in the language 
of symbol. It is true that in the opening 
passage (Zech 1 l - Q ) his language is simple and 
direct. He brings before his hearers the prac- 
tical teaching of the earlier prophets, especially 
of Amos and Micah, and urges his own genera- 
tion not to repeat the mistakes of their fathers. 
But from 1 " to 6 8 he unfolds his message in 
a series of visions, the rich imagery of which 
would make a powerful appeal to the Oriental 
mind. This change from the direct method 
(the ' Thus saith the Lord ') of the earlier 
prophets is characteristic of most of the post- 
exilic prophecies. From the time of Ezekiel 
onwards to the 2nd cent, of the Christian 
era. the symbolic method of writing occupied 
' a leading place in Jewish religious literature 
The residence in Babylon would be responsible 
to some extent for the rise of this kind of 
prophecy. There the exiles would be sub- 
jected to the influences of a highly-developed 
art ; and their situation was such as naturally 



to induce a visional or symbolic style of 
thought. To some extent also the change may 
be ascribed to the fact that Ezekiel, who ini- 
tiated it, and Zechariah, who followed success- 
fully in his steps, were priests, accustomed to 
read divine messages through the symbols of 
religious ritual. In any case, the method was 
abundantly justified by its results. Their 
symbolic messages touched the imagination of 
their hearers in much the same way as the 
parables of our Lord, in a later age, appealed 
to the Galilean multitudes. Zechariah's imme- 
diate aim was to raise the drooping spirits of 
his countrymen, and encourage them to pro- 
ceed at once with the rebuilding of the Temple. 
In this he was entirely successful, the Temple 
being completed and dedicated in 516 B.C. 

3. Zechariah's Teaching. In chs. 1-8, 
which are all that can with confidence be 
ascribed to Zechariah, the Messianic ideas are 
local and national for the most part. Sin is to 
be eradicated (5 1 " 11 ), the priesthood purified 
(3 1 ' 5 ), Jerusalem made glorious (2 1 * 12 ), and a 
prince of the house of David (probably Zerub- 
babel) set up as ruler (3 6_1 °). These thoughts 
are repeated aud re-enforced in the appendix 
to the series of visions (6 9-15 ). The idea that 
God dwells far away, and sends messages by 
angels, etc., appears in 1 9 - 11 4 1 , etc. This is 
generally regarded as a feature of later Juda- 
ism, influenced -by contact with Persia ; though, 
in view of recent discoveries, it is now ad- 
mitted that points of resemblance between the 
religion of Assyria and the religion of Israel 
existed from the beginning, In 3 1 ' 2 is the 
first mention of Satan in Hebrew literature. 
The idea is more fully developed in the (later) 
book of Job. The personification of wicked- 
ness (5 5 - n ) as a woman is a peculiar feature of 
Zechariah, and indicates that tendency to regard 
evil as an independent power warring against 
the power of good, which characterises the 
religion of Persia. 

Zechariah is a prophet not only to his own 
time, but to every age. He teaches that repent- 
ance — ' heart sorrow and a clear life ensuing ' 
— is the first duty of a nation. He finds in the 
past guidance for men in the present, and 
seeks to impress upon them that ' the fear of 
the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.' Like 
all the prophets he is a patriot, anxious for the 
welfare and prosperity of his nation, but sure 
that only 'righteousness exalteth a nation,' 
and that God will dwell only with those who 
are willing to do His will. He sees that out- 
ward advantages are of no avail without the 
purified heart, and that there can be no real 
happiness until sin is removed from the 
national life. He realises too that the forms 
of religion are useless without the spirit, and 
proclaims that • to obey is better than to 
sacrifice,' and that fasting is no substitute for 



599 



INTRO. 



ZECHARIAH 



INTRO. 



truth and justice. Also he showed that Israel's 
priesthood, imperfect though it was, repre- 
sented an ideal of holiness, and had its place 
in preparing the way for the ideal Priest — the 
Messiah. 

4. Origin and Teaching of chs. 9-14. When 
we pass from c. 8 to c. 9 we come into a differ- 
ent atmosphere. In chs. 1-8 the situation is 
quite clear — dates are given, practical diffi- 
culties are discussed, well-known leaders are 
mentioned by name, and the people are en- 
gaged in a specific work, to which Zechariah 
encourages them. In chs. 9-14 all these 
guiding lines have disappeared. There is no 
mention of temple-building, or of Joshua or 
Zerubbabel, or even of Babylon : instead, we 
find cities and countries not mentioned hitherto 
— Hamath, Damascus, Egypt, Greece. In 1 n 
we read, ' all the earth sitteth still and is at 
rest ' ; but in chs. 9-14 there is war, destruc- 
tion, trouble, mourning. In chs. 1-8 there is 
a series of well-arranged oracles, with dates, 
and for the most part the same superscription, 
1 1 lifted up mine eyes ' : in chs. 9-14 the very 
period is a subject of conjecture, the various 
oracles are difficult to disentangle, and both 
thought and style are much changed. These 
are some of the reasons why most modern 
scholars agree that chs. 9-14 were not written 
by Zechariah. Who the real author was, and 
what were the date and purpose of his writing, 
it is not so easy to determine. According to 
one view, chs. 9-14 are composed of two dis- 
tinct prophecies— (a) 9-11, 13*-®; (6) 12-14 
(with the exception of 13 7 ' 9 ). (a) is considered 
a very early prophecy, written in the time of 
Amos or Hosea about the year 740 B.C., on the 
following amongst other grounds : (1) Ephraim 
is mentioned (for Israel) with Judah (9 10 " 13 
10 6 > 7 ), which is hardly likely to have been the 
case after the northern kingdom came to an 
end in 722 ; (2) Assyria occurs along with 
Egypt as a world-power (10 10 - 11 ), whereas, 
long before the time of Zechariah, the empire 
of Assyria had passed away ; and (3) the three 
shepherds (c. 11) seem to represent Zechariah, 
Shallum, and a third person now unknown — 
kings of Israel who died a violent death. 

These reasons, however, are not conclusive. 
Ephraim may be explained as referring to the 
exiles of the northern kingdom ; and Assyria 
seems to have continued in use as a territorial 
name to designate the rulers of that country, 
whether Persian, Greek, or Seleucid. With 
regard to the three shepherds of c. 11, the 
application to Zechariah, Shallum, and an un- 
named king is mere conjecture. 

In the same way, (b) (chs. 12-14) is dated 
in the pre-exilic age. The attacks on idolatry 
and prophesying (13 s » 8 ) are thought to be 
consistent with the religious decay of the 7th 
cent. B.C., while the mourning (12 10 * 14 ) is 



referred to the death of Josiah at Megiddo 
in 608 B.C. Neither here, however, nor in 
(a), is there anything which corresponds with 
the style of such pre-exilic writers as Amos 
and Hosea. The prophetic ideals embodied 
in chs. 9-14, and especially the visions of the 
last things (9 14 " 16 14 !- 15 , etc.), are consistent 
only with that well-known phase of Jewish 
thought which had its beginning not earlier 
than the time of Ezekiel. Nor is it likely 
that any pre-exilic writer would picture a 
state of things such as we find in 13 l ' 6 , 
where prophecy is utterly discredited and 
abandoned. Apparently also there is no king 
even in Jerusalem : the king is yet to come 
(9 9 ). Besides, the reference to Greece (9 13 ), 
as a world-power over which Zion must win 
the victory, seems incomprehensible at any 
pre-exilic date. 

Some writers find in chs. 9-11 a reference 
to the invasion of Asia by Alexander the 
Great in 334 B.C., and date this portion of the 
book accordingly ; but the most recent tend- 
ency is to assign the whole of the prophecies 
in chs. 9-14 to the 2nd cent. B.C. According 
to this view chs. 9-11, 13 7-9 and 12-14 are two 
groups, each falling into two parts. The first 
two are 9 1 -!! 3 , and 114-1M3 7 " 9 , written in 
the first quarter of the 2nd cent. The Greeks 
(9 13 ) are the world-power against which Juda- 
ism must strive for supremacy. Assyria is the 
Seleucid kingdom founded in 312 B.C. by 
Seleucus, a general of Alexander the Great. 
It included at first nearly the whole of Syria 
and Babylonia — certainly all the places men- 
tioned in 9 1 ' 2 . When Antiochus the Great, 
one of the Seleucid kings, came to the throne 
in 223 B.C., Palestine was under the rule of 
the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt. In 198, 
however, Antiochus defeated the Egyptians, 
and Palestine passed into his hands. Hence 
the preeminence given to Assyria (10 n ). 
Hence also the sheep are the Jews whose 
' possessors ' (the Seleucid sovereigns) ' slay 
them' (ll 5 ). 'Their own shepherds' (ll 5 ) 
may be the high priests and ethnarchs (in 
Jerusalem) of foreign sympathies, who ' pity 
them not.' In that age there was much in- 
trigue and unrest in Palestine — murder and 
outrage even in high places were not uncom- 
mon ; so that the cutting off of three shepherds 
in one month would be no unlikely event. 

In like manner chs. 12-14 are regarded as 
consisting of two prophecies (12, 1 3 1-6 and 14), 
both belonging to the Maccabaean age. They 
may have been written soon after the accession 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, 175 B.C. The con- 
trast of Judaea with Jerusalem (12 5 ), and the 
fact that help to the city comes from the 
country (l- ,; ). are a likely reflexion of the 
situation in that age (see Jos. 'Ant.' bk. 12). 
On the whole, it can hardly be said that modern 



600 



INTRO. 



ZECHARIAH 



1. 14 






scholarship has reached a decisive conclusion 
on this part of Zechariah, though the view that 
assigns it to a late post-exilic age seems most 
in accord with the facts of the case. 

5. General Characteristics. These chs. (9-14) 
witness, on the one hand, to a wider contact with 
the outside heathen world (9 l ' 7 10 n 9 13 , etc.), 
which tends to universalism (9 1 14 9 ), and, on 
the other hand, to an intensely narrow patriot- 
ism, whose ideals can only be fulfilled by the 
direct interposition of God (12 3 > 6 > 7 >' 9 ) Besides, 
we find in them the most primitive Messianic 
hopes — judgment of the nations (9 1 " 7 14 3 » 12 , 
etc.), advent of Messiah (9 9 ), deliverance (9 n > 12 
10 10 ), conflict with the heathen (9 8 > 15 14 3 >*), 
final victory over, and conversion of the heathen 
(14 13 ' 17 ), ceremonial purity (14 20 » 21 ), and God's 
reign of peace (14 5 > 9 ). Only the true Messiah, 
our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, could have 
sifted these elements, and brought them into 
harmony with His great work. 

6. Contents of chs. 9-14. o^-n 3 . God will 
visit the nations in judgment and His people 
in mercy. Judah and Ephraim will be restored, 
and Assyria and Egypt discomfited. 1 1 4 ' 17 and 
13 ~- g . The parable of the good shepherds and 
the foolish shepherd. I2 1 -i3 6 . The deliver- 
ance and the coming glory of Jerusalem. 14. The 
destruction of the enemies of Jerusalem, and 
her exaltation as the centre of worship for the 
world. 

CHAPTEK 1 

Lessons from the Past. The First and 
Second Visions 

1-6. The Prophet's message. He calls the 
people to repentance. 8-17. The First Yision : 
The Divine Messengers ever watching over the 
affairs of the nations. 18-21. The Second 
Vision : Hostile nations subdued by divinely- 
appointed agents. 

1. The eighth month] the month Bui (see 
1K6 3S ), corresponding to part of October- 
November. The second year of Darius] i.e. 
520 B.C. This was the first Darius, son of 
Hystaspes, who had just succeeded to the Per- 
sian throne. Babylonia formed part of his 
dominions. He found the old decree of Cyrus 
in the archives of Babylon, permitting the 
Jews to return and build the Second Temple, 
and renewed it (EzrG 1 ). The son of Iddo the 
prophet] There should be a comma after Iddo. 
Zechariah was the prophet. 

2-6. The people are warned to repent by 
the fate of their fathers, who suffered exile 
because they refused to listen to God's word 
by the earlier prophets. 

3. Unto them] i.e. the people. The LORD 
of hosts] a frequent phrase in Zechariah. 
Probably the original idea was of Jehovah as 
the leader of Israel's armies, then of sun, moon, 
and stars, the hosts of heaven, then of angelic 



hosts. The title expresses God's supreme power 
and majesty. 4. Zechariah evidently knows the 
works of the earlier prophets : cp. Amos passim, 
Jer26 5 35 15 , etc. 5, 6. Prophets and people 
alike die, but the Word of God lives anew in 
every generation, and from the experience of 
the past appeals to men to shun those errors 
of their fathers which brought such dire 
punishment. Take hold of] RV ' overtake.' 

8-17. The First Vision : The horseman 
among the myrtles. The seven visions have 
one date, viz. the twenty-fourth day of the 
month Sebat, RV ' Shebat ' (the name in 
Babylonish), i.e. part of January and February, 
519 B.C. The occasion of the visions is the 
growing impatience of the returned exiles. 
They could perceive no sign of God's pre- 
sence, or of His interest in their labours and 
difficulties. Haggai had assured them that in 
' a little while ' God would ' shake the king- 
doms ' and fill His house with glory (2 6 > 7 ). 
But time passed and there was no sign of 
this. The people began to lose faith in God. 
These visions of Zechariah thus came at a 
most important crisis. To his countrymen 
they were a bright panorama of hope, reveal- 
ing the marvellous providence of God, and 
His love for His people. 

The first vision assures them that God 
knows every detail of their circumstances. 
His messengers are ever on the alert, bringing 
tidings to their King from all parts of the earth. 

8. Myrtle trees] rare in Palestine to-day, 
but once common around Jerusalem : cp. Neh 
8 15 . They have no special significance in the 
vision. Bottom] RM ' shady place.' Red 
horses, speckled, and white] RV horses, 'red, 
sorrel, and white.' Some take the colours to 
indicate various countries whence the messen- 
ger came, but this is unlikely. 9. O my lord] 
addressing the angel of the Lord, who has 
not yet been mentioned. 10. The figure is 
military and suggests horsemen hovering on 
the flanks of an army — the scouts of God's 
great host. 

11. At rest] probably a lull in the wars of 
Darius, and so all the more remarkable. 

12. One angel speaks from among the 
myrtle trees, another from beside the prophet. 
The second asks why in this universal peace 
Jerusalem alone is unvisited of God. To the 
nations He sends peace as a sign, to Jerusalem 
He seems to give no sign. Threescore and 
ten years] in round numbers: cp. Jer25 n 
29 10 . The first captivity took place in 597 
B.C. ; the final destruction of Jerusalem in 
586 ; Cyrus' decree for return in 537 ; this 
prophecy in 519. 14, 15. Outward condition 
may be no indication of God's favour. Though 
the nations are at rest, God is angry with them. 
They have exceeded their commission in pun- 
ishing Judah so severely. Though Jerusalem 



601 



1. 16 



ZECHARIAH 



3. 



is troubled, yet God is returning with mercies 
for her. 16. A line] the measuring line which 
the builders would use in restoring her ruined 
streets. 17. Shall yet be spread abroad] better, 
' shall yet overflow with prosperity' (KM), i.e. 
the cities of Judah : see v. 12. Zion] a 
synonym for Jerusalem ; properly the higher of 
the two spurs on which Jerusalem was built. 

18-21. The Second Vision : The four 
horns and the four smiths. This vision forms 
a fitting supplement to the first, and describes 
the destruction of those enemies of Israel 
(the four horns) who, having been too zealous 
in punishing her for her sins, are now them- 
selves worthy of punishment. 

18. Four horns] Yain efforts have been 
made to identify these with four nations or 
races, who at one time or another were Israel's 
oppressors, e.g. Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, 
Persia. A more likely suggestion is that ' four ' 
may indicate the whole of Israelis enemies 
from the four quarters of the globe. But 
even this seems arbitrary. On ' horns,' as a 
symbol of military power, see 1 K 22 n . 

20. Four carpenters (R Y ' smiths ')] lit. ' work- 
ers ' (sc. in iron), as in Isa 44 12 . Probably one 
to deal with each horn. The language is 
symbolic, and does not necessarily imply the 
sending of four deliverers. 21. No man did 
lift up his head] In the events culminating 
in the captivity, the people were utterly 
crushed. Fray] an obsolete word meaning 
' terrify ' : cp. Dt 28 26 . The root is seen in 
' afraid,' i.e. affrayed. But the reading in 
LXX suggests a Hebrew word meaning ' file 
down,' which certainly gives a better sense to 
the whole passage. Cast out] RY ' cast down.' 

Gentiles] RY ' nations,' and so throughout. 

The imagery of this vision is somewhat 
difficult, but the meaning is quite plain, viz. 
the judgment of those nations who had 
harried God's people. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Third Vision 

1-5. A young man with a measuring line 
goes forth to measure Jerusalem preparatory 
to rebuilding the walls. But an angel is 
sent to stop him. The population will so 
increase as to exceed all human expectations, 
and God will be the city's best defence. 
6-9. The Jews are summoned to leave 
Babylon, for judgment is to fall upon that 
city. 10-12. God's gracious promise to dwell 
in Jerusalem, to which the nations will 
come. 

1. A man with a measuring line] The vision 
is probably OOnnected with wliat. at the time, 
was really under- discussion, viz. the rebuild- 
ing of the walls. The Jews felt that they 
were few in number, and without proper de- 
fences. 3, 4. The interpreting angel stands 



near the prophet. He goes forth to meet 
another angel, who asks him to stop this young 
man in a useless task. The city is destined to 
have an overflowing population. No walls 
will be able to contain it. It will stretch forth 
its houses far out into the surrounding country 
and seem, not like a walled city, but like a 
series of country towns packed together. 

5. In addition to this reason, the prophet has 
no faith in warlike fortifications (cp. the sub- 
sequent disastrous sieges of Jerusalem by the 
Syrians and Romans : Jos. ' Wars of Jews,' 
1. 6, etc.). God is her best protection. A 
wall of fire] a figure suggested by the watch- 
fires, built round a desert caravan when camp- 
ing at night, to scare away wild beasts : cp. 
1S25!6. 

6-13. This section forms a poetical pro- 
phecy, addressed to the Jews still remaining in 
Babylon. 

6. Land of the north] Babylon. Spread] 
scattered in exile. 7. Deliver thyself, O 
Zion] better, ' Ho, escape to Zion.' 8. After 
the glory] better, ' after glory,' i.e. to win 
glory, by bringing judgment on the Babyloni- 
ans who spoiled Israel. Me] the angel is still 
speaking. Apple of his eye] here lit. ' the 
door of his eye ' ; elsewhere, ' the daughter,' i.e. 
the pupil of the eye, which, from its position, 
importance, and surroundings, is used as an 
emblem of what is exceedingly precious : cp. 
Dt32!0Psl7 8 , etc. 10. This prophecy was 
fulfilled when the Temple was completed and 
consecrated by Zerubbabel in 516 B.C. 

11. Many nations shall be joined to the 
LORD] better, ' shall join themselves.' This 
was fulfilled after the coming of Jesus Christ, 
who also fulfilled the words, ' 1 will dwell in 
the midst of thee.' 12. His portion in the 
holy land] better, ' his portion shall be upon 
holy ground,' i.e. in Zion. 13. Be silent] lit. 
'hush!' cp. Hab2' 20 . Is raised up] better, 
' hath roused himself ' — said of God when He 
is about to execute some great purpose. His 
holy habitation] i.e. heaven. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Fourth Vision 

Joshua, better known under the later form 
Jeshua (Ezr22 3 2 Nehl2 <> 8,10, etc.), was the 
son of Jehozadak, a member of the priestly 
order. He returned with the Jews from exile, 
and was prominently associated with Zerubba- 
bel in the erection of the Second Temple 
In 1 Esdras and Ecclus. the name appears 
simply as ' Jesus.' 

1-7. Joshua, the high priest, is seen in a 
vision standing before the angel of God, ac- 
cused by the adversary of bemg unworthy, as 
the sinful representative of a sinful nation, to 
stand before God in the holy office of high 
priest. He is, however, acquitted, purified, 



602 



3. 1 



ZECHARIAH 



4.6. 



and given charge of the Temple. 8-10. The 
promise of Messiah and of peace. 

i. And he] the interpreting angel. 

Satan] The word in the original Hebrew 
has the definite article, and is thus correctly 
rendered by EM ' The Adversary.' In OT. 
it is used first of a human adversary: see 
1 S 29 4 1 K 1 1 14 . Compare also the angel who 
appears ' as an adversary ' to Balaam (Nu 22 32 ). 
Then, in Zechariah and Job, it is used pre- 
sumably of an angel, who is permitted to 
accuse men in G-od's presence. How far this 
I adversary ' is sanctioned by God, or works in 
God's service as one jealous for the right, it 
is difficult to say. In this c. he is reproved by 
God Himself for showing himself too eager 
to emphasise the sinful nature of Joshua, the 
high priest and representative of the nation. 
In 1C1121 1 the word 'Satan' appears as a 
proper name, and he is represented as the 
Tempter, cunning, malicious, and opposed to 
God. 

In this passage of Zechariah the motive we 
assign to Satan is not of much importance. 
This is a vision. Its purpose is to encourage 
the desponding Jews. How could they build 
and consecrate the Temple of God ? So 
feeble and sinful they seemed to themselves ; 
even their best men were polluted: cp. Ezk 
22 26 . By this vision the prophet assures 
them that their sin is removed, and that 
Joshua's priesthood is recognised. 

At his right hand] the position of a plaint- 
iff in Jewish law courts : see Psl09 6 . To 
resist him] RV ' to be his adversary,' or ac- 
cuser — the same word as in Hebrew expresses 
the noun ' Satan.' 

2. Satan is reproved. He would induce 
God to cast off His people. A brand plucked 
out of the fire] i.e. something precious rescued 
from destruction : cp. Am4 n . Joshua is the 
representative of the people who have just 
been rescued from exile. 3. Filthy garments] 
symbolical of sin and unfitness for the pure 
service of God. Probably the sin here signi- 
fied was the nation's past idolatry and neglect 
of the worship of God. 4. God (and He alone 
can) changes all this. Israel's sin is taken 
away : her negligence changed to glorious 
service. 5. I said] Here the prophet himself 
seems to intervene in the vision. But a more 
probable reading is ' he said.' A fair mitre] 
lit. ' a clean turban.' The root of the word 
indicates that it was made of a long piece of 
fine linen wound round and round : see Ex 28 36 . 

7. God's solemn charge to Joshua. Judge 
my house] i.e. regulate the Temple and its 
services. Places to walk] RV ' a place of ac- 
cess,' probably to intercede with God for the 
j 'people : Joshua is to have the right of entree 
at the heavenly court. Among these that 
stand by] the attendant angels. 



8. A great Messianic promise. Joshua and 
his fellow-priests are a sign of God's favour, 
which will culminate in the appearance of the 
Branch or Sprout, i.e. the Messiah King. So 
also on the stone (v. 9) with its seven eyes or 
facets — the stone prepared to be the head- 
stone of the Temple — God will engrave the 
name of His Messiah, as a token of national 
sin forgiven. Men wondered at] men of omen : 
or perhaps the meaning is that being priests 
they could interpret symbols or omens ; con- 
sequently they would know what the Branch 
signified. Branch] better, ' Sprout.' The word 
has no article in Heb. It was well known as a 
symbol of the Messiah: cp.Isa4 2 ll 1 Jer23 5 
33 15 . The new sprout was to grow from the 
nearly dead (extinct) stem of David. 9. Seven 
eyes] symbolising God's watchful care over His 
people (see 4 10 ), guarding them against their 
enemies. 10. In that day] perhaps the day of 
dedicating the new Temple. Then shall there 
be peace and prosperity. Call] invite. 

CHAPTER 4 

The Fifth Vision 

The prophet's thoughts now turn to the 
civil ruler Zerubbabel. The purpose of the 
fifth vision is to encourage him in the difficult 
task of rebuilding the Temple. 

1-5, 11-14. The golden candlestick (i.e. the 
returned exiles) receives its supply of oil (i.e. 
the divine grace) through two channels (' pipes,' 
v. 12), viz. the spiritual and the temporal 
leaders, Joshua and Zerubbabel, through whose 
united efforts the prosperity of the nation would 
be accomplished. These are the two olive trees. 
6-10 is an encouraging address to Zerubbabel ; 
weak though he is, yet by the help of God's 
Holy Spirit he will finish the great work. 

1. And waked me] The visions evidently 
occurred in the night, but so vivid were they 
that Zechariah seemed to awake. 2. A candle- 
stick all of gold] In the first Temple ten 
candles gave light (1K7 4 9, but see Ex25 31 ). 

Bowl] holding the main supply of oil. From 
it a pipe flowed to each lamp. RV reads, ' seven 
pipes to each of the lamps,' but LXX and 
Vulgate reading, followed in AV, is probably 
correct. 3. The lamps are supplied from a 
perennial and inexhaustible source, viz. two 
olive trees. 

6. Zerubbabel] son of Shealtiel, but called in 
1 Ch3 19 son of Pedaiah, was governor ('pehah,' 
as Haggai calls him) of Judah in the time of 
Haggai and Zechariah. Shealtiel was a son of 
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, so that Zerubbabel 
was of royal blood. He returned from exile, 
probably in 538 B.C., along with his uncle 
Sheshbazzar, who was the first governor of 
Judah after the return. He probably suc- 
ceeded his uncle as governor some time in 
522-520 B.C. He is recognised by Zechariah 



603 



4.6 



ZECHARIAH 



6. 



as the civil head of Jerusalem, and as such is 
encouraged to proceed with the work of re- 
building the Temple. Of his ultimate fate 
nothing is known. 

6. It is clear that v. 6 does not give the 
answer to the question asked in v. 4 ; conse- 
quently most modern scholars place the section 
10 b -14 after 6 a , thus : 'Then he answered and 
spoke unto me saying, Those seven, they are 
the eyes,' etc. This makes a most excellent 
connexion. The seven lamps are symbols of 
the eyes of the Lord watching continually. 
And the question concerning the two olive 
trees follows naturally. 

12. The v. seems to be simply an unneces- 
sary repetition of v. 11, and modern scholars 
omit it. 14. The two anointed ones] lit. 'two 
sons of oil.' These are Joshua and Zerubbabel, 
priest and king, both anointed, both receiving 
all their grace and power from God. 

6 b -io a . These vv. come naturally at the 
end of the completed vision : so scholars place 
the section after v. 14, and read : ' This is the 
word of the Lord unto Zerubbabel, saying, 
Not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit, 
saith the Lord of hosts,' etc. God's Spirit is 
sufficient; obstacles apparently insurmountable 
will disappear. Zerubbabel will bring forth 
the copestone, and complete the Temple amid 
joyful acclamations. 7. Grace unto it] i.e. May 
God bless it. io a . Scornful doubters shall, by 
this success, be put to shame. They shall see 
Zerubbabel moving the plumb-line to test the 
completed walls. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Sixth and Seventh Visions 
1-4. A flying roll inscribed with curses comes 
down upon the earth. The previous visions 
had promised many blessings to the people ; 
and the sixth and seventh teach that wicked- 
ness will be removed from the land ; for if 
evil still remained, the blessings would be 
worthless. The first part of this process con- 
sists in the punishment of evildoers. The 
flying roll signifies the sin of the evildoer 
coming home to roost. 

5-1 1. The Seventh Vision : A woman 
(typifying the besetting sins of Israel) is shut 
up in an ephah-measure, and carried off to the 
land of Shinar, the detested and sinful place, 
where she finds a fitting abode. 

1. A flying roll] Rolls were of skin or 
parchment, on which all writing was inscribed. 
The document was rolled up much in tin same 
way as a wall-map is rolled now. This roll 
was evidently unfolded, flying like a bird of 
prey, and sinned of enormous size (v. 2). 

2. He] the attendant angel who is God's 
immediate messenger to Zechariah. Twenty 
cubits] over 30 ft. 

3. Earth] RV 'land,' i.e. Palestine. For 



every one that stealeth, etc.] better, per- 
haps, ' for every thief shall be swept away 
from hence.' But the expressions are difficult. 
The exact meaning of the phrase ' on the one 
side according to it . . on the other side accord- 
ing to it ' (RV) is most obscure. LXX ren- 
ders, 'For every thief shall suffer death.' 
Some scholars refer the phrases to the roll, 
which does not seem likely. Others, by a 
very slight change in the Heb., render, ' For 
every thief has been too long unpunished, and 
every (false) swearer has been too long un- 
punished.' It is probable that there is a 
reference to certain people who did not sub- 
scribe to the rebuilding of the Temple, swear- 
ing (falsely) that they had no money. 

4. Shall remain] RV ' shall abide,' but 
better, ' shall roost.' The idea is still of this 
roll as a huge bird of prey, descending upon 
the home of the evildoer and utterly consum- 
ing it. Zechariah's aim is still to encourage 
his desponding countrymen. Never again will 
the nation, as a whole, suffer for sin ; only 
the sinner and his house shall perish. 

6. Ephah] the greatest measure among the 
Jews, a round vessel holding about 7 gals. 
This vision describes the fulfilment of the 
promise given in 3 9 . Resemblance] A very 
slight change of one Heb. letter gives the 
reading, ' This is their transgression in all 
the land.' This makes much better sense. 
The prophet is referring to the deep con- 
sciousness of sin which weighs upon the 
people from the high priest downward. 

7. A talent of lead] lit. ' a circle or round 
piece of lead,' the heavy lid of the ephah. 
The later use of the word is ' talent,' a Jewish 
weight somewhat over 1 cwt. When the lid 
was lifted, the woman was disclosed in the 
ephah. 8. Cast it into] RV, ' cast her down 
into.' The woman, typifying the sin of the 
nation, is thrust down into the ephah and 
covered with the lid. 9. The wind was in 
their wings] bore them along like long- winged 
birds (' storks ') on a windy day. 

11. Shinar] i.e. Babylonia: see GnlO 10 
ll 2 Isall n . Here regarded as the counter- 
part of Zion and the proper home of all that 
is evil, especially of sins such as fraud and 
false swearing. The vision is remarkable. 
God not only forgives the sins of His people, but 
carries them altogether away from their land, 
that they may deceive them no more. Sin is 
typified by the figure of a woman ; but it is 
worthy of note that it is through women that 
the land is purified from its sin. 

CHAPTER 6 

The Eighth Vision. The Symbolic 

Crowning 
1-8. Four war-chariots, with variously 
coloured horses, go forth to execute God's 



G04 



6. 1 



ZECHARIAH 



judgments against the enemies of oppressed 
Israel in different parts of the earth. Two, 
in particular, go northwards, to ' quiet His 
spirit ' (i.e. to satisfy His anger) upon Babylon. 
9-15. Zechariah is commanded to take gold 
and silver from the Temple offerings, and 
make a crown for Joshua the high priest. At 
the same time, the Messiah ('Branch') is 
again promised. Under Him the Temple will 
be completed with the help of people from 
afar, probably returned exiles. 

1. It is noteworthy that the first vision 
showed God's universal providence in mercy 
(messengers coming from all parts of the earth), 
the last vision reveals G-od's universal provi- 
dence in judgment (war chariots going forth 
in all directions). And I turned, and lifted] 
EV ' Then again I lifted' In Heb. to ' turn ' 
and do something is to do it k again.' Chariots] 
used for military purposes, and also on state 
occasions, therefore symbolical of power and 
majesty. They are four because they go to 
the four quarters of the earth. 

3. Grisled and bay] lit. ' spotted, vigorous.' 
It is difficult to explain the two adjectives. 
The first etymologically means ' spotted as 
with a hailstorm ' ; and those who see a signi- 
ficance in the colours of the horses connect 
hail with the judgment which the fourth 
chariot carries : cp. Rev8 7 16 21 . The second 
adjective has, in reality, no reference to colour 
(see EM), and some scholars omit it. Grisled] 
= 'grizzled,' 'grey.' 

5. The four spirits of the heavens] KV 
' winds ' (the word for ' wind ' in Heb. means 
also ' spirit,' i.e. breath) ; but would the 
prophet speak of winds ' standing before the 
Lord ' ? The addition of a single letter in 
the Heb. gives the following reading : ' These 
(i.e. the chariots and horses) go forth to the 
four winds of heaven after they have pre- 
sented themselves before the Lord.' 6. North 
country] Babylonia. South country] Egypt. 
Egypt, like Babylon, was at this time part of 
the Persian empire, Cambyses having overcome 
the Egyptians in the battle of Pelusium in 
527 B.C. Two of the chariots go north, a 
double doom on Babylon. But some scholars 
consider that the Heb. words for ' behind 
them ' (RY ' after them ') are a corruption 
for words meaning ' to the east.' 

7. Through the earth] as a reserve force to 
go wherever they may be required, but some 
scholars read 'to the west.' Bay] or 'strong.' 
Some read ' red,' see RM. 

The reading of the vision is somewhat com- 
plicated, but its meaning is clear. Jehovah 
will defend Judah against her enemies, and 
especially He will deprive Babylon of the 
power to do her harm. 

8. Quieted my spirit in] lit. 'caused my 
spirit to rest in.' The meaning may be either, 



(1) ' brought peace to,' or (2) ' sated my fury 
by stirring up trouble in.' The historical 
situation supports the second interpretation. 
Even while Cambyses was yet alive (in 522 B.C.) 
the magician Gautama, who pretended to be 
Smerdis, the brother of Cambyses, had been 
proclaimed king. Cambyses died of an acci- 
dental wound on his way to fight Gautama. 
The latter was in turn slain by Darius, who 
ascended the Persian throne in 521. Im- 
mediately revolts broke out in all parts of the 
empire, which were not subdued finally till 514. 
9-15. A party of Jews had just come from 
Babylon. Zechariah is instructed to take part 
of the silver and gold which they have brought 
for the Temple, and to make a set of circlets 
for Joshua, the high priest. Thus he will 
more fully be a type of One to come, who is 
both Priest and King to His people. 

11. Then take silver] RV ' yea, take of them 
silver.' Crowns] some read ' a crown.' 

12. 13. These vv. are somewhat difficult. 
The simplest way out of the difficulty is to 
suppose that, after the word head in v. 11, 
the words ' of Zerubbabel and ' have accident- 
ally fallen out. This explains the use of the 
plural 'crowns' in vv. 11, 14, but it does not 
explain why only one of these rulers is ad- 
dressed in vv. 12, 13. Many scholars hold 
that the crown is really for Zerubbabel, the 
civil ruler, whose name, for political reasons, 
has been suppressed, and that vv. 12, 13 refer 
to him, as fulfilling the prophecy of the 
Branch (see Isall 1 ) and completing the 
Temple. However this may be, the ultimate 
fulfilment of the prophecy is in Him, through 
whom we have the far more glorious Temple, 
' not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.' 

13. And he shall be a priest] RM 'there 
shall be a priest.' If the preceding clauses 
refer to Zerubbabel, this would refer to 
Joshua. We should then have a clear meaning 
for the following sentence, ' and the counsel 
of peace shall be between them both,' i.e. these 
two (Joshua and Zerubbabel) would rule to- 
gether in harmony. Thus these vv. give the 
same thought as the vision of the golden candle- 
stick. 14. The crowns (RV ' crown ') are 
to be laid up in the Temple, as a memorial of 
the generosity of the deputation which brought 
the silver and gold. Helem should probably 
be ' Heldai ' ; Hen seems to be a corruption 
of ' Josiah': see v. 10. 15. As a sign of the 
fulfilment of Zechariah's word, more people 
will come (from Babylon) to assist in com- 
pleting the Temple. And this shall come to 
pass, if] better, ' and it shall come to pass that 
if.' The v. breaks off unfinished. 

CHAPTER 7 
Warnings from the Past 
Chs. 7 and 8 go together, and were spoken 



605 



7.1 



ZECHARIAH 



8.16 



on a date (fourth day of the ninth month in 
the fourth year of Darius) two years later than 
the series of visions described above, viz. in 
518 B.C. (On contemporary events see . on 
6 8 .) They are Zechariah's answer to a question 
put to him by certain visitors to Jerusalem, 
who asked whether the fast observed by the 
Jews in the fifth month, in memory of the 
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
should still be kept. Zechariah says, ' No ; 
God demands not feasts, but observance of 
moral laws, by neglecting which your fore- 
fathers suffered punishment.' C. 8. God has 
assuredly come to dwell with His people. 
The Messianic age is at hand. Fast days will 
soon become joyful feast days ; and even the 
heathen will desire to worship with the Jews. 

i. In the fourth year of king Darius] 518 
B.C. Chisleu] or ' Chislev,' corresponds very 
nearly to December. 2. When they had sent 
unto the house of God Sherezer] EV ' now 
they of Beth-el had sent Sherezer.' The v. 
is difficult. Some scholars suggest the trans- 
lation : ' Now Bethel, Sharezer, and Regem- 
melech . . had sent ' ; or, ' Now Bel-Sharezer 
sent Regem-melech . . and his men.' This 
latter is the reading favoured by those who 
think the deputation came from Babylon. 
But from what follows it is evident that the 
deputation was a local one — from Bethel 
rather than from Babylon. To pray before the 
LORD] RV ' to entreat the favour of God.' 

3. Separating myself] The word is the root 
whence the term ' Nazirite ' is derived. The 
fast involved abstinence from other things be- 
sides food and drink: see Lv 16 29 > 31 . 

5. Fifth and seventh month'] The fasts were 
four (see 8 19 ), viz. in the fourth month com- 
memorating the fall of Jerusalem (Jer39 2 
52 6 > 7 ), in the seventh month for the murder 
of Gedaliah (2K25 25 ), in th^ tenth month for 
the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem 
(JerSO 1 ), and specially in the fifth month 
when the Temple was burned ( Jer 52 12 ' 14 ). 
But these fasts seemed now out of place. 
The form remained, but the spirit was gone. 

7. Rather than lay stress on these mechan- 
ical devices of religious faith, they should 
study the words spoken by the old prophets, 
such as Amos and Hosea, before the exile, 
before the south land was denuded of its 
inhabitants. 8. Most scholars omit v. 8 : the 
sense is preserved. V. 9 tells us what the 
former prophets said. 9, 10. Cp. Hos6 6 Isa 
116-20 Mic6«-8 Jer 5 21-23. 

11. Pulled away the shoulder] like an 
obstinate man refusing to listen to good advice, 
turning away quickly when a hand is laid upon 
his shoulder : cp. 'to give the cold shoulder.' 

12. Hath sent] better, l had sent.' 

14. The prophet wishes to emphasise the 
truth, that to obey God's word is the supreme 



demand of religious life : cp. 1S15 22 . The 
rejection of God's message in days gone by 
brought desolation and exile. The true fast 
is to abstain from sin, and to listen to the 
voice of God. 

CHAPTER 8 
Reiteration of God's Promises concern- 
ing Jerusalem 

The whole c. is made up of ten short oracles 
each introduced by the formula, l Thus saith 
the Lord of hosts ' (except v. 3). God has 
come to dwell with His people. Happiness 
and prosperity are in store for Jerusalem if it 
will do His will. All nations will seek to join 
in worshipping God in Jerusalem. 

I. Again] RV ' and ' : there is no break in 
thought between the two chs. 2. I was jealous] 
better, ' I am jealous.' The word indicates 
strong emotion either for or against some 
object. In this case the context shows it is on 
behalf of Zion : ' I burn with zeal for the 
cause of Zion.' 3. A city of truth] RV ' The 
city of truth,' i.e. the faithful city : cp. Isa 1 26. 

4, 5. A beautiful picture of a peaceful time. 
Amid so many wars and privations, old men 
and children had been comparatively rare in 
the ranks of the returned exiles, and even in 
the homes of Judaea. 6. If it be] Although it 
may seem incredible to the people, it is not 
impossible to God : cp. Pssll8 2 3 126 1.2. 

8. ' They shall be to me for a people ' : cp. 
Hos2 2 3. 

9. Prophets] i.e. Haggai and Zechariah, and 
perhaps others now unknown. The wording 
of the v. is difficult. What the prophets had 
said is given at the end, viz. ' The Temple 
must be rebuilt.' The rebuilding of the 
Temple has progressed steadily in the two 
years. The prophet encourages the workers 
to go on : cp. Hag 215-19. I0> II# The strife 
and poverty of the early days, when the build- 
ing of the Temple was neglected, are contrasted 
with the peace and prosperity that are to 
come. 10. Hire] i.e. wages. The affliction] 
RV ' the adversary,' probably the Samaritans 
and Ammonites, who plundered the helpless 
Jews: cp. Ezr8 22 . 12. Nature also will 
contribute to the glory of the Messianic age — 
a frequent feature of Messianic prophecy : cp. 
Isa 35 1 55 12 > 13 . The seed shall be prosperous] 
RV ' there shall be the seed of peace.' 

13. A curse among the heathen] a subject 
of reproach, something of which they spoke 
evil : see Jer 24 ^ 14, 15. God's promises of 
punishment were fulfilled ; so surely also will 
be His promises of blessing. 

16, 19. In these vv. the prophet once more 
answers the question concerning fasts. ' Let 
them alone,' he says, ' and follow the principles 
of truth and righteousness, and God shall turn 
your fast-days into feast-days.' 16. In your 



606 



8. 20 



ZECHARIAH 



9.13 



gates] The gate was the market-place where 
all business transactions took place : see 
Ruth 4 1 " 11 . Execute the judgment of truth 
and peace] be fair-minded and peaceable. 

20, 23. The gathering in of the nations was 
never adequately fulfilled in regard to Jerusa- 
lem or the Temple then approaching comple- 
tion ; but the prophecy foretells most strikingly 
the success of the kingdom of Christ. It was 
the dream of all Hebrew prophecy : cp. 
Mic42Isa2 3. 

23. Ten men] used for a large number : cp. 
Gn31 7 Lv2G 2t3 Neh 4 12 . Take hold of the 
skirt] the involuntary action of one who wishes 
to be listened to: cp. 1S15 27 Isa4!. How 
earnestly have men sought salvation ! They 
find it in Him — a member of the Jewish race — 
who is the Saviour of the world. 

CHAPTER 9 

Judgments on the Nations. The Prince 
of Peace 
1-8. A judgment is about to fall on Damas- 
cus, Hamath, Tyre, Sidon, and the cities of 
j the Philistines. A remnant from Philistia 
| will acknowledge God. God will encamp 
around His sanctuary. 9, 10. The coming of 
I Messiah and His kingdom of peace. 11-17. 
Hope for Israel. God will enable her to con- 
tend successfully with Greece. He will aid 
and bless her. 

1. Burden] oracle, or prophecy : see Jer 
23 33-40. i n the land] RV 'upon the land.' 

Hadrach] not mentioned elsewhere in the 
' Bible. On the Assyrian tablets it is asso- 
ciated with Damascus, and must have been 
1 somewhere in that quarter, in the valley of 
the Orontes. The various places mentioned 
follow the course pursued by Alexander the 
\ Great in his campaign in 332 B.C., viz. through 
l Syria, Phoenicia, and Philistia. The rest 
I thereof] R V ' its ' (the prophecy's) ' resting- 
place.' When the eyes of man, etc.] better, 
h' for the Lord hath an eye upon man (i.e. the 
I heathen) and all the tribes of Israel.' If the 
prophecy belongs to the beginning of the 
'2nd cent. B.C. (see Intro.), then the reference 
is to the kingdom of the Seleucidse, in whose 
territories lay all the places mentioned. 

2. Hamath] a city in the valley of the Orontes, 
in Upper Syria. It was renamed Epiphaneia by 
jAntiochus Epiphanes. Shall border thereby] 
jRV 'which bordereth thereon.' Tyre (Tyrus) 
land Sidon were famous cites on the coast of 
Syria, inhabited by the Phoenicians, who were 
'renowned, like their descendants the Car- 
thaginians, for their cunning. Though it be 

very wise] RV ' she is very wise.' This false 
wisdom of the world God will visit in judg- 
ment. 4. In the sea] i.e destroy her com- 
linerce. 5. Ashkelon, etc.] cities of the Philis- 
tines. After taking Tyre, Alexander marched 



down the coast to these cities. He captured 
Gaza after a two months' siege. For her ex- 
pectation shall be ashamed] i.e. her pride will 
be humbled. 

6. A bastard] probably a son of a mixed 
race. The idea evidently is that the city 
would be depopulated by war, and aliens would 
be installed by the conquerors. 7. This mixed 
race will be purified from their idolatry. The 
second half of this v. might be rendered as 
follows : ' But there shall be a remnant (i.e. 
of the Philistines) for our God, and one shall 
be as a chief in Judah, and Ekron (shall be) as 
a Jebusite.' Jebusite] The Jebusites were the 
ancient inhabitants of Jerusalem. The word 
is used for ' a native of Jerusalem.' 8. Be- 
cause of the army] RM ' for a guard or gar- 
rison.' Because of him, etc.] RV ' that none 
pass through or return.' Oppressor] better, 
perhaps, ' invader ' ; the reference is either to 
Alexander or some similar conqueror. Have 
I seen with mine eyes] viz. the iniquity of the 
oppressing heathen. 

9. The advent of the Prince of Peace, a 
striking contrast to a ravaging warrior like 
Alexander the Great, who visited the sur- 
rounding nations with fire and sword. Just, 
and having salvation] better, ' (declared to be) 
righteous and victorious.' Riding upon an 
ass] the symbol, not of lowliness, but of peace, 
as the horse was of war : cp. Mt21, etc. 

10. The chariot . . the horse . . the battle 
bow] These too-familiar objects will have no 
place in Messiah's kingdom. He shall speak 
peace unto the nations. From sea even to 
sea] from the Dead Sea to the Mediterranean. 

From the river] the Euphrates. 

11. To the Jews in exile specially does the 
message of peace come. By that well-known 
relationship (covenant) with God, sealed by 
the blood of sacrifices, making them His own 
adopted people, He will restore them all to 
their own city (Jerusalem). By the blood of 
thy covenant] the blood sprinkled in the sacri- 
fices whereby the covenant was ratified : cp. 
Ex24 8 . Pit] an empty cistern : cp. Gn 37 22 . 

12. Strong hold] probably Jerusalem. 
Prisoners of hope] i.e. the Jews, who by 

their covenant with God had a sure hope of 
deliverance. Double] cp. Isa61 7 ; evidently a 
reference to restoration from exile. 

13. The prophet again plunges into a vision 
of war. The vision is figurative ; God is to 
use Judah as a bow, and fit Ephraim as an 
arrow to the bow. Some who assign this pro- 
phecy to an early date believe that the words 
against thy sons, O Greece, may be a gloss of 
a later scribe. 

Greece] Heb. Javan, so called from Javan, 
a son of Japheth, the supposed ancestor of the 
Europeans : cp. Gn 10 2 > 4 . According to Sayce, 
the word ' Javan ' (to indicate ' Greeks ') is 



607 



9. 14 



ZECHARIAH 



11. 



found in various forms on the monuments 
both of Egypt and Assyria from a very early 
date, and is the same word as w Ionian ' (laov). 
The thought of Greece as a power hostile to 
Judaism would hardly be possible prior to the 
Macedonian invasion of Alexander in the 
4th cent. B.C. From that age onward, even in 
Jerusalem itself, the great struggle went on 
between Judaism and the invading influence 
of Greek culture. This struggle was specially 
keen, at the beginning of the 2nd cent. B.C. 
From a Jewish standpoint the Maccabaean wars 
were really between Jews and Greeks : cp. 
Jer51 20 . 

14, 15. And subdue with sling stones] RV 
' and shall tread down the sling stones ' ; but 
the text is obscure. It is a vision of war as a 
storm in which God is the moving Power : 
cp. Hab3 Ps29. I5 b . By a slight change in 
the Heb. text we might render, ' And they 
shall drink blood like wine, and they shall be 
filled (with it) like bowls, and as the corners 
of the altar (are filled with the blood of the 
sacrifices).' 16, 17. God will save Israel in 
honour and prosperity. His goodness] RM 
'prosperity.' The pronoun is uncertain, but 
the reference is to Israel. 

CHAPTER 10 

Restoration of God's People 
I, 2. A warning to trust in God and not in 
sorcerers. 3-7. The Lord will cast out the 
evil guides of the people, and under new leaders 
Ephraim and Judah will be victorious. 8-12. 
Ephraim will be gathered, but Egypt and 
Assyria will be humbled. 

1. The connexion with 9 17 is very slight, 
fertility demanding the necessary rain. Some 
believe that the passage is entirely indepen- 
dent. The time of the latter rain] The early 
rain was in October, when the ground would 
be broken up for sowing ; the latter rain was 
in Feb. -March, after the crops had sprung up, 
and was necessary for an abundant harvest. 
Kvcn in the season it is wise to ask God for 
rain. Bright clouds] RV k lightnings.' 

2. Idols] ' teraphim,' household images, pro- 
bably in human form : cp. 1S13 1 *. They were 
used for purposes of divination, and were pro- 
bably connected originally with ancestor wor- 
ship. They went their way] RV ' they ' (i.e. 
1 lir people) 'go their way.' as sheep when the 
pasture fans is one place '_ r <> on to another. 

3-12. The whole passage is difficult. A good 
conjecture summarises il as follows : God will 
vigil Judah, in whom will arise brave and wise 

leaders. By their means the lost Ten Tribes 
(Joseph . . Ephraim, vv. (>, 7), who are still in 
exile, will have a glorious restoration bo G-ilead 
and Lebanon, 

3. Shepherds] probably religious teachers 
are here meant : see Intro. Punished the 



goats] RV ' will punish the he-goats,' i.e. the 
false guides of the people : cp. Jer50 8 . Hath 
made] RV ' shall make.' Evidently the word 
shepherd, closing v. 2, suggests an attack on 
the worthless shepherds, religious teachers, 
perhaps, of foreign extraction or of foreign 
sympathies. The he -goats may be ethnarchs 
or civil rulers in Jerusalem. 4. Out of him] 
better, 'from him,' i.e. from Judah. Came] 
better, ' shall come.' Corner] i.e. corner- 
stone. Nail] rather, ' tent-peg ' : something 
that will hold firm. Oppressor] RV ' ruler,' 
i.e. one who keeps guard over workmen. 

6. House of Joseph] i.e. Israel, as repre- 
sented by Ephraim and Manasseh, the two 
leading tribes. Bring them again] may refer 
to the many Israelites in exile in Egypt (v. 10) 
and elsewhere. 

8. I will hiss for them] i.e. whistle to 
attract them : cp. Isa5 26 . God will bring 
back Israel to their own land. 9. I will sow 
them] As it stands this seems to contradict 
what follows as well as what goes before. 
With a slight change of Heb. it is possible 
to render : ' I scattered them among the 
nations, but in far countries they remember 
me. And they will bring up their children 
and come back.' 10. Assyria] Asshur might 
here be used of the Seleucid dominions in 
Syria and Persia ; see Intro. 11. He] i.e. 
Israel. There will be a new exodus for God's 
people. Sea with affliction] better, perhaps, 
' the narrow sea,' i.e. the arm of the Red Sea 
through which, once before, they passed. The 
river] i.e. Nile. Assyria and Egypt are chosen 
as representing the great world forces which 
harassed God's people. 12. Them] i.e. Israel, 
to whose glorious restoration the thoughts of 
the prophet return. Shall walk up and down 
in his (i.e. the Lord's) name] LXX renders, 
' In His name shall they boast themselves.' 

CHAPTER 11 
The Parable of the Shepherds 

The perplexing nature of the prophecies 
in this c. renders exposition difficult, especially 
as we cannot be sure of the circumstances. 
Apparently, however, the passage deals with 
misrule in Jerusalem, either of worthless high 
priests, or of cruel foreign rulers, or of both, 
who are spoken of as shepherds : see Intro. 

1-3. Another storm of war bursts appar- 
ently over northern Israel. 4-14. The; 
people reject their good ruler, and the prophet 
acts the part of a good shepherd tending the 
flock and defending it, but is held in contempt 
by the people. 15-17. The prophet at God's 
command assumes the garb and insignia of a 
worthless shepherd, to signify that God will 
give them into the hand of a cruel and care- 
lese ruler. To this most scholars add, as a 
continuation, L8**. The bad ruler will speedily 



108 



11. 1 



ZECHARIAH 



12.2 



perish. Two-thirds of the people will die, 
but a remnant will be saved. 

i. Open thy doors, O Lebanon] Make way 
for the invaders. 2. Forest of the vintage] 
better, 'the impenetrable forest. 1 Mighty] RV 
i goodly ones,' i.e. nobles ; but the phrase is 
doubtful and spoils the whole thought of the 
passage. Some omit it. 3. The pride of 
Jordan] the rank undergrowth where lions had 
their home : cp. Jer 49 19 , where ' swelling ' 
is really 'thickets.' 

4. Flock of the slaughter] RV ' flock of 
slaughter.' i.e. destined or reared for slaughter. 
This might point to the cruel oppressions and 
martyrdoms in the times of the Maccabees. 

5, 6. According to some views the possessors 
(RM ' buyers ') are those ethnarchs and high 
priests in Jerusalem who were merely puppets 
of the Seleucid sovereigns. The latter farmed 
out the high offices to the highest bidder, who 
in turn oppressed the people by fraud and 
extortion. 

7. The prophet takes up the office of shep- 
herd (cp. Jer 25 1 Ezk3, 4), but finds his task 
too difficult. He pities the poor oppressed 
people, but feels, at the same time, that they 
are so ignorant of their own good as to be 
unable to appreciate a beneficent ruler. But 
see 12 * 21 . Beauty] better, ' Favour,' a symbol 
of God's protecting care. Bands] i.e. 'unity,' 
a symbol of His desire to make peace among 
the people. 8. This is an allusion to some 
event of the time, of which nothing is now 
known. 9. The good shepherd leaves the 
flock. According to a recent view the good 
shepherd, who in despair abandoned the flock, 
was Hyrcanus, the son of Joseph (see Jos. 
'Ant.' 12. 4), who may have been paid to leave 
Jerusalem (vv. 12, 13), but at a price so small 
that he threw it into the treasury in disgust. 

10. The prophet declares that God has 
broken His covenant of mercy with Israel. 

People] better, 'nation,' i.e. Israel regarded 
as tribes. II. The poor of the flock] those 
wretched ones whom the prophet had been 
trying specially to instruct and help. But 
perhaps we should read, ' the dealers in the 
sheep.' 

12. The prophet, personating a hired shep- 
herd, asks for his wages, in order to see what 
value they put upon his services. His hearers 
insult him by offering him the price of a slave 
(Ex 21 32 ). 13. Unto the potter] better, ' into 
the treasury ' (see RM), by the change of one 
letter in the Heb. A goodly price that I was 
prised at of them] a sarcastic parenthesis. St. 
Matthew applies the incident to the case of 
Judas Iscariot (see Mt27 9 ), but refers it to 
Jeremiah. 14. The last hope of uniting broken 
and distracted Israel vanishes. The prophet 
abandons his task in despair. 

15. Instead he will personate a worthless 



ruler who will tear and destroy the sheep. 
According to some this worthless shepherd was 
Menelaus, a high priest whose rivalry with 
Jason, also a claimant for the priesthood, 
brought about the great oppression of the 
Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes, 171 B.C. In 
that case the good shepherd in 13 7 " 9 may refer 
in the first instance to Jason, who represented 
the patriotic, as Menelaus represented the 
foreign, party. Jason, however, was in sym- 
pathy with foreign fashions, and he ultimately 
died in exile. On the other hand, Hyrcanus 
may be intended. 16. Claws] RV ' hoofs.' 
The idea is the cracking of the hoofs of the 
sheep by being overdriven. 17. Idol] RV 
1 worthless.' The word is used of idols, be- 
cause of their worthlessness : cp. Jnl0 12 > 13 . 

C. 13. 7-9. My fellow] one who has the same 
interests. Smite the shepherd] cp. 1K22 17 , 
and the most fitting application of the words 
to our Lord (Mt26 31 ). The whole section 
(chs. 11, 13 7-9 ) would most fittingly apply to 
the year 171 B.C., when Menelaus, with the 
aid of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, 
usurped the high priesthood in Jerusalem and 
Jason was expelled. Feuds and bloodshed 
followed, culminating in a terrible massacre, 
and the deportation of thousands of Jews by 
Antiochus. The third] i.e. a remnant. 

CHAPTER 12 
The Deliverance of Jerusalem 

Many scholars believe that in chs. 12-14 
(omitting 13 7 " 9 ) we have a third separate pro- 
phecy, the oldest in the book of Zechariah, 
written subsequent to the death of king Josiah, 
609 B.C. (cp. the mourning in the valley of 
Megiddon, 12 U), but prior to the fall of the 
kingdom of Judah, 586 B.C. For this view 
there are some strong arguments — (a) frequent 
references to the House of David (12 7,8, 10, 12 
13 1 ); (b) Judah and Jerusalem represent the 
whole nation; (c) idolatry is rampant (13 2 ); 
(d) prophets are in evil repute (13 2 " 6 ; cp. Jer 
23 9 " 40 ); (e) Jerusalem is besieged (12 2 14 2 ; 
cp. 2 K 24 10 25 1). 

Others produce arguments, perhaps more 
conclusive, in favour of a much later date. 
On the applicability of the chs. to the times 
of the Maccabees see Intro. 

1-9. The natives gather to the siege of 
Jerusalem, but are miraculously smitten by 
the Lord, who comes to her help. Judah, 
at first taking part with the nations, per- 
ceives that G-od is fighting for Jerusalem, 
takes the side of the latter, and shares her 
salvation. 10-14. A national mourning. 

1. Burden] see 9 1 . G-od's omnipotence is 
the guarantee that this prophecy will be 
fulfilled. 2. Trembling] RV ' reeling.' The 
nations assailing Jerusalem would stagger 



39 



609 



12. 3 



ZECHARIAH 



14. 



like a drunken man. The figure is common : 
cp. Isaol 17 24 20 Jer51 7 . Against Judah and 
against Jerusalem] This does not make sense ; 
and most scholars, omitting two letters, render, 
1 Even Judah shall be at the siege of Jerusalem.' 
But, as no time is known when Judah was 
actively opposed to Jerusalem, it is simpler to 
read : ' And there shall be a siege against Jeru- 
salem.' 3. Those nations that take in hand 
to capture and rule Jerusalem will find it 
difficult. Probably the idea is that of raising 
and carrying a boulder that is too heavy 
for a man's strength. 4. Every horse of the 
people] RY ' peoples,' i.e. nations attacking 
Jerusalem. The eyes of the Lord will be 
opened to look favourably upon His people, 
but their enemies will be blinded. 

5, 6. The mutual reliance and helpfulness 
of Judah and Jerusalem. The victory is to 
be with Jerusalem, so that Judah may not 
boast over Jerusalem. The contrast between 
these two points to a post-exilic date, when 
the social and economic ideals of the city dif- 
fered from those of the peasant population. 

Jerusalem shall be inhabited again] 100,000 
Jews were deported from Jerusalem by 
Ptolemy, king of Egypt, in 321 B.C. ; 80,000 
were either killed or carried away captive by 
Antiochus in 167 B.C. 6, 7. These vv. would 
refer more fittingly to the latter period, and 
the subsequent uprising of the Maccabees : cp. 
IMac. On the Maccabaean revolt and the 
causes which led to it see Jos. ' Ant.' 12. 5, 6, 
and 1 Mac. Judas Maccabaeus drove the Syri- 
ans from the surrounding country of Judah 
before attempting to relieve Jerusalem. 

8. The angel of the LORD] that led Israel 
in the wilderness : cp. Ex23 20 . 

10. Even repentance comes of the grace of 
God. Upon me] better, ' unto me.' The 
text is obscure. Some read ' him,' when the 
reference would be to some unknown martyr 
in the cause of Jerusalem. II. The mourning 
is likened to some great national lamentation. 
Some connect it with the worship of Adonis 
(Tammuz, Ezk8 14 ), taking Hadadrimmon as 
one of the titles of Adonis. Others refer it 
to a mourning over Ram man, the Assyrian 
thunder god ; others ascribe the mourning to 
the sacrifice of children to this god; and many 

take it as the mourning at the death of .losiah. 
who was shin at .Mr._rj,M<> in tin' plain of 

Esdraelon. In any case, the ultimate applica- 
tion «>f tin- prophecy t<» the sufferings and 
death of Chrisl i^ mosi appropriate. 

Megiddon] Elsewhere Efegiddo — in central 
Palestine the battlefield of Darael. Here 
fought Barak, Joshua, Saul, and Joaiah : here 
the Jews believed would be the linn! battle- 
field of the nations — the Har-Magedon of 
Efcevl6 16 . Such a place where so many had 
been slain mighl well be a place of mourning. 



12-14. Every family apart] indicating the 
deep personal significance of the mourning. 
Such had doubtless been the mourning for 
Josiah, whose death was one of the greatest 
calamities that could have befallen the Jewish 
nation. The depth and reality of the mourning 
is shown by the singling out of certain leading 
families. Nathan] a son of David and Bath- 
sheba. Levi] a son of Jacob, and progenitor 
of the priestly tribe which bears his name. 

Shimei] son of Gershon (Ex 6 " Nu 3 n ). 
LXX reads, l the family of Simeon.' 

CHAPTER 13 

Purification of Jerusalem 

Important results follow this great act of 
national sorrow. 1. The land is purged of 
sin ; 2 a , of idols ; 2 b -6. of prophets, who as 
a class have fallen into disrepute, and who 
henceforth will be ashamed of their office. 

1. The idea of water as a symbol of spiritual 
cleansing was familiar in Jewish thought : cp. 
Ezk36 25 47 l . The Messianic reference is ob- 
vious. 2. Idols] Idolatry was never rampant 
in Israel after the exile. Those who maintain 
a post-exilic date for this prophecy refer to 
the Maccabaean age, when Greek customs and 
Greek idolatry were common even in Jerusalem 
(1 Mac 1 54 ). The unclean spirit] which led men 
to sin. 3. The office of prophet will be so 
hateful as to be a dangerous occupation. Pro- 
phecy had become utterly distrusted, because it 
had been degraded by men who spoke smooth 
things rather than truth. 

4. Rough garment] RV ' hairy mantle,' 
either an untanned sheep-skin, or a cloak of 
camel's hair, such as the Baptist wore. 5. Man 
taught me to keep cattle] better, with slight 
change in the Heb., ' the ground has been my 
possession.' I am so occupied with manual 
labour, I do not cultivate prophecy : cp. Am 
7 14 . 6. In thine hands] Heb. ' between thine 
hands,' probably referring to self-mutilation 
practised in idolatrous rites : cp. Jer48 37 
1K18 28 . These wounds, says the accused 
person, I received when frolicking with my 
companions. 

On vv. 7-9 see at the end of c. 11. 

CHAPTER 14 
Tin-: Judgment of the Heathen. Exalt- 
ation of Jerusalem 

This c. has the appearance of a late work. 
It has all 1 1n ■ general characteristics of the 
style of literature known to students in the 
book of Enoch, and popular in the Jewish 
church about the beginning of the Christian 
era. The terrible punishment of the heathen 
(v. 12), and the ceremonial purity of Jerusalem 
(vv. 20, 21), are typical of the narrower phases 
of late Judaism. 

1, 2. Jerusalem again assaulted and taken. 



010 



14. 1 



ZECHARIAH 



14. 21 



3-7. The Lord descends to the help of Jeru- 
salem, and strange phenomena follow. 8-21. 
Then comes the Messianic age ; the face of 
nature is changed ; the heathen are subdued ; 
Jerusalem, restored, becomes the centre of 
worship, and all therein are consecrated to the 
Lord. 

1. Lo ! a day is coming by the instrumentality 
of the Lord, i.e. a judgment day. Thy spoil] The 
city is taken and sacked. 2. Cp. Josh 3 2 . 3. Shall 
the LORD go forth] An apocalyptic vision, 
common to later Jewish literature. 4. An 
earthquake heralds the presence of the Lord, 
cleaving the Mount of Olives in two parts : 
cp. Isa29 6 Ezk38 19 > 20 . 5. To the valley of 
the mountains] RV 'by the valley of my 
mountains.' This text is obscure. "Would 
they flee if God came to help them ? Azal] 
RV ' Azel,' has been identified with Beth-ezel 
(Mic 1 n ), but this is doubtful. Others make 
the word an adverb, ' very near.' The earth- 
quake] not mentioned in the historical books, 
but in Am 1 1 . Josephus describes some of its 
results Ant.' 9.10. 4). 6. The light shall 
not be clear, nor dark] i.e. a murky day. Cp. 
the effect of modern volcanic eruptions. 
Others render, ' in that day there shall be 
neither heat nor cold nor frost.' 7. One day] 
i.e. a unique day. At evening time] When 
one would expect the deep darkness to settle 
down, it will grow clear. The calamities will 
have an end. 

8. Now begin the blessings of the Messianic 
kingdom. Living waters] flowing perennially, 
an inestimable blessing in parched Eastern 
lands : cp. Isa35 7 Rev22!. Former. . hinder] 
RV ' eastern . . western,' i.e. Dead Sea . . Medi- 
terranean. 9. The universality of Messiah's 
kingdom : ' the Lord shall be one, and his 
name one ' (RV). 10. As a plain] RV ' as the 
Arabah,' i.e. the great plain which stretched 
from the borders of Palestine to the Red 
Sea. 

Geba] marked the limit of northern Judah 
(2 K 23 8 ). Rimmon] a city in the extreme S. 
on the borders of Edom. And it] RV ' and 
she,' i.e. Jerusalem. Inhabited] RY ' shall 
dwell.' The idea is that even the surrounding 
country would be depressed in order that 
Jerusalem might be more conspicuous. Ben- 
jamin's gate] on the NW. of the city The 
first gate (some render the ' oldest ' gate) and 



the corner gate were probably in the E. The 
tower of Hananeel] RV ' Hananel,' was part of 
the Temple castle in the extreme NE. The 
site of the king's winepresses is unknown. 

11. Utter destruction] RY ' curse,' or ' ban.' 
Jerusalem had hitherto seemed under a curse. 
Now all this would pass away. 

12. The ban in most awful form would turn 
rather upon the nations who assail Jerusalem. 
Such hatred of the heathen is characteristic of 
Jewish apocalypse, and arose in great measure 
from the cruelties and indignities suffered by 
the Jews in post-exilic times. 13, 14. A 
panic will fall on the enemies of Jerusalem, 
and all their spoil will be left a prey to the 
Jews. But many think that these two vv. 
should stand nearer the beginning of the c. 
If we take v. 15 after v. 12 a much better 
sense is secured. 

16. Some take this v. as pointing to a late 
date, when the Jews of the dispersion went up 
to the feasts : cp. the Pilgrim Psalms, espe- 
cially Ps 122. The feast of tabernacles] was 
especially a thanksgiving for the harvest. So 
the nations which do not keep that feast at 
Jerusalem will be punished by lack of rain 
(v. 17), and consequent failure of harvest. 

18. That have no rain'] RY 'neither shall 
it be upon them.' Both phrases are unintel- 
ligible. They are due to an attempt to 
account for the word not, which is omitted in 
LXX. Omitting it the v. runs simply : ' and 
if the family of Egypt go not up and come 
not, on them shall be the plague,' etc. Egypt 
is not dependent on rain. Her punishment 
will therefore be plague. 

20. Bells] here only in OT. HOLINESS] 
RY ' HOLY.' Pots] This seems to refer to 
the ash-pans used for receiving the ashes off 
the altar: cp. Ex27 3 383 iK7 4 M5. These 
will be as holy as the bowls, probably the 
golden basins used to hold the sacred blood 
of the sacrifices in the Temple : cp. Neh 7 ' r0 
1 K 7 50 Jer 52 19 . 21. Everything in Jerusalem 
will be specially consecrated to the Lord. 
The idea of ceremonial and outward holiness 
is usually considered a feature of later Judaism. 
On the abuse of this idea, cp. Mt23 25 . 

The Canaanite] RY 'a Canaanite,' RM 
' trafficker,' i.e. any person who is there 
simply to make money by trading rather 
than to worship : cp. Mt21 12 " 14 . 



611 



MALACHI 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Author. Of the author of this book nothing 
is known apart from the book itself. Even the 
name ' Malachi ' is not in reality a proper name 
at all, but a common noun with the possessive 
pronoun of the first pers. sing, appended, sig- 
nifying ' My Messenger.' It has indeed been 
supposed that the word is a contraction of 
Malachijah. ('Messenger of Jehovah'), but 
it is improbable that any man ever bore such 
a name. The oldest Jewish tradition, though 
without adequate reason, identifies the author 
of this book with 'Ezra the Scribe,' understand- 
ing the word ' Malachi ' as an honourable title 
conferred by Jehovah upon His prophet : cp. 
Hagli3Mal27. 

The headings of the various sections of the 
prophetical books generally bear evidence of 
being the work of later editors, and it is pro- 
bable that Mai 1 1 is from the same hand as 
ZechO 1 12 1 . Since the most striking pro- 
phecy in this book is that in 3 1 (cp. Mt 1 1 10 
Mk 1 - Lk 1 76 ), it is not improbable that the 
book, being anonymous, came to be known as 
' The prophecy of " My Messenger " {Malachi)' 
whence the idea arose that ' Malachi ' was a 
proper name. 

2. Date. The date of this book may be 
partly inferred from the fact that the head of 
the Jewish state is termed ' governor ' (1 8 , cp. 
Hag 1 1 Neh2 M), the title ' King ' being used 
of Jehovah (l 14 ), as in the post-exilic Psalms. 
The only political event referred to is the 
devastation of Edom, the enemy of Israel 
(1 3 > 4 ), which is adduced as a proof of Jeho- 
vah's love for His people. There is reason to 
suppose that ' the day of Jerusalem ' (Psl37 7 ) 
is not the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, bul the disaster referred to in 
Neh 1 3 , when, the jealousy of the neighbour- 
in t: peoples having been aroused by an attempt 
to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, an attack 
had been made on the city ( Ezr \ -■'•). in which 
the Edomites had particularly displayed their 
animosity. Malachi (as we may call the pro- 
phet) would thus be a contemporary of Nehe- 
miah's, an inference which is confirmed by 
the Bubstance of his Look, which is directed 
against the Bame evils thai Nehemiah tried to 
reform. 

It is probable that the law-book of Malachi 
comprised only Deuteronomy and the com- 
bined work of the Jehovisl and Elohist, the 
bly Code having not wt been published 

61 



in Palestine. From this it may be inferred 
that Malachi prophesied before the second 
visit of Nehemiah in 433 B.C. In this case 
the general depression which he represents 
as due to the apparent failure of Jehovah to 
vindicate the right may be easily accounted 
for by the disappointment which the godly 
in Jerusalem experienced when the first 
reforms of Nehemiah and Ezra proved 
abortive. 

3. Form and Style. Although the book of 
Malachi evidently had originally a literary 
form, it is, to Western ideas at least, faulty 
in arrangement, and it has not improbably 
suffered somewhat in transmission. The pro- 
phet seems to. state ideas as they occur to him, 
paying little or no attention to their logical 
sequence. Thus we should have expected 
that the section 3 7 " 12 would follow 1 14 , while 
313.43 i s parallel to 2^-S^ In its style the 
book is peculiar. It is more argumentative 
than any other book of the OT., the argu- 
ments being developed by a series of imaginary 
objections brought against the prophet's as- 
sertion. 

4. Readers. The people addressed through- 
out the book are professedly religious people, 
who, it would seem, are divided into two 
classes : (1) the sincerely religious, who have 
lost heart through the prevailing wickedness, 
and are beginning to question Jehovah's good- 
ness ; (2) the worldly and covetous, who are 
religious only in name. 

5. Contents. The argument of the book 
may be briefly stated as follows : Jehovah, in 
punishing the malicious enemy of Israel, has 
vindicated His claim to be the lover of Israel 
(1 2 " 6 ) ; but He is not treated by Israel with 
the respect due either to a father or to a 
master (l 6 ). In particular, the priests per- 
form their ministrations with slovenly indif- 
ference ; the victims offered arc a disgrace to 
the altar ; and it would be better to omit the 
sacrifices altogether ( 1 , ' 1 ") ; Jehovah does not 
need the ministrations of Israel, for even 
among the Gentiles throughout the world He 
has those who serve Him (1 n ) ; let it be re- 
cognised that Jehovah is a great King, and 
will not accept a paltry offering (l 12-14 ); the 
priests must repent, or punishment will over- 
take them (2 1 **) ; Jehovah has made a cove- 
nant with Levi, and appointed him His mes- 
senger to the people (2 4 ' 7 ); but Levi has 



INTRO. 



MALACHI 



1.11 



abused his privilege, and distorted Jehovah's 
teaching, and lost the respect of the people 
(2 8 > 9 ) ; the laity, too, have sinned in that they 
show lack of brotherly love (2 10 ), and are 
contaminated by the heathen (2 11 ), for which 
sin they will be punished (2 12 ) ; their prayers 
are vain, for they come to the altar with the 
sin of divorce upon them (2 13 " lt5 ) ; Jehovah 
has, moreover, been wronged by the people's 
lack of faith (2 W) ; He has not forgotten, and 
will come as the prophets have said (3 1 ) ; but 
the day of His coming will be a time of crisis, 
and will overwhelm the sinners (3 2_6 ) ; let the 
people show their repentance by the payment 
of their tithes, and they will at once tind a 
blessing (3 7 " 12 ) ; Jehovah has been charged 
with faithlessness, but He has not forgotten, 
and His Day will make manifest the difference 
between those who obey Him and those who 
disregard Him (3 13 -4 2 ), when the former 
shall triumph over the latter (4 3 ) ; let the 
Law of Moses be had in remembrance (4 4 ), and 
let heed be given to the prophet who will 
come in this crisis as Elijah came of old (4 5 ) ; 
thus will the divisions which now break up 
families be healed, otherwise a curse will 
come upon the land (4 6 ). 

6. Teaching. There is no Messianic prophecy 
in Malachi in the ordinary meaning of tlie word. 
Malachi does not look for a king upon the 
throne of David to deliver Israel, but for the 
restoration of that communion with Jehovah 
which existed when Jehovah led His people 
in a pillar of cloud -by day and of fire by 
night. 

In his theology Malachi is one of the most 
advanced thinkers of the OT., albeit he does 
not entirely free himself from OT. limitations. 
He not only recognises Jehovah as universal 
God, but recognises that the worship which 
the heathen perform, so far as it is sincere, is 
the worship of Jehovah. He lays stress also 
upon personal religion, and represents Jehovah 
not only as Father of the nation (2 10 ), but 
as showing in a special sense a fatherly care of 
the righteous (3 17 ). He is convinced that 
1 G-od is His own Interpreter, and He will make 
it plain.' He develops the teaching of Deuter- 
onomy in a striking way, dwelling upon the 
necessity alike of the written Scripture and 
the spoken word, taking Moses as typical of 
the one, and Elijah of the other. 

It is characteristic of Malachi's teaching as 
a whole, that it lays stress on the weightier 
matters of the law, judgment and mercy and 
faith, coupled with due reverence and devotion 
in the external expression of religion. It 
finds therefore its fulfilment, its completion, 
in the teaching of the greatest Prophet since 
the world began, who said, ' These ought ye 
to have done, and not to leave the other 
undone.' 



CHAPTER 1 

Jehovah's Love and His People's 
Ingratitude 

i. Burden] RM ' oracle ' ; properly, ' that 
which is lifted up,' hence in this connexion 
' utterance ' ; but with play on other meaning 
' burden ' in Jer 23 33 (RM). 2. Wherein hast 
thou loved us ?] i.e. i "Wherein hast thou shewn 
thy love ? ' So in v. 3, I hated Esau means 
' I have shewn myself hostile to Esau.' l Esau ' 
and ' Jacob ' here stand for the nations Edom 
and Israel, not for the patriarchs. 3. The 
desolation of Edom here referred to had been 
already adduced by an unknown prophet 
(Isa G3) as a proof of Jehovah's care for Israel. 
Edom was devastated by an invasion of Arabs 
who for more than a century had been pressing 
into Palestine : cp. Ezk25 4 > 5 > 10 . Drag'ons] 
RY 'jackals.' 4. We are impoverished] RV 
1 we are beaten down.' The text is somewhat 
uncertain : cp. Isa 9 10 . Thus saith the LORD] 
In Heb. ' to think ' is often represented by the 
verb ' to say.' A Hebrew does not hesitate to 
represent what he believes to be true, 'and 
therefore the l thought ' of Jehovah, as ' spoken ' 
by Jehovah. In such a phrase there is no 
idea of a revelation by vision. 5. The LORD 
will be (R V ' be ') magnified] The Heb. may 
express either a prayer, as in Ps 40 16 , or a state- 
ment. Here the meaning is probably that 
Jehovah habitually manifests His greatness. 

From (more literally ' above ') the border] 
Jehovah's activity is not confined to Jerusalem. 

6. The priests especially stand to Jehovah 
in the relation of sons and servants. 

7. Polluted] i.e. not actually unclean, but 
worthless, common : cp. Ezr 2 62 . Bread] sacri- 
ficial offerings generally: cp. Lv21 6 . Table] 
the altar, not merely the table of shewbread. 

8. Cp. Dtl5^ 171 Lv2220f. Blind . . lame 
. . sick] i.e. animals unlawful for sacrifice. 

It is not evil ?] RV ' it is no evil ! ' 
Governor] ~H.eb.Peha. The term is applied 
to Zerubbabel (Hag 1 i> u ). It is impossible to 
say whether Malachi has a Jewish or Persian 
governor in view. Accept thy person] more 
correctly, ' favour thee.' 9. This hath been, 
etc.] Translate the latter part of this verse 
partly corrected from LXX : ' When this hath 
been done by you, shall I accept,' etc. 

10. RV ' Oh that there were one among you 
that would shut the doors, that ye might not 
kindle fire on mine altar in vain ! ' i.e. Sacri- 
fices so offered are worthless ; better to let 
the altar fire go out and abstain from sacrifice. 

11. Shall be (RV ' is') great] Jehovah does 
not need the worthless worship of lip-serving 
Jews, for even among the Gentiles, who are 
accounted heathen, He has those who worship 
Him: cp. Acl0 34 > 35 . Incense sh all be (RV 
' is ') offered] The sacrifices of the Gentiles, 



613 



1. 14 



MALACHI 



2. 16 



when offered with sincere devotion, are offered 

to Jehovah's 'name': cp. Acl7 23 . 14. Cp. 

Lv22 19 .20. The title 'King' is applied to 

Jehovah in post-exilic writings composed when 

the Jews had not an earthly king. 

Dreadful] RV ' terrible ' ; better, ' had in 

reverence.' 

CHAPTER 2 
The Degeneracy of the Priesthood 
1. A reminder to the priests that they are 

to blame for the laxity denounced in 1 13 > 14 . 

They are responsible for the offering of fit 

victims, which in some cases it was their duty 

to provide. 

3. I will corrupt your seed] RV ' I will 
rebuke the seed for your sake ' ; but the 
threat of a curse on the crops does not appear 
to be specially applicable to the priests. A 
very slight change in the Heb. which has been 
suggested, gives the admirable sense, ' I will 
cut off your arm' (cp. 1S2 31 ) ; i.e. I will 
make you powerless : cp. Ps37 17 . 

The dung of your solemn feasts (RV ' sacri- 
fices ')] the offal of the animals slain for 
sacrifices, which at the three great feasts of 
the year would be very numerous, and a source 
of great gain to the priests. 

The words rendered upon your faces do 
not necessarily mean more than ' in your 
presence.' To scatter offal and filth in a 
person's presence would be an insult to him : 
cp. Dt23 14 . Malachi seems to mean that the 
fastidious priests, who now hold aloof while 
the Temple servants clear away the offal 
of the sacrifices, will no longer meet with 
outward respect from the people who even 
now despise them (2 9 ), and who will treat 
them with less reverence than the humblest 
of Temple servants. The last words of the 
v. are obscure and possibly corrupt. They 
perhaps mean, ' You shall be taken away 
from your place of honour in the Temple to 
the place where the offal is taken.' 

4. Cp. v. 1. This charge is given to the 
priests that fchey may repent, and that so the 
covenant with Levi may be confirmed to them. 

5. Lit. 'My covenant was with him; the 
life and the peace 1 gave, unto him ; fear and 
lie feared me.' 6. Cp. the ideal priesthood 
described in Dt 33 8 " 11 . 7. To Malachi, as to 
Haggai (2 11 ), the law is not yet completely 

Crystallised into a 1 k.lnit means the priests' 

decisions on points submit ted to them. Mes- 
senger] op. II;e_l l:1 . 8. Ye have caused 
many to stumble] i.e. by giving unjust decisions 
the priests bave brought many t<> rain. With 
the charge of partiality in \. { .i contrast the 
ideal of l>t ;;:'.". where H is represented ;is a 

priest's duty t<> give his decisions without re- 

gard to his ne;in st relatives: cp. Alt li) :!7 . 

9. Cp. the whole section, LS2 28 * 88 , which 
whs probably written aboul this period. 



10. Malachi seems to have in view mainly 
such evils as are described in Neh 5. His 
argument here seems somewhat inconsistent 
with his argument in l 2f -, since one God had 
created both Esau and Jacob ; but it is an in- 
consistency natural enough in the as yet unde- 
veloped teaching. A man must learn to love 
his brother before he can love his enemy. 

11. The mention of Israel is quite out of 
place in this v. The word has probably arisen 
by a scribe's blunder from Jerusalem, which 
it somewhat resembles in Hebrew. The 
daughter of a strange god must mean either a 
foreign nation with which Judah has entered 
into some compact, whether political or religi- 
ous (by which some alliance or understanding 
with the Samaritans might be intended) ; or 
the text must be corrected by the insertion 
of one letter, so that for ' daughter ' we should 
read ' daughters.' In either case Malachi 
denounces the tendency of his people to fuse 
with the neighbouring nations. 1 2. The master 
and the scholar] RV ' him that waketh and 
him that answereth.' A very slight change in 
the Hebrew gives the better antithesis, 'plain- 
tiff and defendant ; ' two opposites being 
frequently used in Hebrew to denote all. Cp. 
' going out and coming in,' etc. Tabernacles] 
better, ' homes.' 13. Insomuch that he regard - 
eth] better, ' because he regardeth.' The 
people are regarded as covering the altar with 
their tears in the intensity of their desire for 
the favours He is withholding. 

14. The wife of thy youth] i.e. the wife 
married in youth. The evil here denounced 
is the divorce of an old wife in favour of a 
younger woman. The wife of thy covenant] 
The thought that there is a solemn compact 
between husband and wife is stated definitely 
here only in the OT.; but it is the natural 
inference from the representation of Israel as 
Jehovah's wife, for though Israel was false to 
Jehovah, He remained faithful. 15. The 
text, as it stands, is unintelligible. A simple 
correction has been suggested, which gives the 
following sense: 'Did not one (God) make 
and continue life to us ? And what does the 
one (God) seek ? A sacred seed. Therefore 
take heed to your life, and deal not treacher- 
ously againsl the wife of thy youth': i.e. 
One God (cp. 2 "') lias created a life to which 
lie has given continuance through marriage. 
The objed of marriage — God's object in its 
institution — is to obtain children, 'seed of 
God.' When children are horn, the object of 
marriage is attained. Therefore let not a 
man put away his wife, because she lias gTOWU 

old and lost her attraction. 16. Putting away] 
i.e. divorce. Covereth violence with his gar- 
ment] The reference is probably to the ill- 
treatment of the wife ; but the Hebrew is 
obscure. 



61 I 



2.17 



MALACHI 



4.6 



17. An address to those who are losing 
faith through their inability to solve the riddle 
of the prosperity of the ungodly : cp. Pss 37, 73. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Speedy Judgment 

I. This v. is closely connected with the 
preceding. It is the answer to the question, 
' Where is the God of judgment ? ' The 
messenger is evidently a prophet or a suc- 
cession of prophets: cp. Dtl8 9-22 . The 
phrase he shall prepare the way before me is 
probably borrowed from Isa40 3 - 5 , where the 
thought is that a highway must be prepared 
on which ' the Glory of the Lord ' may lead 
Israel to the land of Canaan. Zechariah (8 3 ) 
had promised that Jehovah would come to 
His Temple. The promise in Malachi's days 
had not yet been fulfilled, but Jehovah would 
' hasten it in its time.' 2. Malachi shows 
himself here a true son of the older prophets. 
Jehovah cannot ignore sin ; the day of his 
coming must therefore be a day of judgment : 
cp. Am5 ls - 20 Isa33 14 - 16 . 3. He shall purify 
the sons of Levi] The judgment will begin at 
the house of God. 4. Malachi, like other late 
OT. writers, here idealises the past : cp. 2 5 
IK 4 20, 21. 

6. I change not] better, ' I have not 
changed.' The therefore in the following 
clause is wrong : the Heb. has ' but you ' (em- 
phatic) ' are not consumed.' As this yields no 
antithesis, it is not improbable that there is a 
corruption in the text. The argument seems 
to be, ' I have not changed, but you have not 
kept your part of the covenant ; you have 
not performed my words.' 7. Cp. Zechl 2f - 

9. Cp. Nehl3i0f. 

II. The devourer] i.e. locusts: cp. Joell 4 
Am4 2 . 

13. The godly are here addressed, and in 
their lack of faith are reminded that ' the Lord 
is mindful of His own.' 14. Cp. Ps73 13 
Isa58 3 . 16. The change from direct address 
to narrative utterly spoils the connexion. 
LXX gives, ' This ' (i.e. the complaint of vv. 
14, 15) 'have they spoken who fear the Lord ; 
and the Lord hath hearkened, and heard it, 
and a book of remembrance hath been written 
before Him concerning those that fear the 
Lord,' etc. 

17. In that day when I make up my jewels] 
RY ' in the day that I do make, even a peculiar 
treasure ' : better" ' in the day that I shew 
myself active ' (so in 4 3 ), ' even a peculiar 
possession.' For the last words cp. Dt7 6 
14 2 26 18 . 

18. Malachi here treats the prosperity of 
the ungodly with more freedom than some of 
the OT. writers. He does not deny it, nor 



does he affirm that it is illusory or transitory, 
but that it cannot abide the crisis of ' the Day 
of the Lord.' Ye] the murmurers ; those 
who were disturbed by the prosperity of the 
wicked (217). 

CHAPTER 4 

The New Elijah 

1. The comparison is to an oven heated 
by a fire lighted within it : cp. Mt6 3 °. This 
passage is closely connected with the preced- 
ing. Stubble] rather, ' straw.' 

2. ' The day of the Lord is darkness and 
not light ' (Am 5 20 ), but when the night of 
judgment is over, day dawns for the righteous. 

The Sun of righteousness] ' Righteousness ' 
is here almost equivalent to 'blessing,' as in 
Ps245. 

With healing in his wings] Since the dawn 
spreads with rapidity from the E. over the 
world (Job 38 12 " 14 ), it is said poetically to have 
wings (Psl39 9 ). With the dawn of the new 
era there will be healing. It will be a ' time 
of restoration of all things.' Grow up (RY 
' gambol ') as calves of the stall] better, ' tram- 
ple down like stall-fed oxen,' i.e. the most 
heavily treading animals with which Malachi 
was acquainted. 3. The men of Malachi's 
generation have not yet been taught to pray 
for those that despiteful ly use them and per- 
secute them. They shall be ashes] i.e. the 
righteous shall trample on the ungodly as on 
the ash-heaps outside their homes. 

5. The history of Israel has already, to a 
great extent, become Scripture, and Elijah 
is a type for all time. Malachi's meaning 
would be clearer if we were to translate, with 
a slight concession to English idiom, ' I will 
send you a prophet Elijah ' : cp. 'a Daniel come 
to judgment.' It is in this sense that our 
Lord understood it : cp. Mtll 14 17 n > 12 , and 
also Lk 1 1>r . The fact that our Lord declared 
John the Baptist to be a fulfilment of this 
prophecy would alone be sufficient to entitle 
Malachi to a place among the goodly fellow- 
ship of the prophets. But Malachi's claim to 
Christian reverence is not exhausted by this 
one fulfilment of his words. Though John 
the Baptist was the last and greatest Elijah 
before that great 'Day of the Lord,' when 
' the Word was made flesh,' there had been 
other fulfilments of Malachi's words before 
his time, as there have been since. Whenever 
' the old order changes, giving place to new,' 
God sends the world an Elijah. The Old 
Testament is not made obsolete by the New, 
for the gospel is the continuation and the 
interpretation of prophecy. 

6. A time of reform is a time of dissension : 
cp. Lkl2 51 ' 53 . The dissensions can only be 
healed by giving heed to God's teaching. 



615 



ST. MATTHEW 



INTRODUCTION 



1. The word Gospel. ' Gospel ' (lit. ' God 
story,' i.e. story about God) is the usual English 
translation of euaggelion, lit. ' good tidings,' 
which in the NT. always means the good 
tidings of salvation as preached by our Lord 
Himself (Mt4 23 9 35 ), or by the apostles and 
other Christian teachers (e.g. 24 14 26 13 AclS 7 , 
also Ro2 16 , where 'my gospel' means 'the 
gospel message as preached by me '). Not till 
the 2nd cent., apparently, did it come to mean 
a written biography of Christ, though the way 
for this use had already been prepared by the 
title of St. Mark's Gospel, ' The beginning 
of the Gospel of Jesus Christ [the Son of 
God]'(Mkli). 

2. The Gospels in general. Only four 
Gospels having any claim to historical authority 
have been transmitted to us, those of SS. Mat- 
thew, Mark, Luke, and John. There were nu- 
merous earlier ones (Lk 1 *) of which our evan- 
gelists have made full use, but the appearance 
of their far superior narratives rendered the 
earlier efforts comparatively useless, and they 
soon ceased to be copied. All that is known 
or can be probably conjectured about them is 
stated in the special article, ' The Synoptic 
Problem.' Numerous Gospels, generally called 
' apocryphal,' were written later than the 
canonical four, but of these even the earliest, 
such as ' the Gospel according to the Hebrews ' 
(circ. 100 a.d.), and ' the Gospel of Peter ' (circ. 
100-150 A.D.), are so obviously contaminated 
by fiction, that it is impossible to feel sure 
that any of the facts or sayings therein re- 
corded (except those borrowed from our 
Gospels) are authentic. 

The first three canonical Gospels (Mt, Mk, 
Lk) are generally called ' synoptic,' and their 
authors ' synoptists,' because they all present 
the same general view of our Lord's ministry. 
For the most part they record the same inci- 
dents, in the same order, in the same (or 
closely similar) words, and from the same 
point of view. To all of them Jesus is the 
promised Messiah of the Jews, and also the 
Saviour and Redeemer of all mankind ; He is 
true man, but He is also the superhuman Son 
of God, who perfectly knows and reveals the 
Father, who atones for sin by His death, and 
by His resurrection is exalted to almighty 
power over the universe. But the main 
interest of the writers is biographical, not 
theological. Their aim is to place before the 



reader a vivid picture of the historical Jesus 
of Nazareth ' in fashion as He lived,' going 
about doing good, teaching, healing, comfort- 
ing, advising, guiding, rebuking, blessing, and 
drawing all men to Himself by the strong 
cords of admiration and love. Special objects 
in writing each evangelist doubtless had. St. 
Matthew, writing for the Jews, though not 
perhaps exclusively for them, presents our 
Lord's claims to the throne of David, and 
expounds fully His attitude towards the Law ; 
St. Mark, writing for the Romans, carefully 
explains for their benefit the Jewish customs 
and observances which were so unintelligible 
to Gentiles ; St. Luke, writing as St. Paul's 
interpreter, desires particularly to make it 
plain that in Christ there is neither Jew nor 
Greek, bond nor free, male nor female, that 
the poorest and humblest most easily enter 
God's kingdom, that the good Creator desires 
to save every soul which He has made, and 
that accordingly there is hope for the most 
careless of prodigals and the most abandoned 
of sinners. But the main aim of each, 
synoptic writer is just the simple one of 
placing before the reader vividly the gracious 
personality of Jesus Christ, and letting it make 
its own appeal to the heart and understanding. 
The aim of the fourth evangelist is different. 
Writing after the rise of heresy, he aims 
definitely at establishing the true doctrine of 
the person of Christ. Sayings and incidents 
are selected not for their biographical interest, 
but for their doctrinal importance as illustrat- 
ing various aspects of the Incarnation of the 
Divine Son of God. The Gospel is, in fact, 
a sermon on the text ' And the Word was made 
flesh, and dwelt among us ' ( Jn 1 14 ). Unlike 
the synoptists St. John is an allegorist, and 
expects the reader to detect a hidden spiritual 
meaning beneath the letter of his narrative. 
Assuming the synoptists to be well known, he 
omits for the most part the events and sayings 
which they record, and thus his Gospel forms 
a supplement — and one of priceless worth — to 
the synoptic record. Taken all together, the 
four Gospels give an adequate and harmonious 
picture of the God-Man, the synoptists de- 
lineating mainly His Humanity, and St. John 
His Deity. As an old writer (St. Irenaeus, 177 
a.d.) well says : ' The Word, who was mani- 
fested to men, has given us the gospel under 
four aspects, but bound together by one Spirit.' 



617 



INTRO. 



ST. MATTHEW 



INTRO. 






3. Life of St. Matthew. St. Matthew, the 
reputed author of the first Gospel, was a cus- 
toms house officer. His business was to collect 
the tolls levied on the merchandise that passed 
through the dominions of Herod Antipas, 
tetrarch of Galilee and Perea. He was sta- 
tioned at Capernaum, on an important caravan 
route leading to Damascus. Though probably 
not in the employ of the hated Romans, but 
of Herod Antipas, he belonged to a despised 
class. ' Publicans,' that is, collectors of taxes or 
tolls, were ostracised socially, and though not 
exactly excommunicated by the synagogue, were 
treated as ' sinners,' i.e. abandoned and irre- 
ligious persons. It required no small courage 
on the part of the new Teacher to choose as 
one of His inner circle of disciples a despised 
publican. Our Lord's object was probably 
to obtain influence among the class of religious 
and social outcasts. The call of Matthew was 
fully justified by its results. It brought Jesus 
into direct and fruitful contact with a class 
of persons for whose spiritual welfare none 
of the orthodox religious authorities had the 
least concern. The feast which St. Matthew 
made to celebrate his call was attended by a 
great multitude of publicans and sinners, and 
gave Jesus an opportunity of speaking to them 
of the things pertaining to the kingdom of 
God (Lk 5 29'.). 

St. Matthew's profession wa3 a compara- 
tively lucrative one (cp. Lk 19 2 ), so that it cost 
him something to ' forsake all ' and follow 
Jesus (Lk5 28 ). When the call took place, 
he had probably been a disciple for some time, 
as was the case with the other apostles. His 
original name was Levi, and to this, on the 
occasion of his call, was added the surname 
Matthew, i.e. ' gift of God,' by which he was 
generally known in Christian circles : cp. Mk 2 14 
and Lko 27 with Mt9 9 . 

According to the oldest traditions, he preached 
for fifteen years in Judaea and then visited 
Ethiopia, Persia, Media, and Parthia. His 
death seems to have been natural, though later 
authorities make him a martyr. He is com- 
memorated by the church on Sept. '21st. 

4. Composition and Authorship of the Gospel. 
The first Gospel, though compiled from various 
sources, is ;i literary unity, the work of a single 
writer. This is shown by the occurrence of 
various characteristic phrases, not in certain 
sections only, but throughout the work. Thus 
the phrase ' the kingdom of heaven.' which is 
found in St. Matthew alone, occurs 14 times in 
sections which are peculiar to St. Matthew, 
and 18 times in sections which are common to 
him and St. Luke or St. Mark. Also the 
peculiar phrase -that it might be fulfilled 

which was Bpoken by the prophet,' which 
occurs nowhere elae in the NT., occurs in 

nearly every part of the first Gospel \ see 



122 215,17,23 414 8 17 1217 1335 214 5 [2656] [279] 

[27 35 ]. It is plain, therefore, that the same 
compiler has worked over the whole of the 
book, and given it such unity as it possesses. 

The author's sources were somewhat numer- 
ous, and several of them can still be clearly 
distinguished. His principal authority for 
narrative was St. Mark's Gospel, which he pro- 
bably possessed in its complete form, in which 
it contained an account of an appearance of 
the risen Lord in Galilee: see Mkl6 7 . He 
evidently wrote with this Gospel before him, 
making it the basis of his work, and inserting 
his additional matter, gained from other 
sources, at appropriate intervals, but very sel- 
dom departing from its order. In transcrib- 
ing St. Mark, he reproduced his words with 
considerable exactness, but usually abridged 
them, generally only slightly, but sometimes 
very considerably. For example, St. Mark's 
account of the Gadarene demoniac runs to 
20 vv., while St. Matthew's has only 7 vv. He 
seldom adds anything of importance to St. 
Mark's narrative. The chief exceptions are 
the account of the Temptation, where he adds 
important details from another source (4 i" n ), 
that of the walking on the sea, where he adds 
the incident of Peter descending from the 
ship (14 22 " 33 ), and that of the confession of 
Peter at Caesarea Philippi, which is described 
much more fully (16 13f -). Altogether, St. 
Matthew has about 470 vv. out of a total of 
1,068 vv. parallel to St, Mark, that is, he bor- 
rows nearly half his Gospel from St. Mark. 

Another source (or sources) is indicated by 
the large amount of matter which St. Matthew 
has in common with St. Luke. A complete 
list of these correspondences, amounting in all 
to about 200 vv., or nearly one-fifth of the 
Gospel, has already been given (see art. l The 
Synoptic Problem '), and the reader is requested 
to refer to it. He will find that in at least 
two-thirds of the cases, the subject-matter 
(which consists mainly of discourses and say- 
ings) has been placed differently by the two 
evangelists, and that the variations of phrase- 
ology are also very considerable. This sug- 
gests that not more than one-third (if so much) 
of the correspondences between St. Matthew 
and St. Luke are due to the use of a common 
document, and that, for the most part, they 
used different sources. Our evangelist's main 
source for discourses seems to have been a 
document (called ' the Logia ') in which our 
Lord's sayings were collected in masses ac- 
oording to subject-matter ; but the sources of 
the discourses in St. Luke seem to have been 
documents in which our Lord's sayings were 
preserved in their proper historical con- 
nexion. There is no sufficient e\ idence to show 
that our evangelist grouped together in his 
Gospel sayings that were separate in his sources, 



618 



INTRO. 



ST. MATTHEW 



INTRO. 



but rather the contrary, for he several times 
expresses his conviction that the great groups 
of sayings, which St. Luke separates, were 
delivered at one time and place, and this he 
would hardly have done if his sources had re- 
corded them in widely-separated contexts: see 
especially 728 Hi 1353 191 261. 

A third group of sources is indicated by the 
matter peculiar to St. Matthew. This amounts 
to about 400 vv., and consists of the following 
sections : — 

1 1-1 7 . Genealogy of Jesus. 

1 18-25. The Nativity. 

2 1-18 . The Magi ; the massacre of the 
Innocents. 

219-23. Flight into Egypt. 

3 14 > 15 . St. John's scruple about baptising 
Jesus. 

4 12-16. Isaiah's prophecy fulfilled (Isa 9 L 2 ). 

423,24. Tours in Galilee. 

5, 6, 7. Much of the Sermon on the Mount. 

927. The two blind men. 

10. About 8 vv. of the charge to the 

Twelve. 
1 1 28-30 # < Come unto me, all ye that labour.' 

12 6. The priests profane the sabbath 

and are blameless. 
1217-23. Isaiah 421 fulfilled. 
1236,37. Every idle word. 
1 3 1*. 15 . Fulfilment of Isa 6 9. 
1324-30. Parable of the tares. 
1335. Fulfilment of Ps 78 2. 

1336-43. Interpretation of the parable of 

the tares. 

13 44 . Parable of the hid treasure. 
1345,46. Parable of the pearl-merchant. 
13 4 7-6i. Parable of the net. 

1352,53. ' Every scribe which is instructed.' 

I428-33. Peter walks on the waves. 

I512-15 'Every plant which my heavenly 

(in part). Father.' 
1523-25. 'lam not sent but unto the lost 

sheep.' 
I528-31. Many are healed. 
16ii,i2. The leaven of the Pharisees and 

Sadducees (but cp. Mk8 15 ). 
Igi7-19. ' Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona.' 

17 24-27. The stater found in the fish's mouth. 

18 4, 7, 10, 11, 14. Sayings about children. 
1815-20. ' if thy brother shall trespass.' 
I821-35. 'Lord, how oft shall my brother 

sin against me ? ' 
I910-12. Celibacy for the kingdom of 

heaven's sake. 
20 1 - 16 . Parable of labourers in the vineyard. 
21 4, 5. Fulfilment of Isa 62 U Zech 9 9. 
21 1 ' 11 . Astonishment of Jerusalem at the 

triumphal entry. 
21 14 . The blind and lame healed in the 

Temple. 
2115,16, The children cry ' Hosanna ' in the 

Temple. 



2128-32, Parable of the two sons. 

2143. 'The kingdom of God shall be 

taken from you.' 
22 !-i4. Parable of the marriage of the king's 

son (the wedding garment). 
23 1 -5» 8-10, "Woes pronounced on scribes and 
14-22, 24-33. Pharisees. 

24 n. ' Many false prophets shall rise.' 
24 12. « The love of many shall wax cold.' 
2430. The sign of the Son of Man in 

heaven. 

25 i" 13 . Parable of the ten virgins. 
25 14 -30. Parable of the talents (yet cp. St. 

Luke's parable of the pounds, 
Lkl9 12 -27). 
2531-46. Parable of the sheep and the goats. 

26 25. Judas asks, ' Master, is it I ? ' 
2652. ' Put up again thy sword.' 
2653,54. ' Thinkest thou that I cannot now 

pray to my Father ? ' 

27 3- 10 . Remorse, suicide, and burial of 

Judas. 
2719. Pilate's wife. 

27 24, 25. Pilate washes his hands. 
2751-53. Earthquake, opening of tombs, and 

resurrection of saints. 

27 62-66. The tomb sealed, and a watch set. 
282-4. A great earthquake. An angel 

bright as lightning rolls away 
the stone, and terrifies the guards. 

28 9-10. Jesus appears to the women. 
28H-15. The guards report to the chief 

priests, who spread a false 

report. 
2816-20. Appearance on a mountain in 

Galilee. 
Of this peculiar matter we may assign to the 
' logia ' most of the discourses and sayings, 
which include parts of the Sermon on the 
Mount, of the charge to the Twelve, of the 
denunciations of the Pharisees ; also the 
parables of the tares, the hid treasure, the 
pearl-merchant, the net, the labourers in the 
vineyard, the two sons, the wedding garment, 
the ten virgins, the talents, and the sheep and 
the goats. Certain incidents similar in charac- 
ter to the common synoptic tradition, such as 
the Baptist's scruple (3 14 ), the tours in Galilee 
(423), the healing of the two blind men (927), 
the healing of the blind and lame in the Temple 
(21 14), the children's cry of Hosanna (21 15), the 
question of Judas (26 25), the remorse of Judas 
(27 3 ), perhaps also the appearance to the 
women (28 9 ), and to the eleven in Galilee 
(28 16 ), seem to point to the use of an authentic 
narrative source somewhat resembling St. 
Mark's Gospel. Very little of the Gospel 
seems due to oral, as distinguished from 
written, tradition — perhaps only the Nativity 
(which is confirmed in its essential features 
by the independent narrative of St. Luke), 
the visit of the Magi (which fits well into 



619 



INTRO. 



ST. MATTHEW 



INTRO. 



secular history, and is thoroughly credible), the 
incident of the temple-tribute, and certain 
details in the narrative of the resurrection, 
such as the resurrection of the saints, and the 
setting of a watch. On these the notes should 
be consulted. 

From what has been said, it will be evident 
that direct authorship of this Gospel by the 
apostle Matthew is improbable. If St. 
Matthew had been the author, he would 
probably have given his own account of the 
transactions, and not have laboriously occupied 
himself with collecting and transcribing 
' sources.' At the same time a connexion 
with the apostle Matthew is probable. The 
name of so obscure an apostle would hardly 
have been connected with the Gospel without 
some good reason. Ancient tradition (first in 
Papias, 130 a.d.) credits St. Matthew with 
the composition of a book of l logia ' or ' oracles,' 
written in Hebrew (Aramaic), which may have 
been a brief Gospel, but was more probably a 
collection of discourses classified (as we have 
already suggested) according to subject-matter. 
Of a Greek translation of these ' logia ' our 
author seems to have made such liberal use, 
that he acknowledged his obligations to the 
apostle by calling his work ' according to 
Matthew.' St. Matthew, therefore, is respon- 
sible for the discourses, but probably not for 
the history. 

The author was undoubtedly a Jewish 
Christian, familiar with Hebrew, and trained 
in rabbinical methods. His quotations from 
the OT. (when they are not copied from St. 
Mark) generally follow the Hebrew rather 
than the Greek. He arranges his book on the 
arithmetical principles so common in rabbini- 
cal writings, and shows a particular fondness 
for the numbers 7, 5, 3, 10. Thus there are 
seven beatitudes, seven petitions in the Lord's 
prayer (not five, as in St. Luke), seven woes 
denounced against the Pharisees ; also the 
names in the genealogy are arranged in multiples 
of seven (7x2); there are five chief collections 
of our Lord's discourses, three temptations, 
three chief duties of religion (G 1_1S ), three 
prayers in Gethsemane ; also between the first 
and second discourses of Jesus the evangelist 
inserts ten miracles (chs. 8, 9). Seven is, of 
course, ihe cumber of the sabbath day, five 
of the books of Moses, three of the priestly 
blessing, and ten of the plagues of Egypt. 
The author also shows his Jewish predilections 
in his affectionate references to Jerusalem as 
• the holy city,' and l the holy place' (4 fi 24 lfi 
27 •■'"). 

5. Date. The date of the Gospel is rather 
before than after 70 a.d. The reason for 
thinking this is that the author has so 

arranged our Lord's sayings about the fall 
of Jerusalem and His Second Advent as to 



leave the impression that these events would 
be coincident. Had he written later, he would 
have made it evident that they would be 
separated by an interval, as St. Luke has 
actually done (see Lk21 24 , and contrast 
Mt24 29 > 30 ). But the Gospel cannot have been 
written much before 70, because it uses sources, 
some of which are probably not very early, and 
embodies traditions which in some cases are 
apparently not in their earliest form. 

6. General Characteristics. This Gospel is 
one of the most attractive books ever written, 
and in modern times has exercised a wide 
influence even beyond the pale of Christianity. 
One of the most influential of modern Indian 
converts was brought to Christ simply by 
reading it. The effect of the book is partly 
due to its excellent arrangement. The author 
arranges his material not, like St. Luke, 
chronologically, but according to subject- 
matter. Material of the same kind is collected 
into great masses, which being read uninter- 
ruptedly, produce a cumulative impression 
upon the reader. Good instances of the 
author's method are the great collection of 
sayings known as the Sermon on the Mount 
(5-7) ; the great group of miracles intended to 
illustrate and confirm it (8, 9) ; the charge to the 
Twelve, apparently composed of sayings deli- 
vered at various times (10) ; the cluster of 
seven parables (13), the collection of denun- 
ciations of the Pharisees (23), and the sublime 
group of parables illustrating the end of the 
world (25). The great glory of this Gospel 
is the discourses. These are from the pen of 
the apostle Matthew himself, who evidently 
had a special gift of remembering and record- 
ing accurately the very words of the Master. 
In almost all cases where there is any differ- 
ence, St. Matthew's version is superior to 
St. Luke's. This is specially the case in the 
Sermon on the Mount. In no Gospel, not even 
in St. Luke, are the unapproachable majesty 
and splendour of Christ's utterances so appar- 
ent. St. Matthew's Gospel is particularly 
helpful in its treatment of OT. prophecy, 
showing how completely and comprehensively 
Christ fulfilled the ideals and aspirations of the 
OT. saints. Sometimes his exegesis, following 
(like St. Paul's) rabbinical models, is of a kind 
more calculated to appeal to his original 
readers than to us, but, after making all deduc- 
tions, it is not too much to say, that of all the 
remains of Christian antiquity dealing with 
the subject of Messianic prophecy, St. 
Matthew's Gospel is the most fruitful. 

We have now to speak of the more special 
peculiarities of St. Matthew's Gospel, some 
of which are very definitely marked. 

(1) The Gospel is predominantly Jewish- 
Christian. It reflects the tone of the church of 
Jerusalem before it was fully realised that the 



020 



INTRO. 



ST. MATTHEW 



INTRO. 



Ceremonial Law had been abolished. Sayings 
are reported which (literally understood) teach 
that every letter of the Mosaic Law is binding in 
perpetuity (5 18 ), that its permission to divorce 
still holds good (5 32 19 9 ), that not the Levitical 
distinctions of meats, but only the Pharisaic 
glosses thereon have been abolished (15 20 ), and 
that the sabbath day, with all its Mosaic 
restrictions, will permanently be observed by 
Christians (24 20 ). The first place in the 
kingdom of God seems often to Be assigned to 
the Jews (19 2S ), the Gentiles being obliged to 
content themselves with a subordinate position. 
Christ's mission is apparently restricted to 
the chosen people (15 24 ). As for the apostles, 
they seem expressly forbidden to go into the 
way of the Gentiles, or to enter into any city 
of the Samaritans (10 5 ). 

But though the writer's sympathies are 
predominantly Jewish- Christian, he is a per- 
fectly honest witness, and does not attempt 
to suppress facts or sayings which are of a 
broader or even of an opposite tendency. He 
introduces Gentiles as the first worshippers 
of the infant Messiah (2 *). He records the 
praise of the Roman centurion, and our Lord's 
striking words, ' Many shall come from the 
east and the west, and shall sit down with 
Abraham and Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom 
of heaven ' (8 n ), words which affirm not only 
the admission of the Gentiles to the kingdom, 
but their admission on equal terms. Other 
instances of sayings favourable to the Gentiles 
are, 12 18 > 21 ('in his name shall the Gentiles 
trust '), 12 41 (the men of Nineveh), 13 38 (' the 
field is the world'), 13 47 (the net gathering of 
every kind), 15 30 ' 39 (feeding of 4,000 believing 
Gentiles), 24 u (the gospel to be preached in 
all the world for a witness unto all nations), 
25 32 (Jews and Gentiles on an equality at the 
judgment day), 28 19 (all nations to be baptised). 
St. Matthew even records such anti -Jewish 
sayings as, ' the children of the kingdom shall 
be cast into outer darkness ' (8 12 ), and ' the 
kingdom of God shall be taken from you, and 
given to a nation bringing forth the fruits 
thereof (2143). 

That the evangelist expected to have Gentile 
as well as Jewish readers is shown by his 
occasional, though rare, explanations of Jewish 
words and customs (cp. I 23 'Emmanuel' ; 27 46 
' Eli, Eli,' etc.). 

(2) In accordance with the Jewish- Christian 
character of this Gospel, the apostle Peter, the 
acknowledged head of ' the circumcision,' is 
brought into special prominence. St. Matthew 
alone records the remarkable tradition of his 
attempt to walk upon the water (14 28 ), and the 
promise that upon him, as upon a foundation, 
the Christian church should be built, and that 
whatsoever he should bind on earth should be 
bound in heaven. 



(3) As a Jew, the author is particularly in- 
terested in the correspondence between the 
two testaments. In his view the new dis- 
pensation grows out of the old by a process 
so natural and inevitable, that it can hardly be 
called new. The Law, the Prophets, and the 
Psalms are not abolished ; they are fulfilled in 
Christ. To Him alone they pointed, in Him 
alone they find their true significance. The 
germs of Christian truth were planted of old 
by inspired men, and have so vitally influenced 
the subsequent development of religion, that 
the author can even speak of the events of 
Christ's life as taking place to fulfil the ancient 
prophecies. Thus Christ is born of a virgin at 
Bethlehem, is named Jesus, sojourns in Egypt, 
resides at Nazareth, migrates to Capernaum, 
heals the sick, speaks in parables, enters Jeru- 
salem riding an ass, is deserted by the disciples, 
is betrayed, and put to death, ' that it might 
be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord 
through the prophet ' (so with slight variations 
of phrase l 22 215,23 g 17 12^13 35 21* 2654 . cp . 
25 1314,15 26 3 i 279). This conception is not 
found in the other synoptists, except perhaps 
in one or two isolated phrases (see, e.g. Lk 
24 26, 44) 5 but it is familiar to the fourth evangel- 
ist, and forms an important point of contact 
between the first and fourth Gospels (see Jn 
1239 1712 1924,36 20 9 ). St. Matthew alludes 
to no less than 65 OT. passages, of which 43 
are verbally quoted. St. Luke's allusions to 
the OT. number only 43, and of these only 19 
are direct quotations. 

(4) As a predominantly Judaic work, this 
Gospel portrays Jesus as the Messiah of the Jews. 
His genealogy is traced back only to Abraham, 
and not, as in St. Luke, to Adam. Stress 
is laid upon His descent from David (IMO 

927 1223 1522 20 30,31 219,15 22 42, 43, 45)^ ana the 

genealogy is an elaborate attempt to prove 
His right to David's throne. The descent is, 
of course, traced through the legal father 
Joseph (' the son of David,' 1 20 ), and exhibits 
not so much physical descent, as the legal 
transmission of the right to occupy the throne, 
and be ' king of the Jews ' (2 2 ). But Jesus 
also satisfies the other and more sublime OT. 
anticipations with regard to the Messiah. His 
miraculous conception by the Holy Ghost of a 
virgin mother is evidence that He is in a 
unique sense the Son of God. He is, in fact, 
divine (ll 27 )? an d consequently may rightly 
claim the title 'Emmanuel,' 'God with us.' 
He is the supernatural Son of man whose 
coming was predicted by the prophet Daniel, 
and at the end of the world will sit on the 
throne of His glory to judge the human race 
(1627 2430 26 64 , etc.). Hence He is not only 
David's son, but David's Lord (22 44). 

(5) The Messiah's kingdom is the most fre- 
quent topic in this Gospel. Its title is almost 



621 



INTRO. 



ST. MATTHEW 



1. 



always the rabbinical one, ' the kingdom of the 
heavens ' ; hardly ever, as in the other synopt- 
ists, 'the kingdom of God' (only in 12 28 
21 31,43) The rule over it has been committed 
by God to the Messiah, who sits on the throne 
of it as King (25 34 > 40 ). The author generally 
regards this kingdom as eschatological, i.e. 
beginning at the end of the world, which he 
expected would happen in his own time (24 34 ). 
Then there would be a ' regeneration,' i.e. a 
transformation or new birth of the whole 
creation, when the Son of man would sit on 
the throne of His glory and the apostles 
would sit upon twelve thrones judging (i.e. 
ruling) the twelve tribes of Israel, and the 
righteous would shine forth as the sun in the 
kingdom of their Father (19 28 13 43 ). Other 
passages illustrating the futurity of the king- 
dom are 6™ 7 21 8" 1628 18 3 20 lf -> 21 25 1 - 34 
26 29 . But the author's conception of the king- 
dom is many-sided, and he seems often to re- 
gard it (though this is disputed) as something 
present, like ' eternal life ' in St. John. Thus 
the subjects of the beatitudes are already 
within the kingdom (5 3 ), and so are Christ's 
disciples (ll 11 ), even young children (19 14 ), 
and great is the sin of those who hinder others 
from entering (23 13 ). Sometimes the king- 
dom means the spirit of Christ working secretly 
and silently in the world like the leaven (13 33 ); 
sometimes it is the visible Church (16 18 > 19 ), 
gathering of every kind like a net (13 47 ), and 
spreading abroad like the branches of a mus- 
tard-tree (13 31 ); sometimes, again, it is the 
Christian's secret communion with God through 
Christ, as symbolised by the hid treasure, and 
the pearl of great price (13 44 > 45 ). The con- 
ception is a broad and fluid one, and the 
attempt to define it too rigidly and exclusively 
is probably a mistake. 

(6) Another feature of the Gospel is its 
anti-Pharisaic character. The pointed con- 
demnations of Pharisaism in the Sermon on 
the Mount (5 20 6 1 . 6 . 18 ) are peculiar to St. 
Matthew, and in c. 23 he has 35 vv. of denun- 
ciation as against 3 vv. in Mk and 3 vv. in Lk. 

(7) An apologetic purpose may also be 
detected. The author refutes the Jewish 
calumny that the disciples stole the body of 
Jeans (28 ' '). To the objection to our Lord's 
Messiahshi]) based on His Nazarene origin (see 
j„ i M 7*1,52 Mt2«), he replies that His birth 
took place at Bethlehem, in strict accordance 
with Micah's prophecy (2 1 ), and that if He 
afterwards went to live at Nazareth, this was 
to fulfil another prophecy (2 23 ). That He 
ministered in Galilee and Capernaum rather 
than in Juda-a was not a real difficulty, for 
this had been prophesied by [saiab (I l:1 ). To 
the current calumny that He ha<l visited 
Egypt to take lessons from a conjurer (see 
on 12 22 - 37 ), the author replies that Jesus was 



never in Egypt except once, when He was an 
infant, and that this visit was necessitated by 
a prophecy of Hosea (2 15 ). 
7. Analysis of the Gospel. 

(a) The lineage and birth of the Messianic 
king (c. 1, 2). 

(b) His solemn anointing to His Messianic 
office, and His preliminary temptation by 
Satan (3-4 i 1 ). 

(c) The proclamation and inauguration of 
the Messianic kingdom on earth : its laws, 
principles, and officers (4 12 -13 52 ). 

(d) The Messiah and His kingdom accepted 
and rejected (13 53 -16 20 ) : accepted by the dis- 
ciples (14 33 ), by the woman of Canaan (15 22 ), 
by great multitudes (1 5 30 ), by St. Peter (16 16 ); 
rejected by the Nazarenes (13 57 ), by the 
Pharisees and their sympathisers (15 12 16 4 ). 

(e) The sufferings and death of the Messiah 
announced (16 21 -20 34 ). 

First clear announcement (16 21 ). 

Second clear announcement (17 22 ). 

Third clear announcement (20 17 ). 

(/) The Messiah glorified by Death and 
Resurrection (chs. 21-28). The triumphal 
entry (c. 21) ; final denunciation of the Phari- 
sees, Sadducees, and Scribes (chs. 22, 23) ; 
great prophetic discourses (chs. 24, 25) ; be- 
trayal and death (chs. 26, 27) ; the resurrec- 
tion, and the exaltation of the Messiah to the 
throne of the universe (c. 28). 

CHAPTER 1 

Genealogy and Birth of Jesus 
1-17. Genealogy of Jesus: cp. Lk 3 23 . The 
two genealogies of Jesus, which are constructed 
on quite different principles, require careful 
comparison and study, if their purpose and 
significance are to be understood. In both, 
the descent of Jesus is traced through Joseph, 
not Mary, partly because the claim of Jesus to 
the throne of David could only be established 
through His foster-father Joseph ; partly 
because, in genealogies, the Jews took no 
account of female descent. The genealogies 
are not inspired documents. They are the 
work of Jewish pedigree-makers who did 
their best to fill the gaps of records which were 
frequently fragmentary. They are inserted by 
the evangelists as honest attempts to ascertain 
the truth. Their accuracy or inaccuracy does 
not affect the main point at issue, our Lord's 
descent, through His legal father Joseph, from 
David. Joseph's family certainly claimed de- 
scent from David, and even the enemies of 
Jesus admitted the claim (see d 27 12 23 15 22 
20 3 <> 219 22 42 and parallels). As Jewish 
families were particularly tenacious of family 
traditions, and were accustomed to preserve 
genealogical records, our Lord's Davidic descent 
through Joseph may be regarded as established. 
His Davidic descent through Mary is more 



622 



1. 



ST. MATTHEW 



1.3 



doubtful, but, on the whole, probable. Lkl 36 , 
taken alone, might suggest that she belonged to 
the tribe of Levi, but Lk 1 32 and 1 69 lose much 
of their point, unless it be supposed that Mary 
herself was descended from David. The OT. 
prophecies and the Apostolic Church regarded 
Christ as descended from David according to 
the flesh (Rol 3 Psl32H Isalli Jer23 5 ), and 
if Jesus were born of a virgin, His actual 
descent could only be upon the mother's side. 

Both genealogies reflect current rabbinical 
ideas about the Messiah's descent. It was dis- 
puted, for instance, whether He would be 
descended from David through Solomon, or 
whether, owing to the curse on this line 
(Jer22 28 36 30 ), through another son, Nathan 
(lCh3 5 ). Accordingly St. Matthew's gene- 
alogy traces our Lord's descent through 
Solomon, St. Luke's through Nathan. Other 
rabbinical features are the omission of links in 
the genealogies, especially in St. Matthew, and 
the artificial arrangement of the names in 
numerical groups, probably as an aid to the 
memory. St. Luke's source probably grouped 
the names in multiples of ten (20 generations 
from David to the captivity, 20 from the 
captivity to Christ). This was the commonest 
method. St. Matthew employs multiples of 
seven (14 generations from Abraham to David, 
14 from David to the captivity, 14 from the 
captivity to Christ). St. Matthew's list is a 
genealogy only in appearance. It is really an 
early Jewish- Christian attempt to construct a 
list of successive heirs to the throne of David, 
and so to exhibit Joseph, the legal father of 
Jesus, as the rightful king of Israel. Thus 
Shealtiel (Salathiel), v. 12, was not the actual 
son of Jechoniah, who was childless (Jer 22 28 ), 
but the next heir to the crown, and probably 
for that reason adopted by Jechoniah : see 
lCh3 17 . According to St. Luke, Shealtiel's 
real father was Neri. 

St. Luke's list, on the other hand, aims at 
being a true genealogy, and that not of Mary, 
as a few authorities still maintain, but of 
Joseph : see on Lk3 23 . We are thus faced 
with the serious difficulty that Joseph's father 
is called by St. Matthew ' Jacob,' and by St. 
Luke ' Heli.' Have we here an error made by 
one or both evangelists ? It is, of course, 
possible, but hardly likely, this being only the 
second step of the genealogy. Assuming both 
genealogies to be in this point correct, and 
taking into account the special character of 
St. Matthew's list, the statements are best 
harmonised by supposing that Jacob, the true 
heir to the throne, being, like Jechoniah, child- 
less, adopted the next male heir Heli, who 
belonged to the other branch of the family, 
that, namely, which descended from Nathan. 
A less probable supposition is that Heli and 
Jacob were brothers, and that, one of them 



dying childless, the other took his wife and 
raised up seed to him by what is called a 
Levirate marriage : see Dt25 5 Mt22 23 . The 
point in favour of this view is that the fathers 
of Heli and Jacob, Matthat and Matthan, have 
nearly the same name. The point against it is 
that Matthat and Matthan have different fathers, 
and so were different persons, unless we again 
make use of the expedient of a Levirate 
marriage, or something similar. 

i. The book of the generation] EM ' of the 
genealogy.' The phrase is from Gn5 x , and is 
meant as a title not of the whole G-ospel, nor 
even of the Nativity, but only of the genealogy 
(1 l ' 1>r ), which the evangelist probably did not 
compose himself (though this is possible), but 
derived from an earlier source. Of Jesus 
Christ] ' Jesus ' is the G-k. form of the Heb. 
' Joshua,' or ' Jeshua,' meaning ' Jehovah is 
salvation.' ' Christ ' (Christos) is properly the 
Gk. equivalent of the Aramaic ' Messiah,' lit. 
' anointed one,' but here used as a proper name. 
The use of l Christ ' as a proper name began 
soon after the Ascension, and is common in the 
Epistles. In the Gospels it occurs only in 
Mt 1 1> 16, 17, is Mk 1 1 Jn 1 17 and possibly 17 3 . 
In all other places in the Gospels it should be 
rendered ' the Christ,' or ' the Messiah.' The 
use of the word in the sense of ' the Messiah ' 
is unquestionably the earlier one, and the 
fidelity of the Gospels in preserving it is no 
small evidence of their trustworthiness. The 
son of David] a standing title of the Messiah 
among the rabbis. E.g. it was said, ' The son 
of David cometh not until that wicked empire 
(Rome) hath extended itself over the whole 
earth.' ' If the Israelites shall keep the sab- 
bath even for a single day as they ought, the 
son of David will come': see Psl32 Isa 111 
Jer 23 5 . The poverty of Joseph and Mary 
is no evidence against their Davidic descent. 
The great rabbi Hillel, another descendant of 
David, was even poorer. The Davidic descent 
of our Lord's family was never questioned in 
His lifetime even by His enemies, and was so 
notorious that the descendants of Jude, the 
Lord's brother, incurred the jealousy of the 
tyrant Domitian. The son of Abraham] St. 
Matthew, writing primarily for Jews, carries 
the genealogy to Abraham and no further. 
He wishes to show that Jesus is the Messiah 
of the Jews, born in accordance with the 
promise made by God to the ancestor of the 
race (Gnl2 3 , etc.). St. Luke, writing for 
Gentiles, and emphasising St. Paul's principle 
that in Christ there is neither Jew nor Gentile, 
carries the genealogy back to Adam. 

3. Of Thamar] RY ' Tamar.' Contrary to 
Jewish custom St. Matthew introduces into his 
genealogy four women, Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, 
and Bathsheba. Of these, two (Rahab and 
Ruth) were Gentiles, and three were guilty of 



623 



1. 8 



ST. MATTHEW 



1. 18 



gross sins. Their insertion is intended to 
teach certain spiritual lessons : (1) That Gen- 
tiles as well as Jews have their rights in the 
Messiah, seeing that two of His ancestors were 
of Gentile blood. (2) That Jewish Christians 
instead of regarding Gentile converts with 
contempt, should be proud of them, as their 
ancestors were of Rahab and Ruth, who, on 
becoming proselytes, were accounted mothers 
in Israel. Of Rahab the rabbis said, ' Ten 
priests, who were also prophets, sprang from 
her ' ; and of Ruth, 4 It is spoken in prophecy 
that the six most righteous men of the whole 
world will spring from her, David, Daniel and 
his companions, and King Messiah.' (3) That 
remission of sins, complete restoration to God's 
favour, and a high and privileged position in 
the kingdom of grace, are possible for the worst 
offenders. (4) That Christ did not shrink 
from the closest contact with sinful humanity. 
He touched and raised the very nature which 
had fallen. He assumed our sin-stained flesh, 
and in assuming cleansed it, and made it the 
instrument of human redemption. 

8. After Joram St. Matthew omits three 
names, Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah (see 1 Ch 3 n > 12 ), 
some think on account of their descent from 
the idolatrous Jezebel, but more probably 
simply to reduce the number of generations 
to fourteen, n. After Josias St. Matthew 
omits Eliakim (2 K 23 34). The brethren of 
Jechoniah (Jehoiachin) are really his uncles, 
Jehoahaz and Zedekiah. Zedekiah, the last 
king of Judah, though really the uncle of 
Jehoiachin (2K24 17 Jer37!), is called his 
* brother 'even in OT. (2 Ch 36 W). 12 . Jecho- 
niah (Jehoiachin) was probably childless (yet 
see on Jer 22 30 ), and adopted Salathiel (Sheal- 
tiel) as his heir (see 1 Ch3 17 ). Shealtiel seems 
also to have been childless, for although both 
here and in Ezr3 2 NehTi 1 Hagl 1 , etc., he is 
said to have had a son Zorobabel (Zerubbabel), 
this Zerubbabel seems to have been really the 
son of Shealtiel's brother Pedaiah (1 Cho 1 '-'), 
who may have married his childless brother's 
widow according to the Law. 

1 6. Little importance attaches to the read- 
ing of the Sinai-Syriac version, l Joseph begat 
Jesus,' which is certainly not original, lacking, 
as it does, all MS authority, and contradict 
ing the plain statements of the evangelist 
(vv. 18-25). Probably thereadingcomesfroman 
Bbionite version of this Gospel. The Ebionites 
irere an early Beet, who, while admitting our 
Lord's Meflaiahship, denied His divinity and 
supernatural birth. Or the error may be due 
to the mechanical repetition by some Bcribe of 
the word 'begat,' which he had already written 
thirty-eight times. 

17. As there are only thirteen generations 
from the captivity to Christ, probably a name 
has dropped out. 



18-25. Circumstances of the Conception and 
Birth of Jesus: cp. Lkl 26 -56 2 1 -*). The order 
of events is (a) Conception of John by Elisa- 
beth, Lkl 24 , (b) Annunciation to Mary at 
Xazareth six months afterwards, Lkl 26 , (c) 
Visit of Mary to Elisabeth lasting three months, 
Lk 1 39, (cl) Return of Mary to Nazareth, Lk 1 5 <5, 
(e) Birth of John, Lk 1 57, (/) Mary is found to 
be with child, Mt 1 18 , (g) An angel appears to 
Joseph, Mtl 20 , (h) Journey to Bethlehem, 
Lk 2*, (i) Birth of Jesus, Mtl 2 * Lk2?. 

Significance of Christ's Infancy. At first 
sight it seems unworthy of the Son of Cod to 
be conceived and born, and to pass through the 
stages of human growth. But in truth the 
interval between God and man is so infinitely 
great, that the minute difference between in- 
fancy and manhood is of no consequence. The 
marvel is that the Son of God should consent to 
become man at all ; it is no additional marvel 
that He should become an infant. If it was 
expedient for the human race which He came 
to redeem, that He should pass through all the 
stages of a truly human experience, then the 
same infinite loving condescension which caused 
Him to become man would cause Him to be 
conceived and born. It is a fact admitted by 
the most sceptical that the human birth of 
Jesus Christ has appealed to the imagination of 
mankind, more perhaps than any other event 
of His life, and has produced permanent effects 
of the utmost importance (Lk 1 31 ). (a) It has 
abolished the once common crime of infanticide 
by teaching that infant life is sacred, (b) It 
has raised the dignity of women, and produced 
in men the feeling of chivalry towards them, 
which is essentially Christian and was unknown 
to the ancient world, (c) It has sanctified 
motherhood and family life, (d) It has placed 
chastity both in men and women in the fore- 
front of Christian virtues, (e) It has given a 
new importance to childhood, so that kindness 
to children and a willingness to conform to the 
ideal character of childhood, are marks of a 
true Christian. The human birth of Jesus is 
thus justified both by its results and by its 
adaptation to human needs. ' Jesus Christ,' 
says Irenaeus, ' came to save all by means of 
Himself. He therefore passed through every 
age, becoming an infant for infants, a ehild for 
children, a youth for youths, an elderly man 
for elderly men, that He might be a perfect 
Master for all.' 

The Incarnation and the Virgin Birth. A 
difficulty lias bees fell in our days in accepting 
the miracle associated with the conception of 
our Lord. This arises chiefly from the facts 
that the two Gospels which record it differ to 
some extent in their accounts, and that the 
nature of the miracle itself precludes absolute 
demonstration. 

1 1 may be candidly admitted that the miracu- 



024 



1. 18 



ST. MATTHEW 



1.19 



lous conception of Jesus has not the same 
evidence for it as the other miracles, and that 
if it were affirmed of any ordinary man it could 
not be believed. But Jesus was not an ordinary 
man. He was one who, according to credible 
testimony, worked many miracles, including 
the raising of the dead, and concluded an 
absolutely unexampled career by rising from 
the dead and ascending into heaven. The 
miraculous manner in which Jesus left this 
earth thus removes all theoretical difficulty 
from the miracle by which He is said to have 
entered it. The main question to be considered 
is : Do the existing narratives show signs of 
having proceeded from the only two persons 
who can have known anything about the matter, 
viz. Joseph and Mary? Certainly they do. 
St. Matthew's Gospel regards the matter en- 
tirely from Joseph's point of view. It is 
Joseph who discovers the condition of Mary 
(1 1S ), and is doubtful what course to pursue (1 19 ). 
It is to Joseph that the angel appears to an- 
nounce the miraculous conception of Jesus 
(1 20 ), and again to bid him flee into Egypt (2 I3 ), 
and to return (2 19 ). St. Luke's narrative, on 
the other hand, reflects entirely the point of 
view of Mary. It is to Mary that Gabriel 
appears (Lk 1 26 ). A full account is given of her 
visit to Elisabeth (1 39 ). The mother's memory 
appears in the mention of the swaddling clothes 
and of the manger (2 "), and in the words, ' But 
Mary kept all these sayings and pondered them 
in her heart ' (2 19 ), and again, ' Yea, a sword 
shall pierce through thy own soul also ' (2 35 ). St. 
Luke's account is much fuller than St. Mat- 
thew's, and this is easily accounted for. When 
St. Luke was collecting his materials in Pales- 
tine, Mary was probably still alive, whereas 
Joseph (St. Matthew's authority) had long 
been dead, and his account had probably passed 
through several hands before it reached the 
evangelist. The historical character of both 
narratives is shown by their freedom from the 
extravagant features which mark the apocry- 
phal Gospels, and by their essential agreement, 
in spite of the fact that they are absolutely 
independent. It is true that St. Matthew seems 
to represent Bethlehem rather than Nazareth 
as the original home of Joseph and Mary, 
though he does not actually say so. On the 
other hand, St. Luke seems ignorant of the 
flight into Egypt, and passes straight from the 
presentation in the Temple to the return to 
Nazareth. But these are only instances of one 
imperfect account supplementing another, not 
of radical inconsistencies. Both accounts agree 
as to the two main points, Christ's birth of a 
virgin and His birth at Bethlehem. 

Granting the fact of a real Incarnation, 
the Yirgin Birth would seem to be the most 
reverent and fitting way of bringing it about. 
Since natural generation invariably gives rise 



to a new person, it was plainly unsuitable to 
the case of Jesus, at whose conception no new 
person came into existence, but the already 
existing Son of God entered upon a new human 
experience. Moreover, natural generation hav- 
ing been generally associated, especially by the 
Jews, with sin, it was not desirable that 
the moral miracle of a sinless human nature 
should be marked by the physical miracle of a 
miraculous conception. The last appeal, and 
perhaps to many minds the only possible appeal, 
is that of the argument derived from ' cause 
and effect.' Look at the stupendous fact — 
Jesus. The miracle of the NT., the miracle of 
the ages is not the Resurrection, but Jesus 
Himself. The phenomena of His life and 
character, the incomprehensibility of His per- 
son, seem to demand uniqueness and mystery 
in His birth. To abandon the "Virgin Birth 
because of the difficulties of a few would be to 
throw greater difficulties in the way of the many. 
The doctrine has always been regarded as an 
integral part of the faith. It appears in the 
earliest form of the Apostles' Creed (100 A.D.). 

18. Was espoused] BY' had been betrothed.' 
Betrothal was almost equivalent to marriage, 
and could not be broken off without a formal 
divorce : cp. on Jn 8 3 and Dt 22 23, 24. she was 
found] viz. by her husband. Of the Holy 
Ghost] Both here and in Lk 1 35 the miracle of 
the conception is ascribed emphatically to the 
1 Holy ' Spirit, to mark the fact that Jesus was 
conceived sinless, and in a manner the most 
sacred imaginable. ' The Holy Spirit sancti- 
fied the flesh which it united with the Word. 
Not only was the " new departure in human 
life " which began with the birth of the Second 
Adam fitly preceded by a directly creative act, 
but the new humanity was consecrated at the 
moment of its conception by the overshadowing 
of the Divine Spirit ' (Swete). The expression 
' Holy Ghost ' is especially characteristic of the 
NT., where it occurs over 80 times. In the 
Gk. OT. (LXX) it occurs only twice. The 
Jews did not regard the Spirit as personal, 
hence Mary must have understood the words 
of the angel, ' The Holy Ghost shall come upon 
thee,' as identical in meaning with, ' The power 
of the Highest shall overshadow thee.' Not 
so the evangelists, to whom 'the Holy Ghost' 
had become practically a proper name, and as 
such was used without the article. 

19. A just maw] i.e. a good or righteous 
man : here, in particular, a kind or humane 
man, because although he felt bound to divorce 
her, he wished to do so as privately as possible, 
and without assigning any reason. A Jewish 
husband could divorce his wife if she did not 
please him, simply by giving her a bill of divorce 
in the presence of witnesses, without specifying 
the true cause. The legal penalty for Mary's 
supposed fault was stoning ( Jn 8 5 ). 



40 



625 



1.20 



ST. MATTHEW 



2. 



20. The angel] RV 'an angel.' In St. Luke 
the angel who appears to Zachariah and Mary 
is named (Lkl 19 > 26 ), and the same angel 
(Gabriel) is to be understood here. In other 
passages of the NT. angels appear and speak : 
at the Resurrection, Mt 28 5 ; at the Ascension, 
Acl n ; to Peter in prison, 5 19 12 7 ; to Philip, 
8 26 ; to Cornelius, 10 3 . There is no real 
reason to question the actual existence of 
angels. Why should man be the highest being 
in the universe ? 

21. JESUS] see on v. 1. For he shall 
save] more exactly, ' for it is He that shall 
save.' ' Saving from sin ' includes two pro- 
cesses : (1) atonement for sin, and (2) sancti- 
fication. Both are works of Christ. The 
natural atonement for sin is penitence ; but 
inasmuch as human penitence is imperfect, and 
our very repentance requires to be repented 
of, the aid of a Divine Helper is required. 
Christ bears the weight of our sins, sorrows 
for them with a sorrow that is adequate, and 
gives us grace to repent of them in a manner 
acceptable to God. As we live the life of faith 
in Christ our penitence continually becomes 
deeper, and one day it will be perfect, and God 
will accept it as adequate. In the meantime 
God pardons us by anticipation. Sanctification, 
i.e. the putting away of sin and growth in virtue 
and holiness, is another most important work 
of redemption, and no one can safely assure 
himself of the divine pardon unless he is ad- 
vancing in the Christian virtues. The faith 
which does not manifest itself in works is no 
true faith in Christ. His people] primarily, 
of course, the Jews ; but the Gentiles are also 
Israel, ' the Israel of God ' (Gal 6 16 ). 

22. That it might be fulfilled, etc.] It is 
characteristic of St. Matthew, though not, of 
course, peculiar to him, to regard the events 
of Christ's life as taking place in order to 
fulfil God's gracious promises in the OT. made 
through the prophets. This particular phrase 
occurs 10 times in St. Matthew, and nowhere 
else in the NT. : see Intro. 

23. Behold, a virgin] RV ' the virgin ' : see 
on Isa7 14 . It does not appear that the Jews 
regarded the passage as Messianic ; but St. 
Matthew, writing for Christians, applies it to 
the Messiah, in accordance with the rabbinical 
maxim, ' All the prophets prophesied only of the 
days of the Messiah.' St. Matthew quotes the 
passage as a prophecy not of the Virgin Birth, 
but of the giving to our Lord of a name ex- 
pressing Bm divinity. He was called 'Jesus' 
(i.e. * God is Salvation') to fulfil the prophecy 
which assigned bo Mini the name 'Emmanuel' 
( k God with us'). There is no indication thai 
the evangelist, who was acquainted with 
Hebrew, attached importance to the word 

'virgin' in this passage. In the Heb. it is 
'at mull, i.e. 'a young woman,' not necessarily a 



virgin. The LXX, however, renders it par- 
thenos, i.e. ' virgin,' and hence many have 
incorrectly supposed that Isaiah prophesied 
the Virgin Birth. 

Emmanuel] i.e. ' God with us.' This is a 
descriptive title rather than a name. It was 
never borne by our Lord, but He received in- 
stead a name (' Jesus ') which expressed its 
meaning, and thus the prophecy was fulfilled. 
In the mind of Isaiah the title Emmanuel 
indicated that the bearer of it would deliver 
Israel from all their enemies. In the mind of 
the evangelist, who believed in the Incarnation 
(see especially 27 19 ), it meant that in Jesus 
God assumed human nature to save the chil- 
dren of men, and to dwell with and in them 
for ever (27 20 ). 25. And knew her not till] 
Some have thought that the evangelist means 
to imply that after the birth of Jesus, Joseph 
and Mary lived together as man and wife, and 
that children were born to them. This may 
have been the case, but the words of the 
evangelist here are not meant to imply it. 
They simply affirm in the strongest manner 
that Joseph had nothing whatever to do with 
the conception and birth of Jesus, and are not 
intended to give information as to what hap- 
pened afterwards. For the probable relation- 
ship to our Lord of His 'brethren,' see on 12 50 . 

Her firstborn son] RV ' a son.' ' Firstborn' 
is interpolated from Lk2 7 , q.v. 

CHAPTER 2 
The Wise Men 

1- 1 2. The star in the east and the visit of 
the Magi (peculiar to St. Matthew). The 
incident fits well into secular history. About 
the time when the star appeared (7 or 6 B.C.), 
Herod the Great, being alarmed by a prophecy 
that the royal power was about to pass away 
from him and his line, put the authors of it to 
death. It is evident, therefore, that the an- 
nouncement by the wise men that Herod's 
supplanter in the kingdom had actually been 
born, would drive him to violent measures. 
The slaughter of the infants by Herod seems 
confirmed by the independent account of the 
heathen historian Macrobius (400 a.d.), who 
says that when news was brought to Augustus 
that Herod had ordered children under two 
years old in Syria to be slain, and that among 
them was a son of Herod, the emperor re- 
marked, that it was better to be Herod's pig 
(htm) than Herod's son (huiori). 

That the Magi should be familiar with and 
sympathise with Jewish expectations about 
the Messiah, is not a difficulty. Synagogues 
existed throughout the East, and exercised a 
wide influence. At Damascus nearly all the 
women were proselytes (Jos. ' Wars,' ii. 20. 2 : 
cp. also 29 '■' Ac2« 1 3 ,3 , etc.). Belief that the 
appearance of the Messiah was imminent — 



626 



% 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



% 6 



a belief widely cherished in Jewish circles, 
see Lk 2 25 > 26 > 38 — joined to belief in the appear- 
ance of signs in the heavens at the birth of 
great men, would sufficiently account for the 
journey of these astrologers, even if they were 
ignorant of the more definite expectation, 
which, according to Edersheim, was entertained 
at this time by the Jews, that two years be- 
fore the birth of the Messiah His star would 
appear in the East. The existence of Mes- 
sianic expectations throughout the East at 
a somewhat later period is expressly affirmed 
not only by Josephus, but also by the heathen 
historians Tacitus and Suetonius. As to the 
nature of the star, the most probable view is 
Kepler's. He calculated that in 7 B.C. there 
occurred three times a most remarkable con- 
junction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn in 
the constellation Pisces, which was next year 
reinforced by Mars. This triple conjunction 
was followed by the appearance of a remark- 
ably coloured evanescent star, which was the 
true star of the Magi. If this view be correct, 
our Lord's birth occurred about 6 B.C. (i.e. six 
years before the vulgar era of the nativity), 
and the visit of the Magi followed soon 
afterwards. 

The spiritual significance of the story lies 
on the surface. Whereas Herod and the Jews 
were ignorant of the birth of the Messiah 
among them, and, when informed of it, mani- 
fested the most malignant hatred against Him, 
strangers from afar knew of it before then, 
and hastened to pay Him reverence. The in- 
cident is thus a prophecy of the history of 
the succeeding centuries, in which the chosen 
people have persistently rejected the Messiah, 
and the Gentiles have accepted Him. The 
incident also illustrates the true relations be- 
tween science and religion. In the persons of 
the Magi, science paid homage to religion . The 
Magi were the men of science of the period, 
and their science brought them to Christ. 
And so it is now. The science of yesterday 
was (according to not a few of its exponents) 
hostile to faith, proudly boasting that it could 
solve the mystery of the universe. The 
science of to-day is more humble, acknowledg- 
ing that the deepest natural knowledge only 
touches the outer fringe of things, and that 
so-called scientific ' explanations ' of the uni- 
verse are not explanations at all, but only 
descriptions. Religion and science move on 
different planes. There is and can be no real 
antagonism between them, and their natural 
relationship is one of mutual respect, and 
cordial cooperation. 

i. Bethlehem] or Ephrathah, the city of 
David, is 5 m. S. of Jerusalem : see Gn 35 16 > 19 
48US16* 2S232 23i 4 -i6 lChllie.26 Ezr22i 
Neh7 26 . The supposed site of the nativity 
is a rock-hewn cave, measuring 38 ft. by 



11 ft., at one end of which is inscribed 'Hie 
de virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est.' 
Above it stands perhaps the oldest Christian 
church in the world, the basilica built by 
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, 
about 330 a.d. Herod] i.e. Herod the Great, 
who reigned from 37 to 4 B.C. As Christ was 
born at least two years before Herod's death 
(see 2 1 6 ), the date of the nativity cannot be 
later than 6 B.C. See art. ' The Dynasty of 
the Herods.' Wise men] lit. ' Magi,' a sacer- 
dotal class among the Persians, Babylonians, 
and other Eastern nations, who occupied them- 
selves with a knowledge of the secrets of 
nature, divination, astrology, and medicine. 
The Babylonian Magi are mentioned in Jer 39 3 . 
Daniel was made chief of them owing to his 
skill in interpreting dreams (Dan2 48 ). Here 
the word is used in its strict meaning, and in a 
good sense. Elsewhere in the NT. it means a 
juggler or cheat (Ac 13 6 > 8 ). Since astronomy 
was chiefly practised in Babylonia, and Jewish 
influence was particularly strong there, it may 
be conjectured that these Magi were Baby- 
lonians. But they may have come from Arabia. 
There is no warrant for the tradition that they 
were kings. To Jerusalem] The Magi came 
because they expected to obtain full informa- 
tion at the capital. 2. In the east] better, 
'at its rising.' Worship] see on v. 11. 

3. And all Jerusalem] They had good reason 
to be troubled. Only two years before, in a 
similar fit of jealous fear, Herod had slaughtered 
all the leading Pharisees (Jos. ' Antiq.' 17. 2). 

4. Herod summons not the Sanhedrin, 
which he had reduced to a shadow, having 
slain its members wholesale, but a national 
assembly of theologians learned in the Law. 

Chief priests] The name includes the high 
priest, the ex-high priests, and members of 
those families from which the high priest was 
generally chosen. Scribes] i.e. professional 
students, copiers, and expounders of the Law 
of Moses, who rose into prominence after the 
captivity (Neh8i, etc.), and were enrolled as 
members of the Sanhedrin. Called also 
' lawyers ' (Lk 10 25 ) and ' doctors of the law ' 
(Lk5 i7 ). Christ] RV 'the Christ,' i.e. the 
Messiah. 

5. In Bethlehem] cp. Jn7 42 . 

6. See Mic 5 2 . St. Matthew follows neither 
the Heb. nor the Gk., but gives a free paraphrase. 
He 'reproduces the prophetic utterance of 
Micah, exactly as such quotations were popu- 
larly made at that time. Hebrew being a dead 
language, the Holy Scriptures were always 
translated (in the synagogue) into the popular 
dialect (Aramaic) by a Methurgeman, or in- 
terpreter, and these interpretations, or Tar- 
gums, were neither literal versions nor yet 
paraphrases, but something between them, a 
sort of interpreting translation. It is needless 



627 



2. 9 



ST. MATTHEW 



% ZZ 



to remark that the NT. writers would " targum " 
as Christians' (Edersheim abridged). 

9. The star . . went before them, etc.] a 
poetical way of saying that the star guided 
the wise men to Jesus. 

11. The house] There is no mention of the 
stable (Lk2 7 ). As soon as the enrolling was 
at an end, there would be no difficulty in 
obtaining accommodation. Fell down, and 
worshipped him] The customary method of 
doing homage to a monarch. But in their 
homage was mingled something also of re- 
ligious worship, because they understood at 
least this, that the Child before whom they 
knelt was the Messiah, the religious head of 
the human race, standing in a unique relation 
to God, and destined to establish the kingdom 
of God on earth. 

Gifts] It was, and is, the Eastern custom 
not to approach monarchs and princes without 
a gift : Gn43H lSlO 2 ? 1K10 2 . The Magi 
brought to Jesus the most costly products of 
the countries in which they lived, as if to 
show that nothing is too precious to be used 
in the service of God. It is a mistake to think 
that spiritual worship is necessarily a bare 
worship, or that religion is purest when it is 
most divorced from art. Art and the love of 
beauty are among God's greatest gifts to man, 
and it is right that man in worshipping should 
render of his best to God. The mystical in- 
terpretation of the gifts (gold, symbolising 
Christ's Royalty ; frankincense, or incense, His 
Divinity ; myrrh, His Passion, cp. Jnl9 39 ) is 
questionable. The Magi would not know that 
He was actually divine, still less that He would 
suffer. 

12. In a dream] As the Magi were inter- 
preters of dreams, this method of divine reve- 
lation was especially appropriate. It is part 
of God's loving condescension to mankind to 
make His revelations to different ages, races, 
and individuals by those channels through 
which they are accustomed to expect them. 

13-15. Flight into Egypt (peculiar to St. 
Matthew). Egypt was the only place of refuge 
easily reached from Bethlehem. It was out- 
side the dominions of Herod, under Roman 
government, and contained a population of at 
Leasi a million Jews, who were more wealthy 
and enlightened than those of Palestine. It 
\v;is notorious for its superstition and gross 
idolatry, and legend has represented the idols 
of Egvpt as falling flat on their faces before 
the Holy Child. 

15. Until the death of Herod] Herod died 
probably 4 b.c, possibly 3 B.O., so that the 

sojourn in Egypt was short, perhaps only B few 

months. 

Out of Egypt] Hos ll 1 . It is impossible 

that the flight into Egypt was invented to 
fulfil this prophecy, which in Hosea is simply 



an historical allusion to the deliverance of 
Israel from Egypt. My son] in the original 
passage is the nation, not the Messiah, and so the 
LXX understood it. St. Matthew, however, 
saw in the history of Israel a typical fore- 
shadowing of the life of our Lord, and so, in 
accordance with rabbinical methods of in- 
terpretation, applied it to Jesus. Here St. 
Matthew quotes directly from the Heb. The 
LXX has ' Out of Egypt did I call his (Israel's) 
children.' 

16-18. Massacre of the Innocents (pecu- 
liar to St. Matthew). The incident is fully in 
accordance with what is known of Herod's 
character, and could not have been suggested 
by the prophecy in v. 18, which really refers 
to the Babylonian captivity. It is a true 
instinct, born of the new significance which 
Christianity has given to child-life, which has 
led the Church to enroll the Innocents in ' the 
noble army of martyrs,' and to commemorate 
them in the Christmas festival (Dec. 28). ' Not 
in speaking, but in dying,' says the old collect, 
' did they confess Christ.' 

16. All the male (RY) children] 'Considering 
the population of Bethlehem, their number 
could only have been small — probably twenty 
at most.' The massacre is not mentioned by 
Josephus, but 'the murder of a few infants in 
an insignificant village might appear scarcely 
worth notice in a reign stained by so much 
bloodshed. Besides, he had perhaps a special 
motive for this silence. Josephus always 
carefully suppresses, so far as possible, all 
that refers to the Christ ' (Edersheim). 

18. Was. . a voice heard] Jer31 15 . Rachel 
was buried at Ramah (cp. Gn35 19 1S10 2 ), 
and when Jerusalem was captured by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, trains of J^pvish captives were led 
by her tomb on their way to exile. Jeremiah 
poetically represents Rachel as coming out of 
her tomb, and weeping piteously over her 
dead and exiled descendants, and St. Matthew 
applies the prophecy to the circumstances of 
the slaughter of the Innocents. 

19-23. Return to Palestine. Settlement at 
Nazareth. It is implied that Joseph had 
settled at Bethlehem and intended to remain 
there as the most suitable place for bringing 
up the future Messiah. But God judged that 
the despised Galilee was a better training- 
school for the future Saviour of the world. 

22. Archelaus] see art. ' The Dynasty of 
the Herods.' Did reign] RV ' was reigning.' 
Properly speaking Archelaus was only an 
' ethnarch,' but ethnarchs and tetrarchs were 
popularly called 'kings. 1 Augustus had pro- 
mised Archelaus the title of king, if he should 
deserve it by ruling well. Joseph feared to 
go back to- Judaea, because Archelaus was as 
suspicious and cruel as his father. The plea- 
sure-loving Antipas who ruled in Galilee, was 
628 



2.23 



ST. MATTHEW 



3.2 



known to be more humane. 23. Nazareth] 
or Nazara, was a town of lower Galilee, in the 
tribe of Zebulon. It lay in a lofty valley 
among the limestone hills to the N. of the 
plain of Esdraelon, or Megiddo. It was 
quite unimportant (Jnl 46 ), and is not men- 
tioned in OT. or Josephus. 

A Nazarene] A thoroughly Jewish play 
upon words. In the OT. and in Jewish 
writings the Messiah is often called Tsemach 
(Jer23 5 ), or Netser (Isall 1 ), i.e. the Branch, 
so that ' Jesus the Nazarene ' would sound 
very much like ' Jesus the Branch,' i.e. the 
Messiah. Edersheim says, ' We admit that 
this is a Jewish view, but then this Gospel 
is the Jewish view of the Jewish Messiah.' 

CHAPTEE 3 

Appearance op the Baptist. Baptism of 
Jesus 

1-12. John the Baptist's ministry. The 
circumstances of John's birth are detailed in 
Lkl (see notes there). He was sanctified 
from birth to be the forerunner of the Messiah 
(Lk 1 13 - 17 > 76f -), and received a special revelation 
to enable him to recognise the Expected One 
when He appeared (Jnl 33 ). His mother 
Elisabeth was a cousin of the Yirgin, and he 
was born about six months before Jesus. 
Knowing what his work in life was to be, he 
devoted himself from his earliest years to a 
life of strict asceticism. ' He was in the 
deserts till the day of his showing unto Israel,' 
imitating the austerities of the OT. prophets, 
especially Elijah, whom he greatly resembled. 
Some earnest Jews seem to have followed his 
example, and adopted the hermit life. For 
instance, one of the instructors of Josephus, a 
man called Banus, ' l^ved in the desert, and 
had no other food than that which grew of its 
own accord, and bathed himself in cold water 
frequently both by night and day.' Josephus 
adopted his practices and stayed with him 
three years. The ascetic and unsocial life of 
John contrasted strangely with the genial and 
social habits of Jesus, who came ' eating and 
drinking,' and mingling freely with people of 
all classes. Yet our Lord had the greatest 
esteem for John, and spoke of him as greater 
than the greatest of the prophets (ll 7-19 ). 

The public appearance of the Baptist marked 
a new era. He came forward in the twofold 
capacity of a prophet and the forerunner of 
the Messiah. As prophecy had been silent for 
400 years, and all patriotic Jews were longing 
for the coming of the Messiah to deliver them 
from the Roman yoke, it is not surprising that 
he was welcomed with enthusiasm, and that 
those who ventured to doubt his mission found 
it expedient to dissemble (21 26 ). He might 
undoubtedly have claimed the allegiance of 
Israel as their promised king (Lk3 15 ), but, true 



to his mission, he declared himself only the 
forerunner of that greater One, whose ministry 
was about to begin. The testimony of John 
to the Messiahship of Jesus is undoubtedly a 
historical fact, and an important one. To it 
our Lord owed His first and most capable 
followers (Jnl 35f -), and much of His early 
success. 

The teaching of John was confined within 
the limits of OT. ideas, and his aim was to 
make his converts pious Jews of the orthodox 
type. At the same time, his views were of a 
far more spiritual kind than those generally 
current. In his teaching he laid the main 
stress not upon the ceremonial law, but upon 
righteousness. He did not regard the Messiah's 
kingdom as — in its main aspect, at any rate — 
a temporal monarchy. It was a kingdom not 
of this world, a kingdom of righteousness. 
Not descent from Abraham, but righteousness 
entitled a man to be a member of it. Hence 
above all things repentance and amendment of 
life were necessary. Those who repented and 
received the Messiah, would be admitted into 
the kingdom, to whatever nation they might 
belong, but Israelites who refused to repent 
and believe would be rejected. John foresaw 
the difficulties with which Jesus would have 
to contend, and even predicted for Him a 
death like his own (Jn 1 36f -). In his preaching 
John appealed largely to the emotion of fear. 
He declared that the Messianic age would be 
ushered in by a terrible act of judgment. The 
Messiah would hew down every unfruitful 
tree with the axe of retribution. With the fan 
of judgment he would winnow the wheat, 
casting the useless chaff into unquenchable 
fire. Let hypocrites, especially Pharisees and 
Sadducees, beware, for only by true repentance 
could they flee from the wrath to come. Let 
all men practise charity, sharing their goods 
with their neighbours. Let publicans collect 
no more than the taxes due. Let soldiers 
avoid all violence, and be content with their 
wages. So and so only could they enter into 
the kingdom : see Lk 3 10 ' 14 . Josephus alludes 
to John, but in a brief and guarded manner, 
as ' a good man, who commanded the Jews to 
exercise virtue both as to righteousness towards 
one another, and piety towards God, and so to 
come to baptism.' 

St. Matthew and St. Luke both supplement 
St. Mark's brief account of John from other 
sources. 

1. In those days] i.e. 26 a.d. The wilder- 
ness of Judaea] a desert tract about 10 m. 
wide to the W. of the Dead Sea, including 
also the W. bank of the Jordan near its mouth. 
The chief towns in it were Engedi and Tekoa. 

2. Repent ye] Repentance is not mere 
sorrow for sin, but a real change of life. It 
includes, (1) contrition, i.e. sorrow for sin. 



629 



3. 3 



ST. MATTHEW 



3.7 



regarded as an offence against God ; (2) con- 
fession of sin, always to God, and, where man 
has been injured, also to man ; (3) amendment 
of life. The kingdom of heaven] St. Matthew 
nearly always employs this rabbinical phrase 
instead of ' the kingdom of God.' ' Heaven ' 
so used is a reverential substitute for ' God.' 
k The kingdom of heaven ' is, of course, the 
kingdom of Christ, which the Baptist certainly 
regarded as spiritual. On the precise meaning 
of the phrase in this Gospel see the Intro., also 
the notes on the Sermon on the Mount (chs. 
5-7), and on the parables. 

3. For this is he, etc.] words of the evan- 
gelist, not of the Baptist. Isa40 3 is quoted 
according to LXX. In Isaiah the words are 
a summons to make level the roads before 
Jehovah, who is leading home His people 
from the Babylonian captivity. St. Matthew 
typically applies them to the entry of Israel, 
after their long period of waiting, into the 
Messianic kingdom. 

4. Camel's hair] i.e. either a camel's skin, 
or cloth woven from camel's hair. John's 
dress was a protest against the luxurious robes 
of soft wool, which were fashionable at the 
time. Locusts] They are still eaten in the 
East, especially by the poor. After being 
thrown into boiling water their wings and legs 
are torn off ; they are then sprinkled with salt, 
and either boiled or roasted. Sometimes they 
are fried in butter or oil. Wild honey] still 
plentiful in the wilderness, where it flows 
from combs built in the crevices of the rocks. 
Certain trees also exude a juice called tree- 
manna, or honey, and some suppose that this 
is meant. 

6. Were baptized] The Baptism of John 
was specifically a baptism of repentance, of 
which public confession was the pledge and 
evidence. Its significance can be best de- 
scribed in the words of Isaiah : ' Wash you, 
make you clean ; put away the evil of your 
doings from before mine eyes ; cease to do 
evil ; learn to do well ; seek judgment ' (jus- 
tice), 'relieve the oppressed, judge the father- 
less, plead for the widow ' (Isa 1 16 ; cp. Zech 
13 1 ). It has points of contact with the baptism 
of proselytes or converts from heathenism. 
John required circumcised Jews of the seed 
of Abraham to submit to his baptism, and 
thereby to declare themselves outside the 
Messianic kingdom, and unfit to enter into 
it without a moral purification. This was 
distasteful to the pride of the Pharisees, who 
took offence at being treated as proselytes 
(Lk7 ; "). From Jn 1 25 it may be gathered 
that there was b general expectation that the 
Messiah and those closely associated with Him 
would baptise, so thai John's action was in 
accordance with Jewish ideas. Johns Bap- 
tism differed from thai of Jesus in being of a 



preparatory character. It did not confer the 
Spirit, and was not recognised as equivalent 
to Christian baptism (Acl8 25 19 3 ). Con- 
fessing their sins] The Grk. word generally, 
but not always, means a public confession, 
and that seems to be the sense here. For an 
example of public confession and repudiation 
of past sins in connexion with Christian bap- 
tism, see Acl9 18 . 

7. Pharisees and Sadducees] The Pharisees 
were the strictest, the most active, and the most 
influential of the Jewish parties or sects. They 
were zealously attached to the Law, and still 
more to ' the traditions of the elders.' By the 
length of their prayers, the frequency of their 
fasts, and their devotion to ceremonialism, 
they sought to win honour with men and 
merit with God. They were hostile to foreign 
rule, intensely national and patriotic in spirit, 
and ready to suffer persecution even unto 
death for their religion. They believed in 
angels and spirits (also in revelations made by 
them), in eternal retribution in the next world, 
and in the resurrection of the dead. They 
also cherished with especial fervour the Mes- 
sianic hope. They were closely allied with 
the scribes or lawyers, with whom they formed 
practically one party. 

The views of the Sadducees were in most 
respects the opposite of those of the Phari- 
sees. They made no special pretensions to 
piety. They acknowledged the Law of Moses 
as alone authoritative, and rejected the tradi- 
tions of the elders. They were hostile to the 
aspirations of the national party, and leaned 
for support on Rome. Sceptical, or semi- 
sceptical, in their religious views, they rejected 
the popular beliefs in angels and spirits, in a 
future life, and in the resurrection of the 
dead. They were a worldly, wealthy, and 
selfishly ambitious party, and their adherents 
were chiefly found among the chief priests. 
Their opinions were so unpopular, that they 
often hesitated to express them publicly. In 
the Sanhedrim although the leading Sadducees 
had seats, Pharisaic views were decidedly in 
the ascendant. 

Come to his baptism] In consequence of 
John's severe denunciation of their conduct, 
most of the Pharisees and Sadducees who had 
come for baptism departed without it : see Lk 
7 30 . Generation (RV 'offspring') of vipers] 
This peculiar term of condemnation is also 
applied by Christ to the scribes and Pharisees 
( 12 w 23 M ). Probably the allusion is to their 
poisonous opinions and corrupt influence : 
see Ps58 4 Isal4- ( -'. Who hath warned you] 
Are you, too, conscious of your danger ? To 
flee] The picture is that of vipers fleeing 
before the flames when the stubble in the 
fields is set on fire. The wrath to come] the 
great judgment with which it was generally 



630 



3.8 



ST. MATTHEW 



3. 13 



believed that the age of the Messiah would 
open. The Jews regarded it mainly as a 
judgment upon the Gentiles, but John de- 
clared that it would be a judgment upon every 
hypocritical Jew. 

8. Fruits meet for repentance] RV 'fruit 
worthy of repentance.' Fruit is a frequent 
metaphor for works, and a very suitable one. 
Fruit is not loosely attached to a tree, but is 
part of it. It derives its character from the 
tree on which it grows. So a man's works, 
i.e. his words and actions, are part of him, and 
express his true character. 

9. We have Abraham to (for) our father] 
cp. Jn8 33 ' 39 ' 53 . This insolent spirit is best 
illustrated by a quotation from the rabbis : 
k The fire of hell (Gehenna) has no power to 
consume even the sinners of Israel, but they 
go down only to be frightened and slightly 
singed for their bad actions. Then comes 
Abraham, who kept all the precepts of the 
Law, and through his own merit brings them 
up again.' Of these stones] a hint, not an 
express statement of the calling of the Gentiles : 
cp. Ro4 96 Gal 4 28 Jn8 39 . 10. Ax] a fre- 
quent and expressive type of imminent judg- 
ment (7 19 Lk 13 7 : cp." Ro 11 ir ). The trees] 
i.e. individual Jews, not the nation, though, as 
a matter of fact, judgment overtook the nation 
also for its rejection of Christ : cp. 7 19 . The 
fire] see on v. 12. 

11, 12. Here is emphatic testimony of John 
to the Messiahship of Jesus. Jesus is so great 
that John is unworthy to perform for Him 
the function of the meanest slave. Jesus is 
the dispenser of divine sanctification (the Holy 
Ghost). Jesus is the absolute judge of the 
human race, with power to reward the good 
in heaven and to punish the guilty in hell 
(v. 12). Nothing of importance is really added 
to this testimony in the Fourth Gospel. There, 
indeed, the Baptist calls Jesus the Lamb of 
God and the Son of God, and is aware of His 
preexistence ; but these things follow natur- 
ally from the tremendous prerogatives which 
even in the Synoptics John assigns to Him. 
H it be remembered that the synoptic testi- 
mony is given before, and the testimony in the 
Fourth Gospel after Christ's Baptism, all diffi- 
culty disappears : see Jn 1 6 > 15 > 19 3 27 . 

11. Whose shoes, etc.] the office of the 
meanest slave. ' A slave unlooses his master's 
shoe, and carries it after him ; does what he 
needs for the bath, undresses, washes, anoints, 
rubs, re-dresses him, and puts on his shoes.' 

With the Holy Ghost, and with fire] St. 
Mark omits ' and with fire.' John says, in 
effect, ' I can bring you to repentance, but no 
further. My baptism gives no grace. It only 
symbolises the greater baptism which Jesus 
will give. His baptism will give you "the 
Holy Ghost," i.e. new spiritual life, and in- 



ward sanctification, and " Fire," i.e. holy fervour 
and zeal in God's service' : cp. Ac2 3 . John 
here refers directly to Christian Baptism, the 
spiritual efficacy of which he contrasts with 
the inefficacy of his own. 

12. St. Mark omits this v. Whose fan (or, 
' shovel ')] Jesus holds in His hand the winnow- 
ing fan of judgment, for He is the judge of 
quick and dead. Here John passes far beyond 
Jewish ideas about the Messiah. His floor] 
RV ' threshing-floor ' : not merely Palestine, 
but the universe. His wheat] i.e. good per- 
sons. The garner] heaven. The chaff] the 
wicked. Unquenchable fire] i.e. Gehenna, hell. 
13-17. Baptism of Jesus (Mkl 9 Lk3 21 Jn 
1 32 ). The Baptism of Jesus has more than one 
aspect and significance. To John it was with 
its miraculous accompaniments a sign that 
Jesus was the promised Messiah and the Son 
of God (Jnl 32 - 34 ). To Israel it was 'the 
showing to the people' of the promised 
monarch, and His consecration by the unction 
of the Holy Spirit to the threefold office of 
prophet, priest, and king. To the Christian 
Church it is the type and first example of all 
true baptism — the baptism, that is, of water and 
the Spirit. So far all is clear. But when we 
come to speak of its significance to Jesus Him- 
self we are in a region of mystery, and both 
prudence and reverence teach us not to dog- 
matise. Yet we may venture to say this, that 
the vision at the Baptism was intended primarily 
for Jesus Himself, and neither for John nor 
for the multitudes who were present. It was 
Jesus to whom the heavens were opened, Jesus 
who saw the Spirit descending as a dove, and 
Jesus to whom the momentous words were 
spoken, ' This is My beloved Son, in whom I 
am well pleased.' This is expressly testified 
by St. Matthew and St. Mark, and is not con- 
tradicted by St. Luke and St. John, although 
the last states what St. Luke perhaps also im- 
plies in the words ' in a bodily form,' that the 
vision was also intended for the Baptist. If 
we take the most natural and obvious inter- 
pretation of the incident, we shall hold that 
our Lord's baptism marked the point in His 
career when there first awoke in Him the com- 
plete consciousness of His divine sonship, and 
of all the tremendous consequences which this 
unique relationship to God and man involved. 
There must have been a time when this con- 
sciousness first became fully explicit. He 
cannot have had it in unconscious infancy, or 
as a young child. Even as a boy (we are 
speaking, of course, of His human knowledge) 
He cannot have possessed it complete. He 
grew in knowledge of things human and divine 
(Lk 2 40-52^ anc i one f the things in knowledge 
of which He grew was the awful mystery of 
His own Divine-Human Personality. He 
must, of course, have been always conscious, 



631 



a 14 



ST. MATTHEW 



4. 



after attaining the use of reason, of the dif- 
ference between Himself and other men, of 
the unique character of His communion with 
God, and of the greatness of the mission which 
lay before Him, but He need not have known 
all. It is possible that full self-knowledge 
might have hindered rather than helped Him 
during the thirty years of obscurity which 
preceded His public ministry. But however 
that may be, before the ministry began the 
veil that concealed the mystery of His nature 
was drawn aside by an inward revelation, and 
soon the outward testimony of miracles con- 
firmed what the inward voice had declared. 

14. I have need] not inconsistent with 
Jn 1 33 ( k I knew him not '). As Jesus ap- 
proaches, a prophetic presentiment passes 
through the mind of John that this is the 
Messiah. The descent of the Spirit makes 
it a certainty. It is possible, even likely, 
that as John and Jesus were cousins, they 
were already acquainted, although John ' knew 
him not ' as the Messiah. As John's baptism 
was unto remission of sins, it seemed to him 
strange that Jesus should have consented to 
such a baptism. But, though sinless, Jesus 
came to identify himself with sinners. He 
would be ' under the law that he might redeem 
those that were under the law ' (Gal 4 4 > 5 ). 

15. To fulfil all righteousness] i.e. to fulfil 
all the ordinances of the old covenant among 
which our Lord reckoned John's baptism. 

16. 17. One of the leading Trinitarian pas- 
sages in the NT. The voice of the Father is 
heard proclaiming the essential divinity of 
the Son, and upon the Son, as He rises from 
the baptismal waters, the Holy Ghost, the 
living bond of love and unity in the Godhead, 
descends. The appearance of the Holy Ghost 
in the form of a dove was a symbolical vision, 
and, as spiritual things are spiritually discerned, 
the vision was probably seen only by our Lord 
and the Baptist. The dove is a type of the 
Spirit, because of its innocence, gentleness, 
and affection ; cp. 10 1(5 , ' Be ye therefore wise 
as serpents, and harmless as doves.' The voice 
from heaven may be paralleled by the voice 
at Sinai (Ex 20), to Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 4 31 ), 
at the Transfiguration (Mtl7 5 ), before the 
Passion (Jnl238), to St. Paul (Ac 9 4 ), and 
to St. Peter (Ac ll 7 ). The idea that a revela- 
tion might be communicated by a super- 
natural voice, was familiar to the Jews of our 
Lord's time. The rabbis taught that after the 
c« -ssation of prophecy, God continued to make 
revelations to His people by means of the 
Bath-kol, or heavenly voice. At Jericho, for 
example, the Bath-kol declared the Rabbi 
Hillel to be worthy to have the Spirit of God 
abide upon him. and al Jamnia decided the 
dispute between the schools of Hillel and 
Shammai in favour of the Former. 



16. And he saw] i.e. Jesus saw, though 
John saw it also. 

17. This is] This represents the form in 
which the Baptist heard the words. ' Thou art ' 
(Mk, Lk) represent the form in which Jesus 
heard them. My beloved Son] cp. 17 5 . The 
highest sense is to be given to these words. 
The Father bears witness, not only to Christ's 
Messiahship, but to His eternal and divine Son- 
ship, in virtue of which He is from all eternity 
1 in the bosom of the Father,' loving and be- 
loved. In whom I am well pleased] cp. Isa 42 l 
Mtl2 18 . Lest the Baptism of Christ should 
be thought to indicate that He was a sinner 
like ourselves, the Father was pleased to pro- 
nounce Him absolutely sinless. The tense of 
the Gk. is difficult. The Revisers (also Plum- 
mer) regard it as a timeless aorist. But it 
may be an ordinary historical aorist, and thus 
point to Christ's preexistence — ' in whom I 
was well pleased,' viz. before the Incarnation 
and before the creation of the world. The 
words are also a message full of grace to man- 
kind. As the Son is ever well pleasing and 
acceptable to the Father, so also are all those 
who are found in Him. 

CHAPTER 4 
The Temptation 
i-ii. The temptation (Mkl 12 Lk4!). The 
narrative, which can only have come from our 
Lord's own lips, describes an actual historical 
fact, the great temptation which He under- 
went at the very beginning of His ministry. 
He was tempted at other times (Lk 4 13 ), per- 
haps at all times (Heb 2 18 ). during His earthly 
life, but the two great seasons of trial were 
now, and immediately before the Passion : 
Lk22 42 Mt26 39 . Our Lord records His ex- 
perience in symbolical language partly because 
the inward operations of the mind could hardly 
be represented to men of that age except as 
visible transactions, but more particularly be- 
cause the story of Adam's temptation in Gn.3 1 
is also told symbolically. Jesus here appears 
as the second Adam, victorious in the conflict 
in which the first Adam failed. He wins the 
victory as man, not as God, so that here the 
human race in the person of its Head begins 
to retrieve its defeat and to bruise the Ser- 
pent's head, receiving thereby an assurance of 
final victory. The temptation of the first 
Adam took place in a garden, i.e. in a universe 
as yet unspoilt by sin. The temptation of the 
second Adam took place in a wilderness, i.e. in 
a world rendered desolate by Adam's fall, and 
the ultimate effect of His victory will be to 
make it a garden again. In this connexion 
should be taken St. Mark's statement that ' He 
was with the wild beasts.' The wild beasts 
did not hurt Jesus, because He regained for 
man the empire over the beasts which Adam 



632 



ST. MATTHEW 



4. 2 



lost : ' The wolf also shall dwell with the 
lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the 
kid. . . They shall not hurt nor destroy in all 
my holy mountain ' (Isa 1 1 6 ). 

The details of three temptations are re- 
corded: (a) The first (vv. 3, 4) was a tempta- 
tion to abuse His miraculous powers. If, as 
seems probable, Jesus first received authority 
to work miracles at His Baptism, the very 
freshness and greatness of the gift would sug- 
gest to the devil the most appropriate form of 
attack. Jesus was hungry, he also had an 
unlimited power of working miracles. Why 
should He remain hungry, when He had the 
power of making bread ? ' Why,' suggested 
the devil, ' is it right to feed others, and wrong 
to feed thyself ? If thou be the Son of God, 
command that these stones be made bread.' 
So the tempter suggested, but Jesus replied, 
' Man shall not live by bread alone but by 
every word ' (i.e. command) 5 that proceedeth 
out of the mouth of God.' These words, taken 
from Dt8 3 , refer to Israel in the wilderness. 
There they, like Jesus, had no bread, yet they 
were fed by the word of God's mouth, for 
God commanded manna to fall from heaven. 
In effect Jesus said to the tempter, ' It is true 
that I have no bread, but, since I am here by 
God's command, He will keep me alive with- 
out bread. He has but to utter a word, and I 
shall be providentially fed, as the Israelites 
were of old.' If it be asked why it was wrong 
for Jesus to make bread for His own use, the 
answer is that in God's working in the world 
there is in general a strict economy of miracu- 
lous power. In the life of Jesus there is not 
a single example of a miracle worked for His 
own advantage. In every case His miraculous 
power was used for the good of others, to re- 
move the ravages of disease and sin, and to 
advance the kingdom of God, and for these 
purposes alone was it entrusted to Him. The 
devil's suggestion was, therefore, a temptation 
to disobedience, like that of our first parents. 
Satan would have had our Lord act independ- 
ently, setting up His will against God's, instead 
of conforming it to His in filial obedience. 

(6) The next temptation (vv. 5-7) was more 
subtle. The devil took Him in spirit to the 
lofty platform (not pinnacle) overlooking the 
courts of the Temple, from which a great 
multitude could be conveniently addressed. 
It was from this platform or pulpit that James 
the Lord's brother delivered the public address 
which was the immediate occasion of His 
martyrdom (Euseb. 2. 23). Satan suggested 
that our Lord should address the assembled 
multitudes of Israel from this giddy height, 
and then prove His Messianic claims beyond 
all question by flying through the air, and 
descending to the ground unharmed. Stripped 
of its symbolical form, this was a temptation 



to take a short and easy road to recognition 
as the Messiah by giving ' a sign from heaven ' 
which even the most incredulous and un- 
spiritual would be compelled to accept. This 
short and easy method Jesus decisively re- 
jected. He determined to appeal to the 
spiritual apprehension of mankind, that they 
might believe on Him, not because they were 
astounded by His miracles, and could not re- 
sist their evidence, but because they were 
attracted by the holiness and graciousness of 
His character, by the loftiness of His teach- 
ing, and by the love of God to man which 
was manifested in all His words and actions. 
He intended His miracles to be secondary, an 
aid to the faith of m those who on other grounds 
were inclined to believe, but not portents to 
extort the adhesion of those who had no sym- 
pathy with Himself or His aims. 

(c) Then the devil made his last effort 
(w. 8-10). He offered Jesus all that he had, 
' all the kingdoms of the earth and the glory 
of them,' if He would but worship him, i.e. 
acknowledge his usurped authority, and do 
evil that good might come. The statement of 
the devil that all the kingdoms of the earth 
are at his disposal is a difficult one, but it is in 
harmony with the NT. view that wealth and 
power are dangerous snares, which are better 
avoided, and that religious safety lies in 
poverty and obscurity. It also harmonises 
with the familiar experience that the devil 
often tempts men most severely by making 
them rich and great. Yet the statement is an 
exaggeration. The devil's power to dispose 
of the honour and glory of the world is subject 
to the permission and overruling providence 
of God, who continually brings good out of 
evil. Moreover, since the Ascension of our 
Blessed Lord, the devil's power over the 
kingdoms of the earth has, at least in Christian 
lands, been greatly reduced. 

i. Of the spirit] i.e. of the Holy Spirit. 
God Himself ordained that Jesus should be 
tempted or tried, because only through, tempt- 
ation can human nature attain to perfection. 
Even the angels had to pass through a similar 
trial. Into the wilderness] Since Jesus was 
' returning ' towards Galilee (Lk), the tradi- 
tional scene of the temptation, Mount Quaran- 
tania, near Jericho, is a suitable one. The 
devil] The word literally means ' slanderer ' 
or ' accuser.' See special note below. 

2. Fasted forty days] It was God's will 
that before beginning His work Jesus should 
retire from the world and give Himself 
entirely to fasting and prayer, with meditation 
upon His future plan of action. We may 
suppose that He was so absorbed in contem- 
plation of His Messianic work, that He was 
not conscious of physical need. For parallels 
see Ex342s 1K19* Lkiso Gall^. 



633 



4.3 



ST. MATTHEW 



4. 18 



3. If thou be] Probably Satan expressed 
doubt in order to tempt Jesus to prove 
Himself the Son of God by a miracle. 4. See 
prefatory remarks. 5. The holy city] This 
phrase, peculiar to this Gospel, marks a 
thoroughly Jewish affection for Jerusalem : 
see 27 53 , and cp. 5 35 . A (RV ' the ') pinnacle] 
see prefatory remarks. 

6. The devil is a good theologian, and can 
quote Scripture to his purpose. Here he 
quotes Ps91 n > 12 , omitting one line. The 
general nature of this temptation is indicated 
in prefatory remarks. It was, besides, an 
incitement to tempt God presumptuously by 
deliberately incurring unnecessary danger. 

7. See Dt6 16 . Deuteronomy was one of 
Jesus' favourite books. 8. See prefatory re- 
marks. 10. SeeDt6 13 , andlO 20 . II. Minis- 
tered unto him] i.e. perhaps with spiritual 
refreshment. Cp. Lk22 43 . 

Note. (1) St. Matthew and St. Luke for the 
Temptation have access to some other authority 
than St. Mark, who is here very brief. The 
order of St. Matthew seems superior to that 
of St. Luke. (2) If the Temptation of Jesus 
was a reality (and we can scarcely doubt that 
it was), the Tempter must have been met 
and conquered by Him in the strength of His 
human nature, assisted by divine grace. As 
God, He could not be tempted at all. 

12-17. Beginning of the Galilean ministry 
(Mk 1 14 > 15 Lk 4 !*. 15 > 31 ). It might be thought 
from the synoptic account that Jesus began 
His Galilean ministry immediately after His 
Baptism and Temptation. But from the 
Fourth Gospel it is clear that this was not so. 
Jesus was baptised late in 26 a.d. He then 
remained for a time in the neighbourhood of 
the Baptist, five of whose followers, Andrew, 
John, Philip, Peter, and Bartholomew, attached 
themselves to Him, and followed Him back to 
Galilee. Then in April 27 a.d. He went up 
to Jerusalem to keep the Passover (the first 
passover of the ministry) and cleansed the 
Temple for the first time. He then baptised 
in the country districts of Judaea with great 
success (Jn 2, 3). The length of this Judaean 
ministry is disputed. Prof. Sanday thinks 
that it lasted only 3 or 4 weeks, but most 
authorities assign to it 8 months : seeonJn4 35 . 
The Galilean ministry begins, therefore, either 
in May. 27 a.d., <>i more probably in December 
of the same year : see Jn 1 1!) -4 4/i . 

12. Departed into Galilee] i.e. from Judaea, 
where He was baptising (.Jn:>~ a ). He took 
the route through Samaria (Jn 4 *), staying at 

Sychar two days '" preach to the Samaritans. 

.lesns had probably intended to make Jeru 
aalem ami Judas the chief scene of His 
ministry, but changed His policy owing to the 
hostility of the Pharisees (Jn4 J ). In many 

respects Galilee WSB Letter suited to His 



purpose than Judaea. The Galileans were 
more tolerant, less conservative, and less under 
the power of the priests and Pharisees than 
the Judaeans. There was a large Gentile 
population in Galilee, and much of the trade 
between Egypt and Damascus passed through 
the country. The people were more industri- 
ous, prosperous, and enterprising than the 
Judaeans, who were jealous of them, and 
affected to despise them. 

13. And leaving Nazareth] He went, as was 
natural, first to Nazareth, but on account of 
His unfavourable reception there (Lk4 16 ), 
migrated to Capernaum, which is on the NW. 
coast of the Sea of Galilee. Capernaum is 
generally identified with the modern Tell 
Hum. It is in the tribe of Naphtali, but the 
borders of Zebulun are near. Capernaum 
was a busy place. Two caravan routes passed 
through the town. It had a custom-house, 
and a Roman garrison. 

14. The quotation (from IsaQ 1 ) is, in view 
of Christ's ministry in Galilee, a singularly apt 
one, even according to modern ideas. Isaiah 
prophesies that the northern parts of Israel 
which have suffered most from the incursions 
of the Syrians and the Assyrians (2K15 29 ) 
will be the first to be restored to prosperity 
by the Messiah, who will win a great victory 
in these regions over the enemies of Israel, 
and establish an eternal kingdom. The quota- 
tion is made from memory, and reproduces 
the original somewhat freely. 

15. By the way of the sea] RV 'towards 
the sea,' i.e. the Sea of Galilee. Beyond 
Jordan] must be taken to mean ' also the 
district beyond Jordan.' The other side of 
the lake was easily reached by boat, and was 
more than once visited by Jesus (8 23 14 13 ). 
The district S. of this, E. of the Jordan, was 
called Peraea, and was the scene of the last 
stages of our Lord's ministry ( Jn 1 40 ). Galilee 
of the Gentiles] In Isaiah the expression means 
' district of the Gentiles,' and refers not to the 
whole of Galilee, but to its northern borders, 
which were largely inhabited by Gentiles. 

16. The darkness means in Isaiah the 
despair caused by the ravages of the Assyrians ; 
in St. Matthew the spiritual darkness which 
Jesus came to dispel. 17. The kingdom of 
heaven] see on 3 2 . 

18-22. Call of Simon, Andrew, James, and 
John (Mk 1 M ; cp. Lk5 l ). Simon, Andrew, and 
John had already been disciples for some 
time, and so probably had James: see Jn 1 85 
The call was therefore not so sudden and un- 
expected as it appears to be in the synoptic 
narrative. In Lk,') 1 a very similar call is 
recorded in connexion with a miraculous 
draught <>f tishes. and many suppose the two 
incidents to be the same. If they are distinct, 
and this seems the preferable view (see on Lk 



634 



4. 19 



ST. MATTHEW 



4. 24 



5 1 ), the order of events is as follows. Imme- 
diately after His migration to Capernaum 
Jesus called the four fishermen, who were 
already disciples, to be apostles. They did 
not, however, while Jesus remained in Caper- 
naum, entirely leave their trade, but waited 
for a final summons. This soon came. When 
about to leave Capernaum for a tour through 
Galilee, Jesus appeared to them again, and 
after working a symbolical miracle (LkS 1 ), 
called them finally to accompany Him. He 
called them while actually at their work, as 
He called Matthew (9 9 ), in order to show that 
no idle or useless person can be a Christian. 

19. Fishers of men] ' The fisherman Peter 
did not lay aside his nets but changed them ' 
(Aug.). 21. According to Lk the four fisher- 
men were partners. 22. St. Mark mentions 
that there were hired servants in Zebedee's 
boat, which indicates that the family was not 
poor. St. John was known to the high priest, 
and probably had a house in Jerusalem 
(Jnl8i« 19 27). St. Matthew was rich. It 
cannot be shown that any of the apostles were 
specially poor or of a mean social position. 
' Unlearned and ignorant men ' (Ac 4 13 ), simply 
means that they had not been trained in the 
schools of the rabbis. Manual labour was 
honourable among the Jews, and even the 
sons of the wealthy were taught trades. 

23-25. Journeys of Jesus through Galilee : 
preaching and healing the sick. St. Matthew 
interrupts his narrative of what took place at 
Capernaum to give a general sketch of the 
early period of the Galilean ministry. After 
the sermon on the mount he returns to what 
happened at Capernaum (8 *). 

23. All Galilee] A preaching expedition of 
so comprehensive a character must have lasted 
several months. 

In their synagogues] Synagogues had their 
origin during the captivity, and rapidly became 
a general institution after the return. In the 
time of Christ there was a synagogue not only 
in every town, but in every village large enough 
to afford a congregation of ten adult men. 
The synagogue was primarily a place of 
worship, but it was also a centre of government, 
its members forming a local self-governing 
body. The governing body of a synagogue 
were called 'elders.' At their head was a 
1 ruler of the synagogue,' who maintained order 
during public worship (Lkl3 14 ), and decided 
who was to conduct the service (Ac 13 15 ). The 
ruler was not a scribe, but ranked immediately 
after the scribes. Each synagogue had an 
attendant (Hazzan) (Lk4 20 ). He was a scribe, 
but ranked lowest in the scribal body. He 
had charge of the building, gave the rolls to the 
readers, called upon the priests to pronounce 
the benediction at the proper time, and also on 
week-days acted as schoolmaster. It was he 



who carried out the judicial sentences of the 
elders. Many synagogues had an interpreter 
{methurgemav), who, after the Scripture had 
been read in Hebrew, gave the Targum, i.e. 
translated it into Aramaic, which was the 
vulgar tongue. 

The elders of the synagogue were the rulers 
of the local community both in civil and 
religious matters. They had power to excom- 
municate (Lk6 22 ), aDd to scourge (MtlO 17 ) 
with forty stripes save one (Dt25 3 2 Cor ll 24 ). 
Unlike the Temple -worship the worship of the 
synagogue was under the control of the laity. 
A priest as such had no privilege but to give 
the blessing. The four chief parts of syna- 
gogue worship were, (1) the reading of the 
Law, (2) of the prophets, (3) the sermon, (4) 
the prayers. The prayers and lessons were 
read and the sermon delivered by members of 
the congregation selected by the ruler. This 
will explain how it was that Jesus, and after- 
wards St. Paul, were able to use the synagogues 
as centres for diffusing Christian truth : cp. 
Lk4 16 Ac 13 15 . On week-days the synagogues 
were used as schools for children. 

24. All Syria] i.e. the Roman province of 
Syria. Possessed with devils] See special note 
below. Lunatick] (lit. ' moonstruck ') RV 
' epileptic' Such sufferers were supposed to 
be influenced by changes of the moon. 

He healed them] Great prominence is given 
in the Gospels to miracles of healing, and our 
Lord plainly regarded practical work of this 
kind as an integral part of His work of salva- 
tion. Briefly expressed, the teaching of the 
miracles of healing is as follows : (1) That the 
preservation of life and health by all the 
means in our power is a Christian duty. The 
Christian will seek ' a sound mind in a sound 
body ' for himself and for others. In practice 
this leads to the establishment of hospitals, 
efficient sanitation, and factory legislation 
calculated to protect life and limb and health. 
(2) That the soul can often be reached through 
the body. Christ touched the souls of those 
whom He healed, and the early Church made 
as many converts by its works of mercy as by 
its preaching. Missionary societies are well 
aware of this, and send out many medical 
missionaries. (3) That pain, disease, and death 
are no part of God's will for man. Like sin 
they came into the world against His will, and 
they are part of those ' works of the devil,' 
which the Son of God was manifested to 
destroy. God permits disease, as He permits 
moral evil, He even overrules it for good, so 
that sickness may become a visitation from 
God full of spiritual blessings ; nevertheless, 
disease is no part of His original plan of 
creation, it is not natural but against nature, 
and it can have no part in the perfected 
kingdom of God. 



635 



4. 25 



ST. MATTHEW 



25. Decapolis] i.e. ' ten towns, 1 a region 
beyond Jordan, containing originally ten allied 
or federated cities, among which were Gadara, 
Pella, Gerasa, and Damascus. It was part of 
Peraea, and its inhabitants were mainly Greeks. 

Note on Diabolical Possession 

In the NT. disease, except when it is a special 
visitation from God (Hebl2 6 ), is regarded as 
the work of Satan (Mt9 32 1222 Lkll^ 13 J « 
AclO 38 , etc.). In particular, nervous diseases 
and insanity are represented as due to diaboli- 
cal possession. This was the universal belief 
of the time, and our Lord, in using language 
which implies it, need not be regarded as 
teaching dogmatically that there is such a 
thing as possession. There were strong reasons 
why He should seek to ' accommodate ' His 
language to the popular theory. (1) The insane 
persons whom He wished to heal, were firmly 
convinced that they were possessed by devils. 
This was the form assumed by the insane 
delusion, and to argue against it was useless. 
The only wise course was to assume that the 
unclean spirit was there, and to command it to 
come forth. (2) It was our Lord's method not 
rashly or unnecessarily to interfere with the 
settled beliefs of His time, or to anticipate 
the discoveries of modern science. The belief 
in demonic possession, though probably errone- 
ous, was so near the truth, that for most 
purposes of practical religion it might be 
regarded as true. He, therefore, did not 
think fit to disturb it. Believing, as He did, 
that most of the evil in the universe, including 
disease, though permitted by God, is the work 
of Satan, He tolerated a belief which had the 
merit of emphasising this fundamental truth, 
and left it to the advance of knowledge in future 
ages to correct the extravagances connected 
with it. (For the older view see on Mk5 1-20 .) 

Note on Satan 

Although from the earliest times the Hebrews 
believed in various kinds of evil spirits, it was 
not till the time of the captivity that the idea 
of a supreme evil spirit, exercising lordship 
over all orders of demons, emerged into 
prominence. In the OT. Satan appears only 
in the prologue to Job (chs. 1, 2), where he 
ranks with tin; angels or ' sons of God'; in 
/cell.') 1 , where be is the adversary of Joshua 
the high priest ; and in lCh'21 1 , where he 
tempts David to number Israel. All these 
passages air Bubsequenl to the captivity. In 
the NT. Satan is a much more prominent 
character. Bis influence is represented as all- 
pervading. Be disposes of earthly kingdoms 
as he wills. Il< has an organised kingdom 
<>i' darkness which cannot lie Overthrown even 
by the Christ without a 1'earl'nl BtrUggle, in 
whieh tlie conqueror tastes the bitterness of 



death. Physical evil is mainly due to him, for 
he and his ministers are the direct authors of 
pain, sorrow, disease, and death. The NT. 
writers indeed recognise that pain and disease 
are sometimes inflicted by God Himself for 
disciplinary purposes, but, upon the whole, 
they ascribe the universal prevalence of 
physical evil to the malignant activity of Satan. 
The moral evil of the world is also ascribed in 
the main to him. He goes about the world 
like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may 
devour, and never ceases from his insidious 
attempts to detach mankind from their allegi- 
ance to their Creator. 

That our Lord many times expressed belief 
in Satan as a personal being, is admitted on all 
hands. The only question is whether He may 
not in this matter have accommodated his 
language to the beliefs of His contemporaries, 
or perhaps have personified evil in order to 
express more vividly its pervasive activity. 
Both suppositions are, on the whole, improb- 
able. The allusions to Satan and his angels 
as persons are too frequent and emphatic, to 
make it easy to suppose that our Lord did not 
believe in their personality ; and, moreover, 
belief in an impersonal devil presents greater 
difficulties to faith than belief in a personal 
one. That evil should exist at all in a world 
created and governed by a good and all-power- 
ful Being, is a serious moral and intellectual 
difficulty. But that difficulty is reduced to a 
minimum if we suppose that it is due to the 
activity of a hostile personality. Opposition 
to God's will on the part of a personal self- 
determining agent, though mysterious, is con- 
ceivable. Opposition to it on the part of any 
impersonal evil influence or physical force is 
(to most modern minds) inconceivable. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Sermon on the Mount 
5 1 ~7 29. The Sermon on the Mount : see Lk 
6 20f . This sermon is so similar to the sermon 
reported by St. Luke (Lk6 20 ), that it is best 
to regard them as identically the same. It is 
true that it has been plausibly suggested that 
our Lord during His preaching tours often 
repeated nearly the same sermon to different 
audiences, and that St. Matthew has given us 
the sermon as delivered at one place and St. 
Luke as delivered at another, but the resem- 
blances are so extremely close, and the diver- 
genciesforthe most part so naturally accounted 
for, that to regard them as identical is more 
natural. St. Luke's version is much shorter 
than St. Matthew's (30 vv. against 107), and 
it contains nothing that is not in St. Mat- 
thew except the four woes (Lk 6 24 - 26 ). There 
are, however, striking parallels to St. Mat- 
thew's sermon in other parts of St. Luke's 
Gospel. No less than 34 vv. scattered through 



636 



ST. MATTHEW 



5. 



his later chs. correspond to utterances in 
St. Matthew's sermon, so that altogether the 
two Gospels contain about 61 parallel vv. 
The natural inference from this is that, upon 
the whole, St. Luke gives the sermon as our 
Lord actually delivered it, and that St. Mat- 
thew (or, rather, his authority) has inserted 
at appropriate places in the sermon other 
utterances of our Lord dealing with the same 
or similar subjects. In a literal .sense, there- 
fore, St. Luke's report is, speaking generally, 
the more trustworthy, but St. Matthew's is 
the more valuable as containing numerous 
authoritative explanations of its meaning. The 
discourse was probably what we should call 
an ordination sermon, delivered, as St. Luke 
states, immediately after the choice of the 
twelve apostles (Lk6 20 ). St. Matthew, how- 
ever, inserts it appropriately enough at the 
beginning of the Galilean ministry, in order 
to give the reader a general idea of the Master's 
teaching at this period. 

The great interest of the sermon is that it 
is a more or less full revelation of Christ's 
own character, a kind of autobiography. Every 
syllable of it He had already written down in 
deeds ; He had only to translate His life into 
language. With it we may compare the won- 
derful self -revelation in Jn 17, but there is 
an important difference. There we have His 
self -revelation as Son of God, holding com- 
munion with the Father in a manner im- 
possible to us ; here we have Him pictured 
in His perfect humanity as Son of man, 
offering us an example, to which, if we can- 
not in this life completely attain, we can at 
least approximate through union with Him. 
In this sermon Christ is very near to us. The 
blessedness which He offers to the humble and 
meek, the merciful, the pure in heart, the 
peacemakers, the seekers after righteousness, 
and the persecuted for righteousness' sake, 
He first experienced Himself, and then com- 
mended to others. And the power by which 
He lived this life is the very power by which 
we also must live it — the power of secret 
prayer (6 5f -). St. Luke tells us that the night 
before this sermon was delivered was spent 
entirely in private prayer (Lk 6 12 ). 

The sermon is very important for a right 
understanding of Christ's conception of ' the 
kingdom.' It is ' the kingdom of the heavens.' 
It exists most perfectly in heaven itself, where 
angels and glorified saints live the ideal life of 
love and service, finding their whole pleasure 
in doing God's will and imitating His adorable 
perfections. This blessed life of sinless per- 
fection Christ brings down to earth in His 
own person, and makes available for man. 
Every baptised Christian is taught to pray, 
' Thy kingdom come,' and that is interpreted 
to mean, Let Thy will be done by men on 



earth as it is done by angels and saints in 
heaven. The kingdom, then, is just the 
heavenly life brought down to earth, and its 
aim and standard is nothing short of the per- 
fection of God Himself, 'Be ye therefore 
perfect — especially be ye perfect in love — 
even as your Father which is in heaven is per- 
fect' (5 48 ). Of this kingdom God the Father 
is King (cp. the phrase ' kingdom of God,' 
used by the other evangelists, and the ancient 
Doxology to the Lord's prayer), but Jesus 
Himself exercises the immediate sovereignty, 
being the Father's full representative and en- 
dowed with all His powers. He is expressly 
called King only in Mt25 34 " 40 , but His regal 
authority is sufficiently implied in the Sermon 
on the Mount, where He appears in the char- 
acter of a divine legislator (5 21 f -), as the judge 
of quick and dead (7 21 " 23 ), and as the sole 
revealer of absolute truth (7 2 4-26) # 

The inward and spiritual view of the king- 
dom, which is prominent in the Sermon on the 
Mount, is not inconsistent with its identifica- 
tion elsewhere with the visible Church of 
Christ (16 18 > 19 ), which includes both worthy 
and unworthy members (13 47 ). Our Lord 
identifies His Church with the kingdom of 
heaven (16 18 > 19 ), because it is the divinely 
appointed means of establishing it. To it is 
entrusted the awful responsibility of implant- 
ing and nourishing the spiritual life of God's 
children. As to unworthy members of the 
Church, although they are ' in ' the kingdom, 
they are not ' of ' it. 

The profound impression which the Sermon 
made at the time has been surpassed by the im- 
pression which it made on subsequent genera- 
tions. The Mount of Beatitudes has become to 
all the chief nations of the world what Sinai 
was to Israel, the place where an authoritative 
moral code, and what is more than a code, an 
authoritative moral ideal, was promulgated. 
Not even the most sceptical deny that it shows 
originality and genius of the highest order, and 
reveals a character of unequalled moral sub- 
limity. The many parallels and resemblances 
to this sermon adduced from rabbinical writings, 
some of which are quoted in the commentary, 
rather enhance than detract from its unique 
character. Its use of current rabbinical phrase - 
ology only throws into greater prominence its 
matchless originality and independence. But 
what struck the hearers even more than its 
moral splendour and originality, was the tone 
of authority with which it was delivered (7 29 ). 
Jesus spoke, not as a scribe dependent on 
tradition, nor even as a prophet prefacing His 
words with a ' Thus saith the Lord,' but as 
one possessed of an inherent and personal claim 
upon the allegiance and obedience of His 
hearers. In His own name and by His own 
authority He revised the Decalogue spoken by 



637 



5. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



5. 1 



God Himself on Sinai, and declared Himself 
the Lord and Judge of the human race, before 
whom, in the last great day, every child of 
man will stand suppliant-wise to receive his 
eternal recompense. It is sometimes said that 
the Sermon on the Mount contains little 
Theology and no Christology. In reality it 
expresses or implies every claim to super- 
natural dignity which Jesus ever made for 
Himself, or His followers have ever made for 
Him. 

Analysis of the Sermon. 

i. The Beatitudes. What kind of persons 
are really blessed or happy (5 3-12 ). 

ii. The relation of Christ's disciples to the 
world as its salt and light (5 13-16 ). 

in. The relation of the New Teaching to 
the Law and the prophets as their fulfilment. 
It repeals ancient ordinances which were im- 
perfect and transitory, expands the moral and 
spiritual principles of the OT. to their full 
development, and in so doing enables Judaism 
to become the religion of the human race 

(517-48). 

iv. Practical instructions in righteousness 
for the citizens of the kingdom, forming a 
striking contrast to the ideas of righteousness 
current among the Scribes and Pharisees. Alms, 
prayer, forgiveness, fasting, wealth, freedom 
from anxiety, rash judgments, reserve in com- 
municating sacred knowledge, persistence in 
prayer, the two ways, the necessity of good 
works, stability of character (6 1 -? 27 ). 

i. The multitudes] viz. those mentioned in 
425. a (RV ' the ') mountain] The traditional 
site is the Horns of Hattin, or Mount of 
Beatitudes, a low, square-shaped hill with two 
summits, about 7 m. SW. of Capernaum. St. 
Luke says that the sermon (if indeed he is 
speaking of the same one) was delivered ' in 
the plain ' (AV), or ' on a level place ' (RV). 
Tf we wish to harmonise, we can say that ' the 
level place ' was half-way down the mountain. 

Was set] The usual attitude of Jewish 
I ubbis in teaching, indicating authority. So in 
the early church the preacher sat. and the con- 
gregation (including the emperor) stood. His 
disciples] i.e. not only the Twelve, as would 
be the probable meaning in the Fourth Gospel, 



but Christ's followers in general. The Twelve 
had already been chosen, although St. Matthew 
places the event later (10 2 " 4 ), and this sermon 
was their ordination address : see Lk 6 13 . 

i- 1 2. The Beatitudes. Properly speaking, 
the beatitudes are seven in number, vv. 10, 11, 
1 2, forming an appendix. These three vv. being 
counted in, the number of beatitudes is raised, 
according to different methods of division, to 
eight, or nine, or ten, the last corresponding 
to the number of the ten commandments. St. 
Luke has only four, the first, fourth, second 
and eighth, in that order. As recorded in St. 
Luke the beatitudes are more paradoxical and 
startling. They appear to bless actual poverty, 
hunger, and mourning, and are followed by 
four woes upon the wealthy and those who 
receive their consolation in this life. In form 
St. Luke's beatitudes are possibly more original 
than St. Matthew's — they are certainly more 
difficult — but the sense is best expressed by 
St. Matthew. The beatitudes express, (1) the 
qualifications necessary for admission into 
Christ's kingdom ; (2) the blessedness or happi- 
ness of those who possess those qualifications ; 
(3) in St. Luke expressly, and in St. Matthew 
by implication, the misery of those who do not. 
Observe that the qualifications of the citizens 
of the kingdom are not the performance of 
certain legal acts, but the possession of a certain 
character, and that the ' sanctions ' or promised 
rewards, unlike those of the Decalogue, are of 
a spiritual nature. The beatitudes must have 
been a painful disillusionment to those who 
believed that the coming kingdom of the 
Messiah would be a temporal empire like that 
of Solomon, only differing from it in its 
universal extension and unending duration. 
The virtues here regarded as essential, humility, 
meekness, poverty of spirit, are the very opposite 
of those ambitions, self-assertive qualities, 
which the carnal multitude admired. We 
cannot doubt that Jesus intended the beatitudes, 
and indeed the sermon generally, to act like 
Gideon's test, and to sift out those who had 
no real sympathy with His aims. Somewhat 
later He carried the sifting process still further, 
and some who had stood this test, ' went back, 
and walked no more with Him ' ( Jn 6 66 ). 



VI. 



Scheme of the Beatitudes (after 'The Teacher's Commentary'): — 

i. The poor in spirit 
(From this fundamental condition the other virtues mentioned grow.) 
(The inner life towards God) (Its outward manifestation towards man) 

i. Tiny iiivi MOURN .... answering to III. Thk MEEK 

v. They th \t hunger after 

RIGHTEOUSNESS .... „ ,, V. THE MERCIFUL 

The im BE [N heart ... „ „ vu. The peacemakers 

(supplemental) VIII. The patient in persecutions 
638 



5.3 



ST. MATTHEW 



5.4 



First Beatitude 

3. Blessed] The beatitude type of utter- 
ance, like the parable, is not without example 
in the OT. (Pssli 411 65 4 845-7 89 ^ 119 1 . 2 
128 1 > 2 , etc.), but Christ has made both types 
peculiarly His own. Beatitudes express the 
essential spirit of the New Covenant, in con- 
trast to the Old, which was prodigal of de- 
nunciations (Dt 27, 28, 29, etc.). The thunders 
of Sinai proclaiming the Decalogue form a 
striking contrast to the gentle voice of the 
Son of man on the Mount of Beatitudes pro- 
claiming the religion of love. Blessedness is 
higher than happiness. Happiness comes from 
without, and is dependent on circumstances ; 
blessedness is an inward fountain of joy in the 
soul itself, which no outward circumstances 
can seriously affect. Blessedness consists in 
standing in a right relation to God, and so 
realising the true law of a man's being. Ac- 
cording to Christ, the blessed life can be 
enjoyed even by those who are unhappy, a 
paradox which the ancient world, with the 
exception perhaps of the Stoics, did not under- 
stand. The Greeks thought that the blessed 
life was possible only for a very few. It was 
impossible for slaves, for the diseased, for the 
poor, and for those who die young. Christ 
taught that it is possible for all mankind, for 
the meanest slave, and the most wretched in- 
valid, as well as for the wealth} 7 , the prosperous, 
and the great. He went even beyond the 
Stoics. They taught that the wise man is 
blessed. Jesus opened the blessed life to the 
simple and uneducated. 

The poor in spirit] St. Luke, ' Blessed are 
ye poor.' The expression is difficult, and is 
interpreted in two ways. (1) ' The poor in 
spirit ' are those who feel themselves spiritu- 
ally poor, and in need of all things, and so 
approach God as penitents and suppliants, 
beseeching Him to supply their needs, clothe 
their nakedness, and enrich their poverty. 
Poverty of spirit is the opposite of pride, 
self -righteousness, and self-conceit ; the spirit 
of the publican rather than of the Pharisee ; 
the spirit of those who wish to learn rather 
than to teach, to obey rather than to command, 
and are willing to become as little children 
in order to enter into the kingdom of heaven. 
(2) Others, following St. Luke's version, see 
in the saying a more definite reference to 
actual riches and poverty. They understand 
our Lord to mean that a Christian, whether 
rich or poor, must have the spirit of poverty, 
i.e. he must possess his wealth as if he pos- 
sessed it not, and be willing to resign it at any 
moment without regret, and to say with Job, 
' The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken 
away ; blessed be the name of the Lord.' 
This interpretation makes a spirit of detach- 



ment from the world and all its allurements, of 
which wealth is for most men the chief, the 
first condition of the blessed life. 

For theirs is the kingdom of heaven] not 
only ' shall be theirs hereafter,' but ' is theirs 
now.' The kingdom is here regarded, like 
eternal life in the Fourth Gospel, as a present 
possession. Usually it is regarded in this 
Gospel as something future, manifested only 
at the end of the world. On ' the kingdom ' 
see prefatory note and Intro. 

The rabbinical parallel to this beatitude is 
chiefly interesting by way of contrast. It 
runs, ' Ever be more and more lowly in spirit, 
since the expectancy of man is to become the 
food of worms.' 

Second Beatitude 

4. They that mourn] St. Luke (following 
a different recension of the Sayings) has, 
' Blessed are ye that weep now, for ye shall 
laugh.' That sorrow of the acutest kind (and 
that is what the Gk. indicates) can minister to 
blessedness, is a paradox which the world can- 
not understand, but which is profoundly true 
in the experience of believers. (1) The sor- 
rows that God sends or permits, if received 
with humility and submission, ever refine and 
ennoble the character, and elevate it into closer 
union with the Father of spirits. Hence the 
apostle can even 'glory in tribulations also : 
knowing that tribulation worketh patience ; 
and patience, experience ' (i.e. tried and proved 
character) ; ' and experience, hope ' (Ho 5 3 > 4 ) ; 
and a follower of his can write, ' Now no chas- 
tening for the present seemeth to be joyous, but 
grievous : nevertheless afterward it yieldeth 
the peaceable fruit of righteousness unto them 
that have been exercised thereby' (Hebl2 n ). 
(2) Those who mourn for the sorrows of others 
out of Christian sympathy, are rewarded by 
the very exercise of that sweet act of com- 
passion, and find many comforters in their own 
real sorrows. (3) Those who mourn for sin 
with a godly sorrow, saying with the publican, 
' God be merciful to me a sinner,' are com- 
forted by the removal of the burden of sin, 
and the forgiveness of its guilt. (4) Those 
who mourn for the sins of others, who pray 
earnestly for their conversion, are often com- 
forted by the success of their prayers. 

Comforted] the word implies strengthening 
as well as consolation. The faculty which is 
exercised by the true mourner is strengthened 
by use. Those who bear their sorrows patiently 
grow in patience ; those who sorrow for others 
grow in sympathy ; those who sorrow for their 
own sin deepen their penitence ; those who 
intercede for the sins of the world grow in 
the likeness of the great Sin-bearer and 
Intercessor. The comfort comes from the 
exercise of the spiritual faculty, and from the 



639 



5.5 



ST. MATTHEW 



5. 13 



consciousness of growing more like God ; but 
there is also that final comfort in the world to 
come, when ' God shall wipe away all tears 
from their eyes ' (Rev 7 17 ). 

Third Beatitude (not in St. Luke) 

5. The meek] A quotation from Ps37 n . 
The ' earth ' is not only the new earth spoken of 
2 Pet 3 13 Rev 21 1 , but refers also to the present 
world. The words are a prophecy that meek- 
ness will prove a greater power in the world 
than pride. This was revolutionary doctrine. 
Judaism meant pride of race and privilege ; 
Rabbinism, pride of learning ; Roman im- 
perialism, pride of power ; Greek culture, 
either pride of intellect or pride of external 
magnificence. All agreed that the meek man 
was a poor creature, and the worldly world 
thinks so still. Nevertheless, meekness is irre- 
sistibly attractive, and exercises a wider spirit- 
ual influence than any other type of character. 
' He hath put down the mighty from their seat, 
and hath exalted the humble and meek.' See 
further on 18 4 . 

Meekness is a virtue which can be exercised 
both towards God and towards man ; and in- 
asmuch as it involves self-control, it is not a 
weak but an heroic quality. ' He that is slow 
to anger is better than the mighty ; and he 
that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a 
city ' (Provl6 32 ). A meek man is one who is 
not easily provoked or irritated, and forbearing 
under injury or annoyance. 

Fourth Beatitude 

6. That hunger and thirst after righteous- 
ness] St. Luke, l ye that hunger now.' Right- 
eousness here is goodness or Christian per- 
fection in its widest sense : cp. v. 48 PS42 1 - 2 . 

Filled] i.e. shall attain completely to the 
character at which they aim. 

Fifth Beatitude (not in St. Luke) 

7. The merciful] Our salvation is made 
dependent upon our showing mercy to every 
creature that can feel. Every kind of cruel 
amusement, or cruel punishment, as well as 
every wanton act of cruelty, is strictly fop- 
bidden. It should be remembered that cruel 
speeches no less than cruel acts arc forbidden 
by this commandment. Words can lacerate 
more deeply than stripes. By the ancient 
(i reeks ami Romans the emotion of pity was 
generally regarded as a fault, or at least as 
a weakness. The stoics were in practice 
humane men, but they regarded pity in the 
abstract as a vice. ' The wise man,' they said, 
1 succours, but docs not pity.' 

Sixth BEATITUDE 

8. The pure in heart] The ' heart,' both in 
the OT. ami XT., stands for a man's inmost 



soul, and so the purity here required is not the 
ceremonial cleanness of the Levitical law, nor 
even the blamelessness of outwardly correct 
conduct, but complete purity of inward thought 
and desire. A thing is pure when it contains 
no admixture of other substances. Benevo- 
lence is pure when it contains no admixture of 
self-seeking ; justice is pure when it contains 
no admixture of partiality ; love is pure when 
it contains no admixture of lust. A man's 
heart is pure when it loves only the good, 
when all its motives are right, and when all 
its aspirations are after the noble and true. 
Purity here is not synonymous with chastity, 
but includes it. See God] Just as the liar does 
not understand truthfulness, and does not re- 
cognise it when he encounters it, so the unholy 
person does not understand sanctity, and can- 
not understand the all-holy God. But those 
who cleanse their hearts understand God in 
proportion to their purity, and one day, when 
they are cleansed from all sin, will see Him 
face to face (Hebl2i* 1 Jn32,3 Rev 22 4). 

Seventh Beatitude (not in St. Luke) 

9. The peacemakers] Peacemakers are, (1) 
those who reconcile men at variance, whether 
individuals, or classes of men (e.g. employers 
and employed), or nations ; (2) those who 
work earnestly to prevent disputes arising or 
to settle them peaceably (e.g. by .arbitration) ; 
(3) those who strive to reconcile men to God, 
and so to bring peace to their souls. They 
shall be called the children (RV ' sons ') of 
God] Because in this aspect they are especially 
like their heavenly Father, who has sent peace 
and goodwill down to earth in the person of 
His dear Son, who is charged with a message 
of reconciliation. 

Eighth Beatitude 

10. Which are persecuted] RV ' that have 
been persecuted.' The reference is not to 
past persecutions of OT. saints, but to those 
of the disciples, which Jesus sees to be in- 
evitable, and graphically represents as already 
begun. 

12. The prophets which were before you] 
By ranking His disciples with the OT. pro- 
phets, Jesus seems to imply that they also are 
prophets. It is this possession of prophetical 
gifts by the first disciples which justifies the 
Church in regarding the NT. as the inspired 
Word of God: see Ac 11 27 13] 1582 21 10 
1 Cor 1288 141 Bph2» :$■- 4" etc. 

13-16. The relation of Christ's disciples to 
the -world. Nothing corresponding to this 
section is found in St. Luke's sermon, but 
parallels occur in Lk 1 4 34 > 3[> and 1 1 33 . The 
section is well placed by St. Matthew. The 
connexion of thought is clear and natural. 
Eaving spoken of their persecutions, Jesus 



640 



13 



ST. MATTHEW 



5. 18 



proceeds to encourage His disciples by speaking 
of the greatness of their mission in the world. 
They are to be the salt of society. Salt 
preserves food from corruption, and seasons 
it, making it wholesome and acceptable. So 
the disciples are to purify the society in which 
they move, setting a good example and counter- 
acting every corrupt tendency. For this pur- 
pose their Christianitj* must be genuine. Men 
must feel that they are different from the 
world, and have a savour of their own. The 
salt which has lost his savour is the Christian- 
ity which is only worldliness under another 
name. Again, the disciples are to be the light 
of the world, being the representatives of Him 
who is the world's true Light (Jn 8 12 ). They 
are to enlighten it as its teachers, and also by 
the examples of their lives. They are also to 
be as a city set on a hill, which cannot be hid. 
In this figure they are contemplated not as 
individuals but as a visible society, or Church. 
The old city set on a hill was Jerusalem 
(Ps48 2 ). This was shortly to be trodden 
under the foot of men as having lost its 
savour, and the new society was to take its 
place. Christ here solemnly warns us that 
the standard of living in the Church must be 
visibly higher than the standard of living in 
the world. A Church which tolerates a cor- 
rupt ministry, or laxity of life among its 
communicants, is not bearing its witness 
before the world. 

13. Wherewith, etc.] i.e. either, 'Where- 
with shall the world be salted ? ' or ' Where- 
with shall the salt ' (i.e. the disciples) ' be 
salted ?'cp. Mk9 50 Lkl434. Salt in Pales- 
tine, being gathered in an impure state, often 
undergoes chemical changes by which its 
flavour is destroyed while its appearance 
remains. 

15. A candle] RY 'a lamp': see Mk42i 
Lk8 16 II 33 . A bushel (Lat. modius)] RY 
' the bushel,' i.e. the one which is kept in the 
house for measuring the corn or meal for the 
daily provision of bread. The modius here is 
probably the Heb. seah = 1-j pecks. 

16. Let your light] This is not inconsistent 
with the command to be humble and to do 
good by stealth, especially as the collective 
good works of the Christian brotherhood as a 
whole are chiefly spoken of. ' Our light is to 
shine forth though we conceal it,' says St. 
Hilary. Origen and other writers testify that 
the good works of Christians did more to con- 
vert the world than miracles or preaching. 

17-20. Christianity as the fulfilment of the 
Law and the Prophets. This section is especially 
appropriate in St. Matthew's Jewish Gospel. 
St. Luke's sermon, being for Gentile readers, 
has nothing similar, and in his whole Gospel 
there is only one parallel v. (Lkl6 17 ). In 
one aspect Christ's attitude to the Law was 



conservative. He regarded Christianity as 
continuous with, and in a true sense identical 
with, the religion of the Law and the Prophets. 
He could even repeat the current teaching of 
the rabbis that the Law was eternal, and that 
not a jot or tittle could be taken from it. He 
severely rebuked such of His disciples as 
should presume to despise or undervalue the 
smallest part of the OT. They should not in- 
deed be excluded from His kingdom, but they 
should be the least in it (v. 19). On the other 
hand, He made it clear that this eternal valid- 
ity did not belong to the Law as Moses left it, 
but to the Law as ' fulfilled,' i.e. developed, or 
completed by Himself. He superseded the 
Law and the Prophets by fulfilling them, and 
He fulfilled them in all their parts. The 
spiritual and moral teaching of the Law and 
of the Prophets He freed from all lower ele- 
ments and carried forward to their ideal per- 
fection. The political teaching of the Law 
He completed by laying down the principles 
of the perfect state. Even the ceremonial 
law He fulfilled. The Law of Sacrifice was 
fulfilled in His sacrificial death, and in the 
spiritual sacrifices of prayer and praise and 
thanksgiving in which His precious death is 
pleaded. Circumcision became ' the circum- 
cision made without hands,' i.e. Holy Bap- 
tism. The Passover became the Lord's Supper. 
The sanctification which the Law gave to one 
day in seven, was extended by Christ to every 
day in the week, and even the sabbath itself 
was, in a certain sense, perpetuated and con- 
tinued by Him as the Christian ' Lord's Day.' 
Even such minor matters as ceremonial ablu- 
tions and the distinction of meats received their 
due fulfilment when Christ made possible the 
inward holiness which these outward observ- 
ances symbolised. 

Above all, the prophets were fulfilled by 
Christ in a most comprehensive way. He was 
not content simply to carry out their idea of the 
Messiah, wonderful as it was. He improved 
upon it, or, in His own words, ' fulfilled it.' 
No careful student of the OT. can fail to see 
how infinitely the actual NT. fulfilment ex- 
ceeded the expectation of even the most en- 
lightened OT. prophets. This, and not the 
mere literal fulfilment of their predictions, is 
what Jesus meant by k fulfilling the prophets.' 

18. One jot (Gk. iota)'] stands for Yod, the 
smallest letter in the Heb. alphabet. Tittle 
(lit. ' little horn ')] is one of those minute pro- 
jections by which otherwise similar Heb. letters 
are distinguished : cp. Lkl6 17 . The rabbis 
taught, ' Not a letter shall perish from the 
Law for ever.' ' Everything has its end : the 
heaven and the earth have their end ; there is 
only one thing excepted which has no end, 
and that is the Law.' ' The Law shall re- 
main eternally, world without end.' Christ 



41 



641 



5. 19 



ST. MATTHEW 



5.31 



uses the rabbinical language in a new meaning 
of His own (see above). 

19. A warning against the disparagement of 
the OT., now so common. 20. The sense is, 
' I mention doing as well as teaching, for un- 
less you practise what you preach, you will be 
unable, like the Scribes and Pharisees, to enter 
into the kingdom of heaven.' 

21-26. Revision of the Law of Murder (not 
in St. Luke's sermon, but a parallel to vv. 25, 
2G occurs in Lk 1 2 5S > 59 ). Christ now shows by 
a few illustrative examples how the Law is to 
be understood and practised by His disciples ; 
in other words, how it is to be ' fulfilled.' The 
old law punished only the act of murder. The 
Law of Christ condemns the emotion of anger 
in its very beginnings. Unreasonable anger 
is declared a crime in itself, to be punished as 
such by the local tribunal (the judgment). Its 
mildest expression in word (Raca) is to be 
considered a capital offence, to be dealt with 
by the supreme Sanhedrin (the council). Its 
more abusive expression (thou fool) is worthy 
of hell-fire. Murder itself is not mentioned 
as being an impossible act for a disciple of 
Christ. The language is, of course, rhetorical. 
Its intention is to mark the immense gulf that 
separates the morality of the Law from the 
morality of the Gospel. 

The passage is interesting as being the first 
clear reference in the NT. to Christianity as a 
Church or Organised Society. The Church is 
spoken of under Jewish terms (' the judgment,' 
' the council,' ' the gift brought to the altar '), 
but a Christian sense is certainly to be read 
into them. It is implied that the Church will 
exercise moral discipline over its members, and 
that its public worship will be in a certain 
Bense sacrificial : ep.HeblS 10 . If it be asked 
whether the graduated punishments mentioned 
are temporal or eternal, ecclesiastical or divine, 
the answer is 'both'; for, according to Christ's 
promise, the discipline of the Church on earth, 
win n rightly exercised, will be ratified in 
heaven (Ml L6" L8" ; C p. Jn20*8), 

21. It was said by them of old time] RV 'to 
Mhiii of old time.' It was said by (J<>d Him- 
self. Hence Christ, in adding to it by 1 1 is 

own authority (' But / say onto \'»n'), claims 

bo be equal to God. So also in w. 28, 32, 34, 
39, 43 : sec EX20 18 . The judgment] i.e. the 
local tribunals of Beven men appointed in every 
village (Dt L6 w 2Ch I «.»•'-. Jos. 'Antiq.' 4.8. 1 4). 
They appear to have had the power of the 
iword. 22. Brother] either a fellow-Christian 
or a fellow-man. Without a cause] BY omits. 
Raca (Aramaic)] i.e. 'Empty-head': cp. 
1 I :! . The council ] i.e. the supreme San 
hedrin of seventy our members at Jerusalem 
baving cognisance of bhemost Berious offences, 
such as blasphemy. Thou fool] i.e. 'thou 
wicked and godless man' : see P1H 1 , Some 



think that the word here (more) is not Gk. 
but Heb. ( = moreh , rebel). Hell fire] RV ' the 
hell of fire,' lit.' the Gehenna of fire.' ' Gehenna,' 
i.e. the valley of Hinnom (an unknown person), 
was the place in or near Jerusalem where 
children were made to pass through the fire to 
Moloch, and, according to Jewish tradition, 
where the bodies of criminals were burnt. 
Hence Gehenna became a synonym for hell, 
the place of final punishment. 

25. Thine adversary] The injured brother 
of v. 22 is now represented under the figure of 
a creditor who has power to bring the debtor 
before the judge, and to cause him to be cast 
into prison. Prison] i.e. divine punishment in 
general, whether in this world or beyond the 
grave in the intermediate state (Hades), from 
which release was regarded as possible (12 32 ). 
Not, however, in hell (Gehenna), from which 
there is no release (18 8 ). The idea is that God 
will exact the full penalty for all offences 
against the law of love. In 1 Pet3 19 ' prison ' 
refers exclusively to punishment in the inter- 
mediate state : cp. Jude v. 6. 26. Farthing (Lat. 
quadransj] about half-a-farthing. Lk (12 59 ) 
has lepton, i.e. about a quarter of a farthing. 

27-30. Revision of the Law of Adultery. 
Jesus expands the Mosaic prohibition of 
adultery into a law of inward purity of the 
strictest kind, and gives important counsel to 
the tempted. 27. By them of old time] RV 
omits : see Ex20 14 . 29-30. This saying is 
found in Mk9 43 , but in a less natural con- 
nexion. It is repeated Mtl8 s . Its meaning 
is that those who are seriously tempted should 
discipline themselves with the greatest sever- 
ity, depriving themselves even of lawful 
pleasures. Thus certain amusements and 
certain kinds of reading, in themselves harm- 
less, are to some occasions of sin. Such 
persons ought to avoid them altogether. 
Others find drink such a temptation that they 
ought to be teetotalers. Others find friend- 
ships that they value so dangerous that they 
ought to give them up. This giving up of 
what is pleasant and lawful, because to ns per- 
sonally it is a spiritual peril, is what our Lord 
means by plucking ou1 the right eye and cut- 
ting off the right hand. Asceticism of this 
kind is dill'erent from the asceticism of those 
Eastern religions which regard the body as 
evil. Its principle is that it is better to live 
a sinless than a complete life. 29. Hell] i.e. 

Gehenna, the place of final punishment. 
31, 32. Revision of the Law of Divorce. 

Christ restrained the excessive licence of 
divorce which existed at the time, and declared 

marriage to he (with possibly a single excep 
lion) absolutely indissoluble. Since St. iMat- 
th.'w alone mentions the exception, and all 
other XT. passages speak of Christian mar- 
riage as absolutely indissoluble (MklO' 2 Lk 



G42 



5. 31 



ST. MATTHEW 



5. 42 



16 18 Ro7 3 lCor7 10 > ir ), it is maintained by 
very many, probably the majority, of recent 
critics, that the words l except for fornication ' 
both here and in 1 9 9 are an interpolation, in- 
troduced by Jewish Christians to modify the 
excessive strictness of the original utterance, 
and that Christ Himself forbade divorce alto- 
gether. On the principles of criticism now 
generally accepted, this view is highly probable. 
If we accept the words ' except for fornica- 
tion ' as authentic, it is best to understand 
them as meaning ' except for adultery,' and 
thus to bring our Lord's teaching into line 
with that of Shammai, who, in opposition to 
the laxer view of Hillel, who allowed divorce 
for any, even the most trivial cause, permitted 
it only for adultery. The other view that 
' fornication ' here means prenuptial sin, for 
which, when discovered, a Jewish husband was 
allowed to repudiate his newly-married bride 
(see Dt22 13f -), is not so probable, though it 
is, of course, possible. The question of re- 
marriage after divorce presents considerable 
difficulty. The remarriage of the guilty party 
is condemned by our Lord in strong terms : 
1 Whosoever shall marry her when she is put 
away ' (or, ' whosoever shall marry a divorced 
woman ') ' committeth adultery.' Whether 
the innocent party is permitted after a 
divorce to marry again is a disputed point 
among Christians. The Eastern Church per- 
mits it ; the Western Church, upon the 
whole, forbids it. The stricter rule, though 
it sometimes inflicts hardships upon indi- 
viduals, seems the more desirable from the 
point of view of public policy, seeing that it 
best maintains the stability of the family, the 
sanctity and indissolubility of marriage, and 
the possibility of repentance and reconciliation 
after sin. 

31. SeeDt24i, andonMtl9 3f . 

32. Shall marry her that is divorced] i.e. for 
adultery ; or, ' shall marry a divorced woman.' 

33-37. Revision of the Law of Oaths. The 
prohibition l Swear not at all ' is to be taken 
in its widest sense, and not simply as for- 
bidding the common oaths of conversation. 
Christ looks forward to a time when truthful- 
ness will be so binding a duty that oaths will 
no longer be necessary even in courts of 
justice. This is one of those ideal commands 
which cannot be fully carried out in the pre- 
sent state of society. Our Lord Himself at 
His trial allowed Himself to be put on oath 
(26 63 ). But one day there will come a time 
when a man's word will be as good as his oath. 

33. By them] RV ' to them' : see Nu30 2 
Dt232i, etc. 

34. Oaths that did not expressly invoke 
the name of God were considered less binding 
than those that did. Jesus cuts at the root 
of the practice by showing that the oaths ' by 



heaven,' etc., were really in essence, if not in 
form, oaths by God. 

37. Quoted by St. James (5 12 ). Of evil] 
RV ' of the evil one,' i.e. the devil : cp. 6 13 . 

38-42. Abolition of the Law of Retaliation : 
cp. LkG 29 > 30 . It is a difficulty to some that 
God should ever have sanctioned the barbarous 
principle of ' an eye for an eye and a tooth for 
a tooth ' (Ex21 2l ). They do not reflect that 
in its own age this principle represented a far- 
reaching moral reform. The thirst for venge- 
ance is not naturally satisfied with an eye for 
an eye ; it goes on to demand a life. Hence 
when Moses allowed the injured man to exact 
an eye and no more, he was imposing a salutary 
check on private vengeance. Our Lord goes 
further, and forbids private vengeance alto- 
gether. It is true that vengeance contains a 
good element, viz. righteous anger against 
wrong, but this is so bound up with personal 
vindictiveness, and so certain, if gratified, to 
let loose a man's worst passions, that our Lord 
forbids it altogether. Christians are not to 
resent injuries, they are not to attempt to 
retaliate, they are, in our Lord's figurative 
language, to turn the cheek to the smiter. 
Does this forbid us on fitting occasions to 
expostulate with a wrong-doer, or to bring 
him to punishment ? By no means. There 
are occasions when in the interests of society, 
and in the interest of the criminal himself, it 
is necessary to resist evil and to bring the 
wrong-doer to justice. Our Lord elsewhere 
fully recognises this (18 15 ). 

38. SeeEx2124Lv2420Dtl92i. 39. Resist 
not evil] RV ' Resist not him that is evil,' 
i.e. the person that would injure you. Right 
cheek] This is only a figurative illustration 
of the general principle : cp. vv. 40, 41, 42. 

40. Thy coat (Gk. chit 011)] ' Vest ' or 
'shirt' would be better. The cloke (hima- 
tion) is the outer garment, used also as a 
covering by night : see on Jnl9 23 . 

41. Shall compel] RM 'impress.' When 
Roman troops passed through a district, the 
inhabitants were compelled to carry their 
baggage. This compulsory transport was a 
recognised form of taxation, and is probably 
what is alluded to here. Translated into 
modern language, the saying means that 
Christians ought to pay their taxes and under- 
take other public burdens cheerfully and 
willingly. The word translated ' compel ' is 
Persian, and had reference originally to the 
royal couriers of the Persian empire, who had 
power to impress men and beasts for the 
king's service. In Mt27 32 it is used of Simon 
of Syrene, who was compelled to bear our 
Lord's cross. 

42. Give to him, etc.] Not an exhortation to 
indiscriminate charity, but to that brotherly 
love which Christians ought to feel even 



643 



5. 43 



ST. MATTHEW 



6.5 



towards the improvident and wicked. It is 
right to give to him that asks, but not always 
right to give him what he asks. The best 
form of giving or lending is that which helps 
people to help themselves. 

43-48. Hatred of enemies forbidden, love 
enjoined (Lk6 27 " 36 ). The maxim ' Thou shalt 
love thy neighbour' is found in Lvl9 ls . 
The words ' Thou shalt hate thine enemy ' 
are nowhere found in the Pentateuch, which 
indeed contains isolated texts of an opposite 
tendency, e.g. Ex23 4 . Nevertheless, our 
Lord's words are a fair general descrip- 
tion of a code which allowed the law of 
retaliation, and preserved the rights of the 
avenger of blood. Even in the Psalms, 
which represent a later revelation, personal 
hatred for enemies is openly expressed (e.g. 
Psl09). The law of love here proclaimed by 
our Lord in its most comprehensive sense is 
the most characteristic feature of Christian 
morality. In the NT. God is revealed as 
Love, as a Father who loves his children with 
impartial affection. And as His supreme 
perfection consists in Love, so those who 
would be perfect must love their fellow-men, 
even their enemies, as He loves them (v. 45). 

44. Love your enemies] The word for 
' love ' is carefully chosen. It is not demanded 
that we should love our enemies with a natural 
and spontaneous affection (phifeiri), but with 
the supernatural Christian love that comes by 
grace (agapari). Pray for them, etc.] Jesus 
fulfilled His own injunction when He prayed 
for those who crucified Him (Lk23 34 ) : see 
also Ac 7 60 lCor6 12 . 

46-48. ' The love Christ enjoins is not to 
be confused with the good feeling and even 
affection that may exist between members of the 
same class, the love that is found even among 
despised tax-gatherers. But " ye shall be per- 
Fecl " in the obligation of universal love.' 

46. Publicans] In classical literature ' pub- 
licans ' are wealthy Romans who bought 
from the Roman government the right of 
collecting the taxes in a certain district. 
The publicans of the NT. are the actual 
tax collectors. In NT. times only duties on 
exports, not direct taxes, were collected by 
publicans. Publicans bore a bad reputation 
among the Jews, partly for their dishonesty 
and extortion, and partly for their unpatriotic 
conduct in collecting taxes for a foreign 
power. The rabbis ranked publicans with cut- 
throats and robbers. 48. Perfect] Glorious 
words ! The perfection spoken of is the per- 
fection of Love, the supreme virtue both of 

God and man ( I Corl3 18 Un I '"). 

CHAPTER 6 
The Sebmois oh the M ount (continued) 

1. God's approval, not man's, to be sought 



in all our actions. Jesus does not say that we 
are to do good expecting no reward of any 
kind, but that we are to look for our reward to 
God alone : see on v. 4. That ye do not your 
alms] RV 'your righteousness.' The same 
Heb. word (tsedakah) means both righteousness 
in general and almsgiving in particular. Our 
Lord probably used it in the former sense in 
v. 1, and in the latter sense in v. 2 ; hence the 
evangelist translates it differently. 

2-4. Ostentation in almsgiving reproved. 

2. A trumpet] There was a trumpet in every 
synagogue, which was sounded on various occa- 
sions (e.g. at the beginning of the sabbath and 
at excommunications), not, however, so far as 
we know, at the collection of alms. The ex- 
pression is, therefore, probably a metaphor for 
w ostentation.' Hypocrites] In classical Gk. the 
word means ' an actor.' In the Bible it generally 
means one who acts a false part in life, i.e. one 
who pretends to be religious and is not, as here. 
But sometimes it simply means a wicked person 
without any idea of hypocrisy, e.g. 24 51 , and 
several times in OT., e.g. Job34 30 . In the 
synagogues and in the streets] In a Jewish com- 
munity alms were given publicly in three ways. 
(1) Every day three men went round with a 
basket collecting alms for ' the poor of the 
world,' i.e. Jews and Gentiles alike. (2) Two 
synagogue officials went from house to house 
collecting alms for ' the poor man's chest.' 
This was for Jews alone. (3) On the sabbath 
day alms were collected in the synagogue itself : 
cp. 1 Cor 16 2 . The abuse which our Lord here 
attacks is probably that of publishing the 
amounts given, which would naturally lead to 
ostentatious rivalry. They have their reward] 
in the praise of men. 

3. Let not thy left hand] A metaphor for 
secrecy. Yet alms need not on all occasions 
be secret (cp. 5 16 , ' Let your light so shine 
before men,' etc.), provided that ostentation be 
avoided. The best Jewish thought strongly 
approved of alms done in secret. In the 
Temple was ' the treasury of the silent ' for 
the support of poor children, to which religious 
men brought their alms in silence and privacy, 
and it was strikingly said by one of the rabbis 
that 'he that doeth alms in secret is greater 
than our master Moses himself.' 4. Reward 
thee openly] RV omits openly. The reward 
will take place at the Day of Judgment, when 
the secrets of all hearts shall be disclosed. 
Yet even in this life there is the reward of a 
good conscience, and of God's approval. 

5-15. Maxims for prayer, and the Lords 
Prayer. Perhaps the most significant v. of this 
seetion is v. 8, % Four Father knoweth what 
things ye have need of, before ye ask him.' 
christians, therefore, are not to pray mainly 
with the object of bringing their needs before 
God who knows them already, but because 



644 



6.5 



ST. MATTHEW 



6.9 



they love Him and delight to be in His pre- 
sence, and to open their hearts to Him, and to 
receive from Him those holy inspirations and 
aspirations which He gives to those who pray 
aright. Those who thus understand what 
prayer is, will not pray like the hypocrites 
(v. 5), or like the heathen (v. 7). They will 
pray in secret, as well as in public, from the 
mere delight of praying. The section con- 
cludes with the Lord's Prayer, which is given 
is the perfect model of all prayer. 

5. To pray standing] Standing was the usual 
Jewish attitude in prayer, as kneeling is with 
us. In prayer a Jew usually (1) stood, (2) 
turned towards Jerusalem, (3) covered his 
head, (4) fixed his eyes downwards. The 
ancient Church prayed standing on Sundays 
and festivals, but kneeling on fast-days, and 
the Eastern Church still observes this rule. 

In the synagogues and in the corners of the 
streets] During the synagogue services those 
who wished to be thought devout did not 
follow the public prayers, but said private 
self-righteous prayers of their own, loud 
enough, to be heard and to attract the attention 
of the congregation. In the streets the same 
people would sometimes stand for three hours 
at a time in the attitude of prayer. The 
prayers of the phylacteries (see on Mt23 5 ) 
were required to be said at a fixed time with 
great parade and ceremony. When the time 
came, the workman put down his tools, the 
rider descended from his ass, the teacher sus- 
pended his lecture, to say them. The ostenta- 
tious were careful to be overtaken by the 
prayer-hour in a public place, and to remain 
longer praying than any one else. 

6. Into thy closet] EY 'into thine inner 
chamber': cp. Isa26 2 o 2K433. There is no 
disparagement here of public worship, which 
our Lord elsewhere emphatically commends 
by precept and practice. But private prayer 
affords a test of sincerity which public worship 
does not. Shall reward thee openly] RV 
' shall recompense thee.' 

7. Use not vain repetitions] Our Lord re- 
proves not repetitions, but vain repetitions. 
In the agony in the garden He Himself prayed 
three times in the same words. Yain repeti- 
tion reaches its culminating point in Thibet, 
where there are mechanical prayer-wheels 
worked by the wind to spread out written 
petitions before the Almighty. Good examples 
of heathen repetitions are found in 1K18 26 
and in Ac 1 9 34 . The idea that prayers prevail by 
their number rather than by their earnestness is 
pagan, and whenever it appears in Christianity 
is a corruption. 

8. Prayer is not to inform God of our needs, 
as the heathen think, but that we may have 
conscious communion with Him as His children. 

9. After this manner therefore pray ye] Our 



Lord is not giving simply an illustration of the 
manner in which Christians ought to pray, but 
a set form of words to be learnt by heart and 
habitually used. This is clear from Lkll 1 , 
' Lord, teach us to pray, as John also taught 
his disciples.' Every Jew was required to re- 
cite daily eighteen set prayers of considerable 
length, or, if hindered by press of business, 
a summary of them. The rabbis also taught 
their pupils an additional form of prayer com- 
posed by themselves, to be added to these 
eighteen prayers. Our Lord's disciples would 
therefore understand that they were to recite 
the Lord's Prayer every day at the end of their 
ordinary prayers. That this was done there 
can be little doubt, for ' The Teaching of the 
Twelve Apostles,' which probably dates from 
the 1st cent. A.D., directs the Lord's Prayer to 
be said three times a day by all Christians. 

Our Lord's followers would further regard 
the prayer as a badge of discipleship, something 
intended to distinguish the disciples of Jesus 
from all other men. For this reason among 
others it has always been regarded as the 
prayer of the Church, not of the world. So 
jealously was its secrecy guarded in early times, 
that, like the Creed, it was only taught to 
catechumens just before their baptism, and 
was never used in those portions of public 
worship to which the heathen were admitted. 
It was always used at Holy Communion, where 
it formed the conclusion of the canon or prayer 
of consecration. 

The Doxology (' for thine is the kingdom,' 
etc.), which is based on Jewish models, is no 
original part of the prayer. It was added as 
early as the 1st cent, in the Public Liturgy, and 
thence passed into the text of St. Matthew's 
Gospel, where it is found in many MSS. 

The prayer is given by St. Luke (11 2 " 4 ) in a 
shorter form (the petitions ' thy will be done ' 
and ' deliver us from evil ' being omitted, see 
RV) and in a different historical connexion. 
Many account for this by supposing that the 
prayer was given twice, once complete and once 
abridged, but it is more probable that it was 
given only once, viz. on the occasion mentioned 
by St. Luke, and that St. Matthew has pur- 
posely placed it earlier, inserting it in our 
Lord's first recorded sermon in order to set 
before the reader at once a comprehensive view 
of His teaching about prayer. As to the form 
of the prayer, St. Matthew's version is, without 
doubt, to be preferred. It is not only fuller, 
but contains distinct marks of greater closeness 
to the original Aramaic. 

The originality of the Lord's Prayer has 
sometimes been called in question, but without 
reason. The parallels adduced from rabbinical 
prayers are for the most part superficial, and 
prove no more than that our Lord availed 
Himself of current Jewish forms of expression. 



645 



6.9 



ST. MATTHEW 



6. 10 



The Lord's Prayer is generally divided into 
seven petitions, by some, however, into only 
six, the last two being reckoned as one. It 
falls into two distinct portions. The first por- 
tion, i.e. the first three petitions, is concerned 
chiefly with the glory of God ; the second 
portion, i.e. the four latter petitions, with our 
own needs. Even those needs are mainly of 
a spiritual character. Bodily wants are men- 
tioned in only one petition, and even that has 
been generally interpreted of spiritual as well 
as bodily needs. 

9. Our Father which art in heaven] Christians 
are taught to say ' Our Father ' not ' My Father ' 
because they are brethren, and may not self- 
ishly pray for themselves without praying for 
others. Every time they use this prayer they 
are reminded that they are a brotherhood, a 
society, a Holy Church, a family, of which the 
members are mutually responsible for one 
another's welfare, and cannot say, as Cain, 
1 Am I my brother's keeper ? ' This was also, 
though in a lower way, a principle of Judaism. 
The rabbis said, ' He that prays ought always, 
when he prays, to join with the Church ' (i.e. 
to say ' we ' instead of ' I '). God is never 
addressed as Father in the OT., and references 
to His Fatherhood are rare. "Where they occur 
(Dt32 6 Isa63 16 , etc.) He is spoken of as the 
Father of the nation, not of individual men. 
In the Apocrypha individuals begin to speak of 
God as their Father (Wisd 2 16 14 s Ecclus 23 L 4 
51 10 ), and 'Our Father' becomes a fairly 
common form of address in later rabbinical 
prayers. Jesus first made the fatherhood of 
God the basis of religion, and gave it its full 
meaning. Since the Lord's Prayer is a dis- 
tinctively Christian prayer, the prayer of the 
Church, not of humanity, ' Our Father ' must 
be understood in its full Christian sense. In a 
certain sense God is the Father of all men. 
He is their Father because He created them, 
and because, in spite of sin, they are spiritually 
like Him, being made in His image. But He 
is the Father of Christians in an altogether 
new sense. They are His sons by adoption, 
reconciled to Him by the death of Christ ; 
and. as a continual testimony that they are 
sons, He Bends forth the Spirit of His Son into 
their hearts, crying, 'Abba,' i.e. 'Father.' 
Hence none but a Christian, i.e. one who by 
baptism 'has put on Christ, 1 and become 'a 
member of Christ, the child of Cod and an 
inheritor of the kingdom of heaven,' can 
rightly use the Lord's Prayer. 

Which art in heaven] lit. ' in the heavens.' 
We are reminded thai He who is called Father 
on earth, is also call* d Father in the heavens, 
by the hosts of angels who worship before His 
throne and h\ the Bpirits of just men made 
perfect. Heaven is generally plural in NT. 
(as always in OT.) to indicate thai there are 



various states of glory and blessedness assigned 
to different persons or to different celestial 
natures. The expression ' Our Father which 
art in heaven ' is found in Jewish prayers. 

Hallowed be thy name] i.e. let Thy Name be 
regarded as holy by all creatures both in heaven 
and earth. God's name is His revealed nature, 
i.e. practically God Himself. Observe that 
the glory of God, not human needs, is here 
put first. ' Hallowed be Thy Name ' is a prayer 
that God may be rightly worshipped, and its 
utterance is in itself an act of worship. 

The prayer begins with worship, because 
worship is the highest spiritual activity of man. 
It is higher than petition. An unspiritual man 
can ask for benefits, but no one can worship 
who does not in his inmost soul apprehend 
what God is. To worship is to give God His 
due, to be penetrated with a sense of His 
perfections, His infinity, His majesty, His 
holiness, His love, and to prostrate body and 
soul before Him. In the worship of God is 
included also due reverence towards all that 
is God's, or comes from God. We ' hallow His 
Name,' when we reverence His holy Word, His 
day, His Sacraments, His Church, His ministers, 
His saints, and the revelation which He makes 
to us outwardly through nature, and inwardly 
in our own souls through the voice of reason 
and conscience. 

10. Thy kingdom come] A glorious prayer 
of infinite scope, known also, yet not in its full 
sense, to the Jews, who held it for a maxim 
that ' That prayer, wherein is not mentioned 
the kingdom of God is no prayer at all.' ' Thy 
kingdom come ' means, May justice triumph 
over injustice, truth over error, kindness over 
cruelty, purity over lust, peace over enmity. 
It is a prayer for the peace and unity of the 
Church, for the growth in grace of its members, 
and for the conversion of the world. But 
chiefly it is a prayer l that it may please Thee, 
of Thy gracious goodness, shortly to accomplish 
the number of Thine elect, and to hasten Thy 
kingdom ; that we, with all those who are 
departed in the true faith of Thy holy Name, 
may have our perfect consummation and bliss, 
both in body and soul, in Thy eternal and 
e\ erlasting glory.' 

Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven] 
KV 'as in heaven so on earth.' (Lk in 11V 
omits the whole petition.) The nearest Jewish 
parallel is, 'Do Thy will in heaven, and give 
quietness of spirit to those who dwell beneath.' 
'Thy will be done' is a prayer for grace to 
conform our wills to the will of God, and for 
diligence to carry out that will in action. It 
is also a prayer for the grace of patience. 
Sometimes God wills that we should suffer 
pain and Borrow, therefore we pray thai we 
may Buffer patiently. In the words 'as in 
heaven BO on earth,' our Lord sets before us 



646 



6.11 



ST. MATTHEW 



6. 16 



the example of the holy angels, who in heaven 
do God's will perfectly. 

ii. Give us this day our daily bread] We 
are not taught to pray for bread for many days, 
but for one day, God thereby reminding us 
of our continual dependence upon Him. Nor 
are we taught to pray for luxuries, but for 
bread, i.e. for necessary food, shelter, clothing, 
and health. We pray also for bread for our 
souls, i.e. the grace to confess our sins and to 
receive God's pardon, and to persevere, and 
to know God. But chiefly we pray that we 
may feed daily by faith on Jesus Christ, who 
is our true daily bread, and may be worthy 
partakers of the bread of blessing which 
makes us one with Him, and Him one with 
us, and which was to the first Christians liter- 
ally their daily bread (Ac2 46 ). 

The Gk. word here translated ' daily ' occurs 
nowhere else in Gk. literature, and its mean- 
ing is entirely unknown. The most likely 
meanings are, (1) daily bread, (2) to-morrow's 
bread, (3) heavenly bread. Probably the 
second is the true one, because the ancient 
Hebrew gospel of the Ebionites so understood 
it, perhaps preserving the original Heb. word 
used by Christ (Mahar). 

12. And forgive us our debts as we forgive 
our debtors] RY ' as we also have forgiven our 
debtors.' No one who has not forgiven his 
enemies can pray the Lord's Prayer, which is 
another proof that it is meant for Christians 
alone. To forgive one's enemies is the act of 
a Christian, and the very opposite of the way 
of the world. Even for Christians it is so 
hard that our Lord thinks it needful to re- 
mind us of its urgent necessity every day 
when we say our prayers. Unless we forgive, 
we cannot be forgiven ; unless we put away 
all malice and bitterness and hatred and re- 
vengeful feeling from our hearts, we are yet 
in our sins. Sin is here called a debt, i.e. it 
is regarded as ' an act by which we have 
robbed God of His rights, and incurred an 
obligation or debt which we cannot satisfy, 
and in regard to which we can only appeal to 
the divine pity.' For debts St. Luke substi- 
tutes ' sins.' St. Matthew's expression, being 
the more difficult, is the nearer to the original. 

This petition, occurring as it does in a prayer 
intended for Christians only, is conclusive 
proof that our Lord did not expect His fol- 
lowers to attain sinless perfection in this life. 
The belief that a converted Christian lives a 
perfectly sinless life, is directly contrary to 
the NT.: see UnlA 

13. And lead (RY ' bring ') us not into tempt- 
ation] God does not Himself tempt ( Jas 1 13 ), 
but He allows us to be tempted, and what 
God permits is often spoken of in Scripture 
as His act. The temptations here spoken of 
are not only the direct assaults of the evil 



one, but the trials and sorrows of life by 
which our souls are purified and refined, as 
gold and silver are purged from their dross in 
a furnace. We pray here that we may not be 
tempted ' above that we are able,' but that 
with the temptation God may also make ' a 
way to escape,' that we may be able to bear it 
(1 Cor 10 13). 

But deliver us from evil] RY ' from the evil 
one ' (omitted by Lk in RY). This is a prayer 
that God may keep us L from all sin and wick- 
edness, and from our ghostly enemy, and from 
everlasting death.' The translation ' evil one ' 
in this passage is adopted by nearly all modern 
commentators: cp. 13 19 > 38 Jnl7 15 Eph6 16 
2Th3 3 (RY), especially 1 Jn2i3,i4 312 518,19. 

For thine is the kingdom] RY rightly omits 
the Doxology, which is a liturgical addition, 
dating, however, from an early age, for it is 
found in ' The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ' 
(circ. 80-160 a.d., but probably before 100). 
It is Jewish in origin. In the Temple services 
the people did not respond ' Amen ' to the 
prayers as they did in the synagogues, but 
' Blessed be the name of the glory of His 
kingdom for ever.' 14, 15. Repeated in 
Mkll25 : C p. Eph432 Col 3^. One of the 
weightiest precepts and warnings of the Chris- 
tian religion, and one of the most neglected. 

16-18. Precepts for private fasts (not in St. 
Luke). Our Lord says nothing of public fasts, 
because when every one else is fasting there is 
little temptation to vainglory. In our Lord's 
time there were not more than five (or six) 
public fasts (see below), but the strict Jews, 
especially the Pharisees, were accustomed to 
fast also on Thursday (the day when Moses 
ascended Mount Sinai), and on Monday (the 
day when he came down) : see Lkl8 12 . Yain- 
glorious persons fasted more frequently even 
than this, and were careful to advertise the 
fact. A faster did not wash, or bathe, or anoint 
the body, or shave the head, or wear sandals, 
but placed ashes on his head, thereby ' dis- 
figuring his face.' It was said of a certain 
Rabbi Joshua, that ' all the days of his life 
his face was black by reason of his fastings.' 
Christians are directed by our Lord when fast- 
ing privately, to conceal the fact, lest they 
should be guilty of ostentation. This com- 
mand does not apply to public fasts ordered by 
lawful authority. On such occasions Christians 
should fast publicly, both as an outward ex- 
pression of obedience, and for the encourage- 
ment of others who are afraid of ridicule. All 
excessive fasting which would injure the body 
or interfere with the due discharge of social 
duties is contrary to Christianity. People who 
are strictly abstemious or temperate can fast 
very little with regard to the quantity of food, 
but it is open to them to fast with regard to 
its quality. To fast is also to abstain from 



647 



6. 16 



ST. MATTHEW 



6. 24 



usual and lawful indulgences and amusements, 
so far as can be done in charity and without 
attracting undue attention. The time saved 
can be given to prayer, meditation, visiting 
the sick, etc. Money saved by fasting should 
of course be spent in charity. The object of 
Christian fasting is, (1) to subdue the flesh to 
the spirit, and (2) to fit the mind for devotion. 
A fast which is not joined with prayer and 
devotion is no Christian fast. See further 
9 14 -!7 Acl3 2 1428 2Cor6 5 ll 27 . 

What fasts were observed in our Lord's time 
is not quite certain. Only one fast (the Day 
of Atonement) was prescribed in the Law. 
During the exile arose the custom of observing 
four yearly fasts to commemorate the calamities 
of Jerusalem. That of the fourth month 
commemorated the capture of Jerusalem (Jer 
52 6 '•), that of the fifth the destruction of the 
city and Temple (Jer 52 12 ), that of the seventh 
the murder of Gedaliah (Jer41 1 ), that of the 
tenth the beginning of the siege (Jer52 4 ). 
Of much later origin was the fast on the 13th of 
Adar, supposed to commemorate the advice of 
Haman to massacre the Jews. To what extent, 
if at all, these fasts were observed in Palestine 
in our Lord's time, is a disputed question. 

1 6. Disfigure their faces] viz. with ashes, or 
perhaps, ' conceal their faces with a veil ' : see 
2 8 1 5 30 Esth G 12 . 17. Anoint] This may mean 
'Anoint thy head as for a banquet,' but anoint- 
ing was a common practice at all times. 

18. Shall reward thee openly] RV 'shall 
recompense thee.' 

19-34. These vv. are not very closely con- 
nected, but they form a kind of unity, and are 
printed as a single paragraph in RV. They 
deal with excessive care for earthly things : 
(a) wealth, vv. 19-24 ; (b) food and raiment, 
w. 25-34. For purposes of exposition they 
maybe conveniently divided into three sections. 

19-21. The earthly treasure and the heavenly 
treasure. When do we lay up k treasure in 
heaven 'V Whenever we give alms (v. 2), or 
pray (v. 5), or fast (v. 16), to please God rather 
than man. But these three examples are only 
introduced to prepare the way for the wider 
principle thai in every action of our lives, and 

not only in almsgiving, prayer, and testing, it 
is possible to lay up treasure in heaven. Not 
only by the right use of wealth, but by the 
righl use of any faculty, talent, or opportunity 
with which God baa entrusted as, heavenly 

treasure is laid up. Even when we are doing 
nothing aci ively for ( tod, bul are only patiently 
Buffering what Se wills that we should bear, 

we are laying up iiv;imiiv in heaven. Every 

act, bow( v( r small, which is done purely for 
ill,, glory of God, and for no lower motive, will 
i\ ceive its reward. 

19. Moth and rust] Wealth in Eastern lands 

is largely stored and hoarded. Much of it eon 

6 



sists of costly changes of raiment, which are liable 
to the attacks of moths. Break through] lit. ' dig 
through,' viz. the wall of the house, which was 
often only built of clay. 21. For where your 
treasure is, etc.] see Lkl2 34 . The heavenly 
treasure is the approval of our heavenly Father, 
which is represented as wealth stored up in 
heaven, ready to be enjoyed hereafter. The 
earthly treasure is not only wealth (though that 
is its most striking exemplification), but every- 
thing lower than God Himself on which men 
set their hearts, — honour, fame, pleasure, ease, 
power, excitement, luxury, animal enjoyment. 

22-24. Singlemindedness in God's service, 
and how it is to be attained (Lk 11 34-36 1613). 
The connexion of thought is — How can we be 
sure that we are laying up treasure in heaven, 
and acting simply and purely for the glory of 
God ? Our Lord replies : By paying attention 
to our consciences, and keeping them in a 
healthy state. We are too much inclined to 
believe that our consciences are sure to lead us 
right, forgetting that the conscience itself may 
be darkened by sin. Conscience is like the eye. 
When the eye is in a healthy state the whole 
body is full of light (v. 22). Every object is 
seen in its true colours, true proportions, and 
accurate position. But if there is a cataract 
in the eye, or malformation of the lens, or 
colour-blindness, then the whole body is full 
of darkness, or distorted light (v. 23). So it 
may be with conscience, and therefore we are 
warned against blindly trusting our consciences, 
which may, through past sin or from lack of 
moral education, be seeing things in a false 
light, or may even be thoroughly corrupt, giving 
us moral darkness instead of light. We are to 
put our consciences to school with Jesus Christ, 
and to be quite sure before we trust them, that 
they give the same moral judgments and are 
as sensitive as those of the best Christians. 
When our consciences are sound, and our souls 
are full of light, we shall be able to discern 
whether we are serving God or mammon. If 
our consciences are unsound, we may go on serv- 
ing mammon all our lives without knowing it. 

22. The light] RV • the lamp.' The body] 
In the parable the ' body ' stands for the soul 
of man. Thine eye] i.e. thy conscience. 

Single] i.e. seeing things in their true light. 

24. Two masters] It is a common idea that 
virtue shades off into rice by imperceptible 

gradations, and that the majority of men are 
neither had nor good. Our Lord pronounces 

absolutely that in the last resort there are only 

two classes of men. those who are serving God, 
and those who are serving the world. Mam- 
mon] MY •mammon.' Not a proper name as 
readers of Milton would naturally suppose, 
but an Aramaic word for 'riches '(Lk 16 e » 11 ). 
Here it stands for ' worhlliness," which finds 
its ehiif expression in the love of money. 



IS 



6. 25 



ST. MATTHEW 



7.6 



25-34. The Christian's freedom from care 
and anxiety (Lkl2 22 * 34 ). The worldly man 
is oppressed with care. He is always in fear 
that his deep-laid plans for the future will 
miscarry, that some object that he loves will 
be torn from his grasp, that his wealth will 
vanish, or that his health will fail so that he 
can enjoy life no longer. The actual failure of 
his earthly prospects makes him the most 
miserable of men, for those prospects were his 
all, and however little he may confess it to 
himself, he in truth loves nothing else. He 
seemed, perhaps, to be serving God much, and 
mammon a little, but he was in reality serving 
mammon with undivided devotion. 

The Christian also pays attention to worldly 
things. He is diligent in his trade or pro- 
fession. He makes all reasonable provision 
for the future. Often he prospers in business 
just because he is a Christian, and does honest 
work where a less scrupulous man would not. 
But his heart is not set on these things, nor is 
he anxious about them. He does his best, and. 
leaves the issue to God : cp. Ps37 25 . Observe 
that the promise of sufficient maintenance is 
made not to the idle, the improvident, and the 
vicious, but to the righteous, who seek first the 
kingdom of God and His righteousness (v. 33). 
Those who do this can never be idle or im- 
provident : cp. lTim5 8 . 

25. Take no thought] RY 'be not anxious': 
cp. 1 Pet 5 7 . 26. They sow not] God provides 
for the birds without labour on their part, be- 
cause labour is not natural to birds. But 
labour is natural to men, therefore God pro- 
vides for men by blessing their labour. There 
is a close rabbinical parallel to this saying : 
' Have you ever seen beast or fowl that had 
a workshop ? and yet they are fed without 
trouble of mind.' 

27. By taking thought] RV ' by being an- 
xious.' One cubit unto his stature] Since no 
one would literally desire to have a cubit (a 
foot and a half) added to his stature, and the 
word translated ' stature ' generally means 
' age ' (see RM), it is better to translate, ' Which 
of you . . can add one span to his age ? ' 

28. Take ye thought] RY ' are ye anxious.' 
30. Into the oven] Dried grass is used in 

the East for heating the baking ovens, which 
are holes in the ground rather more than 3 ft. 
deep and 2£ ft. wide, shaped like a jar. The 
walls are cemented to resist the action of fire. 
Grass is burnt in the ovens, until they are 
thoroughly hot. Then dough rolled out into 
thin sheets is spread on the sides of the oven, 
where it is baked in a few minutes, and is 
taken out in the form of wafer-cakes. 

34. Take no thought] RY ' Be not anxious.' 
Our Lord regarded cheerfulness and joy, and 
the absence of care and anxiety, as the mark 
of a time Christian who puts his trust in God. 



Similarly the rabbis said, ' There is enough 
of trouble in the very moment.' 

CHAPTER 7 
The Sermon on the Mount (concluded) 
The connexion of thought in this c. is less 
close than in the earlier part of the sermon, 
and the whole c. bears the appearance of an 
appendix of miscellaneous practical maxims, 
many of which, however, may have really 
formed part of the sermon. The words about 
rash judgment, and about a tree being known 
by its fruit, as well as the striking conclusion, 
are found also in St. Luke's sermon. 

1-5. On the habit of criticising others (Lk 
637-42), gt. Luke's account is here the fuller, 
and he places the section in a more satisfac- 
tory relation to what goes before. Our Lord 
condemns all forms of censoriousness. He 
calls censorious persons hypocrites, and says 
that they are worse than the people they 
criticise. They are worse because they lack 
love. As love is the highest, and indeed in 
the last resort the only Christian virtue, so 
the lack of it absolutely excludes from the 
kingdom where all is love. Such persons are 
also blind. They see their brother's faults, 
but have no eyes for his virtues, and they 
neither see nor wish to see their own far 
greater faults. 

1. Judge not] cp. Ro 2 1 . Unkind and frivol- 
ous criticism is what is meant. Judgment as 
a serious and solemn act is not forbidden by 
Christ. It is indeed often the Christian's 
duty to judge and severely to condemn things 
which the world never thinks of judging : cp. 
18 15 lCor5 12 2 Tim 4 2. 

2. With what measure ye mete (i.e. ' mea- 
sure ')] A Jewish proverb. The rabbis said, 
' In the measure that a man measureth, others 
measure to him.' 

3. Mote] lit. ' a small dry twig or stalk.' 
Here it stands for a relatively small fault. 

The beam] i.e. the great roof-beam of a 
house, something a thousand times larger than 
the eye itself. Here it stands for 'want of 
love,' the most monstrous, under Christ's law, 
of all vices. Here Christ again adopts a Jewish 
proverb. It is said that when one Jewish 
judge criticised another and said, ' Cast out 
the mote out of thine eye,' the other replied, 
' Cast you out the beam out of your own eye.' 

6. That the most holy things ought not to 
be offered indiscriminately to all persons. The 
earliest comment on this v. is in the ' Teach- 
ing ' (Didache) : ' And let no one eat or drink 
of your Eucharist, except those who have been 
baptised in the name of the Lord. For it is 
concerning this that the Lord hath said, Give 
not that which is holy unto the dogs.' This 
correctly apprehends the principle, which is, 
of course, capable of wider application. Gore 



649 



'. 6 



ST. MATTHEW 



7. 13 



well says, ' We are not to shriek the highest 
truths of religion at a street corner. We are 
to wait till people show a desire for the 
deepest things before we offer them religion. 
Such was the method of the early Church. 
It went out into the world. It let all the 
world see the beauty of its life. . . But it did 
not teach them the secrets of its life — its 
Creed, its Eucharist, its Prayers — till they 
were ready for them, and showed their readi- 
ness at least by enquiry.' 

6. That which is holy] in its literal sense 
the flesh of the sacrifices. Metaphorically it 
stands for all that is most holy in Christ's 
religion, like the pearls below. Dogs . . swine] 
i.e. unclean and ferocious persons. They will 
trample on (i.e. revile and profane) what you 
offer them, and assail you with ridicule and 
blasphemy. While they are in this frame of 
mind, nothing can be done with them. 

7— II. On urgency in prayer, and how God 
rewards it (Lkll 9 - 13 ). God always answers 
urgent prayer. Every asker receives, every 
seeker finds. Yet not every asker receives 
what he asks, nor every seeker finds what he 
seeks. As an earthly father gives good gifts 
to his children, so God gives good things to 
those that ask Him, not always what they 
ask, for they often ask amiss, but something 
far better, even, as St. Luke's version has it, 
' the Holy Spirit.' Those who would obtain 
exactly what they ask, must conform their 
wills to God's, and ask for things which they 
know that He is willing to grant. St. Luke 
connects this section with the Lord's Prayer, 
and illustrates it further by the parable of 
the Friend at Midnight. The connexion in 
St. Luke is much more natural and suitable. 

7. Ask . . seek . . knock] A climax of in- 
creasing urgency. We are to wrestle with 
God in prayer, as Jacob wrestled with the 
angel (perhaps with God Himself), and said, 
' I will not let thee go, except thou bless me ' 
(Gn32 26 ). The lesson is, 'That men ought 
always to pray and not to faint' (LklS 1 ). 

9, 10. Bread . . stone . . fish . . serpent] A 
stone is like a loaf, and a serpent is like a fish, 
especially some fishes. The idea is that God 
will not mock an earnest suppliant, by appear- 
ing to answer his prayer, and giving him some- 
thing which, though apparently good, is really 
noxious. 11. Being evil] Christ took no 
roseate view of the characters <>f men. even 
after their profession of faith in Him. 

12. THE GOLDEN RULE(Lk6 3 i). This 
v. ought bo form a distinct paragraph. Our Lord 
looks back to what He lias been Baying in c. 5 
;il.out the Fulfilling of the Law. and sums up 
His teaching on the whole Bubjeci with tins 
important practical maxim. As originally 
spoken, it probably Formed part of our Lord's 
utterances upon the Law. as it still does In St. 



Luke, who "brings it into connexion with the 
command, 'Love your enemies': see S 44 . 
There are certain parallels to this saying. 
Once a would-be proselyte went to Rabbi 
Hillel and demanded to be taught the whole 
Law while he stood upon one leg. The good 
rabbi made him a proselyte, saying, ' What is 
hateful to thyself, that do not thou to another. 
This is the whole law, the rest is commentary. 
Go, thou art perfect.' The pious Tobias thus 
instructs his son Tobit (Tob4 1 5), 'What thou 
thyself hatest, do thou to no man.' The 
Chinese sage Confucius is reported to have 
said, ' Do not to others what you would not 
wish done to yourself.' All these are noble 
sayings, but they fall far short of Christ's 
golden rule, which means, ' Not only avoid 
injuring your neighbour, but do him all the 
good you can.' They simply forbid injuries : 
Christ commands active benevolence. 

A saying ascribed to the Gk. philosopher 
Aristotle is closer in form to the Golden Rule 
than any other, but it applies only to friends. 
Aristotle was once asked how we should act 
towards our friends, and replied, ' As we 
would that they should act towards us.' 

12. Therefore all things] The 'therefore' 
looks back to Christ's teaching about the Law. 
The sense is, ' Because ye are my disciples, 
and bound to understand the OT. in its higher 
and more spiritual sense, therefore do unto 
others all that you would they should do unto 
you, for this is the true meaning of the Law 
and the Prophets.' 

13, 14. The broad way and the narrow way 
(Lk 13 24 " 27 ). Although it is a blessed thing to 
be a Christian, it is not easy. The Christian 
journeys along the narrow way of self-denial 
discipline and mortification, perhaps of con- 
tempt and persecution, but the end of it is 
life. Much easier is the broad way of self- 
indulgence, avarice, pride and ambition, but 
the end of it is death. How many choose 
death, rather than life ! St. Luke speaks only 
of the narrow ' door,' not of the narrow way, 
and describes the terrible condition at the last 
day of those who have not entered it. There 
is a fine heathen parallel in the allegory called 
' the Tablet,' by Cebes, a disciple of Socrates : 
1 Seest thou not a certain small door, and a 
pathway before the door, in no way crowded, 
for only a very few travel that way, since it 
seems to lead through a pathless, rugged, and 
stony tract ? That is the way that leadeth to 
true discipline.' There is another in the 
philosopher Mazimnsof Tyre(150B.c): 'There 
are many deceitful bypaths, most of which 
Lead to precipices and pits, and there is a 
Bingle narrow Btraighl and rugged path, and 
few indeed arc fchej who can travel by it.' 

13. The strait gate] RV ' the narrow gate.' 
St. .Matthew's word means a city gate, St. 



650 



7. 14 



ST. MATTHEW 



7. 24 



Luke's a small gate or door. Even city gates 
are exceedingly narrow in the East. For 
wide is the gate] Several modern editors omit 
the words k is the gate.' 14. Strait] RV 'nar- 
row.' Narrow] RV ' straitened.' Few there 
be that find it] lit. ' few be they who are find- 
ing it.' In St. Luke the disciples definitely 
ask, ' Lord, are they few that be saved ? ' but 
Jesus avoids a direct answer, bidding them 
look to themselves, and take care that they 
themselves enter by the narrow door. So 
here Jesus does not solve the mystery of the 
ultimate destiny of human souls. He refuses 
to say what proportion of mankind will be 
finally lost or saved, but he does say that the 
majority of men do not, in this world at least, 
choose the narrow way that leads to life. 
Whether after this life G-od will interpose to 
save them from their doom, and will apply to 
them some chastening discipline which may 
bring them to a better mind is not revealed. 
It may be so. Holy Scripture contains certain 
hints in this direction (lPet3 19 4 6 ), but no- 
where gives any clear hope, lest men should 
be encouraged to neglect their opportunities 
of repentance in this life : see on 12 32 . 

15-20. How to detect false prophets and 
hypocrites in general (Lk6 43 ' 45 ). The gift of 
prophecy was widely diffused in the Apostolic 
Church, so that the warning against false 
prophets was needed, but the word is intended 
to include hypocritical Christian teachers of 
all kinds. How can they be known ? Not 
always by their doctrine, which, when it suits 
their purpose, is orthodox, but by their works, 
especially by their covetousness, which is the 
unfailing characteristic of false prophets. 

The ' Didache ' has some interesting remarks 
about the false prophets of the sub-apostolic 
age. ' Let every apostle (itinerant missionary) 
that comes to you, be received as the Lord. 
He will remain one day, and if necessary, two. 
If he remains three days, he is a false prophet. 
And when the apostle goes forth from you, let 
him receive nothing but bread for his day's 
journey. If he asks money, he is a false 
prophet. . . A prophet who in the Spirit orders 
a table to be laid, shall not eat of it himself. 
If he does, he is a false prophet.' The modern 
representative of the false prophet is the 
minister or teacher who works for hire or 
popularity. 

15. False prophets] Not the Pharisees, but 
Christian false prophets and teachers, as is 
clear from v. 22 : cp. also 24 n > 24 1 Jn4*. 

Sheep's clothing] Not the official rough garb 
of prophets, as in Heb 11 37 , but the disguise of 
those who wish to pass for sheep, i.e. for 
Christians. The sheep's clothing is the hypo- 
critical professions and the outward ordination 
of the false teacher. 16. Fruits] Not doctrines, 
but works, or moral character, as always in 



NT. 17-19. Our Lord echoes and rein- 
forces the Baptist's teaching : see on 3 1 " 12 . 

21-23. The punishment of false prophets, and 
of all hypocrites. Our Lord carries us forward 
in thought to the day of judgment. Even 
then the false prophets will pretend to be 
sheep. They will say, ' Lord, Lord,' and 
plead their successful ministerial labours. 
But our Lord will say, I never knew you : 
depart from me, ye that work iniquity. 

21. Lord, Lord] During His earthly ministry 
Jesus was generally addressed as ' Rabbi,' 
Teacher. Here He claims the higher title of 
' Lord,' but in what sense ? Clearly as implying 
sovereignty over the universe, which was the 
sense in which it was applied to Jesus in the 
Apostolic Church : Act 10 ^ 1 Cor 12 3 Phil 2 ". 

Kingdom of heaven] Here used of the final 
bliss of heaven. He that doeth] Everywhere 
in NT. it is said that men will be judged 
according to their works, not according to 
their faith or profession (16 » 25 35 Ro2^ 
1 Cor 3 8 2 Cor 5^ 1 Pet 117 Rev 2 23 2212, etc.). 
If faith is to justify, it must be a living faith 
which issues in good works. 22. Cast out 
devils . . wonderful works] There is no reason 
to suppose that this claim to successful minis- 
terial work is unfounded. It is a fact that 
G-od does sometimes, for the sake of the flock, 
condescend to bless the work of evil shepherds, 
whose lives are not openly scandalous, and in 
general, we may say that ' the unworthiness 
of the ministers hinders not the effect of the 
sacraments.' Of course the best and truest 
work cannot be done by such men. 23. I never 
knew you] i.e. as true disciples : cp. Lkl3 27 . 
The divinity of Christ appears not only from 
His office of judge, but from His power to read 
the heart. He claims that the most secret 
thoughts of the millions of the human race 
are naked and open before Him, and this is in 
effect, a claim to be divine. 

24-27. The true foundation for all permanent 
spiritual building (Lk6 46 " 49 ). The great ser- 
mon concludes with a parable. Two men 
built houses near a watercourse. One dug 
deep and reached the rock, the other built 
upon the sand (i.e. the alluvial deposit of the 
watercourse). In the winter there was a 
flood, and the house built on the sand collapsed. 
The rock is Christ's own person and teaching, 
the only foundation for stable, spiritual and 
social building. Whatever is built upon that 
rock, lasts. Personal character built up on 
Christ, i.e. on faith in Him and loyal obedience 
to His commands, is stable. Men can count 
upon it, for they feel its strength as well as 
its gentleness. Societies or states, based on 
the supremacy of Christ's moral law, last. 
They have in them the elements of stability, 
prosperity, and progress. The Christian 
Church itself is the greatest example of this 



651 



7.24 



ST. MATTHEW 



8. 5 



permanence and progress. Established origin- 
ally by men who had dug down to the rock 
and based themselves on faith in Christ's 
divinity and absolute self -surrender to His 
service (see 16 18 ), it became a spiritual 
fabric which has outlasted the fall of empires, 
has spread to the most distant lands, and bids 
fair to fulfil the promise of its Founder that 
the gates of hell (i.e. of death or destruction) 
shall not prevail against it. 

24. Doeth] Again the stress upon ' doing ' : 
see Jasl 22 . 25. Floods] There are hardly 
any rivers in Palestine except the Jordan, but 
there are many watercourses or winter-torrents 
(Heb. nahal, AV ' brook,' Arab. wddy). These 
are mostly quite dry in the summer, but in the 
winter are full of muddy torrent- water, which 
descends with great violence, and often over- 
flows its banks : cp. Job6 15f - The foolish 
man in the parable had built his house either 
in or close by the channel of one of these 
wadys, without thought of the winter rains. 

28, 29. Effect of the sermon. 

29. Not as the scribes] RY 'not as their 
scribes ' : see prefatory remarks to c. 5. The 
scribe relied entirely on tradition. Hence he 
was compared to a cemented cistern which 
held every drop of water put into it. So 
enamoured were the Jews of tradition, that 
they would hear nothing else even from a man 
so great as Hillel. It is said that though Hillel 
discoursed of a matter all day long, yet his 
hearers received not his doctrine, till at 
last he said, ' So I heard from Shemaiah and 
Abtalion.' 

CHAPTER 8 
The Leper Cleansed. The Centurion's 

Servant Healed. Healing of Peter's 

Wife's Mother and many others. 

Stilling of the Tempest. Healing of 

the Gadarene Demoniacs 
1-4. Cleansing of the leper (Mk 1 40 Lk5 12 ). 
No natural explanation of this miracle is 
possible. Leprosy has always been, and is 
still, one of the most intractable diseases. 
Under the Mosiac Law lepers were regarded as 
andean and excluded entirely from human 
Bociety : see Lv L3 and 14, and notes. Con- 
sider.. I as a parable this miracle represents the 
cleansing of the human race by the Redeemer 
from t be Leprosy of sin. 

1. When he was come down] Only St. 
Matthew mentions the historical connexion of 
tins miracle, though both St, Mark and St. 
Luke agree that it took place .luring one of 
the early preaching tours in Galilee. St. 
Luke says thai it was done in a city. The 
miracle comes appropriately after the sermon. 

I la\ Log said. ' I came not to destroy (the Law).' 

He now says, 'Offer the gifl that Moses 
commanded.' Having taught with authority, 



He now heals with authority, ' I will, be thou 
clean.' 2. Worshipped him] Lk says, 'fell on 
his face.' The act of reverence that was paid 
to kings. Perhaps the leper already regarded 
Jesus as the Messiah, the rightful king of 
Israel. He certainly had full faith in His 
miraculous powers. He only doubted His 
willingness (' if thou wilt ') to heal so miserable 
an outcast. Often men find it easier to believe 
in God's power than in His mercy and love. 

Lord] Here a title of human respect, as in 
825i 6 22Lk9 34 10i7 ) 40ni ie tc. Make me clean] 
' Cleanse as well as heal me,' because leprosy 
was a Levitical defilement. 3. Touched him] 
No one was allowed to touch or even to salute 
a leper. If he even put his head into a place 
it became unclean. No less a distance than 4 
cubits (6 ft.) had to be kept from the leper, or 
if the wind came from that direction, 100 
cubits were scarcely sufficient. By thus 
touching the leper, Christ also showed His 
superiority to the Law of Moses. So far from 
being Himself defiled, His touch imparted 
cleansing. 

4. See thou tell no man] According to St. 
Mark He dismissed the man abruptly, almost 
violently, with an urgent command to be silent. 
Only one explanation of this is at all probable. 
He feared, as in Jn 6 15 , that the people would 
proclaim Him Messiah, and force Him to be 
the leader of a revolution. Offer the gift] i.e. 
a sacrifice of two he-lambs without blemish, 
and one ewe-lamb of the first year without 
blemish. For the details see Lvl4. For a 
testimony unto them] i.e. a proof of the gen- 
uineness of his cure. The priests, after 
examining him, could not refuse his gift, and 
their acceptance of it would be valid testimony 
that he had really been cured of his leprosy. 
In face of the injunction to tell no man, we 
cannot imagine that Christ intended him to 
notify the priests of the manner of his healing, 
and so challenge them to examine His claims. 
The man seems, however, to have disobeyed 
the injunction (Mkl 45 ), so that this miracle 
helped to arouse the opposition which Christ 
soon afterwards encountered (9 3 > n > 34 ). 

5-13. Healing of the centurion's servant 
(LkT 1 , not, however, Jn4 47 , q. v.). The ac- 
counts in St. Matthew and St. Luke are 
partly drawn from independent sources, which, 
though agreeing in essentials, diifer consider- 
ably in details. In St. Matthew the centurion 
himself comes to Jesus. In St. Luke he first 
sends certain Jewish elders to plead for him, 
then some of his friends, and apparently does 
not see Jesus at all. St. Luke's narrative is 
the tidier and more original. The discrepancy 
with St. Matthew is not a serious one. It is 
quite common to represent a person as doing 
himself what he really does through others. 
St. Matthew alone records Christ's remarkable 



C52 



S.5 



ST. MATTHEW 



8. 19 



utterance as to the rejection of Israel and the 
call of the Gentiles, w. 11, 12. St. Luke, 
however, has nearly the same words in another 
connexion (Lkl3 2S ). 

5. A centurion] A Roman legionary officer 
commanding a century (i.e. from 50 to 100 
men, the hundredth part of a legion), and occu- 
pying the social position of a modern sergeant 
or non-commissioned officer. Whether this 
centurion was directly under Roman authority, 
or was in the employ of Herod Antipas, in 
whose kingdom he served, is not certain. 
He was a heathen, and though favourably im- 
pressed by Judaism, it is probable from the 
language of v. 8 that he was not a proselyte. 
Several centurions appear in the NT., all in a 
very favourable light : 27 54 Ac 10, 27, and 28. 
1 Probably,' says Trench, ' in the general wreck 
of the moral institutions of the heathen world, 
the Roman army was one of the few in which 
some of the old virtues survived.' The troops 
of Palestine were recruited locally from the 
heathen of Samaria and Caesarea, and were 
auxiliaries. The legionary soldiers proper were 
required to be Roman citizens. The centurion, 
being an officer, was probably a Roman. Ac- 
cording to St. Luke, he did not venture to 
come himself, but sent certain Jewish elders, 
who said, ' He is worthy that thou shouldest do 
this for him, for he loveth our nation, and 
himself built us our synagogue.' 

6. My servant] The expression might mean 
' my little son,' but it is plain from St. Luke 
that it was a favourite slave who was ill. 

8. Lord, I am not worthy] Both the cen- 
turion and the elders judged Jesus by Jewish 
standards. That Jesus should heal a Gentile 
at all, except for some very special reason, was 
thought impossible. Still more unlikely was 
it that He would enter a Gentile house, which 
was regarded as denied, and defiling those who 
entered it (Jnl8 28 ). Speak the word only] 
lit. ' speak with a word.' In believing that 
Jesus could heal at a distance, the centurion 
showed remarkable faith. Perhaps his faith 
was assisted by the similar miracle worked 
shortly before in the same city upon the son 
of a certain 'nobleman' (Jn4 46 ). 

9. For I am a man under authority] The 
sense is : I am myself only a servant of others, 
and yet I have soldiers under me whom I can 
send where I please to carry out my will. 
How much more canst Thou, who art Lord of 
the powers of nature, speak the word and be 
obeyed. The centurion expresses his faith 
that angels and spirits and diseases are as 
obedient to Jesus as his soldiers are to him. 

11. Shall sit down (lit. 'recline at table') 
with Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob] The 
rabbis taught that the Messianic age would 
be ushered in by a great feast. All Israel, with 
its patriarchs, prophets, and heroes, would be 



there. The Gentiles would be excluded, and 
would have the mortification of seeing all the 
sumptuous preparations. Every (clean) animal 
that exists, and many that do not, would be 
eaten at that feast, e.g. the Leviathan, Behe- 
moth, the gigantic bird Bar Jochani, and certain 
fabulous fatted geese. The wine of the feast 
would have been kept in the grapes from the 
creation of the world. King David would 
return thanks according to Psll6 13 . Yery 
startling, therefore, was the declaration of Jesus 
that Gentiles from all nations would be ad- 
mitted to this Messianic feast, and many cir- 
cumcised Jews (' sons of the kingdom ') 
excluded. In the NT., the figure of a banquet 
or marriage feast is several times used (as 
here) to represent participation in Christ's 
Kingdom, both in this world and the next : 
see 22 2 25 10 Rev 19 ^ The present passage 
is a double prophecy (inserted most suitably in 
a Gospel meant for Jewish readers), (1) of the 
admission of the Gentiles on equal terms with 
the Jews into the Christian Church, and of 
the exclusion of many of the latter ; (2) of the 
final salvation of many Gentiles, and of the 
reprobation of merely nominal Jews. 

12. The children (RV 'sons') of the king- 
dom] i.e. the Jews. Outer darkness, etc.] a 
rhetorical description of the sorrow and dis- 
appointment of those who are excluded. The 
gnashing of teeth represents anger and dis- 
appointment, not torture : see Ps 1 1 2 10 Ac 7 54 . 

14-17. Healing of Peter's mother-in-law, 
and of many sick and possessed persons (Mk 1 29 
Lk 4 38 ). According to St. Mark and St. Luke 
these miracles took place on the sabbath, after 
the synagogue service at which Jesus preached 
and healed a demoniac. 

14. Peter's house] Peter was a married 
man (lCor9 5 ). He had a house in Caper- 
naum, which he shared with his brother An- 
drew, and apparently with his wife's mother. 

15. Ministered] i.e. ' waited at table.' The 
fever had left no weakness. 16. Possessed] 
According to St. Luke the devils cried out, 
' Thou art the Son of God,' and recognised 
Him as the Christ. 17. Isa53 4 , quoted from 
the Hebrew. This application of the passage 
to the miracles of healing does not conflict 
with its deeper fulfilment in Christ's atoning 
work on the Cross (Jnl 2 » l Pet2 24 ). 

18-22. Sayings to a scribe and another dis- 
ciple (Lk9 57 ). St. Luke introduces these say- 
ings much later in our Lord's ministry. Both 
evangelists apparently borrowed from a com- 
mon source, which did not specify the occasion 
of the utterances. 

19, 20. The offer of a recognised rabbi 
(scribe) to become a follower of Jesus was 
an attractive one, especially as no influential 
person had yet become a disciple. Jesus, 
however, did not hastily accept the offer. To 



653 



8. 19 



ST. MATTHEW 



8. 23 



test the sincerity of the new convert, he re- 
quired him to count the cost. He must give 
up all to follow Christ — home-comforts, wealth, 
honour, and all prospects of advancement. 
Like his Master, he must have no place to lay 
his head. Probably the scribe, like the rich 
young ruler, found the conditions too hard. 

19. Master] i.e. Rabbi, a title of respect 
properly belonging only to scribes. It was 
sometimes accorded by courtesy to our Lord, 
as here. 

20. The Son of man] This title of Christ 
is found only in the G-ospels and Ac7 56 , and 
(except in Ac 7 56 ) is found only in the mouth 
of our Lord Himself. It corresponds in Ara- 
maic, which our Lord habitually spoke, either 
to barnasha, which may mean either ' the man,' 
or (but this is not so certain) ' the son of man,' 
or else to b'rehd^iasha, which means definitely 
and emphatically ' the son of man ' (lit. ' his 
son, that of man '). That our Lord, who was 
probably bilingual, occasionally used the G-k. 
title as found in the Gospels, is also very pos- 
sible. The title was used by our Lord through- 
out His ministry, and not, as is sometimes 
erroneously supposed, only from the time of 
St. Peter's confession (16 13 ). This fact must 
be taken account of in ascertaining its pro- 
bable meaning. It follows from this that it 
cannot have been, as is sometimes maintained, 
a definite and well-understood designation of 
the Messiah. Our Lord concealed His Messiah- 
ship from the multitude until the close of His 
ministry, and did not expressly reveal it even 
to the Twelve until the confession of Peter. 
That it was not understood by the multitudes 
to be a Messianic title is evident from Jn 12 34 . 

The title probably designates our Lord as 
the ideal or representative man, ' the man in 
whom human nature was most fully and deeply 
realised, and who was the most complete ex- 
ponent of its capacities, warm and broad in 
His sympathies, ready to minister and suffer 
for others, sharing to the full the needs and 
deprivations which are the common lot of 
humanity, but conscious at the same time of 
the dignity and greatness of human nature, 
and destined ultimately to exalt it to unex- 
ampled majesty and glory.' At the close of 
His life He invested it with a more definitely 
Messianic meaning by identifying Himself 
with the 'one like onto a son of man' of 
Dan 7 u , who was generally understood to be 
the Messiah : see Mt26 68 < ;t . The expression 
\v;is used by OUT Lord of Himself on at least 
forty different occasions, and in very diverse 
contexts. Tims he uses it in connexion with 
His authority to forgive sins (9*), His lord 
ship over the sabbath (12 8 ), His Second 
Advent m -lory (10 s8 L3* 3 lii--^ 1 !>'-'* 

24 27, 80, 87, « 26 81 26 w ), Bis familiar intercourae 

with men in daily life (IP'-'), His poverty (8 20 ), 



His preaching (13 3 ~), His sufferings and re- 
surrection (Mtl7 9 . 12 . 22 2018 26 2 4 Mk83!), 
His giving His life as a ransom (20 28 ), and 
His seeking and saving that which was lost 
(Lkl9 10 ). St. Stephen uses it of our Lord as 
glorified in heaven. The title occurs twelve 
times in St. John's Gospel, for the most part 
in passages which clearly imply His divinity. 
The Son of man exists in heaven before His 
Incarnation, and descends to earth to become 
man ( Jn 6 62 ) ; He gives His flesh and blood to 
believers to eat and drink, who are thus in- 
corporated with Him and receive eternal life 
(Jn6 27f -); He holds unbroken communion 
with the Father during His earthly life ( Jn 1 61 ) ; 
He is the object of divine and saving faith 
( Jn 3 15 ) ; His death on the cross is not a degra- 
dation but a glorification (Jnl2 23 13 31 ), and 
He ends His earthly course by a triumphant 
ascension (Jn6 62 ). 

The title ' Son of man ' is used of the Mes- 
siah in a part of the book of Enoch (chs. 37-70), 
which is probably, but not certainly, pre- 
Christian. It is just possible that our Lord 
may have derived it from this source. But in 
any case the title was very little known, and 
was not popularly understood to mean the 
Messiah. Some have thought that the source 
of the title is Ps8 (see especially v. 4). 

22. Follow me ; and let the dead, etc.] This 
difficult saying is variously interpreted : (1) 
My claim comes before all other claims. It is 
better that the dead should remain unburied, 
than that thou shouldest delay to enter upon 
the solemn ministry to which I have called 
thee. (N.B. The funeral and subsequent mourn- 
ing would cause a delay of several weeks.) 
(2) Let the dead (i.e. thy unbelieving relations 
who are spiritually dead through lack of faith 
in Me) bury thy father for thee, and come 
thou, follow Me at once. 

The man's father was probably either dead 
or at the point of death, although some think 
that he was only aged, and that the disciple 
asked to remain at home till death occurred, 
thus indefinitely postponing his obedience to 
Christ's call. 

23-27. The stilling of the tempest (Mk 4 » 
Lk 8 22). St. Mark and St. Luke both place the 
incident after the series of parables which St. 
Matthew records in c. 13. This is at once one 
of the best-attested miracles, and one of the 
most incomprehensible to those who desire to 
limit our Lord's miracles to those of healing. 
It is perhaps possible to regard the cessation 
of the storm as a fortunate coincidence, but it 
is certain thai Jeans Himself did not take this 
view of it. He rebuked the wind and sea, 
showing thai He regarded Himself as the 
Lord of physical nature as well as of the 
spiritual world. By stilling the storm Christ 
showed that, behind the inexorable and awful 



654 



8. 24 



ST. MATTHEW 



8. 34 



manifestations of nature, storm, pestilence, 
volcanic eruptions, and sudden death, which 
seem to treat man's sufferings with indiffer- 
ence, there is the loving hand of divine provi- 
dence. In the last resort nature is subject to 
God's holy and righteous will. 

The miracle is also a parable, setting forth 
Christ as a giver of peace and safety, both to 
individuals and to His Church. St. Augustine 
(400 a.d.) says, ' We are sailing in this life as 
through a sea, and the wind rises, and storms 
of temptation are not wanting. Whence is 
this, save because Jesus is sleeping in thee, i.e. 
thy faith in Jesus is slumbering in thy heart ? 
Rouse Him and say, Master, we perish. He 
will awaken, that is, thy faith will return to 
thee, and the danger will be over.' Tertullian 
(200 a.d.) says, ' But that little ship presented 
a figure of the Church, in that she is disquieted 
in the sea, i.e. in the world, by the waves, i.e. 
by persecutions and temptations, the Lord 
patiently sleeping, as it were until roused at 
last by the prayers of the saints He checks the 
world, and restores tranquillity to His own.' 

24. Tempest] lit. ' shaking.' The word 
generally means ' earthquake.' ' To under- 
stand the causes of these sudden and violent 
tempests, we must remember that the lake lies 
low, six hundred feet lower than the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, that the vast and naked plateaus 
of Jaulan (the district E. of the lake) rise to 
a great height, spreading backward to the 
wilds of Hauran, and upwards to the snowy 
Hermon ; that the watercourses have cut out 
profound ravines and wild gorges, converging 
to the head of the lake, and that these act like 
gigantic funnels to draw down the winds from 
the mountains ' (Thompson). 

27. What manner of man] The disciples 
already begin to think that Jesus is more than 
a mere man. 

28-34. The healing of the Gadarene de- 
moniacs (Mk 5 x Lk 8 26 ). There are real diffi- 
culties in connexion with this narrative, but 
that upon which Professor Huxley laid so 
much stress in his controversy with Mr. 
Gladstone, 1889-91, is assuredly the least. 
Speaking of the destruction of the swine he 
said, ' Everything that I know of law and 
justice convinces me that the wanton destruc- 
tion of other people's property is a misdemean- 
our of evil example,' as if He, who gives life 
and health and all things to all men, cannot 
take back His own gifts when He will. More 
serious is the difficulty presented by the trans- 
ference of the devils from the men into the 
swine (vv. 31, 32). It may, perhaps, be 
sufficient to remark that it is not certain that 
this is the true interpretation of the incident. 
The transference itself could not from the 
nature of the case have been observed. It 
was an inference from the request of the devils 



and the subsequent behaviour of the swine. 
The word Go used by Jesus may mean ' Go 
into the swine,' but it may also mean simply, 
' Begone,' without implying any such permis- 
sion. In the latter case the destruction of 
the swine may have been a natural occurrence, 
the herd taking fright at the paroxysms and 
cries of the demoniacs, which became more 
violent at the moment of their recovery : cp. 
Mkl26 926 Lk9 42 . If the former interpreta- 
tion is correct, Jesus probably destroyed the 
swine to convince the insane men that the 
devils had really left them. The healing itself 
was certainly a miracle of the most striking 
kind, whether the men be regarded as really 
possessed by devils, or as maniacs under that 
delusion. St. Matthew in recording this miracle 
made use of another source besides that repre- 
sented by St. Mark and St. Luke. He speaks 
of two demoniacs, they only of one. 

28. The country of the Gergesenes (RY 
1 Gadarenes ')] Gadara was an important Gen- 
tile town, the capital of Persea, situated at 
least 6 m. from the lake in a south-easterly 
direction, and separated from it by a broad 
plain and the gorge of the river Hieromax, a 
tributary of the Jordan. St. Matthew men- 
tions Gadara as the nearest well-known town. 
St. Mark and St. Luke state more precisely 
that the incident took place at Gerasa, to be 
identified with the ruins of Kersa or Gersa on 
the E. side of the lake. There are ancient 
tombs in the vicinity of this place, and about 
1 m. S. of it is a steep, even slope, which may 
be the ' steep place ' by which the swine rushed 
down into the sea. There was another Gerasa 
in Persea, but it was fully 35 m. from the 
lake, and cannot possibly be the one meant. 

Out of the tombs] Maniacs are still to be 
found among the tombs in the East. War- 
burton writes, ' On descending from these 
heights (of Lebanon), I found myself in a 
cemetery. The silence of the night was now 
broken by fierce yells and howlings, which I 
discovered proceeded from a naked maniac, 
who was fighting with some wild dogs for a 
bone. The moment he perceived me, he left 
his canine comrades, and bounding along with 
rapid strides, seized my horse's bridle, and 
almost forced him backward over the cliff.' 

29. Thou Son of God] The demons similarly 
acknowledge Jesus in Mk3 n Lk4 41 . To 
torment us before the time] viz. of the Last 
Judgment, when the demons will be consigned 
to hell. The demoniacs identify themselves 
with the demons and speak in their names. 

31. In St. Luke the demons beg not to be 
sent into the ' abyss,' i.e. into hell. 

34. They besought him that he would depart] 
The drowning of 2,000 swine represented a 
considerable monetary loss, and they feared 
further losses if Jesus remained in their neigh- 



655 



9. 



ST. MATTHEW 



9.6 



bourhood. It is not clear whether the owners 
of the swine were Jews or Gentiles. The 
population of Decapolis was mainly, but by no 
means exclusively, Gentile. If the owners 
were Jews, their loss might be regarded as a 
punishment for keeping swine contrary to the 
Law. The rabbis said, ' Cursed be he who 
keeps hogs, and cursed be he who teacheth his 
son the wisdom of the Greeks ' ; and again, ' It 
is forbidden to trade in anything that is un- 
clean.' 'Keeper of hogs' was a Jewish term 
of abuse. Coasts] RY ' borders.' St. Mark 
and St. Luke add that our Lord, departing 
from His usual custom, bade the demoniac 
proclaim his cure publicly. As the population 
was Gentile, there was no danger of a Mes- 
sianic outbreak. 

We have adopted the now widely-accepted 
view (see note ' Possession ' at 4 24 ), that the 
demoniacs of the NT. were insane persons 
under the delusion that they were possessed 
with devils, but their recognition of Jesus 
as the Son of God, and in a less degree the 
phenomenon of double consciousness exhi- 
bited in this and other instances, are plausible 
arguments for the older view that the pos- 
session was real : see on MkS 1 ' 20 . 

CHAPTER 9 

The Sick of the Palsy. Call of Mat- 
thew. Raising of Jairus' Daughter 
i-8. The paralytic healed and his sins 
forgiven (Mk2! Lk5 17 ). The peculiarity of 
this miracle is that it was worked to prove a 
doctrine, and that in the face of opposition. 
There were present certain scribes and Phari- 
sees, some of whom had doubtless come from 
Jerusalem expressly to oppose Jesus. Jesus at 
once threw them a challenge by saying to the 
man, ' Son, thy sins be forgiven thee.' The 
scribes understood this to mean that He 
claimed to forgive sins as God only can do. 
Instead of repudiating this suggestion, as a 
mere man would have done, Jesus accepted it, 
and proceeded to prove His claim by a miracle. 
k Whether is easier,' said He, ' to say, Thy sins 
are forgiven ; or to say, Arise, and walk ? ' 
The former, of course, is easier. Any im- 
postor can say, ' Thy sins are forgiven,' because 
it is impossible for men to know whether the 
won Is have taken effect or not. But not 
every one can say, 'Arise, and walk, 1 because 
it such words axe spoken without authority, 
the speaker is al once convicted of imposture. 
'I'll is miracle, like the resurrection, maybe re- 
garded as a vindication by God Bimself of the 
character of Jesus. No man could make the 
claims that Jesus did, without rendering him- 
self liable to the most serious i input at ions upon 

his character. Either Be was the Sou of 

God, or, as the Bcribes rightly said from their 

point of HOW, a blasphemer. Hence in this 



miracle Jesus deliberately appealed to the 
judgment of God, and God by working the 
miracle vindicated the character of Jesus. 

i. His own city] i.e. Capernaum. 

2. They brought to him] According to the 
fuller accounts in St. Mark and St. Luke the 
bed of the paralytic was carried by four men, 
who, unable to approach Jesus for the crowd, 
ascended to the roof of the house by the out- 
side stairs with which most Eastern houses are 
furnished, and making a hole in the flat roof 
( l the tiling,' Luke), let down the bed by 
cords in front of Jesus, who was addressing a 
great multitude. Where was Jesus at the 
time ? Some say in the upper chamber of the 
house, but this would hardly have held so 
many. More satisfactory is the suggestion of 
Edersheim that Jesus was preaching in the 
covered gallery or verandah of the house, and 
that the hole was made, not in the roof of the 
house, but in the roof of the verandah. The 
house was probably Peter's, and one of con- 
siderable size, as befitted a man of some means. 
It was built, as the better class of Eastern 
houses generally are, like an English college. 
A single gate or door opened into a large 
square courtyard, planted with trees. Round 
it were the various apartments of the house, 
opening directly into the courtyard. There was 
also a roofed verandah running round the court. 
Jesus was sitting in the verandah, addressing 
the crowds that filled the courtyard and the 
doorway and the street beyond, when the 
men unroofed the verandah from above and 
let the sick man down. 

2. Son, be of good cheer] Words of encour- 
agement and comfort to the man, who, we may 
conclude, knew that his disease was the result 
of past sin, and was therefore ashamed of 
himself. Not only drunkenness, but various 
other sins of self-indulgence produce paralysis. 
Jesus, who knew at a glance the whole history 
of the case (cp. Jn5 14 ), first removed the sick 
man's spiritual trouble, and then healed him. 
The absolution was given for the man's own 
sake, but it was also a challenge to the Phari- 
sees, who were present as enemies. Their 
hostility had been roused not only by the 
cleansing of the leper (8 *), but by the very 
similar miracle worked shortly before at Jeru- 
salem (Jn5 2 ), in connexion with which also 
Jesus had incurred the charge of blasphemy 
(' He called God His own father, making Him- 
self equal with God,' Jn5 18 ). 

6. The Son of man] i.e. the Son of God in 
the humiliation of His life on earth. Hath 
power (RM 'authority') on earth to forgive 
sins] What is the force of on earth ? Bengel 
rightly says, ' This speech hints at His celestial 
origin.' Christ's design is to prove that His 
Incarnation has not emptied Him of His divine 
prerogatives. Though humbled on earth, the 



656 



9.8 



ST. MATTHEW 



9. 14 



divine power of pardon was still His. By be- 
coming man He had not ceased to be God. 

8. Which had given such power (RM ' au- 
thority ') unto men] The saying is a striking 
one. Although one man alone had exercised 
the power, the people rightly perceived that 
there had been established the principle that 
the divine forgiveness can be committed to 
man. Christ afterwards gave such power unto 
men when He committed to His .Church the 
power to forgive sins (Jn20 23 ). A strong 
distinction must, however, be drawn between 
Christ's own power to forgive, which is orig- 
inal and absolute, and the ministerial power 
of absolution which is delegated and con- 
ditional : see on Jn20 23 . 

9-13. Call of Matthew (Mk2i4 Lk5 2 ?: see 
Intro.). The call of a publican was another 
challenge to the Pharisaic party. Considering 
the low estimation in which publicans were 
held (see on 5 46 ), it was an act of extra- 
ordinary boldness, and, if human success was 
aimed at, a most unwise one. But Jesus had 
a mission to the despised and outcast, whom 
He regarded as in many respects nearer the 
kingdom of God than the respectable Phari- 
sees. The most obvious way to win their 
confidence and to acquire influence over them, 
was to call one of their number to the aposto- 
late. He did so, and followed up the step by 
holding a great feast, at which He and His 
disciples publicly ate and drank with publicans 
and sinners. The incident has a double signi- 
ficance. (1) It is a protest by Jesus against 
the practice of social ostracism. If publicans 
are treated as if they were thieves, they are 
likely to become so. If actors are regarded as 
disreputable people, disreputable they will be. 
But if men are treated with respect, they are 
thereby taught to respect themselves, and to try 
to deserve the good opinion of others. (2) It 
is an intimation that the Church has a mission 
to the poor, the outcast, and the criminal, as 
well as to the respectable classes. Many signs 
show that this duty is now much more appre- 
ciated than it was. Parochial missions to the 
poor, street preaching, the police-court mission- 
aries, the missions in prisons, are all imitations 
of our Lord's feast to publicans and sinners. 

9. Matthew] The other Gospels call him 
' Levi.' Matthew (' gift of Jehovah ') was the 
name by which he was known among Chris- 
tians. He may have adopted it at his call. 

The receipt of custom] RY ' the place of 
toll.' Custom, or toll (Gk. telos), was a tax 
levied on goods imported or exported from 
one district to another, as distinguished from 
tribute (Gk. censos, or phoros), an annual tax 
on houses, lands, and persons. As customs 
generally went to the native government, 
Matthew was probably in the employ of Herod 
Antipas, not of the Romans. J. Lightfoot 



thinks that the toll was levied on vessels ply- 
ing on the lake. More probably it was levied 
on the caravans trading between Egypt and 
Damascus, most of which passed through 
Capernaum. Follow me] St. Luke says that 
St. Matthew l left all ' and followed Jesus. 
Probably he had been a disciple for some time 
and expected the call. 

10. As Jesus sat at meat (lit. ' reclined ') in 
the house] From St. Matthew and St. Mark 
it might be supposed that the meal took place 
in the house of Jesus, i.e. of Peter ; but it is 
clear from St. Luke that it was in the house 
of Matthew, who made a great feast for his 
Master. This feast is not to be regarded as a 
mere farewell banquet given by him to his old 
associates, but as part of a definite design on 
the part of Jesus to reach the despised and 
outcast classes. There being so great a multi- 
tude of guests, it is probable that the feast 
was held not in the upper-room, but in the 
great courtyard of the house. For the atti- 
tude of sitting (reclining) at meat, see on 
Lk738 j n 1323. 

11. When the Pharisees saw it] The Phari- 
sees were not invited, but they walked in to 
see what was happening. In the East a ban- 
quet is a public affair, and any casual wayfarer 
may enter as a spectator. Why eateth your 
master with publicans and sinners ?] The Phari- 
sees spoke to the disciples to seduce them 
from their allegiance to their Master. Publi- 
cans were social outcasts, and religiously half- 
excommunicate. It was said, ' A religious man 
who becomes a publican, is to be driven out 
of the society of religion.' ' It is not law- 
ful to use the riches of such men, of whom 
it is presumed that all their wealth was gotten 
by rapine, and that all their business was the 
business of extortioners, such as publicans and 
robbers are.' Publicans were forbidden to be 
judges or to give evidence : see on 5 46 . Some 
think that ' sinners ' is a mere Pharisaic term of 
abuse for publicans. 

12. They that be whole, i.e. the Pharisees, 
have no need of a physician, i.e. of Christ, 
but they that are sick, i.e. the publicans and 
sinners. The saying is spoken in irony, for 
the Pharisees, wanting charity, wanted a phy- 
sician even more than the publicans. 

13. I will have mercy, and not sacrifice] i.e. 
I would rather see love and charity towards 
fellowmen than ritual observances. Ritual 
without love is an abomination. Quoted from 
Hos6 6 , and again in 12 7 . The righteous] i.e. 
those who think themselves such, viz. the 
Pharisees. Ironically spoken. Of course Christ 
did come to call the Pharisees, but they re- 
fused to be called. 

14-17. Controversy with the disciples of 
John and with the Pharisees on fasting (Mk 
2 18 Lk5 33 ). Matthew's feast probably took 



42 



657 



9. 14 



ST. MATTHEW 



9. 18 



place on a Monday or a Thursday, days which 
were observed by the Pharisees and John's 
disciples as fasts : see Mk, ' The disciples of 
John and the Pharisees were fasting.' The 
jealousy of the disciples of John had showed 
itself even before John had been cast into 
prison (Jn3 26 ). Now that John was in prison, 
they readily became the tools of the Pharisees, 
who instigated them to come forward and say, 
' Why do we and the Pharisees fast oft, but thy 
disciples fast not ? ' The question had two 
purposes. (1) It was intended to hold up to 
public odium the laxity of the religious prac- 
tices of Jesus as compared with the strictness 
of those of the Pharisees and of John. (2) It 
was intended to produce a breach between 
John and Jesus. The reputation of Jesus had 
been established very largely by the witness 
which John had borne to His Messiahship. If 
Jesus could be induced to condemn John (and 
it seemed impossible that He could defend His 
own disciples without doing so), John would 
perhaps disown Jesus, whose reputation would 
thereby be seriously diminished. 

Jesus disappointed them by an answer at 
least as diplomatic as the famous one about the 
tribute-money. Addressing the disciples of 
John, He reminded them that their own master 
had called Him the Bridegroom, and added that 
at a wedding not even the Pharisees would 
desire the guests to fast. When the wedding- 
feast was over, or rather when the bridegroom 
was taken from them by a violent death, they 
would mourn and fast. Then in three parables 
(the last of which is in St. Luke only) He showed 
that the disciples of John were as right from 
their point of view as His own disciples were 
from theirs. In the first parable He compared 
the religious practices of John to an old gar- 
ment, and His own to a new garment. John, 
He said, was not so foolish as to tear a piece 
of cloth from the new garment of Christianity 
in order to patch with it his own Jewish gar- 
ment. He could not, for instance, consistently 
borrow from Christ the dispensation from fast- 
ing, and teach it to his disciples, without making 
a complete breach in his system. Let the 
disciples of John continue to fast until they 
came to Jesus, when they would adopt different 
practices altogether. 

Having defended John, Jesus, in a second 
parable, defended Himself. John's wine was 
old, Bad was contained in bottles which suited 
it. His own was new, and required new bottles. 
In other- words, the two different types of piety 
required different outward methods of expres- 
sion. John's preparatory ministry of repent- 
ance was rightly accompanied by fasting and 
mourning, bu1 now the fulness of joy was come, 

the time of feasting and rejoicing had begun. 
In a third parable, given only by St. Luke, 
Jesus again defends the disciples of John. 



'No one,' He says, 'having drunk old wine, 
desires new, for he says, The old is good 
enough.' In other words, the disciples of 
John, having tasted John's wine and found it 
to be good, are not to be blamed if they are 
not over anxious to taste new wine, i.e. to 
adopt the new and to them untried practices 
of Christ's disciples (Lk5 39 ). 

14. Fast oft] Some ancient authorities omit 
' oft.' 

15. The children (RV 'sons') of the bride- 
chamber] i.e. the friends of the bridegroom, 
who, amid singing and playing of instruments, 
conducted the bride, accompanied by her com- 
panions, to the house of the bridegroom and to 
the bridechamber, and remained to take part 
in the wedding-feast, which usually lasted seven 
days. Here the l sons of the bridechamber ' 
are the disciples of Christ. Christ was first 
called the Bridegroom by the Baptist himself 
(Jn3 29 ). Shall be taken from them] The first 
prediction in St. Matthew of the Passion. And 
then shall they fast] The first reference is to the 
sorrow of Christ's disciples after His death. 
The words, however, may be taken to suggest 
for fasting a permanent place in the Chris- 
tian system of devotion, but a less prominent 
one than in the austere system of John and 
the formal self-righteous one of Pharisaic 
Judaism : see on 6 16 . 

16. A piece of new cloth] lit. 'undressed 
cloth.' According to St. Luke the piece of 
new cloth is taken from the new garment 
of Christianity. It signifies the bright and 
joyous character of the religion of Christ, 
which cannot be successfully grafted upon the 
austere and joyless system of the Baptist. 

Takcth from the garment] i.e. parts, or 
separates itself from the garment. And the 
rent is made worse] RV ' a worse rent is made.' 

17. Old bottles] The most usual Eastern 
bottles are simply goat-skins drawn off the 
animal entire. The neck of the animal forms 
the neck of the bottle. Those used for wine 
are tanned with oak-bark and seasoned in 
smoke, which gives a flavour to the wine that 
is much appreciated. New wine is liable to a 
certain amount of after -fermentation, so that 
it cannot safely be stored in old bottles. Our 
Lord's saying about the old and the new 
bottles applies properly to the Baptist's teach- 
ing, but it may also be applied to Judaism in 
general. So taken, it means that the forms 
of Judaism are inadequate to express the 
spirit of Christianity, and that those who, like 
the Judaising Christians in the Acts, try to 
combine the Law with the Gospel and to en- 
force the Mosaic ritual, are trying to put new 
wine into old bottles. 

18-26. The raising of Jairus' daughter, and 
the healing of the woman with an issue of blood 
(Mk.")- 1 Lkxi"). The most important point 
,8 



9.18 



ST. MATTHEW 



9.27 



in the raising of Jairus' daughter is the reality 
of the death. This has been denied on account 
of our Lord's words, ' The maid is not dead, 
but sleepeth.' It is perfectly true that the 
mourners understood them in this sense, ' for 
they laughed him to scorn, knowing that she 
was dead ' (Lk), but inasmuch as the narra- 
tive comes from Peter himself, who was 
present, and is told as a miracle, it must be 
held that she was really dead, and. that Jesus 
spoke of her as sleeping, because He was about 
to wake her. He used the same words of 
Lazarus, and on that occasion explained them 
(Jnlin). 

Some who are able to credit the miracles of 
healing, find difficulties in crediting the miracles 
of resurrection. There is, however, no more 
real difficulty in believing the resurrection of 
Jairus' daughter than in believing that of Jesus 
Himself. The former illustrates the latter, 
and is rendered probable by it. It should be 
observed in this connexion, (1) That miracles 
of healing, important as they are as proofs of 
God's benevolence, are entirely inadequate to 
illustrate the cardinal doctrine of a future life 
(2) That Jesus Himself regarded raising the 
dead as part of His ordinary ministerial work 
(ll 5 Lk7 22 ), and, according to St. Matthew, 
delegated the power to the Apostles (10 8 ), in 
accordance with which St. Peter afterwards 
raised Tabitha (Ac9 40 ). 

Christ's three miracles of resurrection form 
a graduated series. In the case of Jairus' 
daughter the spirit had hardly fled. The 
widow's son (Lk7 12 ) had been dead longer, 
but not more than twenty-four hours. Lazarus 
(Jnll) had been dead four days, and decom- 
position had probably begun. Yet we are not 
to suppose that one miracle was more difficult 
than another to Him who is the Resurrection 
and the Life. 

The healing of the woman with the issue 
is an example of the way in which Jesus 
accepted imperfect faith in order to render it 
perfect. The woman was superstitious. She 
thought that a kind of magical virtue resided 
in our Lord's body, ready to flow out to heal 
without any act of will on His part, or any 
act of faith on hers. All that she had to 
do was to touch, and in doing so she was 
careful to touch (v. 20) that portion of 
His garment which to a Jew was holiest, viz. 
the tassel, which, in accordance withNul5 37 , 
every Jew was required to wear on the four 
corners of his cloak to remind him of Jehovah's 
commands. But since there was real faith 
mingled with her superstition, Jesus allowed 
her to be healed, only calling her back after- 
wards to make her faith perfect. By saying 
' Who touched me ? ' and insisting on a full 
confession, He made it clear to the woman and 
to others that He had healed her by His own 



deliberate act, and was fully aware of all the 
circumstances of the case. By saying ' Thy 
faith hath saved thee,' He reproved her super- 
stition. Not the touch, nor the holy tassel, 
nor the supposed magic virtue had healed her, 
but her faith. 

1 8. While he spake] According to this 
Gospel the ruler came to Jesus as He was 
sitting at meat with Matthew the publican. 
The other Gospels record the incident imme- 
diately after the return from the country of 
the Gadarenes (Gerasenes). 

Is even now dead] According to the fuller 
narrative of St. Mark and St. Luke, Jairus 
says that his daughter is at the point of death. 
Afterwards a messenger arrives announcing 
that she is dead. 

20. A woman] Eusebius (Church Historian, 
Bishop of Caesarea in the 4th cent, a.d.) says 
that she was a heathen, residing at Paneas 
(CaBsarea Philippi), near the sources of the 
Jordan. ' Her house is shown in the city, 
and the wonderful monuments of our 
Saviour's benefit to her are still remaining. 
At the gates of her house, on an elevated 
stone, stands a brazen statue of a woman on 
her bended knee, with her hands stretched 
out before her like one entreating. Opposite 
to this is another statue of a man, erect, of 
the same materials, decently clad in a mantle, 
and stretching out his hand to the woman. 
This statue they said was a likeness of Jesus 
Christ.' It may, however, have been a statue 
of iEsculapius, the god of healing, who was in 
great favour at the beginning of the Christian 
era. Touched the hem (BY ' border,' or, 
rather, ' tassel ') of His garment] see prefatory 
remarks on vv. 18-26. 

23. According to St. Mark and St. Luke 
only Peter, James, and John, and the parents 
witnessed the miracle. The minstrels] BY 
1 the flute-players.' The rabbis said, ' Even 
the poorest among the Israelites (his wife 
being dead) will afford her two flutes (i.e. two 
male flute-players to play at the funeral pro- 
cession), and one woman to make lamentation.' 
The multitude of hired mourners marks the 
wealth and position of Jairus. 25. St. Mark 
gives our Lord's actual Aramaic words, Talitha 
cumi, i.e. ' Maid, arise.' 26. St. Mark and St. 
Luke add that our Lord commanded the parents 
to be silent about the miracle. Some think 
that this was only a warning against religious 
gossip. More probably, since the house was 
surrounded by an excited crowd, His design was 
to prevent a tumult. 

27-31. Healing of two blind men in the 
house (peculiar to St. Matthew). Blindness, 
chiefly as the result of ophthalmia, is exceed- 
ingly common in the East, and several miracles 
of restoring sight to the blind are recorded in 
the Gospels : 12 22 20 30 2114 Jn 9. In this 



659 



9.30 



ST. MATTHEW 



10.2 



case Christ elicited a definite act of faith from 
the men before healing them. The act of 
touching their eyes was probably intended 
to aid their faith. Their addressing Him as 
Son of David need not imply that they 
believed Him to be the Messiah. 30. Straitly 
charged] i.e. sternly (see RV) charged them, 
because He foresaw that they would disobey : 
cp. 12 16 , etc. 

32-34. Healing- of a dumb man (Lk ll 14 ). 
This miracle is given by St. Luke in another 
connexion, and is there followed by a reply 
by Jesus to the criticisms of the Pharisees. 

32. A dumb man] The Grk. word may either 
mean deaf or dumb, or both. 33. It was 
never so seen] Their wonder was excited not 
merely by this miracle, but by a long series 
of miracles worked in succession, of which 
this was the last. 34. The prince of the devils] 
St. Luke ' by Beelzebub ' : see on 12 24 . 

35-38. Tours of Jesus in Galilee (peculiar to 
St. Matthew, but cp. Mk 6 6 . 34 Lkl0 2 ). The 
early tours of Jesus in Galilee enabled Him to 
gain a comprehensive view of the actual spirit- 
ual condition of the people. It was a very 
unfavourable one, yet He was not moved to 
anger, but to pity, for the fault was not in them, 
but in their guides. ' They were distressed 
and scattered as sheep not having a shepherd.' 
True they had the scribes and Pharisees, but 
these were no true shepherds, but blind leaders 
of the blind. Yet the situation was hopeful. 
The people had received Him gladly, and were 
eager to be taught. ' The harvest truly is 
plenteous, but the labourers are few.' What 
was wanted was more missionaries to assist 
Him in His work. Hence the mission of the 
Twelve. 

36. Cp. Mk6 34 . 37, 38. St. Luke intro- 
duces this saying in connexion with the mission 
of the Seventy (Lk 10 2). 

CHAPTER 10 

Mission of the Twelve 
1. Mission of the Twelve (Mk6 7 LkO 1 ). 
This mission was intended partly to prepare 
the way for visits from Jesus Himself, and 
partly to train the apostles for their future 
ministry. He sent them out ' two and two ' 
(Mk), for the sake of mutual encouragement. 
That is the true method of undertaking mission- 
ary work, as the experience of St. Paul shows. 
The apostles were to preach a little, but not 
much, since they were beginners. They were 
to prepare the way for Jesus, saying, 'The 
kingdom of heaven is at hand. 1 All accounts 
agree thai tliey WOW to work miracles on a 
great Bcale (*power over all the devils, 1 Lk ; 
•to heal every disease, and every infirmity,' 
Mt). They healed by anointing with oil (Mk) : 
cp. Jas5 14 . Their power extended even to 
cleansing the lepers ami raising the dead (Mt). 



This mission began about five weeks before the 
second Passover of the ministry (Jn6 4 ), and 
lasted about a month. Having dismissed the 
apostles, Jesus went up to Jerusalem to keep 
the feast of Jn5 2 , probably Purim, at the 
beginning of March. He then rejoined the 
Twelve shortly before Passover : see on Jn6*. 

2-4. The names of the Twelve (Mk3 13 
Lk6 12 Acl 13 ). At an early period in His 
Galilean ministry, Jesus selected Twelve from 
among the disciples already called (Mk, Lk), 
after spending a night in prayer in ' the moun- 
tain ' (Lk), as befitted so solemn and important 
an act. The ' Sermon on the Mount ' consti- 
tuted their ordination address (Lk). St. Mat- 
thew assumes these facts to be known, and 
introduces the Twelve abruptly, Now the 
names of the twelve apostles are these, without 
mentioning how they were called together. 
The chief significance of the appointment of 
the Twelve is that it indicates the design of 
Jesus to provide His society with an ordained 
ministry, and to give it a thoroughly efficient 
organisation to cope with its world-wide mission. 
The number twelve was suggested by the 
number of the Jewish patriarchs. The apostles 
were to be the patriarchs or spiritual ancestors 
of the new Israel. 

The names of the apostles are always given 
in three groups of four names, of which the 
leaders (Peter, Philip, James of Alphseus) are 
mentioned first in all the lists. The names 
are always kept in their own groups, but vary 
in order, except that the leader is always 
placed first. 

2. Apostles] An ' apostle ' (lit. ' one sent ') 
is more than a messenger ; he is a messenger 
who represents the person who sends him, an 
k ambassador ' (2 Cor 5 20 ). The name is here 
introduced because this mission was the first 
occasion on which the Twelve began to act as 
apostles or ambassadors of Jesus. The name, 
though specially applied to the Twelve, was 
extended to embrace St. Paul, St. Barnabas, 
and other apostolic men (Acl4 4 > 14 , etc.). 

Apostle is used without technical meaning 
Jnl3!6(RM) 2 Cor 8 23 (RM). The Jews had 
' apostles ' who were sent abroad from Jeru- 
salem to collect the Temple -money. The 
Greek Church calls missionaries 'apostles,' and 
the Nestorian ( christians applythe same term to 
the delegates of the Archbishopof Canterbury. 

Simon, who is called Peter] in Aramaic 
KepJuis (a 'rock' or 'stone'). He received 
the name at his first call (Jn 1 43 ). The career 
of Peter can be constructed from these refer- 
ences : Mt4is 8 14 1428 1515 ifiis HI'-' I7 1 17-' 
Igai 1927 •_>(;:«, 37, 58, 69 Lkx 1 '-"' 1 22 8 »« ] 24 w 
j n 1 a 668 136,24,36 1810,10 20 2 21 •-''• Ac 1 ^' v ' 
2" :',' 48 ;,:<.'"■.-■' km 9 82 10« ll 2 128 15" 
I ( ; or i is 382 9fi 155 Gal 1 18 27 i Pet 1 1 2Pet 1 ». 
11* had Mark for his ' interpreter ' (1 Pet 5 13 ). 



GG0 



10. 3 



ST. MATTHEW 



10. 13 



The tradition of his Roman residence and 
martyrdom, though highly probable, is not quite 
certain. He is first in all lists of the apostles. 
For his position in the Church, see on Mt 16 18 . 

Andrew] 418 Mkl^ 133 j nl 4i 68 1222. 

James the son of Zebedee] sometimes called 
'the great' : Mkl™ 3" 10 37 Lk5i 953 Ac 121. 
The first apostle to be martyred. 

John] 421 171 Mkl29 93S 1035 133 1433 
Lk228Jnl35 1323 1815 1926,35202 21? Aclia 
31 413 gi4 Gal 2 ^ Rev li. See Intro, to St. 
John. 

3. Philip] Jnl 44 65 1221 148. 
Bartholomew] i.e. Nathanael of Cana of 

Galilee : see Jnl 45 212. 

Thomas] see Jnll™ 14 5 20 24 212. There 
is a tradition that his real name was ' Judas.' 

Matthew the publican] see Intro, and on 
9 9 . St. Mark calls him ' Levi.' 

James the son of Alphaeus] lit. ' James of 
Alphaeus.' Called James 'the less,' or rather 
k the little,' Mkl5 40 . His mother was named 
Mary. He is not to be identified with James 
the Lord's ' brother,' who became head of the 
Church of Jerusalem, nor is his father Alphaeus 
with Clopas (Jnl9 2 5) 5 nor His mother Mary 
with the Virgin's sister (Jnl9 25 ) : see further 
on 12 4 <5-50 Jnl 9 25. 

Lebbaeus, whose surname was Thaddaeus] 
He is the same as the ' Judas of James ' 
(Lk6 16 ), and the ' Judas not Iscariot ' (Jn 14 22). 
Thaddaeus is perhaps a form of ' Theudas,' and 
is, therefore, Greek. Lebbaeus is Aramaic, but 
its meaning is unknown. Some regard it is a 
form of ' Levi.' 

Although Westcott and Hort reject Lebbaeus 
from the text of this passage, it is supported 
by excellent authorities, and it is hard to 
account for its insertion, if it is not genuine. 

4. Simon the Canaanite] RY ' the Cananaean,' 
RM ' the zealot.' ' The Zealots were a sect 
founded by Judas of Gamala (or of Galilee, 
Ac 5 37), who headed the opposition to the 
census of Quirinius 6 or 7 a.d. They bitterly 
resented the domination of Rome, and would 
fain have hastened with the sword the fulfil- 
ment of the Messianic hope. During the great 
rebellion and the siege of Jerusalem their 
fanaticism made them terrible opponents, not 
only to the Romans, but to other factions 
among their own countrymen ' (HDB.). 

Judas Iscariot] Both Judas and his father 
Simon were called Iscariot, lit. ' man of 
Kerioth,' because they were natives of Kerioth, 
a village of S. Judah, near Hebron (Jnl5 25 ). 
He was the only Judaean apostle : see 26 i 4 >25,47 
273 Lk223 Jn6?i 12* 132.26,29 182 Ac l^. 25. 

5-42. Charge to the Twelve (Mk6 7 Lk9* : 
cp. also LklO 2 , charge to the Seventy). The 
first eleven vv. of this great charge (vv. 5-15) 
represent Christ's words actually spoken to 
the Twelve on the occasion of this mission. 



The rest of the charge (vv. 16-42), with the 
exception of the last three vv., represents 
instructions given by Christ at other times to 
His apostles with reference to their missionary 
work after His ascension. St. Matthew adds 
them to the charge in accordance with his 
custom of grouping our Lord's sayings of a 
similar character together. Specially to be 
noticed are, (1) the limitation of the mission to 
Israel, and (2) the extraordinary authority 
over the whole human race which Christ claims 
for Himself throughout the charge. 

The charge to the Seventy (LklO 2 ) is al- 
most the same as the charge to the Twelve. 
Our Lord probably repeated to the Seventy 
much of what He had said to the Twelve, be- 
cause their missions were so similar. 

5-15. The charge delivered on the occasion 
of the mission. 

5. Way of the Gentiles] i.e. a road which 
leads to a Gentile district or city. The restric- 
tion to the Jews was part of the divine purpose 
that the gospel should be offered to the Jew 
first, and afterwards to the Gentile. It was 
also a condescension to the inexperience of the 
apostles, who would find their work easier 
among Jews than among hostile Samaritans or 
contemptuous Greeks. Only when their train- 
ing was complete could they hope to face a 
hostile world with success. On account of the 
ease of their mission, and their certainty of a 
warm welcome, they were to take no money or 
food, or any staff to defend themselves with 
(vv. 9,10). Yet if they were accustomed to use 
a staff they might take one (Mk). Afterwards, 
when Christ spoke of their future mission to an 
unbelieving and a hostile world, He said exactly 
the opposite (Lk 2236). 

7. They were also to preach 'that men 
should repent ' (Mk). 8. Raise the dead] to be 
taken literally. The clause is accepted by all 
recent editors. It is omitted by a few MSS, 
perhaps because there is no mention of raising 
the dead on this occasion. For the fulfilment 
see Ac 9 40 20 10 . Freely ye have received the 
gift of working miracles, freely exercise it. 

9. Purses] i.e. ' girdles,' in which money was 
carried. 10. Scrip] RV ' wallet,' i.e. provision- 
basket. Two coats] i.e. two shirts or under- 
garments. Shoes] were forbidden as too luxu- 
rious. The apostles were to wear only sandals. 
' Shoes,' said Lightfoot, ' were of more delicate 
use. A shoe was of softer leather, a sandal of 
harder.' The workman is worthy of his meat] 
or, ' of his hire ' (Lk). Our Lord lays great stress 
on the principle that the clergy are to be sup- 
ported by the Church, and not to be obliged to 
work at a secular calling : see 1 Cor 9 u 1 Tim 
517,18. 

11. Worthy] of the honour of receiving 
you. 12. Salute it] i.e. by saying 'Peace be 
to this house.' 13. If the house be worthy] 



661 



10. 14 



ST. MATTHEW 



10.23 



or, as St. Luke expresses it, ' if the owner be 
a son of peace,' i.e. a peaceful man, worthy of 
the blessing. 14. Shake off the dust] The 
rabbis taught that the dust of heathen lands 
defiled. They said. ' The dust of Syria defiles, 
as well as the dust of other heathen countries.' 
The act of the apostles, therefore, signified 
that the city that rejected them was no better 
than heathen : see on Acl3 51 . 15. Why was 
the sin of Sodom less ? Because the men 
of Sodom sinned largely in ignorance, but 
rejecters of the gospel sin against light. 

16-39. Later charges of Jesus, referring to 
work after the Ascension. Vv. 16-22 were 
probably spoken in Holy Week : see Mkl3 9 
Lk21i2. 

16. As sheep (Lk 'lambs') in the midst of 
wolves] This can only refer to the later per- 
secutions of the apostles. According to a very 
early writer, Peter proceeded to ask, ' What, 
then, if the wolves rend the sheep ? ' Jesus 
replied that after death the lambs need not 
fear the wolves, for the wolves have no power 
to slay the soul. Wise as serpents, and harm- 
less as doves] cp. a saying of the rabbis, ' The 
holy and blessed God said to the Israelites, 
Towards Me the Israelites are uncorrupt like 
the doves, but towards the Gentiles they are 
as cunning as serpents.' Jesus meant that the 
apostles were to use every human device to 
protect themselves from persecution, as St. 
Paul did when he pleaded his Roman citizen- 
ship. 

17. But beware of men] better, ' beware of 
the men,' viz. those wolves of whom I have 
been speaking. Councils] i.e. courts of justice 
generally. Scourge you in their synagogues] 
A synagogue was also a court of justice in 
which three Jewish elders sat to judge both 
secular and religious cases. ' Scourging,' said 
the rabbis, ' was by the bench of three ' : cp. 
Ac 22 19 2Gii 2 Cor 11 24. Wetstein quotes an 
interesting account of a modern Jewish scourg- 
ing. It was done publicly in the synagogue in 
the presence of a large congregation of men 
and women. The man was bared to the waist. 
The porter tied his hands to a pillar. Then 
the ' precentor ' approached, and scourged him 
with thirty-nine strokes, a Psalm being sung 
during the ordeal. 

18. Before governors and kings] 'Governors' 
were the Roman governors of the provinces, 
viz. propnetors. proconsuls, and procurators : 
cp. Paul before Felis and Festus (Ac 21 ' 25 s ). 
• Kinds' were, ( I ) the emperor, who was gener- 
ally so called in the Mast ; (2) subject kings, 
tetrarchs, and etbnarchs, such as the Herods 
and Aretas ; (.">) independent kings, as of the 
Parthians. Arabians, and Indians. 

For a testimony against them] RV 'to tin in.' 
i.e. to the Jews. The meaning is. that when 
the Jews should deliver up the apostles to 



governors and kings, the speeches of the 
apostles in their own defence would be a 
powerful testimony of the truth of Christianity 
both to Jews and Gentiles. This really hap- 
pened. The persecutions greatly contributed 
to spread the gospel, partly by the publicity 
which they gave to it. and partly through the 
inspired testimony which the martyrs gave to 
Christ. When the aged Poly carp (160 a.d.) was 
brought before the Proconsul in the amphi- 
theatre of Smyrna and urged to revile Christ. 
' he looked with a grave face at all the multitude 
of lawless heathen in the arena . . and said, 
Eighty and six years have I served Him, and 
in nothing hath He wronged me ; and how then 
can I blaspheme my King that saved me ? ' 

19, 20. Cp. Lkl2 n > 12 in addition. 

19. Take no thought] RV 'be not anxious.' 

It shall be given you] cp. the courage of 
Peter and John (Ac4 i3 ) before the Sanhedrin. 

21. The brother shall deliver up, etc.] 
Actual examples of Christians being delivered 
up by their nearest relatives are found in the 
Martyrologies, but the saying is to be taken 
more generally to refer to the rupture of all 
ties of kindred and affection on account of the 



22. Hated of all men] cp. Tacitus the 
Roman historian : ' (Nero) inflicted the most 
cruel punishments upon a sect of people who 
were holden in abhorrence for their crimes, 
and called by the vulgar " Christians." The 
founder of that name was Christ, who suffered 
death in the reign of Tiberius, under his pro- 
curator Pontius Pilate. . . This pernicious 
superstition, thus checked for a while, broke 
out again ; and spread not only over Judaea 
where the evil originated, but through Rome 
also, whither everything bad upon earth finds 
its way and is practised. . . A vast multitude 
were apprehended who were convicted, not so 
much of the crime of burning Rome, as of 
hatred to mankind. . . They were criminals. 
deserving the severest punishments ' : cp. also 
Ac7 54 . To the end] viz. of the trials and 
persecutions. 

23. Flee ye into another] The apostles are 
forbidden to court martyrdom, and the wisest 
leaders of the later Church, e.g. Polycarp and 
Cyprian, gave the same advice. It was often 
found that those who rushed eagerly forward 
to claim martyrdom contrary to our Lord's 
command, were denied the grace to attain the 
martyr's crown. 'Flee ye into another '(RV 
'the next'), 'for owing to the time wasted in 
going from city to city to avoid persecution, 
ye shall not have gone over the cities of Israel, 
till the Son of man be come, and the Jewish 
nation and dispensation destroyed.' The mean- 
ing, as interpreted in the light of events, is 
that until the destruction of Jerusalem the 
Twelve were to confine themselves mainly to 



662 



10. 24 



ST. MATTHEW 



10. 42 



evangelising the Jews, a task which would 
even then be incomplete, owing to the hin- 
drances which would arise. 

Our Lord here referred to His coming to 
destroy Jerusalem. The apostles understood 
Him to refer to His final coming. This ac- 
counts for the general expectation of the early 
Christians that the end of the world would 
come in the lifetime of the first believers (1 Th 
4 15 ): see on Mt24 Mklo 32 . 

24. The disciple, etc.] A favourite saying 
of Jesus used in several different connexions. 
Here it means that the apostles are not to 
expect better treatment than their Master. In 
Lk6 40 it means that the disciples of blind 
spiritual guides are as blind as their teachers. 
In Jnl3 1(5 it means that since Jesus washes 
other men's feet, the disciples must do so too. 
In Jnl5 20 it means, as in St. Matthew, that 
the apostles are to expect the same perse- 
cutions which have befallen their Master. 

25. Beelzebub] cp. 1 2 24 J n 8 ^> 52 . The true 
form here is Beelzeboul, which is altered from 
Baalzebub (2 K 1 2 ). ' Baalzebub ' means ' Lord 
of flies,' and appears in OT. as a god of Ekron 
who gave oracles. ' Beelzeboul ' in NT. is 
the devil. The NT. form perhaps means 
k master of the house ' (of the demons). J. 
Lightf oot regards it as meaning ' lord of dung ' : 
see on 12 22f . 

26-33. These vv. are found in quite another 
connexion in Lk 1 2 2 " 9 . 

26. Fear them not therefore] for the whole 
effect of their persecutions will be to publish 
abroad the gospel, which but for their action 
would have remained obscure : cp. Mk4 22 
L k8i7 12 2 >3. 

27. What I tell you in darkness] A pro- 
phecy that the labours of the apostles will be 
more successful than those of Jesus Himself. 
He taught with indifferent success in the ob- 
scurity of an insignificant and remote province. 
They will teach successfully in the publicity 
of the great cities of the empire, Antioch, 
Ephesus, Corinth, Alexandria, Rome. What 
ye hear in the ear] In the Jewish schools the 
rabbi sat in his chair, and whispered in Hebrew 
into the ear of his interpreter, who then pro- 
claimed aloud in the vulgar tongue what the 
rabbi had said. So the apostles were to pro- 
claim to the wide world what Christ had 
whispered to them in the retirement of Gali- 
lee. Upon the housetops] Proclamations are 
still made in the East from the flat roofs of 
houses. E.g. the sabbath is proclaimed by the 
1 attendant ' of the synagogue, who ascends to 
a lofty housetop, and blows there three times 
with the synagogue-trumpet. 

28. Him which is able] i.e. God, not, as some 
strangely take it, the devil. In hell] i.e. 
Gehenna, the place of final punishment : see 
522. 



29. Sparrows] At the present day, in the 
markets of Jerusalem and Jaffa, long strings 
of little birds, sparrows and larks, are offered 
for sale, trussed on wooden skewers. Farthing] 
(Lat. assarius) i.e. about a farthing and a third. 

32, 33. The sense is that in the day of 
judgment men's fate will depend upon their 
attitude to Christ, and upon Christ's attitude 
to them, another proof of Christ's divinity. 

34-36. These vv. occur in a somewhat dif- 
ferent form and in a different connexion, 
Lkl2 51 " 53 . 

34. Think not, etc.] Christ could not expect 
that His claim to absolute dominion over the 
soul of man and all human institutions, would 
be accepted without a bitter struggle. But 
knowing such a struggle to be necessary for the 
establishment of peace with God and of per- 
manent peace on earth, He deliberately willed 
it. ' The sword ' stands for persecution, and for 
all kinds of social and domestic dissensions. 

37. He that loveth father, etc.] This explains 
the stronger expression in Lkl4 26 about 
' hating ' father and mother. Observe here, 
again, the tremendous stress upon personal 
loyalty to Christ. 38. Taketh not his cross] i.e. 
he that is not willing to follow Me to martyr- 
dom is not worthy of Me. The ' cross ' stands 
here, not for trouble in general (though this 
is included), but for actual crucifixion, the 
most painful and degrading form of martyr- 
dom. The condemned criminal was forced to 
' take ' or carry his cross to the place of execu- 
tion. Christ here indicates that He knew 
beforehand not only the fact of His death, 
but its manner. 39. Cp. Lkl7 33 , where the 
context is different. He that findeth his 
life] i.e. saves his life in time of persecution 
by denying Me, shall lose it in the next world. 
He that loseth his life, i.e. by martyrdom, for 
my sake shall find it in the next world, i.e. 
shall enjoy immortal life. The passage may 
also be applied to self-denial in general, by 
which man loses his life of self-centred world- 
liness, to find it again enlarged and purified. 

40-42. These vv. form the conclusion of 
the charge to the Twelve, and are not to 
be referred to a later date. In St. Luke the 
substance of them forms the conclusion of the 
charge to the Seventy. 

40. Cp. LklO 16 . He that receiveth you] 
Those who receive Christ's representatives, 
the apostles, and after them His ministers 
(i.e. those who believe their message spoken 
in His name), receive Him, and with Him His 
Father. 41. He that receiveth a prophet, etc.] 
The meaning is that those who receive the 
apostles, because they recognise them to be 
prophets and righteous men and disciples, will 
receive the same reward as they, eternal life. 

In the name of a prophet] i.e. simply because 
he is a prophet (a Hebraism). 42. These little 



663 



11. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



11. 12 



ones] a tender name for the apostles them- 
selves. Even those who only help on their 
mission by offering them a cup of cold water 
as they journey, will be rewarded : cp. Mk 
9 41 . Some think that 'little ones' was a 
standing title for pupils of the rabbis, but 
clear proof is wanting. 

CHAPTER 11 
The Disciples of the Baptist 

i. Tours of Jesus after dismissing His 
apostles. The apostles started on their mis- 
sion about five weeks before the second Pass- 
over of the ministry (28 a.d.) and were away 
about a month. Jesus spent the interval partly 
in Galilee and partly in Jerusalem, whither he 
went to keep the Feast of Purim at the be- 
ginning of March (Jn5i). He rejoined the 
Twelve shortly before the Passover (Jn6 4 ), 
and immediately afterwards fed the five thou- 
sand (Mk 6 30 Lk 9 10). St. Matthew does not 
mention the return of the Twelve, nor does 
he adhere to the chronological order of 
events. 

2-6. Deputation from the Baptist (Lk 7 1 8 ). 
John, knowing that his end was near, and that 
many of his disciples were jealous of the success 
of the new teacher, and disbelieved His claims, 
sent certain of them to Jesus, that by seeing 
His works and hearing His words they might 
be convinced of His Messiahship. The objec- 
tions which the disciples of John brought 
against Jesus (besides the want of strictness 
in His life), were (1) that He did not openly 
proclaim Himself the Messiah, (2) that He 
did not work the mighty signs and wonders 
which were generally expected of the Messiah. 
The importance of the occasion, and the ob- 
vious sincerity of the enquirers, induced Jesus 
to depart somewhat from His ordinary policy 
of reticence. By a reference to IsaG 1 , He 
declared plainly enough, and yet not too 
plainly, that He was the Messiah, He worked 
a number of miracles in their presence in 
proof of His Messianic claims (Lk7 2i ), and 
finally sent them back to John with a message 
in which He expressly mentioned His miracles, 
and promised a blessing to those who should 
attach themselves to Him. The spectacle of 
Christ's miracles mual have been particularly 
impressive to the disciples of John, who 
worked do miracles (Jn 10 41 ). 

It is very generally bold by recent writers 
thai John himself*, as well as his disciples, was 
doubtful about our Lord's Messiahship. 'Phis 
is not impossible. The ideals of Jesus di- 
verged so widely from those of John, that the 

Baptist, bearing of them only by report, would 
have a difficulty in understanding them. We 
must allow, moreover, for the depressing effeel 
of a Long and rigorous imprisonment. On the 

other hand, it must be remembered that the 



NT. always represents not John himself, but 
his disciples, as doubtful about the claims of 
Jesus, and that Jesus makes this deputation 
the occasion of one of the strongest eulogies 
upon John that the NT. contains. 

2. Sent two of his disciples] RV ' sent by 
his disciples.' Only St. Luke gives the number. 

5. See Isa61i and 35 5 . The dead are 
raised up] This implies a larger number of 
such miracles than the three mentioned in the 
Gospels. St. Luke appropriately places the 
deputation immediately after the raising of 
the widow's son. The poor have the gospel, 
etc.] Some translate this ' the poor preach,' 
as if Christ alluded to the poverty of the 
apostles. 6. Blessed is he who, in spite of 
all hindrances, shall find himself able to believe 
in me as the Messiah. 

7-19. The praise of John the Baptist (Lk 
7 24 ). Lest the purpose of the question of John, 
' Art thou he that should come ? ' should be 
misunderstood, Jesus hastens to assure the 
people that John is no reed shaken by the wind, 
who does not know his own mind, but a 
prophet, and more than a prophet. He then 
deplores the blindness of ' this generation,' 
i.e. the party of the scribes and Pharisees, 
who can discern the greatness neither of John 
nor of Himself. 8. John was no sycophant 
or flatterer, making friends with the great 
and wealthy for the sake of sharing their 
luxury and ostentation. 9. RV ' But where- 
fore went ye out ? To see a prophet ?' More 
than a prophet] John was more than a prophet, 
(1) because of his personal relation to Jesus 
as His Forerunner ; (2) because he actually 
pointed out and baptised Jesus ; (3) because 
his teaching was a nearer approach to the 
teaching of Jesus than that of any of the 
prophets. 

10. Before thy face] In the original of 
Mai 31, from which these words are taken, 
Jehovah Himself speaks of His own coming, 
' Behold, 1 will send my messenger, and he 
shall prepare the way before me. 1 All the 
evangelists change this into an address of 
Jehovah to the Messiah, ' shall prepare thy 
way before thee 1 (Mkl2 Lkl™, 7 27 ), which 
shows that they borrowed it not directly from 
Malachi, but from some common source in 
which the change or paraphrase had already 
been made, 

11. He that is least] Jesus means that 
the meanest and least endowed Christian is 
greater in privilege than the greatest men of 
the Old Dispensation. The Baptist, though 
so near the kingdom, was not within it. 

12. 13. St. Luke introduces these vv. in a 
quite different connexion: see Lkl61 6 (a 
rebuke to the Pharisees). 12. From the days 
of John] Jesus gives .John the credit for the 
multitudes of repentant sinners who are now 



664 



11. IB 



ST. MATTHEW 



11. n 



crowding into the kingdom, and in their eager- 
ness to enter may be compared to soldiers 
attempting to storm a town. 13. The pre- 
paratory dispensation of the Law and the 
Prophets lasted till John. John first an- 
nounced the kingdom as something present. 

14. Jesus states, as again in 17 12 (cp. Lk 1 17 ), 
that John was the Elijah whom the Jews 
expected in accordance with Mal4 5 . He 
hints that they may be unwilling to believe it, 
partly because of the position in which John 
now is, but more particularly because they 
expected a personal return of Elijah himself, 
and not another prophet with similar authority : 
see on 17 10 . 

15. He that hath ears] A frequent observa- 
tion of Jesus, indicating that only those 
whose hearts are prepared can receive spiritual 
truth (139 Lk88 Rev2<, etc.). 

16-18. Jesus rebukes 'this generation,' i.e. 
the Pharisees and scribes (see Lk), who are 
pleased with neither John nor Himself, by com- 
paring them to children in the streets playing 
at weddings and funerals, and falling out over 
their play. Like the children the Pharisees 
are only playing — playing at religion with 
empty ceremonies which no earnest man can 
take seriously. Like the children they are 
also peevish and irritable, unable to agree 
as to what they really do want from a re- 
ligious leader. The asceticism of John, which 
corresponds to the wailing in the game, did 
not please them, nor does the joyous, full, 
human life of Jesus, which corresponds to 
the piping for the dance. Since they are not 
in earnest themselves, nothing that is really 
earnest can please them. 

19. But wisdom is (or, ' was ') justified of her 
children] i.e. the superiority of the religion of 
the Baptist and of Jesus is proved by the lives 
of their disciples, which show more signs of 
genuine piety than those of the Pharisees. 
1 Wisdom ' is here the religion of John and 
of Christ. ' Her children ' are their disciples, 
who have been mentioned (v. 12) as crowding 
into the Kingdom of Heaven, while the 
Pharisees remained outside. (See Lk.) RV 
reads, ' Wisdom is justified by her works,' but 
the meaning is the same. ' Her works ' are 
the holy lives of Christ's and John's disciples. 

20-24. The woes upon Chorazin, Bethsaida, 
and Capernaum (LklO 12 ; cp. MtlO 15 ). These 
were the cities in which ' most of His mighty 
works were done,' and yet nothing is said in 
the G-ospels of any ministry at Chorazin, 
and of Bethsaida we only know that the five 
thousand were fed there. Chorazin lay 4 m. 
NE. of Capernaum, inland, but not far from 
the lake. There are said to have been two 
Bethsaidas, one E. of Jordan near the head 
of the lake, where the five thousand were 
fed, generally called Bethsaida Julias, the 



other near Capernaum, W. of the lake. The 
latter is mentioned Mk6 45 (cp. Jn 6 17 ), and 
probably in Jn 1 ^ 1221. 

23. And thou, Capernaum] Jesus adapts to 
Capernaum the prophecy of Isaiah (Isa 14 13 ) 
upon Babylon and its king. Shalt be brought 
down to hell] (lit. ' Hades '). In themselves 
the words might simply mean that Capernaum 
shall cease to be a city and become desolate, 
as it is at present ; but the context suggests 
that the condemnation of its unbelieving in- 
habitants in the Day of Judgment is also 
alluded to. 24. See on 10 15 . 

2 5-3°- Christ's relation to the Father and 
to mankind (LklO 21 ). A sublime utterance, 
this ' pearl of the sayings of Jesus ' (Keim), 
' one of the purest and most genuine,' 'one of 
Johannean splendour ' (Meyer), ' an aerolite 
from the Johannean heaven' (Hase). As a 
rule in the synoptists the relation of Jesus to 
mankind is the theme of the discourses, but 
here the divine Sonship of Jesus is affirmed 
in terms which cover the whole doctrine of 
the Fourth Gospel. ' This passage,' says 
Prof. Sanday, ' is one of the best authen- 
ticated in the Synoptic G-ospels. It is . . part 
of that " collection of discourses," in all prob- 
ability the composition of the apostle St. 
Matthew, which many critics believe to be the 
oldest of all the Evangelical documents. And 
yet once grant the authenticity of this passage, 
and there is nothing in the Johannean 
Christology that it does not cover. Even the 
doctrine of pre existence seems to be implicitly 
contained in it.' 

25. At that time] Since St. Luke connects 
this utterance with the return of the Seventy, 
which he alone records, it is probable that 
St. Matthew intends to connect it with the 
return of the Twelve, which, however, he does 
not mention. Yet he implies it, for at the 
beginning of the next c. the Twelve are again 
introduced. 

Hast hid (RV ' didst hide ') these things] 
Jesus thanks God that the simple gospel 
which the Twelve have preached has been un- 
derstood and gladly received by the simple and 
unlearned people (babes) of the villages and 
towns through which they had passed, but has 
been misunderstood and rejected by the ' wise 
and prudent ' (R V ' wise and understanding '), 
i.e. by the scribes and Pharisees who think 
themselves such. Jesus is glad that the scribes 
and Pharisees have not declared themselves 
disciples. He does not wish to enrol them 
among His followers until they have given up 
their arrogance, and become as babes. 

27. All things are (or ' were,' or ' have 
been ') delivered unto me of my Father] 
Having just called the Father ' Lord of heaven 
and earth' (v. 25), He now declares that the 
same authority belongs to Himself, because 



665 



11. 28 



ST. MATTHEW 



12.3 



all created things have been committed to Him 
by God. This supreme authority over the 
universe which was committed to Him at the 
creation, was exercised by Him in some degree 
even during the humiliation of His life on earth 
(Jn3 35 13 3 17 2 ), and was fully restored at His 
resurrection (28 1S ) with all the glory pertaining 
to it. Such power could not be committed to 
a creature, and the possession of it by Christ 
can only be explained by assuming that He is, as 
the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles represent 
Him as being, the creator and sustainer of the 
universe. 

No man (RV ' no one ') knoweth the 
Son, but (RV ' save ') the Father] lit. ; fully 
knoweth.' Men can know other men, but only 
God Himself can know Jesus. ; None but the 
Almighty Father has full, entire possession of 
the mystery of the Person and Office of the 
Son : it is a depth hidden from all being but 
His, whose purposes are evolved in and by it ' 
(Alford). 

Harnack in his ' What is Christianity ? ' says : 
' Here two observations are to be made : Jesus 
is convinced that he knows God in a way in 
which no one ever knew Him before, and he 
knows that it is his vocation to communicate 
this knowledge of God to others by word 
and by deed — and with it the knowledge that 
men are God's children.' 

Neither (fully) knoweth any man (RV 
' any one ') the Father, save the Son] Not 
only does Jesus alone fully know the Father, 
but He alone can reveal Him : cp. Jn 1 18 
6 46 10 15 . 

28-30. Jesus invites to Himself all who 
feel the burden of sin, and who find their 
lives and even their religion a toil to them. 
He will release them from the yoke of mechan- 
ical religion, make them humble and meek 
like Himself, and give them pardon and 
peace. 

28. Come unto me] He does not say ' unto 
God,' but l unto Me,' making Himself the dis- 
penser of grace and the centre of Christian 
devotion. That labour] that find life a toil 
to them. Are heavy laden] with the burden 
of sin. from which they can find no relief in 
the unspiritua] and burdensome ordinances of 
Judaism and Pharisaism: cp. Acl3 3!) Ro3- 8 8 4 
Heb7 10 . I will give you rest] Again not ' God,' 
but 'I' will give yon pest — rest in this world 
and in the next— resl that comes from peace 
with G-od and pardon for sin. which I am 
empowered fco give ('.*")• 

29. Take my yoke upon you] My yoke 
docs not consist of a multitude of burdensome 
ordinances like thai of the Law and of the 
Pharisees. It can hardly be called a yoke 

,,t all. it 1- BO Light. True there are Certain 

ordinances which every < 'hnstian must observe, 
hut they are few and simple. The essence of 



My religion is that men should be humble, and 
meek and loving and tender-hearted as I am, 
not hard and proud like the Pharisees. Prac- 
tise these things, and you will find your lives 
easy, your religion a joy, and your souls at 
rest. 

The ' Yoke of the Law ' was a common phrase 
among the rabbis to express the burdensome 
nature of its ordinances: cp. Acl5 10 . ' Why 
tempt ye God, that ye should put a yoke upon 
the neck of the disciples, which neither our 
fathers nor we were able to bear ? ' 

I am meek] Jesus says this while making 
Himself the object of the religious devotion of 
the whole human race. Obviously, therefore, 
His claim to be meek and lowly can only be 
justified, if He be truly divine. 

CHAPTER 12 
Plucking Cokn on the Sabbath. Blas- 
phemy AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST 

1-8. Plucking the corn on the sabbath (Mk 
2 23 Lk6 x ). This c. begins the period of active 
conflict with the Pharisees. It is characteristic 
of the pedantry of the Pharisees that their 
opposition turned more upon minute points of 
legal observance than upon broad principles. 
The Fourth Gospel agrees with the synoptists 
in making the sabbath controversy of leading 
importance in the development of hostility to 
Christ ( Jn 5 9 7 22 9 14 ). St. Matthew's account 
of this incident is the fullest. 

1. At that time] RV ' season.' This is one of 
the few events that can be accurately dated. 
The corn is in the ear, but not yet quite ripe 
for reaping. The time is therefore about May 
(perhaps April), and St. Matthew is therefore 
correct in placing the event soon after the 
return of the Twelve at Passover-time : see 
on ll 1 ' 2 5. But there is no attempt at strict 
chronological order ; e.g. all the synoptists 
place this event before the feeding of the five 
thousand, which really preceded it. On the 
sabbath day] Lk l on the second sabbath after 
the first ' : see on LkG 1 . Were an hungered] 
Why ? Some think they had been engaged 
with Jesus in some arduous spiritual labours. 
More probably they were coming home from 
a long synagogue service tired and hungry. 
Jewish custom allowed no food whatever to 
be eaten on the sabbath (except by the sick) 
until after morning service. 2. That which is 
not lawful] Maimonides says: ' He that reaps on 
the sabbath, though never so little, is guilty. 
And to pluck the ears of corn is a kind of 
leaping.' 

3. Have ye not read] Jesus might have 
defended His disciples on purely technical 
grounds, maintaining thai they had broken not 
the Law, hut the interpretation which certain 
rabbis placed upon it. But instead of this. 
He laid down the principle that even the Divine 



666 



12. 



ST. MATTHEW 



12. 522 



Law itself, so far as it is purely ceremonial, is 
subservient to human needs, and can be broken 
without sin, for adequate cause. He took first 
the case of David, who together with his com- 
panions ate the shewbread. David's act, which 
was sanctioned by the high priest, who at the 
time was the authorised interpreter of the Law, 
involved three distinct breaches of the divine 
Law, (1) the entering into the holy place, (2) 
the eating of the shewbread, (3) the breach of 
the sabbath, for such the day seems to have 
been. 

Our Lord's statement of the case shows 
careful study of the OT. narrative (1S21 1 ) : 
e.g. it is not said in the OT. that David entered 
into the tabernacle, but it is inferred from 
v. 7, where he is seen by Doeg, who was 
' detained before the Lord.' It is not said 
that David's attendants ate the shewbread, 
but it is inferred from v. 5. Nor is it said 
that the day was the sabbath. This is inferred 
from it being the day for the changing of the 
loaves (v. 6), which was the sabbath (Lv24 8 ). 
As to the name of the high priest at this time 
(a well-known difficulty), see on Mk2 26 . 

5. Or have ye not read ?] see Nu 28 9 . They 
had read it, but not understood the principle 
which it implied. Our Lord alluded to a 
recognised Jewish practice. The rabbis said, 
' There is no keeping of the sabbath in the 
temple.' ' The servile work which is done in 
the holy things is not servile.' 6. One greater 
than the temple] lit. 'a greater thing.' He 
means Himself. If the servants of the Temple, 
doing the Temple's work, may break the 
sabbath, much more may the servants of Christ, 
who is greater and holier than the Temple. 

7. I will have mercy] Hos6 6 , quoted also 
Mt9 13 . Here the meaning is that G-od is 
satisfied if men keep the sabbath in the right 
spirit, i.e. as a day of holy rest. He does not 
demand obedience to an irksome code of sab- 
bath observance. ' The sabbath was made for 
man, not man for the sabbath ' (Mk 2 27). 8. The 
authority of the Son of man (the Messiah) 
extends to the abrogation of the whole Law, 
and therefore of the Law of the sabbath. 
Observe that Jesus rests the final vindication 
of His disciples upon His own inherent 
authority, which extends to the abrogation 
even of the divine Law : cp. 5 21 9 6 . 

Some understand the ' son of man ' here to 
be not Jesus, but a personification of the 
human race, so that the meaning is, ' The 
human race may adapt the sabbath day to its 
needs.' This sense would suit the context, 
but it lacks authority, there being no clear and 
unambiguous passage where the phrase ' the 
son of man ' means anything but our Lord. 

9-21. Another sabbath controversy. The 
man with the withered hand (Mk 3 1 Lk 6 6). The 
sequence is the same in all the evangelists. 



St. Luke mentions that this took place on 
another sabbath. 

10. A man] In the so-called Gospel of the 
Hebrews (65-100 a.d.) the man with the 
withered hand is described as a mason, who 
begged help from Jesus, saying, ' I was a 
mason earning my living with my hands. I 
pray Thee, Jesus, restore me my health, that 
I may not disgracefully beg my bread.' 

Is it lawful] Only malice could call healing 
by a word, without labour or medicine, a 
breach of the sabbath. Even the use of 
medical assistance was not forbidden in all 
cases on the sabbath. The rabbis said, ' All 
danger of life or limb abrogates the sabbath,' 
and this was interpreted to mean even possible 
danger. 11. If it fall into a pit] The schools 
of Hillel and Shammai differed on this point, 
but it is clear from our Lord's way of referring 
to the practice that it was generally allowed. 

12. How much then] a striking saying on 
the value of human life and health. The 
literal meaning does not exclude the more 
spiritual interpretation that a man is of more 
value than a sheep as possessing an immortal 
soul. 

14. Held a council] RY ' took counsel.' 
St. Mark adds, ' with the Herodians.' 

15-17. Cp. Mk3 7 - 12 , where a fuller account 
is given. St. Mark mentions that the multi- 
tudes came from Idumaea, and from beyond 
Jordan, and from Tyre and Sidon. This 
explains the references to the Gentiles (vv. 
18, 21), who were probably among those who 
were healed. 16. Charged them] In St. Mark 
He charges the unclean spirits. The design 
of Jesus was to repress the dangerous popular 
enthusiasm which might lead to an outbreak. 

17. Esaias] i.e. Isaiah. The quotation is 
from Isa42 1 " 4 . It is a free translation from 
the Heb., with occasional correspondences 
with the LXX. It curiously omits the words, 
' He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till He 
have set judgment in the earth,' which would 
have been very applicable to our Lord in con- 
nexion with the discouragements which had 
just begun. 18. My servant] i.e. ' the Messiah.' 
Jesus is so called frequently in the Acts 
(Ac3 13 > 2 6RV, 4 27, so RY), also in the 'Didache.' 
He is hardly ever so called in later writings. 

19. He shall not court popularity. 

20. The bruised reed and the smoking flax 
(or, rather, ' dimly burning wick ') in this 
connexion are the persons weak in body whom 
Jesus healed, and those weak in faith, whose 
faith He strengthened. The idea is that Jesus 
is tender and loving, not harsh, towards human 
weakness. Judgment is here the Christian 
religion. 

22-37. The Pharisees accuse Jesus of being 
in league with Beelzebub (Mk3 2 2 ; C p. Lk 
1117-23 Mt 9 32-34). The ridiculous charge of 



667 



12. 23 



ST. MATTHEW 



12. 32 



the Pharisees is strong evidence of the genuine- 
ness of Christ's miracles. They would have 
denied them if they could (see Jn9 18 ), but 
this was impossible, so numerous and notorious 
were they. So they started the flimsy theory 
that Christ was in league with the devil, not 
really believing it, but out of malice. 

The later Jews said that Jesus learnt how 
to work His miracles from an Egyptian juggler, 
and the heathen Celsus (170 a.d.) repeated 
their calumny with some improvements of his 
own. The Jewish Talmudists said, l The son 
of the adulteress ' (i.e. of the Virgin Mary) 
k brought magic out of Egypt, by cuttings 
which he had made in his flesh.' ' Jesus 
practised magic and deceived, and drove Israel 
to idolatry.' It is interesting to notice that 
Mahomet indignantly repudiated these Jewish 
calumnies. 

23. The Son of David] the popular title of 
the Messiah: 9 2 ' lo 22 20 3 ° 21 9 22*2 Jn7 42 . 
See on Mtl 1 . 24. By Beelzebub] see on 10 25 . 

26. Satan] The original Heb. word of which 
diabolos ('devil') is the Gk. translation. It 
means ' accuser,' l calumniator,' ' adversary.' 

27. Your children] i.e. ' your disciples.' 
Famous rabbis and their disciples professed 
to cast out devils by magic and exorcism, and 
their success was attributed to the power of 
God. Why then, asked Jesus, are My miracles, 
which are much more striking than theirs, and 
are not worked by magic, but by a mere word, 
not regarded as coming from God, and why do 
I not receive from you the same honour as 
your own exorcists ? Josephus (born 37 a.d.) 
writes : ' I have seen a certain man of my own 
country, whose name was Eleazar, releasing 
people that were demoniacal in the presence 
of Vespasian and his sons and his captains. 
He put a ring to the nostrils of the demoniac, 
and drew out the demon through his nostrils 
. . making mention of Solomon and reciting 
the incantations which he composed.' See 
also Ac 19 is Tob82. 

28. By the Spirit of God] Lk 1 1 20 l by the 
finger of God.' Then the kingdom of God is 
come unto you] This is shown not by the mere 
fact of Jesus working miracles (the exorcists 
w < re supposed to work them too), but bj the 
extraordinary character, number, and variety 
of His miracles, which fully fulfilled what the 

prophets had spoken <>r the wonders of the 
Messianic age : see <>n 1 1 -•'''. 

29. The argumenl is, ' No man can carry 
away the furniture from a Btrong man's house 
until he has 01 erpowered and bound the strong 
man. So I could Doi remove the inferior 
devils out of the bodies of men. unless I had 
fir>t conquered and bound their master, Satan 

himself." 

30. He that is not with me is against me] 
JesUB refers to the Pharisees. Since they do 



not take His side in His warfare against Satan, 
they are on Satan's side. Since they do not 
help Him to gather the sheaves of the spiritual 
harvest, they scatter them and prevent them 
from being gathered into God's garner : see 
312. 

Some think that ' he that is not with me ' 
and ' that gather eth not with me ' is Satan. 
This also makes good sense. 

31. The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost 
(Mk3 28 "30 Lk 12 10). What this sin was is not 
really doubtful. St. Matthew intimates that 
the Pharisees had come very near to commit- 
ting it. St. Mark states exactly what their 
sin was. It lay in their malignant slander 
that Jesus was possessed by an unclean spirit. 
They regarded the spirit of holiness, which 
showed itself in the acts and miracles of Jesus, 
as diabolical. They called good evil and evil 
good, having become like Satan himself, dead 
to every impression of true holiness, and un- 
able to recognise it when they saw it. The 
sin is not a sin against the Holy Spirit con- 
sidered as a divine person, but against the 
Spirit, as manifested in the perfect life of 
Christ, whose acts so evidently reflected God's 
own benevolence and holiness, that to ascribe 
them to the devil, was a sin of the most deadly 
character. This, and not blasphemy against 
Christ in general, or denial of His claims, or 
active opposition to Him, or even putting Him 
to death, is the unpardonable sin. 

It is a significant fact that even the most 
exacting modern critics of Christ repudiate 
the Pharisaic position. Men like Renan and 
Strauss, who reject His divine claims, and find 
many faults with His career, yet recognise 
Him as one in whom the Spirit of God dwelt, 
and as one of the greatest religious heroes of 
mankind. And those who think thus are not 
far from the kingdom of God : cp. Lkl2 10 ; 
see further on Heb6 4 10 26 1 Jn5 16 . 

32. The world to come] This phrase has 
two meanings among the Jews, (1) the age of 
the Messiah which begins with the resurrection 
of the dead, (2) the state of souls after death. 
E.g. they say, k The world to come is, when a 
man is departed out of this world.' The second 
meaning is to be adopted. Jesus declares the 
sin against the Spirit to be unpardonable either 
before or after death. The punishment is 
eternal, because, 88 St. Mark says, the sin itself 
is eternal, a token of a nature so far gone in 
depravity that repentance is impossible, and 
recovery hopeless. It is this hardened and 
vitiated character, not the isolated sin. that 
God punishes. 

Tli is passage has frequently been regarded 
as containing a hint of the possibility of pardon 
beyond the grave. St. Augustine says, ' For 
it would not be truly affirmed of certain per- 
sons that they are not pardoned in this world 






12. 33 



ST. MATTHEW 



12. 40 



or the next, unless there were some who 
though not pardoned in this, yet are pardoned 
in the world to come.' Plump tre says, ' If 
one sin only is thus excluded from forgiveness 
in that " coming age," other sins cannot stand 
on the same level, and the darkness behind 
the veil is lit up with at least a gleam of hope.' 
Stier speaks of ' the demonstrable inference 
that other sins are forgiven also in the world 
to come.' Olshausen infers ' that all other 
sins can be forgiven in the world to come, of 
course under the general presuppositions of 
repentance and faith.' 

The view that pardon beyond the grave is 
impossible, is learnedly maintained by J. 
Lightfoot, who is followed by A. B. Bruce. 
Many commentators leave the question open, 
but there is a tendency in modern times to 
admit the possibility. With this question is 
closely connected that of prayer for the dead. 
Both the belief in the terminable nature of 
future punishment and the practice of prayer 
for the dead were familiar to our Lord's 
contemporaries. 

33-36. Cp. Lk 6 43 -4 5 . 

33. ' Pharisees, be logical. You say that to 
cast out devils is good, but that I who do it, 
am corrupt. That is as if you said, The fruit 
of this tree is good, but the tree itself is 
corrupt. Make up your minds which way you 
will have it. Either say that My works are 
good, and therefore that I am good also, or 
else that My works are corrupt, and that 
therefore I am corrupt also. You cannot 
separate a tree from its fruit, for a tree is 
known by its fruit. Nor can you separate a 
man from his works, for he is known by them.' 

34. ' The same argument applies to words. 
A man is known by his words. " Out of the 
abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." 
Your evil and venomous words, declaring that 
I have an evil spirit, and work My miracles by 
Beelzebub, prove you to be really the " off- 
spring of vipers," as John has already rightly 
called you (3 7 ). Such men as you cannot, 
even if you would, speak good words.' 

36. Every idle word] i.e. every idle word 
that expresses the true inward character of 
the man. These will pronounce judgment 
upon him. 

38-45. A sign demanded. Astounding im- 
pudence after they had just ascribed His 
miracles to Beelzebub, and declared Him 
possessed with an unclean spirit. It was the 
practice of Jesus to work signs for those who 
sought them in a right spirit. He worked 
many for the disciples of John (ll 4 ). He 
raised Lazarus ' that they may believe that 
Thou didst send Me ' ( Jn 1 1 42 ). Signs, how- 
ever, were for honest enquirers, not for 
malignant enemies like the Pharisees. More- 
over, the sign which they asked was not of the 



kind which Christ was willing to work. They 
wanted a mere portent which appealed to 
the sense of wonder, and had no spiritual or 
moral significance. Such signs Jesus always 
refused. Yet in refusing, He promised a 
future sign so remarkable as to startle believers 
and unbelievers alike, His own Resurrection. 

38. Lkllie : cp. MU6 1 Mk8 n . A sign] 
Lk • a sign from heaven' : something startling, 
unlike the healing of the sick to which they 
were accustomed. Let Him repeat the mira- 
cle of Moses, and call down manna from the 
skies, as the Messiah was expected to do 
(Jn630). 

39-42. Lk 11 29-36. 

39. Adulterous] True religion was repre- 
sented by the prophets as marriage with Jeho- 
vah, so that apostasy from Him was called 
adultery or fornication (Isa 57 3 , etc.). 

The sign of the prophet Jonas] R Y ' Jonah.' 
' The sign of the prophet Jonah,' which is 
mentioned here and in 16 4 as the only 
sign to be vouchsafed to unbelievers, is un- 
derstood by some to be our Lord's Resurrec- 
tion, and by others His preaching. The 
question turns upon the authenticity of 12 40 . 
If this is authentic, the sign is certainly the 
Resurrection ; if it is not authentic, the sign 
is probably our Lord's preaching, which is 
expressly compared to Jonah's preaching to 
the Ninevites (12 4 i Lkll 32 ). The question 
is a difficult one. Against the authenticity of 
the v. may be pleaded its omission by St. Luke 
and the nature of the context, which speaks of 
the preaching of Solomon and Jonah. In 
favour of the authenticity may be pleaded the 
fact that the v. shows clear traces of an Aramaic 
origin, and therefore presumably formed part of 
Matthew's Hebrew ' logia ' ; also that it contains 
an historic difficulty (the statement that our 
Lord's body lay for three nights in the grave) 
which would easily account for its omission 
by St. Luke. The present writer holds 12 40 
to be an authentic part of the Matthasan ' logia,' 
and therefore ' the sign of Jonah ' to be the 
Resurrection : cp. 27 63 Jn 2 19 . 

40. Three days and three nights] The diffi- 
culty is that our Lord only lay in the grave two 
nights. The expression resembles the Jewish 
inclusive way of reckoning (' on the third day,' 
etc.), but goes beyond it. The most plausible 
explanation is that of J. Lightfoot. He 
supposes that Jesus, speaking in Aramaic, said, 
' The son of man shall be three 'onahs in the 
heart of the earth.' '0?iah meant a day and 
a night, and a part of an 'onah was reckoned as 
a whole, so that the Gk. translator not quite 
accurately rendered the expression, ' three days 
and three nights.' The heart (i.e. ' centre ') 
of the earth] Not the grave, which is on the 
surface, but Hades, which popular imagination 
placed in the centre of the earth. 



669 



12. 42 



ST. MATTHEW 



12. 50 



Our Lord's use of the story of Jonah and 
the whale, to illustrate His Resurrection, need 
not imply that He regarded it as literal his- 
tory. The book of Jonah is probably a sym- 
bolical or allegorical narrative (see Intro, to 
Jonah). 42. The queen] see on 1K10 1 . 

43-45. The return of the unclean spirit 
(Lk 11 24-26). The connexion in St. Matthew 
is preferable. 

The expulsion of the evil spirit represents 
the submission of the nation to the baptism 
of John, which was a baptism of repentance. 
The sweeping and garnishing of the house 
represents the superficial but fairly general 
acceptance of Christ's teaching during the 
early part of His ministry, to which the Gospels 
bear witness. The return of the evil spirit 
with seven other spirits more wicked than 
himself represents the obstinate and final 
rejection of Christ by the nation, which was 
soon to follow, and of which the blasphemy 
of the Pharisees and their unbelieving demand 
for a sign were already an earnest. 

According to the primary meaning of the 
parable, the possessed man represents the 
Jewish nation. But the Christian preacher 
is quite within his rights when he proceeds to 
apply it to the individual soul, and to urge the 
necessity of full and complete repentance, the 
deceitf ulness of merely formal religion, and the 
danger of relapse. The details of the habits 
of demons are not to be pressed. Christ 
adopts the popular phraseology about them as 
part of the machinery of the parable, without 
necessarily endorsing it in all respects. 

43. A man] i.e. the Jewish nation. 
Dry places] or deserts, were supposed to 

be the favourite abode of demons (Tob8 3 
Baruch435 Isal3 21 3414). These pictorial 
details must not be pressed as if they were 
dogmatic statements. 

44. My house] i.e. the man himself ; here, 
the nation. Empty] Though the evil has 
been temporarily expelled, nothing good has 
been put in its place, so that the demon can 
return. If our Lord had been admitted, the 
return would have been impossible. The 
' sweeping ' and ' garnishing ' is that empty 
show of faith and repentance and good works, 
which only invites a more terrible fall. 

45. Seven] Symbolical for completeness. 
As many as the house will hold. Mary of 
Magdalahad sereD devils (Mk L6 8 Lk8 ').' 

46-50. His mother and brethren (Mk:$ : <' 
Lk8 19 ). Jesus here, as on other occasions, 
declares Himself independent of family ties, 
and united by spiritual kinship to all who do 
God's will. 



THE I.i.i 1 iii:i:n of Jesi - 
Our Lord had four ' brethren, 
Joseph (.loses). Simon, Jndae 



three sisters (13 55 ). What their exact relation- 
ship to Him was, is not certain. There are 
three main views — (1) that of St. Jerome, hence 
called the Hieronymian view, that they were 
our Lord's cousins, being sons of Mary the 
Virgin's sister and of Clopas (see Jn 19 25 RV). 
Most supporters of this view think that three 
of the brethren were apostles. Jerome's 
theory, until recently the predominant one in 
England, is now held by very few. (2) The 
Epiphanian view, so called from its advocacy 
by St. Epiphanius, that they were sons of 
Joseph by a former wife. This is the theory 
of the Eastern Church, and has been learnedly 
supported in England by Lightfoot. (3) The 
Helvidian view, advocated in ancient times by 
Helvidius, that they were children of Joseph 
and Mary born after Jesus. Prof. Mayor is 
the chief recent exponent of this view. 

The arguments for the last two views are 
nearly evenly balanced, and it is difficult to 
decide which is right. 

The following points seem certain from the 
NT. :— 

(1) That the ' brethren ' did not live with 
' Mary of Clopas,' but with the Virgin Mary, 
and were regarded as members of her family 
(1246 1355 Jn2i2 73). 

(2) That they were jealous of Jesus, and up 
to the Resurrection disbelieved His claims 
(Mk32i 64 Jn75*,). 

(3) And that consequently none of the 
brethren were included among the Twelve 
Apostles. 

(4) That they were converted after the 
Resurrection by the appearance to James 
(ICorlS 7 ), and henceforth associated them- 
selves with the disciples (Ac 1 14 ). 

The chief arguments in favour of the Epi- 
phanian view are : — 

(1) That it represents the most ancient 
tradition, being already current in Palestine in 
the 2nd century. 

(2) That if the Virgin had had a large 
family, some of the members of which, like 
James the bishop of Jerusalem, attained to 
prominent positions in the Church, the (practi- 
cally) unanimous tradition that she remained 
always a virgin, could never have arisen. 

(3) That it is more reverent to suppose that 
our Lord's mother never had any other 
children. 

(4) That Lkl 2 <3-38 i mp li es that already 
before the birth of Jesus, she had devoted 
herself (with her betrothed's consent) to a life 
of virginity. 

(5) That our Lord upon the cross would 
not have committed the care of His mother to 
St. John, if she had had four living sons to 
support her. 

James, N The chief arguments in favour of the 
and at hast Helvidian view are : — 
670 



13. 



ST. MATTHEW 



13. 3 



(1) That the high esteem for virginity 
generally prevalent in the early Church made 
Christians unwilling to think of Mary as the 
mother of other children, and consequently 
the Epiphanian theory was invented. 

(2) That Lk 2 7 implies that Mary had other 
children. 

(3) That Mt 1 1S - 25 imply that the connubial 
relations of Joseph and Mary after the birth 
of Jesus were of the usual kind. . 

(4) That ' brother,' when used without 
further explanation, naturally means a full 
brother, and not a half brother, or foster brother. 

In the opinion of the present writer the 
arguments for the Epiphanian view slightly 
preponderate. 

CHAPTER 13 
A Day of Parables 
i~3 a . Teaching by parables begun (Mk4 1 
Lk8 4 ). This c. introduces a new type of 
teaching, that by parables. St. Matthew gives 
us a group of seven, the first four of which 
(the Sower, the Tapes, the Mustard Seed, the 
Leaven) were addressed to the multitudes, and 
the last three (the Hid Treasure, the Pe^trl, 
and the Draw-net) to the disciples. St. Mark 
gives only four parables on this occasion, 
St. Luke only two. St. Matthew's group of 
seven forms ' a great whole, setting forth the 
mystery of the kingdom in its method of estab- 
lishment, its corruption, its outward and in- 
ward growth, the conditions of entrance into 



it, and its final purification.' 

St. Matthew and St. Mark both agree that 
Jesus did not begin to teach regularly in para- 
bles until opposition to His teaching had deve- 
loped, and the people under the influence of 
the Pharisees and scribes had begun to harden 
themselves against His influence, and to criti- 
cise His doctrine (vv. 10-16 Mk 4 n > 12 : cp. also 
Lk8 10 ). One purpose of His parabolic teach- 
ing was to conceal His doctrine from the unfit 
(see on vv. 10-16) as a punishment for their 
wilful blindness and spiritual unreceptiveness. 
But the parables also served to reveal the 
truth in suggestive and stimulating forms to 
the fit. They arrested the attention, remained 
in the memory, and could not fail in a re- 
flective and devout mind to unfold gradually 
somewhat of their meaning. They acted as 
a test. They repelled those who were unre- 
ceptive and lacking in industry and earnestness, 
but they attracted the earnest disciples who 
knew that precious treasure was concealed be- 
neath the surface, and were willing to dig 
deep until they found it. 

The method of teaching by parables was not 
new. There are several good examples in the 
OT. (see e.g. 2S12*-* 14 s f - lK20 39f - IsaS 1 " 6 
2824-28) it wa s also known to the rabbis : 
e.g. it was said of Rabbi Meir that a third part 



of his discourses was tradition, a third alle- 
gory, a third parable ; but Christ made the 
parable form so completely His own that few 
since His time have ventured to imitate Him. 
Neither the Apostles nor any of the Christian 
fathers (except Hermas) are known to us as 
authors of parables. 

There is some doubt as to the exact extent 
to which the details of our Lord's parables are 
intended to be interpreted. .LMany recent 
writers maintain that each parable is intended 
to enforce a single idea, and that none of the 
details are significant. This seems going be- 
yond the evidence, and even against it. All 
the synoptic evangelists represent Jesus as 
interpreting the details of the parable of the 
Sower(13 18 Mk4i3Lk8 n ), and St. Matthew 
represents Him as giving a minute and de- 
tailed explanation of the parable of the Tares 
(13 36 ). It may be admitted that details are 
not always significant, and that interpreters of 
the allegorical school have often erred in 
making too much of unimportant features, but 
the evidence seems to suggest that Christ's 
parables are carefully constructed and finished 
works of art, of which the parts as well.as the 
wholes are often intended to be interpreted. 

i. The house] i.e. Simon and Andrew's at 
Capernaum (Mk 1 29 ? etc.). 

3. Parables] In the NT. the word parabole 

is almost confined to the Synoptic Gospels, the 

only exceptions being Heb 9 9 ll 19 (R Y), where 

it is used of the OT. types of NT. realities. 

"Vln the Gospels it occasionally means a maxim or 



proverb (15 15 Lk 4 23 (RY) 5 36 6 39 ), but nearly 
always a parable, that is (so far as our Lord'sr- , 
parables are concerned) 'a narrative, fictitious,^ 
but agreeable to the laws and usages of human 
life, by which either the duties/of men or the 
things of God, particularl^i^me nature and 
history of God's kingdom, are figuratively 
portrayed.' AtA parable is to be distinguished 
from a fable. .The former i$ probable and 
might be true, the latter introduces impos- 
sibilities, such as treas-jfcalking ; the former 
teaches important spiritual truths, the latter 
does not advance beyond homely lessons of 
worldly prudence. The parable is also to be 
distinguished from an allegory. The parable 
is a story complete in itself, quite apart from 
its interpretation, whereas an allegory has 
no meaning at all apart from its interpreta- 
tion. The parable differs still more from 
the myth, in which allegory and fact are 
so mixed that the allegory is taken for 
fact. No parables occur in the Fourth Gospel : 
their place is taken by paroimiai, ' allegories,' 
of which the most complete are those of the 
Fold (Jn 101), the'Good Shepherd (10 7), and the 
Yine and the Branches (15 1 ): cp. Jn 10 6 (EM). 
3 b -9. The Sower (Mk4 3 - 9 Lk8 5 - 8 ). For 
the meaning of the parable, see on vv. 18-23. 



671 



13.9 



ST. MATTHEW 



13. 18 



Our Lord probably took as His text an actual 
field and an actual sower within view at the 
time. Stanley, who visited the probable spot, 
writes, ' There was the undulating cornfield 
descending to the water's edge. There was 
the trodden pathway running through the 
midst of it, with no fence or hedge to pre- 
vent the seed from falling here or there on 
either side of it or upon it ; itself hard with 
the constant tramp of horse, mule, and human 
feet. There was the good rich soil ; there 
was the rocky ground of the hillside protrud- 
ing here and there through the cornfields ; 
there were the large bushes of thorn — the 
nabk, that kind of which tradition says the 
crown of thorns was woven — springing up, 
like the fruit-trees of the more inland parts, 
in the very midst of the waving wheat.' 

0. Who hath ears] cp. ll^ 13*3 Lk8» 1435 
Rev2 7 : see on vv. 10 f - 

10-17. The reason for speaking in parables 
(Mk 4 10- 12 Lk 8 9> 10 ). Because Christ's preju- 
diced hearers (see prefatory remarks) will not 
receive plain teaching, such as the Sermon on 
the Mount, they shall be punished by having 
the truth withdrawn from them, according to 
our Lord's own precept (7 6 ), ' Give not that 
which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye 
your pearls before swine, lest they trample 
them under their feet, and turn again and rend 
you.' But those hearers who are worthy, 
i.e. those who are of the household of faith, 
and already ' have ' religious truth, shall 
understand. 

II. Unto you] i.e. not only to the Apostles, 
but to all spiritually receptive persons — to 
' those who are within,' as opposed to ' those 
who are without' (Mk). Cp. the rabbinical 
saying, ' God entrusts not His mysteries save 
to the just.' The mysteries] The deeper things 
of Christ's kingdom can only be understood 
by the initiated and spiritually enlightened, 
hence they are rightly called i mysteries.' 
Although the parables are said to be concerned 
with the • mysteries of the kingdom,' they are, 
in fact, largely concerned with the person of 
Christ Himself. This is because He is the 
King of the Kingdom, and only by acknowledg- 
ing His sovereignty can men enter into it. In 
NT. usage ' the mystery ' of God generally 
means His plan of salvation for all mankind, 
concealed or dimly adumbrated under the old 
covenant, but manifested to the elect since 
the coming of Christ. This seems to be the 
principal meaning here. 

Borne think that the Christian use of the 
word is derived from the Greek religious 
mysteries ; Others that it is a metaphor taken 
from Eastern courts, in which the king's coun- 
sels and designs are spoken of as his 'secrets' 
or c mysteries,' because they are communi- 
cated to none but his most intimate friends. 



12. 'You who are spiritually minded, who 
already "have" religious truth, shall learn more 
and more by My parables, until you become 
spiritually rich. But those who " have not," 
and do not desire to have spiritual knowledge, 
so far from learning more from My parables, 
will have even the poor confused notions of 
truth which they have (" seem to have," Lk) 
bewildered and darkened.' In 25 29 Jesus 
applies the proverb not merely, as here, to the 
use of the talent of spiritual understanding, 
but to all the talents or faculties of man. 

14. Esaias] RV ' Isaiah.' The quotation 
is from LXX version of Isa 6 9 . The promin- 
ence of this passage in the NT. is remarkable: 
see Jn 12 40 Ac 28 2 6 Roll 7, 8, 25 2 Cor 3 14 . The 
Christians found in it a reason for the sur- 
prising fact that God's own people refused to 
accept His promised salvation: see on vv. 
l-3 a , 10, 12. 

17. Those things'] i.e. the mysteries of the 
kingdom of God, not merely Christ's earthly 
life and miracles in their outward aspect. 

18-23. The Parable of the Sower inter- 
preted (Mk4is Lk8 n ). The sower is, of 
course, Christ, and Christian teachers gener- 
ally, but is not a prominent figure in the 
parable. The seed aptly stands for Christian 
truth, ' the word of the kingdom,' or ' word 
of God,' because when implanted in the heart 
and conscience, it grows, develops, and brings 
forth spiritual fruit. The sower scatters the 
seed not only on the good ground, but on the 
bad, as an example to Christian preachers not 
to neglect the unreceptive and the wicked in 
their ministrations. The seed falling by the 
wayside, or rather on a hard, beaten track 
across the field, is the case of those whose 
assiduous attention to business, social calls, 
and worldly affairs, renders them unreceptive 
to spiritual truth. Even while the sermon is 
being preached their minds are full of their 
own affairs, and when it is finished their first 
contact with the world sweeps all recollection 
of it away — ' Satan cometh immediately, and 
taketh away the word that was sown in their 
hearts ' (Mk). The seed falling upon the 
rocky places, where there is a thin layer of soil 
above and hard rock beneath, is the case of 
those who are susceptible — quickly and readily 
susceptible — to religious influences, but on 
whom, owing to their want of spiritual stamina, 
no permanent impression can be made. They 
are generally of an enthusiastic and excitable 
temperament, who when brought under strong 
religious influences ' run well ' for a time, but 
soon tire, and fall away. The seed falling 
among thorns is the case of those who have 
every capacity for developing the highest 
spiritual gifts, but who fail because they de- 
liberately attempt to serve two masters, God 
and mammon, which is impossible. The seed 



672 



13.24 



ST. MATTHEW 



13. 33 



falling on good ground is the case of good and 
receptive Christians, who respond to the teach- 
ing of Christ in proportion to the spiritual 
capacity with which God has endowed them. 

24-30. Parable of the Tares (peculiar to St. 
Matthew). One of the greatest, most charac- 
teristic, and most fruitful of the parables. 
In it Christ looked from the present into the 
distant future. He foresaw that scandals and 
offences would soon arise, which would cause 
great searchings of heart ; the denial of Peter, 
the treachery of Judas, the deceit of Ananias, 
the quarrels among the Apostles, the parties in 
the Church, the sensuality of the Corinthians, 
the treachery of false brethren and false 
teachers, the falling away of some, the love 
of others waxing cold ; and looking further 
over the later history of His Church, He saw 
a saddening picture of low morality, low ideals, 
avarice, ambition, disunion, and seeming fail- 
ure. And therefore he warned His disciples 
beforehand that thus it must be, that k in the 
visible Church the evil must be ever mingled 
with the good,' and that earnest men must 
not lose heart nor be impatient because they 
cannot make the Church as pure as they 
would have it. 

The parable is interesting from the light it 
throws upon our Lord's person. He is the 
chief character throughout, and is endowed 
with divine attributes. He is the householder, 
the sower of the seed, the antagonist of Satan, 
the Lord of the world. The angels are His 
ministers and do His bidding. In the king- 
dom of heaven He is the King, and has the 
power to doom to heaven and hell. Christ 
Himself interprets the parable (vv. 37-43). 

24. The kingdom of heaven] in this parable, 
as often, is identified with the Church on 
earth, regarded as a visible society embracing 
good and evil. 25. While men slept] This 
detail may indicate the subtlety of the evil 
one in introducing evil into the Church in 
ways that cannot be traced. His enemy] 
By no more striking expression could the 
greatness of the power of Satan be indicated 
than by this, that he is described as the 
antagonist of Christ Himself. Nothing in the 
NT. lends colour to the modern tendency to 
minimise evil, or to regard it as another form 
of good. Tares] or k bastard wheat ' : so 
much like true wheat, that until the corn is in 
the ear the two cannot be distinguished. 
Hence any attempt to root up the tares would 
result in rooting up the wheat also. So in the 
Church any attempt to distinguish between 
true and false Christians is doomed to failure. 
27. The servants] i.e. the apostles and those 
in authority or having influence in the Church. 
31, 32. Parable of the Mustard Seed (Mk 
430 Lkl3 18 ). This parable, and that which 
immediately follows, the leaven, are more hope- 



ful and cheerful in tone than those that went 
before, in which most of the seed sown failed 
to bear fruit, and tares sprang up among the 
wheat. Both parables describe an enormous 
extension of the Kingdom of God from small 
beginnings, but there is this difference. In the 
parable of the mustard seed the growth of the 
Kingdom as a visible and powerful organisa- 
tion is described, in that of the leaven its 
hidden and secret influence, spreading wider 
and wider until the whole of society is 
leavened with Christian ideas. 

31. Christ takes the grain of mustard 
seed, by which is to be understood Christianity 
both as a doctrine and as an organised society, 
and plants it in His field, which is the world. 
Mustard seed] The vegetable or herb, not the 
so-called mustard tree, is meant. In hot coun- 
tries it sometimes grows to a great size. The 
Jerusalem Talmud says, ' There was a stalk of 
mustard in Sichin from which sprang out three 
boughs, of which one was broken off, and 
covered the tent of a potter, and produced 
three cabs (12 pints) of mustard.' Rabbi 
Simeon said, 4 A stalk of mustard was in my 
field, into which I was wont to climb as men 
are wont to climb into a fig-tree.' Although 
the mustard seed is not really the smallest 
of all seeds, it was so in popular estimation. 
The rabbis called the smallest possible quantity 
' the quantity of a grain of mustard,' and 
Mahomet uses the same expression in the 
Koran. 

32. Insignificant in its beginnings, founded 
by a supposed criminal in an obscure province, 
directed by twelve Galileans of little wealth 
or education, the Christian movement rapidly 
expanded into a world-wide Church, so power- 
ful as a bond of union, that the Roman empire 
itself sought to strengthen itself by its alliance, 
so strong to succour the oppressed, that the 
poor and lowly took refuge under its pro- 
tection, so majestic in its ordered stability that 
the rude barbarians who conquered Rome 
submitted to its sway. Its growth in modern 
times has been still more striking. From the 
year 1700 to 1800 it is estimated that the 
Christian population of the globe advanced 
from 155 millions to 200 millions. From 
1800 to 1900 the progress has been from 200 
millions to more than 500 millions, so that the 
disciples of Christ now equal, if they do not 
exceed, a third of the human race. 

33. Parable of the Leaven (Lk 1 3 2 °- 21 ). The 
leaven (or ' yeast ') is here the Spirit of 'Chris- 
tianity working secretly in the world until the 
whole is leavened. Devotionally the parable 
may be applied to individual souls. St. Am- 
brose says, ' May the Holy Church, who is 
figured under the type of this woman in the 
Gospel, whose meal are we, hide the Lord 
Jesus in the innermost places of our hearts, 



43 



673 



13. 33 



ST. MATTHEW 



13.47 



till the warmth of the divine wisdom penetrate 
into the most secret recesses of our souls.' 

33. Leaven] i.e. the influence of Christ, the 
power of Christianity. The figure is taken 
from the power of leaven (' yeast ') to make 
the dough light and wholesome, and to spread 
through an enormous mass of it with great 
rapidity. Generally leaven is used as a figure 
for wickedness (16 6 , etc.), and some wrongly 
so regard it here, taking the woman for the 
apostate Church, and the leaven as the 'mystery 
of iniquity ' with which she corrupts the purity 
of the gospel. 

Three measures] lit. ' three seahs,' a 
seah containing 1^ pecks. Since this was the 
usual quantity to be baked at once (G-nl8 6 : 
cp. also Jg 6 19 1 S 1 24 , where the equivalent 
amount, an ephah, is mentioned), no special 
significance attaches to the number ' three.' 
The meal is mankind, as uninfluenced by the 
gospel. Took] i.e. from elsewhere, for Chris- 
tianity is not of this world, but introduced 
from without. Till . . was] The past tense is 
a prophetic way of speaking of the certainty 
of the result. 

34. 35. Christ's parabolic teaching (Mk 4 33 > 34 ). 

35. By the prophet] i.e. Asaph the seer, the 
author of Ps78, from which the quotation 
(v. 2) is taken. 

36-43. The Tares interpreted. See on v. 24. 

The field is called the world as well as the 
Kingdom of God or the Church, because the 
Church is charged with a mission to the whole 
human race, and is destined to be universal. 

The children of the kingdom] true Christians. 

The children of the wicked one] false 
Christians. 41. His kingdom] His Church. 

All things that offend] RV 'that cause 
stumbling.' 42. Gnashing] indicating rage 
and disappointment, not pain. Their punish- 
ment continues because their sin continues : 
cp. 8 12 , etc. 43. In the kingdom] in the final 
bliss of heaven : cp. Dan 12 3 . 

44-46. The Hidden Treasure and the Pearl 
of Great Price (peculiar to St. Matthew). These 
two parables were addressed to the disciples in 
the house on the subject of personal religion. 
Their teaching is that it is not enough to be 
outwardly a Christian or to be under Christian 
influences. The true Christian must be in- 
wardly convinced that his religion is the most 
precious of all things. He must know Christ 
as a persona] Saviour, and feel in his heart the 
spirit of Bonship, crying, Abba, Father. In 
comparison with this he must despise all other 
things. But there is also a point of difference. 
The lirst parable (the hidden treasure) describes 
the case of a man who finds a treasure without 
Looking for it. By some accidental circum- 
stance he becomes aware that a treasure is 
buried in his neighbour's field, and immediately 
sells all that he has to buy it. This is the 



case of a man who has long been possessed of 
the outward form of Christianity, but has been 
entirely unacquainted with its power. Then 
suddenly it is revealed to him what a surpassing 
treasure it is to love God and to know Christ. 
He sells all that he has, i.e. gives up all that 
can hinder him in his quest, and enters on 
possession of the treasure. The second parable, 
that of the merchant seeking goodly pearls, 
describes a man who all his life long has been 
in the pursuit of truth and at last finds it. 
Such a one was the philosopher Justin, who, 
dissatisfied with all the schools of pagan 
philosophy, found rest for his soul in Christ. 

44. Treasure] Christ Himself and all that 
Christ brings with Him to the believing soul. 

A field] the outward forms of Christianity, 
as distinguished from their spirit. He hideth] 
i.e. throws the earth over it again, so that no 
one else may discover it, until he has effected 
the purchase. Selleth all that he hath] i.e. 
gives up every sin or self-indulgence which 
hinders him from giving himself whole- 
heartedly to Christ. Buyeth] In itself an 
immoral transaction, for the seller did not 
know that the treasure was there. But this is 
not the point which is proposed for imitation. 

47-50. The Net (peculiar to St. Matthew). 
At first sight the teaching of this parable is 
the same as that of the parable of the tares. 
There is the same identification of the Kingdom 
of Heaven with the earthly Church, and the 
same idea that it will embrace the evil as well 
as the good. But whereas in that, the stress 
was laid upon matters pertaining to this life, 
in this the stress is laid upon what will happen 
in the next. In that the rulers of the Church 
were warned not to anticipate by too rigid a 
discipline the final separation between good 
and evil, in this they are taught that the pro- 
cess of separation will one day be performed, 
and that effectually, by the unerring judgment 
of Him who can read the heart of man. Then, 
and then only, will there be an absolutely pure 
Church, not having spot or wrinkle or any 
such thing. 

47. A net] lit. ' drag-net,' i.e. an oblong net 
of immense length, employed near the shore. 
The bottom edge was weighted with lead, and 
swept the bottom of the sea. The upper edge 
floated on the surface of the sea, supported by 
corks. Escape from it was impossible, and 
when it was dragged to shore, it contained 
every fish in the area of sea which it had swept 
The net is the Church, and the fishermen, on 
whom, however, no stress is laid in the parable, 
are the apostles and their successors. The sea] 
the nations of the world, as often in Scripture : 
Ps»;f>7 Isa 8 7 Revl7 i;i . Of every kind] not 
merely of bad and good, but of every nation. 
kingdom, and tongue. A prophecy that the 
Church will be Catholic, or universal. 



674 



13. 48 



ST. MATTHEW 



14. 7 



48. Shore] i.e. the end of this dispensation, 
or world. Sat down] In the parable those 
who drag the net, are not the same as those 
who sort the fish. The latter are the angels, 
the ministers of judgment. Vessels] i.e. the 
heavenly habitations, the final reward of the 
just. 50. On gnashing of teeth, see v. 42. 

51, 52. Concluding remarks to the parables 
(peculiar to St. Matthew). 52. Every scribe 
which is instructed (RV k who hath .been made 
a disciple ') unto the kingdom of heaven] Jesus 
is pleased with their answer, and speaks of 
them as the future scribes or teachers of His 
Church. A man that is an householder] i.e. 
Christ Himself the master of the house (the 
Church). Afterwards the apostles themselves 
will become ' householders,' exercising Christ's 
authority committed to them. His treasure] 
i.e. the chest where money and jewels are kept. 
The ' treasure ' of the Christian preacher is the 
Holy Scripture, and His own inward experi- 
ence of what true religion is. Things new and 
old] the old truths which God had long made 
known to the Jews, as well as the new truth 
declared by Christ. It is also an exhortation 
to the preacher to adapt his discourse to his 
hearers, to put milk before babes, and strong 
meat before men. 

53-58. Second visit to Nazareth and its 
neighbourhood (MkG 1 ). The first is described 
Lk4 16 , where He received similar treatment 
and used the same proverb. 

55. The carpenter's son] St. Mark has ' the 
carpenter.' His brethren] see on 12 46 " 50 . 

57. Were offended] lit. 'were caused to 
stumble,' i.e. were hindered from believing. 

A prophet] see on Lk4 24 Jn4*4. 58. Did 
not many] St. Mark has ' could not do.' 

CHAPTER 14 

Death of the Baptist. Feeding the Five 
Thousand. Walking on the Sea 
1, 2. Herod's opinion of Jesus (Mk 6 14 Lk 9 7 ). 

1. Herod the tetrarch] son of Herod the 
Great, received by his father's will the govern- 
ment (tetrarchy) of Galilee and Peraea. His 
first wife was the daughter of the Arabian 
prince Aretas, called in 2 Cor ll 32 king of 
Damascus. During a visit to his half-brother, 
Herod Philip (not the tetrarch), who lived as 
a private citizen in Rome, he became enamoured 
of his wife, Herodias, and persuaded her to 
leave her husband. He at once divorced his own 
wife, and married her. The marriage gave the 
greatest offence to devout Jews, for (1) it was 
unlawful to take a brother's wife after his 
death, much less while he was alive (Lvl8 16 
2021). The only exception was when the 
brother died "without an heir (Dt25 5 " 10 ). (2) 
Herodias was the niece of her new husband : 
see art. ' Dynasty of the Herods.' 

2. This is John the Baptist] The. belief was 



the effect of a guilty conscience working upon 
a superstitious mind. 

3-5. Arrest of John (Mk6^ Lk 3 19 ). The 
manner in which St. Matthew and St. Mark 
insert the arrest of John at this point, instead 
of in its proper historical place, the beginning 
of the Galilean ministry, is conclusive proof 
that their narratives are not independent. 
Either they borrow from one another, or from 
some common source : see art. ' The Synoptic 
Gospels.' 

5. When he would have put him to death] 
This agrees with Josephus, who says that John 
was arrested for political reasons. ' Herod, who 
feared lest the great influence John had over 
the people might put it into his power and in- 
clination to raise a rebellion, thought it best 
by putting him to death to prevent any mis- 
chief that he might cause.' St. Mark, on the 
other hand, represents Herod as friendly to 
John. ' Herod feared John, knowing him to 
be a just and holy man, and he kept him safe. 
And when he heard him, he was much per- 
plexed and heard him gladly.' 

The truth seems to be that Herod was really 
friendly to John, and favourably impressed by 
his preaching, but that John's denunciation of 
his new marriage rendered it difficult for that 
prince to protect him. He therefore yielded, 
though reluctantly, to the influence of Herodias, 
and first had John arrested, and then executed. 
But since it would have been impolitic to dis- 
close the true reason of these proceedings, it 
was given out that John was suspected of 
treasonable practices. 

6-12. Execution of the Baptist (Mk6 21 ). 
The dramatic circumstances of the death of 
John are recorded only in the Gospels. 
Josephus simply says, ' Accordingly he was 
sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious 
temper, to Machaerus, the castle I before men- 
tioned, and was there put to death.' 

6. Birthday] One of the Greek customs in- 
troduced by the Herods. The Hebrews regarded 
the keeping of birthdays as a part of idolatrous 
worship. The daughter] Her name was Salome. 
She soon afterwards married her uncle, Philip 
the tetrarch. Danced] Another instance of 
Greek manners. It was the custom of the > | 
Greeks after a banquet to witness the perf o~ -" oCC 
ances of professional female -"— ce-v fi'-.pplements 
were of a mimetic and lieen' ortant reticulars. 
For a woman of Salome's ra RV 'come from Jew- 
to play such a part was an hostility of the hierarchy, 
J. Lightfoot, however, t«*d b } the sending of these 
view of Salome's corplained by the fact (known to 
cording to the custcohe Fourth Gospo 1 ) that Jesus 
express joy, and to reached in Jerusalem, and defied 

7. With an oath] *es there. 

Jg 1 1 si. In the Tradition of the elders] The elders 
the same promis/ the scribes, but include also the old 
soever she wou' 



675 



wr 



14.8 



ST. MATTHEW 



14. 22 



the half of my kingdom,' a rhetorical expres- 
sion for a very great reward. The incident is 
in accordance with Eastern manners. ' Shah 
Abbas (Shah of Persia) being one day drunk, 
gave a woman who danced much to his satis- 
faction the fairest khan in all Ispahan, which 
yielded a great revenue to the shah (to whom 
it belonged) in chamber-rents. The vizier 
having put him in mind of it next morning, 
took the liberty to tell him that it was unjusti- 
fiable prodigality, so the shah ordered her to 
be given a hundred " tomans," with which she 
was forced to be content ' (Thevenot). 

8. Being before instructed] RV ' being put 
forward.' A charger] i.e. a dish. 10. He sent] 
Josephus says that John was imprisoned at 
Machaerus, a fortress 5 m. E. of the Dead Sea. 

1 1 . She brought it] The judgment of God 
fell upon Antipas and Herodias for their crime. 
Their country suffered severely in the disas- 
trous war with Aretas, and when the guilty 
pair visited Rome to demand from Caligula the 
title of king, they were banished to Lyons, in 
Gaul, on a charge of misgovernment. 

13-21. Feeding the five thousand (Mk6 30 
Lk9 10 JnG 1 ). The only miracle recorded by 
the four evangelists, and also one of the most 
wonderful. It cannot be accounted for, as 
some of the miracles of healing possibly can, 
as the powerful effect of mind over mind, or 
of mind over body, but is distinctly a physical 
miracle incapable of natural explanation. 

Some critics still accept Paulus's rational- 
ising explanation of the miracle, viz. that the 
generosity of Jesus and His apostles in sharing 
their few loaves and fishes with others induced 
many more, who had brought food with them, 
to distribute it, and so enough was found for 
all. But Paulus's theory does not explain, (1) 
how St. Mark (i.e. Peter) came to describe it 
as a miracle ; (2) how St. John, who was also 
present, came to describe it as a miracle ; (3) 
why our Lord, if it was not a miracle, 
described it as such, and that in the oldest 
tr;..lition(Mk8 1 9 = Mtl69) ; (4) why the multi- 
tudes, who must have known the facts, were 
stiucd to such enthusiasm by this 'sign ' that 
they were convinced that He was the Messiah, 
and sought to make Him king by force 

1 nil ,'.\h, is). 

wardlv <■<»,•; inn a parable the miracle teaches, 
precious of all t&ve power and lordship over 
.is a personal Sa> benevolence and bounty, 
spirit of Bonship, enough -and more than 
comparison with this n^ the spiritual food of 
things. But there is ale Life, sustaining the 
The first parable (the hiddiieve on Him. In 
the case of a man who finffigare of the Lord's 
Looking for it. By seine ;•„. agency of His 

stance he becomes aware ttfftides with 'the 
buried in his neighbour's field, cious Body and 
sells all that he has to buy »K' S accounl is 



the fullest, and (except St. John's) the most 
graphic. 

13. Heard of it] On hearing of the death of 
John, Jesus thought it better to retire from the 
kingdom of Antipas, until it was clear whether 
the designs of Antipas were directed against 
Him also. He therefore retired across -the 
lake to Bethsaida Julias, in the dominion of 
Philip. His speedy return may be accounted 
for by the receipt of news that he had notkkig 
to fear. 

St. Mark gives another reason for the 
retirement. The Twelve had just returned 
from their mission, and Jesus wished to give 
them a little rest. His intention, however, was 
frustrated by the presence of the multitudes. 
This period (just before the second Passover) 
marks the culminating point of Jesus' popu- 
larity. But the tide was about to turn. His 
refusal to be made king (Jn6 14 > 15 ) displeased 
His more enthusiastic followers, and the 
Pharisaic opposition, already begun, became 
more active and effective. 

15. His disciples] In St. John the initiative 
comes from our Lord Himself, and what is here 
put into the mouth of the disciples is said by 
Philip. The time] RV 'the hour,' i.e. the 
hour at which Jesus usually concluded His 
religious instructions. 17. We have here] 
According to St. John a boy had them for 
sale. The disciples could be said to have 
what they could so readily obtain. 19. To sit 
down] lit. ' to recline.' St. Mark says that 
the people sat down in separate companies, 
which he compares to the beds in a garden. 

He blessed, etc.] A close resemblance to 
the consecration in the Lord's Supper. The 
miracle is to be regarded as taking place at 
this moment. The disciples] As Jesus did 
not baptise, so He did not personally feed the 
multitudes, but used the ministry of the 
•Apostles, thus preparing them for their future 
ministry. They had just been engaged in the 
ministry of the Word. Now they are entrusted 
(in type and figure) with the ministry of the 
Sacraments. 20. Twelve baskets] Kophinoi 
were large baskets such as were frequently 
carried by Jews. Each of the apostles had 
one. The gathering up of the fragments for 
future use was a lesson in economy, a protest 
against waste. 

22-33. The walking on the sea (Mk6 46 
Jn 6 15 ). Another physical miracle, also belong- 
ing to the oldest tradition. As it is attested 
by actual eyewitnesses, it cannot be resolved 
into a legend or allegory, but must be accepted 
as an historic fact. Symbolically interpreted, 
it 'represents the struggles of the soul and of 
the Church with the troubles of the world, and 
the succour which Christ gives in the darkest 
hour of temptation and adversity. 

The attempts to translate ' walking upon 



67f, 



14. 22 



ST. MATTHEW 



15. 2 



the sea ' in v. 25 and v. 26 by ' walking towards 
the sea,' or ' walking above the sea ' (i.e. on 
the shore), scarcely require refutation. They 
are inconsistent with the general tenor of the 
narrative, which places the ship in the middle 
of the sea, and lays stress upon the fear of the 
disciples at so astounding a spectacle. 

22. Constrained] The apostles were most 
unwilling to be sent away. St. John explains 
the reason. The people were desirous to 
make Jesus king by force, and the apostles 
thoroughly sympathised with the popular enthu- 
siasm. 23. A mountain] RV 'the mountain,' i.e. 
the mountainous country surrounding the lake. 

The evening] But it was evening some - time 
earlier (v. 15), before the multitudes were fed. 
The explanation is that the Jews reckoned 
two evenings, the first corresponding very much 
to our afternoon (St. Luke, 9 12 , defines it as 
1 when the day began to decline ') ; the second 
extending from twilight to darkness. Here 
the second evening is meant. 25. The fourth 
watch] This is Roman reckoning. The fourth 
or last watch was from 3 to 6 a.m. The 
Jews reckoned only three watches, beginning 
at 6 p.m. 26. A spirit] RY ' an apparition.' 
St. Mark adds that ' He would have passed by 
them,' doubtless to test their faith, or to draw 
from them some expression of their need of 
Him : cp. Lk2437f. 

28. Peter] The incident is only in St. Mat- 
thew. It is thoroughly in keeping with St. 
Peter's character, confident and enthusiastic, 
and unconscious of his own weakness. ' StO 
faith in the Lord's strengthening and upholding 
power conducts us securely over the agitated 
sea of a sinful life, but assuredly it too often 
happens that the weakness of this faith sinks 
down into the waters ' (Olshausen). Well is it" 
for us if we cry with Peter, ' Lord, save me.' 

32. Into the ship] Not inconsistent with 
St. John's statement, '.they were willing to 
receive him into the ship.' They were willing 
and did so. 33. They that were in the ship] 
the apostles and the crew. The Son of God] 
The first time, in the Synoptic Gospels, that 
the title is applied to Jesus by men. 

34-36. Healings in the land of Gennesaret 
(Mk6 53 ). Enthusiasm is still at its height. 

34. The land of Gennesaret] A fertile plain 
on the W. side of .the lake towards its N. end, 
extending southwards from Capernaum. 

Josephus says of it, ' Such is the fertility of 
the soil that it rejects no plant, and accord- 
ingly all are here cultivated by the husband- 
men, for so genial is the air, that it suits every 
variety. Nature here nourishes fruits of 
opposite climes and maintains a continual 
supply of them. Thus she produces the 
most royal of all, the grape and the fig, during 
ten months without intermission, while the 
other varieties ripen the year round.' The 



rabbis called it 'a paradise,' and 'a garden of 
princes.' 

36. The hem] R V ' border ' : see on 9 20 . 

As many] Multitudes healed. No failures. 
Most of Christ's miracles unrecorded. 

CHAPTER 15 

The Traditions of the Elders. The 
Canaanitish Woman. Feeding the 
Four Thousand 

1-20. Unwashed hands and the traditions of 
the elders (Mk 7 l ). In this important contro- 
versy Jesus defined His position, (1) towards 
rabbinical traditions about the Law; (2) towards 
the Law itself. The first part of our Lord's 
discourse (vv. 3-9) is addressed to the Pharisees. 
In it He admits (or at least does not dispute) 
the binding character of the Law itself, but 
denies the authority of rabbinical tradition, 
and that on. two grounds : (1) that it had no 
divine authority ; (2) that instead of forming 
' a hedge round the Law,' and assisting its 
observance, as it professed to do, it really abro- 
gated it, by affording pretexts for its evasion. 
The second part of the discourse (vv. 10-20), 
addressed to the disciples and the multitude, 
carries the argument a step farther. Our Lord 
lays down the principle (Mk 7 15 ) that ' there is 
nothing from without a man, which entering 
in can defile him ; but the things which come 
out of him, those are they that defile the man ' ; 
that is to say, that the whole ceremonial Law, 
wilh its distinctions of meats, its ablutions, its 
sacrifices, and its round of external observ- 
ances, is no longer binding, and is about to be 
vabolished. At the time our Lord's line of 
argument was probably as distasteful to His 
own disciples as to the Pharisees. , Long after 
this (Ac 10 14 ) St. Peter was so far from accept- 
ing it that he resisted the divine voice that 
bade him eat ' unclean ' food, and hold familiar 
intercourse with Gentiles. But the lesson was 
learnt at last. In the second Gospel there is 
a note, due either to. Peter or to his secretary 
Mark, which correctly glosses our Lord's 
words : ' This he said, making all meats clean ' 
(Mk7i9RV). 

St. Mark's account of this incident is fuller 
than St. Matthew's, and contains notes upon 
such Jewish usages as would not be understood 
by Gentile readers. St. Matthew's -account, 
however, though shorter, usefully supplements 
St. Mark's in several important particulars. 

1. Were of Jerusalem] RY 'come from Jeru- 
salem.' The active hostility of the hierarchy, 
strikingly manifested b} the sending of these 
emissaries, is explained by the fact (known to 
us only from the Fourth Gospel) that Jesus 
had already preached in Jeiusalem, and defied 
the authorities there. 

2. The tradition of the elders] The ' elders ' 
are mainly the scribes, but include also the old 



677 



15. 5 



ST. MATTHEW 



15.26 



heroes of the nation, Moses, Joshua, and the 
prophets, to whom certain of the rabbinical 
ordinances were ascribed. The scribes regarded 
their traditions as equal or superior in authority 
to the Law of God. For instance, they said, 
' The words of the scribes are lovely, above 
the words of the Law ; for the words of the 
Law are weighty and light, but the words of the 
scribes are all weighty.' . . ' The words of the 
elders are weightier than the words of the 
prophets.' . . ' He that shall say, There are no 
phylacteries, transgressing the words of the 
Law, is not guilty. But he that shall say, 
There are five divisions in a phylactery, adding 
to the words of the scribes, is guilty ' : see on 
235. 

They wash not their hands] The penalty for 
this neglect was excommunication by the San- 
hedrim Rabbi Eleazar ben Hazar was excom- 
municated, ' because he undervalued the washing 
of hands,' and dying unreconciled, was carried 
to the grave with a stone laid upon his bier, 
k whence you may learn (say they) that the 
Sanhedrin stones the very coffin of every 
excommunicate person that dies in his excom- 
munication.' The intricate details of the rab- 
binical ablutions are not worth describing, 
but a quotation from the Talmud will show the 
spirit in which they were performed : ' Who- 
soever hath his dwelling-place in the land of 
Israel, and eateth his common food in clean- 
ness (i.e. with washed hands), and speaks the 
holy language (i.e. Hebrew), and recites his 
phylacteries morning and evening, let him be 
confident that he shall obtain the life of the 
world to come.' There was a special devil 
(Shibta), who was said to torment those who 
ate with unwashed hands. 4. See Ex20 12 
Dt5i«. 

5. But ye say, etc.] RV ' But ye say, Who- 
ever shall say to his father or his mother, That 
wherewith thou mightest have been profited by 
me is given to God ; he shall not honour his 
father (or, his mother).' It is a gift] Mk ' it is 
Corban.' ' Corban,' meaning originally a sacri- 
fice or a gift to God, was used in NT. times 
as a mere word of vowing, without implying 
thai the thing \ -owed would actually be offered or 
given to God. Tims a man would say, 'Corban 
to me is wine for such a time,' meaning that 
he took a vow to abstain from wine. Or a 
man would sav to a friend, ' Corban to me for 
such a time is whatsoever 1 mighl be profited 
by thee,' meaning that for such a time he 
vowed thai he would receive neither hospitality 
nor any other benefit from his friend. Simi- 
larly, if a -on said to his father <>f mother, 
'Corban is whatsoever thou mightesi have 
profited by me,' he took a vow not to assist his 
father of mother in any way, kowever much 
tiny mighl require it. A vow of this kind was 
held by the scribes to excuse a man from the 



duty of supporting his parents, and thus by 
their tradition they made void the word of God. 

6. Honour not his father] RV ' shall not 
honour his father,' i.e. shall not be obliged to 
support his father. 

8. See Isa29 13 . The passage, which is para- 
phrased rather than quoted, appears in the same 
form in St. Mark. 11. See vv. 17-20, and 
prefatory remarks. 14. They be blind leaders] 
referring to the scribes and Pharisees. It is a 
proverbial expression occurring again Lk6 39 . 

15. Peter] as usual he is spokesman of the 
Twelve. St. Mark (i.e. Peter), perhaps from 
modesty, does not mention Peter here. 

17-20. Purity is to be sought in the soul, 
not in externals. See prefatory remarks. 

21-28. The Canaanitish woman (Mk7 24 ). 
The two accounts are, however, independent. 

21. Departed] RV ' withdrew.' The with- 
drawal was due to the hostility of the Phari- 
sees, and the alienation of friends caused by 
the speech in the synagogue of Capernaum 
(Jn6 66 ). Celsus (the heathen opponent of 
Christianity, 170 a.d.) blamed Christ's policy 
of withdrawal from danger as cowardly. 
Origen well replied that it was part of Christ's 
education of the disciples, ' teaching them not 
at random, or unseasonably, or without suffi- 
cient object, to encounter dangers.' 

Into the coasts (RV ' parts ') of Tyre and 
Sidon] According to St. Mark (7 24 ' 31 ), Jesus 
made a long sojourn on heathen soil, passing 
near Tyre, then along the coast to Sidon, 
through which He passed, then across country 
to the sources of the Jordan, then through 
Decapolis to the E. shore of the lake. 

22. A woman of Canaan] R V ' a Canaanitish 
woman.' She was one of that nation which 
the Jews had been bidden to exterminate, and 
was therefore more hateful than an ordinary 
heathen. St. Mark calls her ' a Greek, a 
Syrophcenician by race ' ; i.e. she spoke Greek, 
but belonged by race to those Syrians who 
dwelt in Phoenicia. The Phoenicians were of 
Canaanite descent. Thou Son of David] How 
did she know that Jesus was descended from 
David ? Not because she was a proselyte, 
for below she is called ' a dog,' i.e. a heathen. 
Probably beoause the fame of Jesus, and the 
popular title by which He was known, had 
spread far beyond the confines of Galilee : 
see on 1 l 12 - a . 

23. Send her away] viz. by granting her 
request and healing her daughter. 

26. The children are the Jews ; the dogs 
are the Gentiles. Christ here speaks as a Jew, 
not yet revealing His true sentiments towards 
the Gentiles, for which see 8 11 Jn4 23 AclO 28 , 
etc. The rabbis often spoke of the Gentiles 
as dogs, e.g. l He who eats with an idolater is 
like one who eats with a dog, for as a dog is 
uncircumcised, so also is an idolater.' ' The 



C78 



15.27 



ST. MATTHEW 



16.3 



nations of the world are compared to dogs.' 
w The holy convocation belongs to you, to you, 
not to the dogs, to you, not to them that 
are without.' 

Yet Jesus, in adopting the contemptuous 
expression, slightly softens it. He says not 
k dogs,' but 'little dogs,' i.e. household, fa- 
vourite dogs, and the woman cleverly catches 
at the expression, arguing that if the Gentiles 
are household dogs, then it is only right that 
they should be fed with the crumbs that fall 
from their masters' table. 

27. Truth, Lord ; yet the dogs (RY ' Yea, 
Lord : for even the dogs') eat the crumbs, 
etc.] The ancients sometimes used, instead of 
a napkin, soft pieces of bread to wipe their 
hands upon. These fragments were then 
thrown to the dogs. Masters'] i.e. the Jews. 
The woman is humble. She is willing to be 
called a dog, and to acknowledge the Jews as 
masters. 

28. O woman, great is thy faith, etc.] 
Why did Jesus speak to her so harshly, and 
wait so long before granting her request ? 
(1) To test the strength of her faith ; (2) to 
teach her the lesson that persistence and im- 
portunity in prayer will finally meet their 
reward ; (3) to teach the disciples that greater 
faith was often to be found among the heathen 
than in Israel. 

The miracle is interesting as one of the 
rare cases in which the ministrations of 
Christ were extended to a pure heathen. It 
is one of the few ' preludes of the larger 
mercy which was in store, first drops of that 
gracious shower which should one day water 
the whole earth.' In St. Mark's version our 
Lord gives a clear intimation of the future 
call of the Gentiles, by saying, ' Let the chil- 
dren first be filled.' 

29-31. Various healings (Mk7 31 " 37 ). St. 
Mark here inserts the healing of a deaf man 
with an impediment in his speech. 

29. Unto the sea] According to St. Mark, 
to the E. side of it, where the population was 
mainly heathen. A mountain] RY ' the 
mountain.' 31. The God of Israel] implying 
that the multitudes were mainly heathen. 

32-39. Feeding the four thousand (Mk 8 x ). 
The multitudes in this case being heathen (see 
v. 31), the miracle is no bare repetition of the 
feeding of the five thousand (14 13 ). That 
symbolised the communication of Christ to 
Israel, but this symbolised His communication 
to the Gentile world. 

Several recent commentators regard this 
miracle as only another version of the feeding 
of the five thousand. They argue, (1) that 
Jesus would not have repeated a miracle ; (2) 
that the apostles would not have said, ' Whence 
should we have so many loaves in a desert 
place, as to fill so great a multitude ? ' if Jesus 



had worked a similar miracle before. These 
arguments would be weighty if the two mira- 
cles occurred in different Gospels, or were 
derived from different sources. But this is not 
the case. The two miracles occur both in St. 
Matthew and St. Mark, the common matter of 
which Gospels is by general consent assigned 
to Peter himself. Peter's narrative also con- 
tains a saying of Jesus in which the two 
miracles are expressly distinguished: see 16° 
Mk8™. 

37. Seven baskets (Gk. spurides) full] In the 
other miracle there were ' twelve baskets (Gk. 
kophiuoi) full.' The difference in the baskets 
is perhaps to be accounted for by the different 
nationality of the multitudes. The ' kophinos ' 
was well known as the provision-basket of the 
Jews. Juvenal, the Roman poet (100-130 
a.d.), speaks of the Jews going about in heathen 
countries carrying a ' kophinos ' to hold their 
food, and a bundle of hay for their bed, to 
avoid the pollution of Gentile food and bed- 
ding. The capacity of the ' kophinos ' was 
about two gallons. The ' spuris ' was pro- 
bably larger. In a ' spuris ' St. Paul was let 
down from the wall of Damascus (Ac9 25 ), 
though St. Paul himself uses a different word 
(2 Cor 11 33). 

39. Magdala] RY 'Magadan.' St. Mark 
says ' Dalmanutha.' Neither of these places 
can be located with certainty. According to 
Eusebius (4th cent.), Magadan was near Ge- 
rasa, i.e. on the E. side of the lake, and not, 
as might have been expected, on the W. 

CHAPTER 16 
St. Peter's great Confession 

1-4. A sign from heaven demanded (Mk8 n ; 
cp. Lkll 16 : see on Mt 12 38). lm Pharisees. . 
Sadducees] An unnatural and unholy alliance of 
men whose only bond of union was hatred of 
Jesus. The Sadducees had probably been sent 
from Jerusalem by the chief priests, but some 
regard them as the same as the Herodians men- 
tioned by St. Mark, and, therefore, Galileans. 

From heaven] Jewish superstition held that 
the demons could work signs on earth, but 
that only God could work them in heaven. 

2, 3. They professed to be able to forecast 
the weather, but shut their eyes to the signs 
of the times which denoted the speedy fulfil- 
ment of the prophecies respecting the coming 
of the Messiah. 

The second half of v. 2 (' When it is even- 
ing,' etc.) and all v. 3 are omitted by some 
important ancient authorities, but the evidence 
in their favour, both internal and external, is 
so strong that it is hazardous to reject them. 
J. Lightfoot says, ' The Jews were very curious 
in observing the seasons of the heavens, and 
the temper of the air,' and gives examples of 
their weatherwise saws. 



679 



16. 4 



ST. MATTHEW 



16. 16 



4. But the sign of the prophet Jonas] RY 

' the sign of Jonah.' St. Mark omits these 
words : see on 1 '2 39 f . 

5-12. The leaven of the Pharisees and Sad- 
ducees (Mk8 14 ). But the narratives are in- 
dependent. This incident could only be de- 
rived from an eyewitness and an apostle. The 
discreditable light in which it places the 
Apostles goes to confirm its authenticity. 

5. To the other side] i.e. the E. side. This 
favours the view that Magadan (Dalmanutha) 
was on the W. side. 

6. The leaven of the Pharisees and of the 
Sadducees] St. Mark says, ' of the Pharisees 
and of Herod.' Herod may have been a Sad- 
ducee in spite of his superstitious belief in 
John's resurrection, but, even if he was not, 
he exactly represented the secular, irreligious, 
worldly spirit of Sadduceeism. The leaven 
of the Pharisees is hypocrisy, ostentation, 
pride, formalism, scrupulosity, and the tend- 
ency to place the letter before the spirit. 
The leaven of the Sadducees is worldliness, 
and the temper of irreligious scepticism. 

The disciples took Jesus' words literally as 
a command to lay in a fresh stock of bread, 
taking special precautions to avoid all bread 
made with leaven from the house of a Phari- 
see or a Sadducee. The misunderstanding is 
not so absurd, if it be remembered that Gen- 
tile food and Gentile leaven were regarded by 
the stricter Jews as unclean. Since Jesus had 
pronounced the Pharisees worse than the 
heathen, it was quite natural (from the strictly 
Jewish point of view) that He should proceed 
to pronounce their houses, food, and, there- 
fore, their leaven unclean. Jewish writings 
contain subtle discussions as to when, why, and 
under what circumstances heathen, Samaritan, 
and Christian leaven is to be regarded as 
unclean. 

9, 10. See on 15 32 . 12. Cp. Lkl2i, and 
see on v. 6. 

13-20. St. Peter's confession (Mk 8 2 7 Lk 9 !8). 
Jesus now undertook another distant excur- 
sion, partly to escape the hostility of the Phari- 
sees (v. 4), but chiefly to hold private converse 
with His disciples, and to lead them on to the 
recognition of His Messiahship and divine 
Sonship, which was the supreme object of His 
ministry so far as the Twelve were concerned. 
What was the significance of lliis confession, 
which clearly marked a great epoch in Christ's 
ministry ? According to some its significance 
lay in the fact that He was now for the first 
time recognised as the- Messiah. Hut is this 
so? Already He had been called the 'Son of 
God,' i.e. the Messiah, bj the Apostles | I I ::; ). 
lie had been s<> designated by the Baptist 
(311,12) and i>\ popular acclamation (-Son of 
David' the Messiah, 'J-' 7 12*8 L5 22 ). So also 
in the Fourth Gospel the apostles regard Him 



as the Messiah from the first (' We have found 
the Messiah,' Jnl 41 ; 'Rabbi, thou art the 
Son of God, thou art the king of Israel,' Jn 
l 49 ). The significance of Peter's representa- 
tive confession, therefore, lies in this, that 
what they had before received on the authority 
of the Baptist, and as a mere working hypo- , 
thesis, which might or might not be proved bW*» 
events to be true, they now deliberately rati- 
fied as their own conviction, based on their 
personal experience of what Jesus had shown 
Himself to be. Here then at last was the 
solid rock on which Jesus could build, not the 
shifting sand of possibilities and surmises, nor 
the weak faith which consists in mere sub- 
mission to authority, but the strong conviction 
of earnest souls who know what they believe 
and why they believe it, and are willing to 
live by the truth they have apprehended, and, 
if need be, die for it. 

13. Caesarea Philippi] i.e. the Caesarea built 
by Philip the Tetrarch (see art. ' the Herods'), 
was situated at the sources of the Jordan, 
near the foot of Mt. Hermon (9,000 ft.), in 
the midst of magnificent scenery. It was a 
Gentile city, and was often called Paneas 
(now Banias), because the god Pan was wor- 
shipped there. The other Cassarea on the 
sea-coast was called, for distinction, Caesarea 
Palestina. 

14. Cp. 14 2 . Why do not the apostles 
mention the belief that Jesus was really the 
Messiah, among the current opinions ? Be- 
cause this belief no longer existed. Those 
who held it, had abandoned it because of His 
continued refusal to declare Himself (Jn6 16 ), 
and to do what was expected of the Messiah, 
viz. deliver the oppressed nation from its 
enemies. Though the people could not deny 
His miracles or His greatness, they felt that 
He had disappointed them, and His popularity 
had already begun to ebb. Elias] R V ' Elijah ' : 
see on 17 10 . Jeremias] Jewish legend repre- 
sented Jeremiah as well as Elijah, as pre- 
paring the way for the Messiah. He was said 
to have hidden the ark when Jerusalem was 
captured by the Babylonians, and to have 
called Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses from 
their tombs to assist him in mourning for the 
destruction of the Temple. In the days of 
the Messiah it was said that he and Elijah 
would dig up the ark from the cave on Mt. 
Nebo in which it was concealed, and replace 
it in the Holy of Holies. 

16. The Christ] i.e. 'the Messiah.' So also 
St. Mark; but St. Luke has 'the Christ of 
God.' The Son of the living God] These words, 
together with the next three vv., are peculiar 
to St. Matthew, but are nevertheless authentic. 
They suit the context admirably, and are so 
thoroughly Hebraic in spirit, that their signifi- 
cance can only be apprehended by going behind 



cm 



16. 17 



ST. MATTHEW 



16. 18 



the Greek to the Aramaic original. Their 
absence from St. Mark is readily explained. 
In confessing that Jesus was the Christ, Peter 
did no more than express the general sense of 
the apostolic circle. But in confessing that 
He was the ' Son of the living God,' he was 
going beyond what the others at that time 
believed. He, therefore, modestly suppressed 
his own personal confession and the special 
commendation with which Jesus greeted it. 
' Son of God ' here is no mere equivalent 
of ' the Messiah,' but a confession of Christ's 
unique filial relation to God. This is shown, 

(1) by the deep emotion with which the speaker 
makes, and Jesus receives, the confession ; 

(2) by the fact that the confession is perfectly 
satisfactory to Jesus, and is forthwith made 
the dogmatic foundation of Christianity (' Upon 
this rock I will build my Church '). 

17. Simon Bar-jona] i.e. Simon, son of Jonah. 
The full name harmonises with the solemnity 
of the occasion and the emotion of the speaker. 
In Jn 1 42 Peter's father is called ' Joanes ' 
(John), of which Jonah is probably a contrac- 
tion. Flesh and blood] corresponds exactly 
to the English expression ' mortal man,' and 
is often found in that sense in rabbinical 
writings. 

18. Thou art Peter] Gk. Petros ; Aramaic, 
Kephas. Jesus had given Peter this name at 
their first interview ( Jn 1 42 ). Peter had now 
realised his character, and Jesus solemnly con- 
firmed the honourable title. And upon this 
rock] Gk. petra. As the Gk. word here is 
different, most ancient commentators deny 
that Peter is the rock. The Eoman Catholic 
Launoy reckons that seventeen Fathers regard 
Peter as the rock ; forty-four regard Peter's 
confession as the rock ; sixteen regard Christ 
Himself as the rock ; while eight are of 
opinion that the Church is built on all the 
apostles. Assuming, however, with the ma- 
jority of modern commentators that Peter is 
the rock, the interpretation still remains nearly 
the same, because it is upon Peter, as confess- 
ing faith in Christ's divinity, that the Church 
is founded. 

The next question is, ' Was the promise 
made to Peter exclusively, or did Christ ad- 
dress Peter as the representative of the Twelve, 
intending to give to all the same powers that 
He gave to Peter ? ' The answer can hardly 
be doubtful. The whole text speaks of the 
future. Christ says not ' I build,' but ' I will 
build ' ; not ' I give,' but ' I will give,' refer- 
ring to the future for the explanation. The 
rest of the NT. shows in what sense the words 
of Christ are to be understood. On the even- 
ing of Easter Day He fu] filled His promise to 
Peter, by giving to all the Apostles present 
even greater powers than those which are here 
promised — k As my Father hath sent me, even 



so send I you. And . . he breathed on them, 
and saith unto them, Receive ye the Holy 
Ghost : Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are 
remitted unto them ; and whosesoever sins ye 
retain, they are retained' (Jn20 22 > 23 ). No 
power of any kind was then given to Peter 
which was not given equally to all the Apostles, 
and in harmony with this all the Apostles are 
jointly regarded in the NT. as the foundation 
on which the Church is built (19 28 Eph2 2 « 
Rev 21 14). 

The position of Peter in the Apostolic 
Church was entirely unlike that of a modern 
Pope. In Ac ll 2 he is sharply criticised for 
his conduct in the matter of Cornelius and 
makes his defence before the Church. At the 
council of Jerusalem (Ac 15) he plays quite a 
subordinate part. It is James who presides 
and pronounces the decision, and the decree 
runs in the name of the apostles and elders. 
St. Paul claims an authority equal to and in- 
dependent of Peter's. He reckons himself 
' not a whit behind the very chief est apostles ' 
(2 Cor 1 1 5 ), and on a celebrated occasion resists 
Peter and rebukes him to his face (Gal2 n ). 
Moreover, the tone of St. Peter's first and 
certainly genuine epistle is thoroughly unpapal. 
' The elders therefore among you, I exhort, 
who am a fellow elder,' etc. 

What then was the nature of the primacy 
which Peter possessed ? It was a primacy of 
personal character and ability. He excelled 
the other apostles not in office, but in zeal, 
courage, promptness of action, and firmness of 
faith. He was their leader, because he was 
most fitted to lead. He boldly ventured, where 
others hesitated. And this explains the pecu- 
liarity of the present passage, that the promise 
was made, in form at least, to Peter alone. 
The other apostles had by this time attained 
to the conviction that Jesus was the Messiah 
(see the parallel narratives), but only Peter 
had made the great venture of faith which is 
implied in the acknowledgment of the divinity 
of Christ. 

My church, with emphasis on the My, signi- 
fying that the Church is not a human but a 
divine institution. In this passage the Church 
is identified with the Kingdom of Heaven. 

The gates of hell] i.e. the gates of Hades, 
Heb. Sheol, the abode of the dead. As the 
Church is often represented as a city, so here 
its great adversary Death is poetically repre- 
sented as a fortified city with walls and gates. 
Two distinct promises are here made : (1) 
that the Church as an organisation shall be 
indestructible. No persecutions, or assaults of 
Satan from within or without shall destroy it, 
because the life which is in it is Christ's ; (2) 
that individual members of the Church, united 
to Christ and sharing in His indestructible 
life, shall not be held by the power of death, 



681 



16. 19 



ST. MATTHEW 



16. 28 



nor overcome by judgment, but be made ' par- 
takers of the inheritance of the saints in light.' 

19. The keys of the kingdom of heaven] 
i.e. the keys of the earthly Church, not of 
heaven itself. Peter is not here compared to 
the porter of a house, who has only the key 
of the gate, but, since he possesses all the keys, 
to a house-steward exercising full authority 
over the house and all its inmates, in the 
master's name : cp. Isa22 15 ' 25 . The power of 
the keys is, (1) the power to govern the Church ; 
(2) the power to exercise discipline in it ; (3) 
the power to decide who shall be admitted into 
it, and on what conditions (subject, of course, 
to the Law of Christ) ; (4) and indirectly, since 
the steward provides food for all the house- 
hold, the ministry of the Word and Sacraments. 
Government and discipline, however, and not 
ministry, are the main ideas. The narrower 
interpretations of the power of the keys, as 
that it is the power to admit into the Church 
by the preaching of the gospel, are not so 
much erroneous as insufficient. The figure in 
Lk ll 52 ( k the key of knowledge ') is different. 
The best NT. parallel is Eev3 7 . 

Bind . . loose] These words, unintelligible in 
Greek and English, become full of meaning 
when traced back to the original Aramaic. 

Every rabbi or scribe received at his ordina- 
tion, which was, like that of the Christian 
Church, by the laying on of hands, the power to 
bind and to loose, i.e. to decide with authority 
what was lawful and unlawful to be done, or 
orthodox and unorthodox to be believed. To 
bind was to declare unlawful, to loose was to 
declare lawful. We read, for example, that 
' Rabbi Meir loosed (i.e. permitted) the mixing 
of wine and oil, and the anointing of a sick 
man on the sabbath ' ; that Rabbi Jochanan 
said, ' They necessarily loose (i.e. permit) 
saluting on the sabbath,' and ' Concerning 
gathering wood on a feast day, the school of 
Shammai binds (i.e. forbids) it, — the school of 
Hillel looses (i.e. permits) it.' The power, 
therefore, which Christ here promised to Peter 
and the other apostles was the power to decide 
with authority questions of faith and morals 
in the Christian Church. — the power to fix the 
moral standard and to determine the Christian 
creed. In the exercise of this authority the 
apostles 'loosed' the prohibitions of the Mosaic 
Law first to the Gentiles (Ac 15), and finally to 
the Jews (Mk7 >"RY. see on Mtin 1 " 20 ), de- 
cided what standard of morality should be 
enforced in the society, and pronounced with 
authority in controversies of faith. 

When the Jewish rabbis differed upon an 
important matter of doctrine or practice, a 
conference was held, and the judgment of the 

majority was held to be authoritative. Simi- 
larly the apostolic power of ' binding and 
loosing 1 was intended to be exercised collect- 



ively, and great deference was paid both in 
the apostolic and in subsequent ages to the 
decisions of synods (Ac 15). 

In heaven] It is promised that God Himself 
will ratify the ' binding and loosing ' of the 
earthly Church, when these powers are duly 
and legitimately exercised. k Binding and 
loosing ' is different from the power of re- 
mitting and retaining sins, for which see Jn 20 23 . 

21-23. Peter rebuked. 

21. Began Jesus] There had been intima- 
tions of his death before (9 15 12 4 o Jn2W 
314 goi^ Du t now they began to be more dis- 
tinct. St. Mark says expressly, ' and He was 
speaking the word openly.' 22. Be it far, 
etc.] lit. ' God have mercy on thee.' 

23. Satan] The sharpness of the words 
indicates a strong and intense emotion. The 
chief of the Apostles was addressed in the self- 
same terms as those which had been spoken to 
the tempter. St. Peter's suggestion was indeed 
something like a renewal of the same tempta- 
tion. ' In this suggestion that He might obtain 
the crown without the cross . . Christ saw the 
recurrence of the temptation which had offered 
Him the glory of those kingdoms on condition 
of His drawing back from the path which the 
Father had appointed for Him.' An offence] 
lit. ' stumbling-block.' A play on the word 
Peter, ' A stone in my path, not a founda- 
tion stone of my Church.' Savourest] RV 
' mindest.' 

24-28. Exhortations to steadfastness and 
self-denial in prospect of Christ's return. 

24. See on 10 3S . By the cross Jesus means 
primarily martyrdom, either in will or act, and 
not merely self-denial, though this is included. 

25. Whosoever will save his life (in this 
world in time of persecution by denying Me) 
shall lose it. 26. Lose his own soul] RV 
'forfeit his life.' 27. This v. refers to the 
Last Judgment. 

28. The most probable interpretation of 
this v. refers it to Christ's coming to overthrow 
the old dispensation by the destruction of 
Jerusalem, 70 A.D. The decisive phrase is, 
1 There be some standing here, which shall not 
taste of death.' This obviously excludes the 
Last Judgment, and, hardly less obviously, 
Christ's Resurrection, for it would be a truism 
to say that some of the disciples present would 
live to see an event which happened only a 
few months later. Whether the Transfiguration 
is referred to is not so clear. It was witnessed 
by only some of those present, but, on the 
other hand, it can hardly be described as the 
kingdom of God coming 'with power' (Mk). 
Nevertheless it is not by an accident that the 
Transfiguration immediately followed the sa} 
Lng. The Transfiguration was an earnest of 
the greater manifestation of power shown at 
the destruction of Jerusalem, just as that event 



(382 



IT. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



17. 5 



itself was an earnest and, as it were, a rehearsal 
of the final act of judgment : see further 
on c. 24. 

Taste of death] a common rabbinical ex- 
pression for ' to die.' Not in OT. The Son 
of man, etc.] St. Mark ' the kingdom of God 
come in power ' ; St. Luke ' the kingdom of 
God.' 

CHAPTER 17 
The Transfiguration 

i-8. The Transfiguration (Mk9 2 Lk9 2S ). 

St. Leo rightly apprehended the historical 
situation when he said that in the Transfigura- 
tion the principal object aimed at was that in 
the hearts of the disciples the scandal of the 
cross might be removed, and that throughout 
the terrible and humiliating events which were 
shortly to happen they might be sustained by 
the remembrance of the revelation which they 
had been vouchsafed. 

The Transfiguration revealed Christ in His 
divine glory as Son of God. If, as is gener- 
ally supposed, it took place at night (see Lk 
9 37 ), the spectacle of the face of Christ, 
shining like the sun in its strength, must have 
been inexpressibly glorious. His_form shone, 
not like that of Moses with borrowed light, 
but with a glory which came from within, 
and was His own. ' We were eye-witnesses 
of His majesty,' said one of the witnesses 
(if 2 Peter is authentic). ' And we beheld His 
glory,' said another, 'the glory as of the only 
begotten of the Father, full of grace and 
truth': 2 Pet 1 16-18 j n 114. 

Moses and Elijah appeared, the former as 
representing the Law, and the latter the 
prophets, and Christ was seen in the midst of 
them as greater than both. ' The unity of the 
Old and New Covenant is wonderfully attested 
by this apparition of the princes of the Old in 
solemn yet familiar intercourse with the Lord 
of the New ; and not the unity only, but with 
this unity the subordination of the Old to the 
New, that "Christ is the end of the Law" 
(Ro 10 4 ), and the object to which all prophecy 
pointed (Lk24« AclO 13 28 23 Ro32i), that 
therefore the great purpose of these had now 
been fulfilled ; all which was declared in the 
fact that, after their testimony thus given, 
Moses and Elias disappear, while Christ only 
re main s ' (Trench). 

Whether the Transfiguration was a vision 
seen in trance, or a waking reality, has often 
been discussed. In favour of the former 
view it is urged that their eyes were ' heavy 
with sleep.' but St. Luke, who alone mentions 
this fact, is careful to add that 'they re- 
mained awake throughout,' or at least (for 
the expression is somewhat ambiguous) that 
they were thoroughly awake at the actual 
time of the vision. That it was a real object- 



ive occurrence, and not a mere illusion, is 
shown, (1) by its appearing simultaneously to 
the three" apostles ; (2) by the conversation 
between Christ and the visitors. The appear- 
ance of Christ with two of His saints appar- 
ently in glorified bodies is an earnest of the 
time of the ' redemption of the body,' when 
the Lord Jesus Christ ' shall fashion anew the 
body of our humiliation, that it may be con- 
formed to the body of His glory.' 

The narrative in St. Matthew and St. Mark 
is derived from St. Peter. That in St. Luke 
is largely independent, and may be in part 
derived from St. John, the only other surviv- 
ing witness when St. Luke wrote. 

i. After six days] Lk 'after about eight 
days,' either an independent calculation or 
another way of reckoning. An high moun- 
tain] not Mt. Tabor, the top of which was 
occupied by a fortress, but more probably 
Hermon, which is near Caesarea Philippi, and 
is an ' exceeding high mountain ' (9,000 ft.), 
which Tabor is not (1,800 ft.). 2. Trans- 
figured] lit. ' metamorphosed. ' The glory of 
the Godhead burst through the veil of flesh. 
St. Luke alone mentions that the change took 
place while Jesus was praying. 3. Moses and 
Elijah were recognised through the super- 
natural power of insight which enabled them 
to be seen. 

4. Three tabernacles] or, 'booths.' Peter 
wished to prolong the stay of the heavenly 
visitants, and offered to build them temporary 
houses on the mountain for their accommoda- 
tion. He felt that it was good to be there in 
such glorious surroundings, and by no means 
wished to descend to earth again, to begin the 
fatal journey to Jerusalem of which Moses 
and Elijah were speaking (St. Luke). St. 
Mark adds : ' He wist not what to answer, for 
they were sore afraid.' 5. A bright cloud] 
i.e. the visible glory which, according to 
Jewish ideas, manifested the divine presence. 
It is the same as the pillar of cloud and fire 
in the wilderness, the cloud that filled Solo- 
mon's Temple, and the visible glory which, 
according to the rabbis, rested upon the ark, 
and was called the ' Shechinah.' This is my 
beloved Son] Lk ' This is my Son, my 
chosen.' These words, in which the Father 
Himself testified to Christ's divine Sonship, 
are similar to those spoken at the Baptism ; 
but whereas those were spoken in part at 
least to Christ Himself, these were spoken 
entirely to the disciples. They contain a 
striking confirmation of Peter's late confes- 
sion, and further teach what the Apostles 
found it so hard to learn, that the old dis- 
pensation was to be entirely superseded by 
the new. ' Hear,' said the voice of the 
Father, ' not Hfttses and Elias, but my beloved 
Son.' 



683 



17. 9 



ST. MATTHEW 



17.24 



9-13. Elijah and the Baptist (Mk9 n ). 

9. The vision] lit. ' the thing seen.' The 
word does not imply the unreality of the 
occurrence. To no man] Not to the multitudes, 
lest they shouTcTbe carried away by political 
enthusiasm ; nor to the other disciples, because 
they were not yet in a fit state to receive the 
lesson that it taught. To be witnesses of the 
Transfiguration was a special reward of the 
Three for their greater faith and greater 
spiritual receptiveness. ' To him that hath 
shall be given.' Risen again] Another clear 
prophecy of the Resurrection. 

10. Why then say the scribes?] Jesus, by 
forbidding the incident to be spoken of (v. 9), 
seemed to attach little importance to the 
present appearance of Elijah. 'Why then,' 
ask the disciples, ' do the scribes attach so 
much importance to it ? And why are we 
forbidden to reply to their leading objection 
to your Messiahship, by saying that Elijah has 
come, and that we have seen him.' Elias 
must first come] The Jews expected a personal 
return of Elijah to prepare the way for the 
Messiah, not another prophet like him : see on 
Lk 1 17 . It was supposed that his peculiar 
activity would consist in settling ceremonial 
and ritual questions, doubts and difficulties, 
and that he would restore to Israel, (1) the 
golden pot of manna, (2) the vessel containing 
the anointing oil, (3) the vessel containing the 
waters of purification, (4) Aaron's rod that 
budded and bore fruit. II. Elias truly, etc.] 
RV ' Elijah indeed cometh, and shall restore 
all things.' The future ' shall restore ' is 
best explained as a quotation of the exact 
words of the scribes, and not as a prophecy 
that Elijah will come in person to prepare 
the way for Christ's Second Advent, though 
some understood it to mean this. Restore all 
things] see Mai 46 Ac 3 21. The Baptist, to 
whom Jesus alluded, did not in fact ' restore 
all things,' nor bring about the perfect 
moral purification anticipated by the prophet 
Malachi, but that was the fault of his hearers. 
The possibility of the Baptist's failure was 
distinctly contemplated by Malachi, for he 
adds, ' lest I come and smite the earth with a 
curse.' Malachi spoke of, and Christ under- 
stood by his words, a moral restoration of the 
n;it ion. The scribes looked for the restoration 
of the pot of manna, stricter ceremonies, and 
similar frivolities. 12. Buthavedone] Herod, 
not the scribes, actually killed John, but 
Herod only did what the scribes would have 
been glad to do : cp. Lk7 30 > 33 . 

14 20. Healing of the lunatic (epileptic) 
(Mk9 M Lk*.!' 57 ). St. Mark's account is much 
the Fullest. Christ descends from the mount 
to resume Bis works of benevolence. He who 
had communed with God and His prophets 
in the very atmosphere of heaven, now 



mingles in the common life of men, and concerns 
Himself with their troubles. He was full of 
grace as well as truth. Raphael brings this 

(out in his great picture, which depicts the 
Transfiguration and the healing of the epilep- 
tic boy upon the same canvas. 

The scribes had taken advantage of Christ's 
absence to undermine His influence with the 
multitude, and their designs had been assisted 
by the failure of His disciples to heal a 
peculiarly severe case of epilepsy (Mk). The 
return of Jesus discomfited the scribes. 
The epileptic was healed, ' and they were 
all astonished at the majesty of God ' (Lk). 
J. Lightfoot remarks, ' It was very usual 
with the Jews to attribute the more grievous 
diseases to evil spirits, especially those where- 
in either the body was distorted, or the mind 
disturbed or tossed with a frenzy.' The 
demon of epilepsy, in the case of infants, was 
called ' Shibta,' in the case of adults, ' Cor- 
dicus.' How far the language of Christ 
about demons is an accommodation to the 
ideas of the time is discussed at end of c. 4. 

15. Lunatick] i.e. epileptic, because epi- 
leptics were supposed to be affected by the 
changes of the moon (luna). 17. O faithless] 
The rebuke is addressed not only to the disci- 
ples, but also to the father of the lad and the 
multitude. 20. Unbelief] RV l little faith.' 

Faith as a grain of mustard] i.e. the smallest 
amount : see on 13 31 . Ye shall say unto 
this mountain, etc.] a proverbial expression : 
see on 21 21 . 21. The RV and Westcott and 
Hort omit the whole v., but it is too strongly 
attested to be lightly rejected. The parallel 
in Mk (RV) omits ' and fasting ' : see on Mk 9 29 . 

22, 23. Jesus predicts His passion (Mk9 30 
Lk9* 3 ). 

22. Abode] RV ' were gathering themselves 
together.' Galilee] mentioned because the last, 
miracle had taken place beyond its borders, 
near Caesarea Philippi. 23. Sorry] They 
thought only of the Passion, not of the 
Resurrection, the allusion to which they did 
not in the least understand. St. Mark says, 
' But they understood not the saying, and 
were afraid to ask him.' 

24-27. The half-shekel or Temple tribute 
(peculiar to St. Matthew). Jesus is asked to 
pay the usual tax towards the maintenance of 
the Temple services. As Son of God He 
claims exemption, yet pays, lest He should be 
thought to despise the Temple. A sig- 
nificant indication of Christ's consciousness 
of a special relationship to God, unlike that 
of other men. 

24. They that received tribute mo ?/c>/~\ RV 
'the half-shekel' (Gk. didrachma). Every 
male Israelite above the age of twenty was 
required by the Law (E: 3i)H-i6 3825,26) to 
pay half a shekel annually (i.e. about eighteen- 



684 



17.25 



ST. MATTHEW 



18. 5 



pence) towards the maintenance of the Temple 
worship, as ( a ransom for his soul unto the 
Lord.' It was usually paid between the 
fifteenth and twenty-fifth of Adar (March), 
i.e. about Passover time, so that the money 
was now considerably overdue. 25. Custom] 
i.e. taxes on merchandise. Tribute] i.e. taxes 
on persons and property. 26. Then are the 
children (RY ' the sons ') free] Therefore 
Jesus, being the Son of the Heavenly King, 
is free from the Temple tax. ' Children ' (sons) 
is not meant to include the apostles or Chris- 
tians generally. The plural is only part of 
the simile. 27. Lest we should offend them] 
i.e. ' lest we give the collectors, who do not 
know that I am the Son of God, the false im- 
pression that I dishonour the Temple, and so 
hinder their conversion, go thou,' etc. Offend] 
RY ' cause to stumble.' A piece of money] 
lit. ' a stater.' A silver stater was exactly 
four drachmae or denarii, i.e. a shekel, enough 
to pay for two. For me and thee] not ' for 
us.' The two cases were different. In our 
Lord's case the payment was a condescension, 
in Peter's a debt. 

There are many authentic historical instances 
of valuables being found inside fish. Poly- 
crates, tyrant of Samos (6th cent. B.C.), threw 
into the sea an emerald signet set with gold, 
the work of the Samian artist Theodorus. A 
few days later his cook found the signet inside 
a large fish, which a fisherman had presented 
to the monarch. 

Although the supernatural element in this 
miracle is not greater than in the other physi- 
cal miracles, yet its dramatic character, and the 
absence of the motive of benevolence which so 
generally characterises our Lord's miracles, 
suggest to some critics that we have here not 
strict history, but a mixture of history and 
tradition, the nucleus of historic fact being 
that our Lord sent St. Peter to catch a fish, 
and that this fish, when sold, realised a 
shekel. This explanation of the -incident is 
quite possible. 

CHAPTER 18 

Offending the Little Ones. The 
Unmerciful Servant 

1- 1 4. Ambition reproved, and humility taught 
by the example of a little child (Mk9 33-37 
Lk9 4<3 - 48 ). 

1. Who is the greatest ?] RY l Who then 
is greatest ? ' The ' then ' is explained from 
St. Mark's statement that on the way to 
Capernaum the disciples had been disputing 
who was the greatest. The Transfiguration 
had revived the hopes of the three leading 
apostles that the Kingdom of Christ was about 
to be established, and the Twelve were divided 
into three parties advocating the rival claims 
of Peter, James, and John to the office of 



prime minister. Others were perhaps jealous 
of all three, and favoured other candidates. 
They, therefore, came to Christ. ' Who then,' 
said they (' since we cannot settle it ourselves), 
is the greatest in the Kingdom of Heaven ? ' 
According to St. Mark and St. Luke, when 
they came into Christ's presence, they were 
ashamed to speak, but Jesus understood the 
question they desired to ask : cp. 20 20 Lk22 24 . 
The incident is well placed by St. Matthew 
after the incident of the half-shekel in which 
Jesus had shown His own humility by paying 
the tax. The kingdom of heaven] here the 
Kingdom of the Messiah wrongly conceived 
of as an earthly empire. 2. A little child] 
Perhaps, as He was in Peter's house, one of 
Peter's children. Tradition, however, says 
that it was Ignatius, the martyr, afterwards 
bishop of Antioch. 

3. Except ye be converted] RY ' Except ye 
turn.' A sharp rebuke. The disciples were 
disputing their rank and precedence in the 
Kingdom. Jesus denies that they are in it at 
all. They have turned their backs on it 
altogether. Only by reversing their course 
and embracing humility, can they hope 
even to enter it. Here Jesus uses the ' King- 
dom of Heaven ' to express the inward 
character of the true members of His Church. 

4. Shall humble himself as this little child] 
A little child has no pride, knows nothing of 
worldly rank or position, and is simple, teach- 
able, and loving. In using such an object- 
lesson, Jesus showed His greatness as a teacher. 
According to St. Mark, He took the little child 
in His arms to teach the lesson of love that 
follows. St. Bernard's definition of humility 
is true and deep. ' It is the virtue by which 
a man from the most true knowledge of him- 
self is vile (i.e. of little worth) in his own 
eyes ; the esteeming of ourselves small, inas- 
much as we are so, the thinking truly, and 
because truly, therefore lowlily, of ourselves ' : 
see also on 5 5 . 

5. Shall receive] i.e. with affection, honour, 
and respect, and with the design of learning 
from them the special lesson, which they have 
to teach, viz. humility : cp. 10 40 , where 
'receiveth you' means 'receiveth your teach- 
ing.' One such little child] Not a literal child, 
but a child-like, humble person of any age. 
This is the meaning even in St. Luke, who 
writes, l this little child,' because the child is 
taken as representing a class. In my name] 
i.e. for my sake. Receiveth me] Christ is 
honoured when His saints are honoured for 
their likeness to Him. St. Mark (cp. also St. 
Luke) adds, ' and whosoever receiveth me, 
receiveth not me, but him that sent me.' 

Between vv. 5 and 6 St. Mark and St. 
Luke insert a saying of John's about a man 
who was casting out devils in Christ's name. 



685 



18. 6 



ST. MATTHEW 



18. 19 



6-9. Mk9 42 -4 8 : cp. also Lkl7i-2 

6. But whoso shall offend (R Y ' shall cause to 
stumble ') one of these little ones] i.e. whoso- 
ever shall bring about the ruin of the soul of 
a true believer, by depriving him of the child- 
like characteristics of humility and love. 

It were better for him] RY ' it is profitable 
for him.' Why better ? Because the penalty 
for ruining the soul of another is eternal death, 
and it is better to suffer the worst earthly 
penalty, than to do anything which will incur 
that awful doom. 

A millstone] lit. ' a millstone turned by an 
ass,' as opposed to one turned by hand, i.e. ' a 
great millstone ' (RY). Were hanged . . were 
drowned] more exactly, ' had been hanged . . 
had been drowned,' viz. before he did the 
deed. Drowning was a Roman and Greek 
punishment, reserved for crimes of peculiar 
enormity. It is not known to have been 
practised by the Jews. 

7-9. A short digression. Jesus passes 
from the case of ' these little ones,' to 
temptations to sin in the world at large 
(v. 7), and in individual cases (vv. 8, 9). 

7. Woe unto the world] Jesus has been 
dealing with ' offences,' i.e. temptations to sin, 
within the Church. He now applies the 
same principle to the world at large. It is in 
every case, He says, a greater sin to lead others 
into sin than to be led. There is a greater 
punishment, or 'woe,' for the tempter than 
for the tempted. It must needs be] A broad 
statement of the results of human experience, 
not a definition of the doctrine of fatalism or 
determinism. God does not compel men to 
sin, any more than He compels them to be 
virtuous. Perhaps Jesus had in His mind the 
case of His own death. The death of Jesus 
was (the religious state of the nation being 
what it was) practically certain, yet the 
human agent, Judas, through whom the offence 
came, acted freely, and was held responsible 
for his act. 8, 9. How each man is to deal with 
his own individual temptations : see on 5 29 > 30 . 

10-14. Two reasons are given why we are 
not to despise ' one of these little ones,' i.e. 
any humble Christian. One is, that God Him- 
self shows them honour, by appointing angels 
to be their guardians. The other is, that He 
cares so much for them, that He has sent His 
own Son to redeem them (v. II). 

10. Their angels] Though the general 
ministry of angels to those who are heirs of 
salvation is generally assumed in the NT. (Heb 
1 14 , etc.), only this passage and Ac 12 lfi teach 
that a special guardian angel is assigned to each 
individual. It is implied that the angela en- 
trusted with this ministry are of the highest 
rank, because in an Oriental court only the 
highest officials see the king's face : cp. 
2 K2519. 



11. The RY, following many ancient au- 
thorities, omits this v. It is, however, difficult 
to account for its insertion, if it is not genuine. 
It is certainly not inserted from Lkl9 10 . 

12-14. Parable of the Lost Sheep, 'which is 
intended to show that it would be in direct 
opposition to God's desire for human salvation 
to lead astray one of those little ones, and to 
cause him to be lost, like a strayed sheep. Lk 1 5 4 
records the same beautiful parable, though in 
a different connexion ' (see the notes there). 
The practical lesson is that we must not only 
be kind to, and honour Christ's little ones 
(i.e. members of His Church), but, if they go 
astray, must show our love by seeking to re- 
claim them, like the Good Shepherd. 

15-20. Treatment of an erring brother 
(peculiar to St. Matthew). The connexion 
with what precedes is as follows : ' Despise 
not one of the " little ones " (vv. 10-14) ; if, 
however, one " offends against thee," then pro- 
ceed thus.' The subject changes from that 
of doing injury to the ' little ones,' against 
which Jesus has been warning (vv. 10-14), to 
that of suffering injury, in view of which He 
prescribes the proper method of brotherly 
visitation. A ' little one ' is now defined as a 
Christian brother in general. Previously he 
was not only a Christian, but a humble 
Christian. 

15. If thy brother shall trespass against 
thee] so RY. Westcott and Hort, however, 
omit ' against thee,' considerably altering the 
sense of the passage, which then applies to 
sin in general. Hast gained thy brother] viz. 
' back to God, and to thyself.' While he was 
in his sin, he was lost to both. 

17. Tell it unto the church] i.e. the Christian 
Church, as in 16 18 , not the Jewish synagogue, 
as some have supposed. Jesus uses Jewish 
expressions, because those only were then 
intelligible, but He is plainly legislating for 
His own society. In dealing with offenders the 
Church is to use, (1) admonition, (2) if that be 
unsuccessful, excommunication. This was also 
the Jewish method of procedure. As an 
heathen man (RY ' gentile ') and a publican] 
Social intercourse with the sinner, while unre- 
pentant, is forbidden. But Jesus does not 
authorise the more severe forms of excom- 
munication in use among the Jews, which 
involved cursing and anathematising. The 
discipline of His Church is to be mild and 
gentle. 18. Bind . . loose] see on 16 19 . Here 
the binding and loosing refer specially to 
judicial decisions, which Jesus says will be 
ratified in heaven. 

19. Again I say] Having promised the 
ratification in heaven of the judicial decisions 
of tho Church, Jesus proceeds to say the same 
thing about the prayers of Christians. He 
lays stress on united prayer. The way to 



r,«r> 



18. 20 



ST. MATTHEW 



19. 



obtain a request, is to call in the aid of a 
Christian brother and to pray with him. Still 
more, therefore, will the united prayer of 
the whole Church prove effectual. 20. For 
where two or three] Christ proceeds to give 
the reason why God will grant such prayers. 
It is that He Himself, the great Intercessor, is 
personally present in every worshipful assembly 
of Christians, and presents their prayers to 
the Father. The passage applies to private 
prayer-meetings, but is particularly true of 
assemblies of the Church. The small num- 
bers (two or three) are mentioned to encourage 
the Christians of the first ages, who would often 
consist of a mere handful in the midst of a 
great heathen population. A convincing proof 
of Christ's divinity may be drawn from this 
promise, which is rendered all the more evident 
by a comparison with the Jewish sayings from 
which it is adapted, e.g. ' Whence is it certain 
that the Holy and Blessed God is present in 
the synagogue?' (FromPs82 1 .) 'Whence is 
it certain that when ten persons are praying, 
the Divine Majesty is present ? ' (From the 
same passage.) ' Whence is it certain that the 
Divine Majesty is present when two are sitting 
and studying the law ? ' (From Mal3 16 .) 

21, 22. How often a brother is to be for- 
given. A favourite subject for discussion 
among the rabbis. They taught generally that 
three offences were to he pardoned. 

21. Seven times] Peter thought himself more 
than twice as liberal as the rabbis. Our Lord's 
reply (v. 22) teaches that there must be no 
limit to human pardon, as there is none to 
God's : see on 6 12 > 14 > 15 , and cp. Lkl7 3 . 

23-35. The unmerciful servant (peculiar to 
St. Matthew). The lesson is that, inasmuch 
as God has forgiven us the great and unpay- 
able debt which as sinners we owe to Him, so 
we also must forgive our brethren the com- 
paratively trifling debts which they have in- 
curred by sinning against us. The parable 
concerns the Kingdom of Heaven, i.e. it illus- 
trates God's dealing with Christians, not with 
the world. 

23. A certain king] i.e. God. Which would 
take account] RY ' would make a reckoning 
with his servants.' 'We are the servants with 
whom He takes account. This account, as 
is plain, is not the final reckoning, but rather 
such as that of Lkl6 2 . To this He brings 
us by the preaching of the law — by the set- 
ting of our sins before our face — by awaken- 
ing and alarming our conscience that was 
asleep before — by bringing us into adversi- 
ties — by casting us into sore sicknesses, into 
perils of death. Thus David was summoned 
before God by the word of Nathan the 
prophet ; thus the Ninevites by the preach- 
ing of Jonah ; thus the Jews by John the 
Baptist ' (Trench). 



24. Ten thousand talents] An enormous 
sum (£2,500,000 of our money, if the Attic 
silver talent of £240 is meant, and still more 
if the Hebrew silver talent of £410, or gold 
talent of £6,150, is meant), indicating the 
absolute impossibility of a man making atone- 
ment for his own sin. Only Christ Himself 
could pay the ransom price of man's redemp- 
tion and set the debtor free. For sin regarded 
as a debt, see on 6 12 . 

25. To be sold] The Mosaic Law allowed 
the sale of a debtor with his wife and chil- 
dren, these being regarded as his property 
(Lv25 39 2K4 1 ), but the rabbis disapproved 
this severity, except in the case of a thief. 
The reference is to Gentile customs, probably 
to the Roman law. Spiritually the selling 
is ' the expression of God's right and power 
altogether to alienate from Himself, reject, 
and deliver into bondage all those who have 
come short of His glory.' 

26. Worshipped] i.e. prostrated himself. 

I will pay thee all] a sign that his repent- 
ance was very superficial, as indeed his subse- 
quent conduct showed. Yet the merciful God 
accepted even this imperfect repentance, 
hoping for better things in the future. ' The 
slave,' says Euthymius, ' asked not for full re- 
mission but for time, but the lovingkindness 
of God granted full remission of the debt. 
Learn from this that God gives more even 
than we ask.' 28. An hundred pence] (denarii), 
i.e. about £2 15s. Qd., an insignificant sum, 
representing the trifling character of offences 
against man, compared with those against 
God. 34. To the tormentors] Torture was 
not a Jewish or Roman punishment for 
debtors, but it would naturally be applied by 
an Eastern despot to make the debtor dis- 
close where he had hidden his treasures. 

Till he should pay all that was due] ' i.e. 
(says St. Chrysostom) for ever ; for he can 
never possibly pay.' Others more plausibly 
see in the 'till,' a hope, or at least a possibility, 
of final release : see on 12 32 . 35. See 6 15 . 

CHAPTER 19 
The Question of Divorce. The Rich 
Young Man 
1, 2. End of the Galilean ministry. The 
Peraean ministry begins (MklO 1 Lk9 51 ; cp. 
Lkl7 n ). The time was now late summer of 
28 a.d. The Passion was less than six months 
distant. Jesus finally left Galilee, and entered 
upon what is generally called the ' Peraean 
ministry,' the scene of which was partly Persea 
beyond Jordan, a district extending, roughly, 
from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, and 
partly Jerusalem and Judaea. To this period 
must be assigned a visit to Jerusalem at the 
Feast of Tabernacles (September), Jn7 2 ; 
another at the Feast of Dedication (December), 



687 



19. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



19. 10 



JnlO 23 ; also the mission of the Seventy, and 
many of the incidents in the great section 
peculiar to St. Luke's Gospel (9 51 -19 2 8). 

i. Into the coasts (RV ' borders ') of Judaea 
beyond Jordan] i.e. into the southern part of 
Peraea, opposite to Judaea. 

3-9. The question of divorce (MklO 2 ; see 
on 5 32 ). The Pharisees probably intended to 
entrap Jesus into some contradiction of the 
Law of Moses, which might form the basis of 
a charge before the Sanhedrin. Some, how- 
ever, think that, as Peraea was in the territory 
of Herod Antipas, they wished to inveigle 
Him into speaking against that monarch's 
divorce of the daughter of Aretas : see on 
14 3 . St. Matthew's narrative is fuller and 
perhaps more original than St. Mark's. 

3. For every cause] In St. Mark the ques- 
tion simply is, k Is it lawful for a man to put 
away his wife ? ' Jesus was asked to decide 
the point debated between the school of 
Hillel, who allowed divorce for every cause, 
and that of Shammai, who allowed it only for 
adultery. Rabbi Akiba (a Hillelite) said, 
' If a man sees a woman handsomer than his 
own wife, he may put her away, because it is 
said, " If she find not favour in his eyes." ' 
The school of Hillel said, ' If the wife cook 
her husband's food ill, by over-salting or over- 
roasting it, she is to be put away.' On the 
other hand, Rabbi Jochanan (a Shammaite) 
said, ' The putting away of a wife is odious.' 
Both schools agreed that a divorced wife could 
not be taken back. 

Both schools objected to (though perhaps 
they did not forbid) the divorce of & first wife, 
with regard to which the dictum of Rabbi 
Eliezer, ' For the divorcing of a first wife, 
even the altar itself sheds tears,' was generally 
approved. 

4. Male and female] i.e. one for one. 

5. And said] Our Lord regards the words 
alluded to (see Gn2 24 ) as spoken by divine 
inspiration. His wife] Ancient and modern 
interpreters find in the singular a prohibition 
of polygamy. The rabbis allowed three or 
four wives. ' It is lawful ' (they said) ' to 
have many wives together, even as many as 
you will, but our wise men have decreed that 
no man have above four wives. 1 

6. What therefore God hath joined to- 
gether] Our Lord takes up higher ground than 
either school. He goes behind the Law of 
Bfoses, which was in many cases a concession 
1o .Jewish infirmities and prejudices, to God's 
Original intention at the creation of the human 

race, and declares this to be more venerable 
than the written Law. which the Jewish sehools 
idolised. See further on 5 81 » M . 

7. A writing of divorcement] see Dt24 1 . 
Jewish divorces were always from the bond of 
marriage, so that both parties could marry 



again, unless the husband specially restrained 
the wife's liberty in that respect. Divorces 
were thus worded : ' I A. have put away, 
dismissed, and expelled thee A, who hereto- 
fore wast my wife. But now I have dismissed 
thee, so that thou art free, and in thy own 
power, to marry whosoever shall please thee ; 
and let no man hinder thee. And let this be 
to thee a bill of rejection from me according 
to the Law of Moses and Israel. 

' Reuben, the son of Jacob, witness. 

' Eliezer, the son of Gilead, witness ' (from 
J. Lightfoot). 

8. Because of the hardness of your hearts] 
The rabbis regarded the liberty of divorce as 
a special privilege conferred by God upon the 
chosen people. Rabbi Chananiah said, k God 
has not subscribed His name to divorces, except 
among Israelites, as if He said, I have con- 
ceded to the Israelites the right of dismissing 
their wives ; but to the Gentiles I have not 
conceded it.' Jesus retorts that it is not the 
privilege, but the infamy and reproach of 
Israel, that Moses found it necessary to 
tolerate divorce. Moses allowed it only for 
the l hardness of your hearts,' i.e. your un- 
willingness to accept God's will in the matter 
of marriage, or, as others explain it, for your 
brutality towards your wives, which would 
lead you to maltreat them, unless you had the 
privilege of divorcing them. 

9. See on 5 32 . The exact text of this v. is 
very uncertain. Whosoever] Some ancient 
authorities read, ' Whosoever shall put away 
his wife, except for fornication, maketh her 
an adulteress,' omitting the rest of the verse. 

10-12. Conversation ( l in the house,' Mk) 
on marriage and celibacy (MklO 10-12 ). The 
words of Jesus with regard to celibacy must 
be neither exaggerated nor minimised. They 
recognise and honour, along with marriage, the 
vocation of celibacy, when it is embraced for 
the Kingdom of Heaven's sake. The qualifi- 
cation is important. The Essenes of our 
Lord's time were celibates because they re- 
garded marriage as unholy. The Christian 
hermits of later times adopted celibacy simply as 
a means towards attaining their own individual 
perfection. Many adopt it now because they 
will not face the responsibilities and anxieties 
of married life. The celibacy which Christ 
approves is that which is adopted for the sake 
of doing good to others in active works of re- 
ligion and mercy, as in the case of the great 
sisterhoods and missionary brotherhoods. Any 
at tempi to enforce celibacy upon whole classes 
of persons, as, for instance, upon the clergy in 
general, is forbidden by Christ ( 4 He that is 
able to receive it, let him receive it'), and is 
also inexpedient. 

10. If the case of the man] ' They mean 
that, if the tie of marriage is so strict that 



G88 



19. 11 



ST. MATTHEW 



19. 24 



there is no separation except for adultery, 
it is inexpedient to marry. For how can 
a husband bear all the other faults of an 
abandoned woman ?' (Euthymius). n. This 
saying - ] viz. ' that it is not expedient to 
marry.' The disciples had spoken of a 
worldly and prudential celibacy. This, Jesus 
warns them, is unnatural and perilous. The 
only celibacy which is safe and acceptable to 
God is that which is embraced for religious 
reasons in consequence of a divine call (' to 
whom it is given,' viz. l by God '). 12. For 
the kingdom of heaven's sake] i.e. who have 
embraced celibacy not merely for their own per- 
sonal sanctification, but in order to undertake 
work for the advancement of Christ's kingdom 
on earth. 

13-15. Christ and little children (MklO 13 
LklS 15 ). A touching incident teaching the 
same lesson as the birth and infancy of Jesus 
Himself, viz. the sanctity of childhood. The 
disciples thought that children were not im- 
portant enough to claim the Master's attention, 
and this aroused His just anger (St. Mark). 
We may learn from this that catechising and 
other ministrations to children are not to be 
despised, even by the most intellectual. 

Most Christians find in this passage the 
leading principles upon which infant baptism 
is based. These are, (1) that children, how- 
ever young, are capable of receiving divine 
grace. This is made clear by the fact that 
Christ blessed them (MklO 16 ). (2) Christ 
commands infants to be brought to Him, and 
we know of no way of bringing them except 
by baptism. (3) He declares infants to be 
specially 'fitted — more fitted even than adults 
— for admission into His kingdom (Lkl8 16 > 17 
Mk 10 14 > 15 ), but the only covenanted admission 
into that kingdom is by baptism ( Jn 3 5 ). 

The chief objection to infant baptism is that 
it is not expressly commanded in the NT. But 
if the principle upon which it is based is found, 
that suffices. The NT. was not intended to 
be a code of law, like the Pentateuch. More- 
over, the idea that infants could be brought 
into covenant with God during unconscious 
infancy was already familiar. Every male 
Israelite was circumcised on the eighth day 
after birth (Gnl7 12 Lvl2 3 ), and the apostles 
certainly regarded baptism as, equally with 
circumcision, a federal or covenanting rite 
(Col2U> 12 ). It is also worthy of note that 
baptism as an initiatory rite is older than the 
time of Christ. When a Gentile was con- 
verted to Judaism, he was admitted into cove- 
nant with God by three rites — baptism, cir- 
cumcision, and sacrifice, and his infant children 
were baptised with him. This is expressly 
testified by the oldest rabbinical code, the 
Mishna. When, therefore, the apostles bap- 
tised the ' households ' of their converts (Ac 



1615,33 188 1 Cor 116), they were only con- 
forming to the usual Jewish practice in the 
case of converts. It is no valid objection to 
infant baptism that infants cannot have re- 
pentance and faith, because they are taught to 
exhibit these as soon as they reach the age of 
reason. 

1 6-22. The rich young man (Mk 1 " Lk 1 8 18 ). 
St. Luke calls him a 'ruler,' i.e. either a mem- 
ber of the Sanhedrin, or a ruler of a syna- 
gogue. The incident is a striking example of 
the seductive power of wealth. The young 
man was so good, and so near to the Kingdom 
of God, that Jesus ' looked upon him and 
loved him' (Mk) ; and yet he failed, because 
though he loved the Kingdom much, he loved 
money more. 

16. Good Master] RV omits ' good.' 

17. Why callest thou me good? etc.] RV 
' Why askest thou me concerning that which is 
good ? One there is who is good ' (see on 
MklO 18 ). 18. All the commandments se- 
lected are those which test a man's love to 
his neighbour. Love of one's neighbour is a 
better test of inward religion than ceremonial 
piety. 20. All these things, etc.] The answer 
showed how little the young man knew his 
own heart, but he was only repeating the vain- 
glorious boasting of his teachers. The Talmud 
represents God as speaking of ' My sanctified 
ones, who have kept the whole law from Aleph 
to Taw.' Moses, Aaron, and Samuel were 
said to have kept the whole Law. It is said 
that when Rabbi Chanina lay upon his death- 
bed, he said to the angel of death, ' Bring 
hither the book of the Law, and see whether 
there is anything in it which I have not ob- 
served.' 21. If thou wilt (RV ' wouldest ') be 
perfect] Jesus, who knew what is in man, 
knew that love of wealth was this man's be- 
setting sin. He therefore urged him to aban- 
don it, according to the precept, ' If thine eye 
offend thee, pluck it out.' Jesus was dealing 
with a case of covetousness, and, therefore, 
prescribed a proper remedy for covetousness, 
without recommending its general and indis- 
criminate adoption. Treasure in heaven] see 
on 61-20. 

23-26. Conversation with the disciples on 
the perils of riches (Mk 10 23 Lk 18 24). 

24. It is easier for a camel] Jesus rhetoric- 
ally calls that impossible which is very difficult, 
or impossible without special grace. Such 
proverbs occur in most Eastern languages. 
We are told that Rabbi Sheshith said to Rabbi 
Amram, ' Perhaps thou art one of those of 
Pombeditha, who can make an elephant pass 
through a needle's eye.' The Greeks said, 'It 
is easier to hide five elephants under one's 
arm ' ; the Latins, ' More easily would a locust 
bring forth an elephant.' Some have thought 
(but it seems without sufficient authority) 



44 



689 



19. m 



ST. MATTHEW 



20. 






that ' the eye of a needle ' is a term applied 
to a small gate for foot-passengers, situated 
at the side of the large city gate through 
which a camel would naturally pass. 

The Gk. word hamelos (or, with one letter 
altered, hamilos) also means ' rope,' and some 
interpreters give it this meaning here. 

27-30. The reward of those who forsake 
all to follow Christ (Mkl02s Lkl828). 

28. These words may refer to the position 
to be accorded the Apostles in the Church, 
after the resurrection, personally during their 
lives, afterwards through their writings and 
teaching : or they may have a real Eschato- 
logical sense, that is, they may refer to the 
new conditions after the final consummation. 
In the regeneration] cp. Lk22 28 - 30 . The 
word occurs only once again in the NT., viz. 
Tit 3 5 , where it is used of the grace of baptism. 
Here it is an open question whether by the 
Regeneration Jesus means His own resur- 
rection, or the general resurrection at the last 
day, accompanied by the renewal of all created 
things. 

Dalman says, ' The unusual expression " re- 
generation " is distinctly Greek, and cannot be 
translated literally into Hebrew or Aramaic' 
The idea, however, is Hebrew, for it was 
believed that the Messiah would restore the 
world to its primitive perfection. There are 
also many analogies for the use of Regenera- 
tion in the sense of a personal resurrection. 
Josephus speaks of the resurrection as ' being 
born a second time.' St. Paul speaks of 
Christ's resurrection as His birth or begetting 
into a new and glorious life (Ac 13 33 ). Among 
the Greeks, too, Regeneration was the usual 
term for the transmigration of a man's soul 
into another body to begin a new life, which 
would be a kind of resurrection. 

Judging] may also mean ' ruling.' 

The twelve tribes of Israel] i.e. not the un- 
believing Jews who would reject the apostles' 
preaching, but the Universal Church, the tribes 
of the New Israel of God. See Rev 7, where 
the twelve tribes of Israel (vv. 4-8) are identi- 
cal with ' the great multitude which no man 
could number, of all nations and kindred and 
people and tongues ' (v. 9). The apostles at 
1 he tunc ( perhaps even the evangelist when he 
wrote) understood it of Israel after the flesh, 
Lilt in this case, as in so many others, enlighten- 
1111 nt was to conic later (sec Intro.). 29. An 
hundredfold] referring to spiritual compensa- 
tions in this life : see on Mk. 

30. See the following parable, especially 
20". 

CHAPTER 20 

Tin: Labourers i\ the Vineyard. The 

Journey po •) brubalem 

1 -1 6. Parable of the labourers in the vine- 



yard (peculiar to St. Matthew). This difficult 
parable is closely linked with what goes before, 
and can only be understood in connexion with 
it. It rebukes the spirit of Peter's enquiry 
(19 27 ), 'We have left all and followed thee ; 
what then shall we have ? ' The Twelve 
through Peter had demanded a superlatively 
great reward, because they had been called 
first and had laboured longest. Such a reward 
had been promised them, should they prove 
worthy of it (19 28 ), though at the same time it 
was darkly hinted, that some outside the apos- 
tolic circle would prove in the end more worthy 
than some of the apostles (19 30 ). Then follows 
the parable. It is a sermon on the text, ' But 
many shall be last that are first, and first that 
are last,' which opens (19 30 ) and closes it (20 16 ). 
It is addressed primarily to the apostles. It 
teaches them that great as their merit and their 
reward undoubtedly are, there will perhaps 
be others whose merit and reward will be equal 
or even greater. Thus St. Stephen (not an 
apostle) was the first to gain the martyr's 
crown, St. Paul laboured ' more abundantly 
than they all,' Barnabas and James the Lord's 
brother ranked with the leading apostles, and 
many great names in the subsequent history of 
the Church — Athanasius, Augustine, Jerome, 
Charlemagne, Alfred the Great, St. Louis — 
have completely eclipsed the fame of the more 
obscure apostles. The apostles are warned 
not to be jealous of the attainments and 
rewards of other followers of Christ, but to 
do their own work single-heartedly, and to 
leave the recompense to God. Another im- 
portant lesson is taught by the identity of the 
recompense paid to the various groups of 
labourers. They all receive the same coin, a 
denarius, which at this time was regarded as 
a liberal, but not unusual day's pay (Tob5 14 ). 
This does not necessarily signify that there 
will be no degrees of rank or blessedness in 
heaven, but it does signify that such degrees, 
if they exist, will be relatively unimportant. 
The supreme reward of all, to see God as He 
is in His unveiled splendour, will be enjoyed 
by all who are faithful to the end, and those 
who have this will care little what else they 
have or have not. 

(a) Among the numerous conflicting inter- 
pret at ions of this parable, the following arc 
the most noteworthy. (1) Calvin : a warning 
not to be over-confident because we have begun 
our Christian course well. (2) St. Irenanis : 
the various bands of Labourers are the OT. 
saints ; those last called are the apostles. 
(3) (ireswell : the labourers first called are 
the .lews : those last called, the Gentiles. 
( I) St. Chrysostom : it refers to the periods 
of men's lives at which they begin to serve 
( iod. S.nne begin in infancy, others in youth, 
others in manhood, others in old age. It en- 



690 



20. 15 



ST. MATTHEW 



20. 29 



courages those who have entered late on God's 
service, to labour heartily. (6) The following 
interesting parallel is taken from the Talmud. 
' To what was Rabbi Bon like ? He was like 
to a king who hired many labourers, among 
whom there was one who performed his work 
extraordinarily well. So the king took him 
aside, and walked with him to and fro. And 
when evening was come, those labourers came, 
and he gave him a complete hire with the rest. 
And the labourers murmured saying, " We have 
laboured hard all day, and this man only two 
hours, yet he hath received as much wages as 
we." But the king said to them, " He hath 
laboured more in those two hours than you in 
the whole day." So Rabbi Bon plied the Law 
more in twenty-eight years, than another in 
one hundred years.' 

15. Is thine eye evil ?] i.e. Art thou jealous, 
because I am generous ? 16. For many be 
called, but few chosen] These words are 
omitted by the RY, probably rightly. If re- 
tained, they are very difficult to interpret in 
such a way as to harmonise with the parable. 

17-19. Another prediction of the Passion 
(MklO 32 Lkl8 31 ). A prophecy remarkable 
for its detailed character. It mentions Christ's 
delivery to the Romans (' Gentiles '), His mock- 
ing, scourging, and crucifixion, and His resur- 
rection on the third day. St. Luke adds, 
' And they perceived not what was said ' : cp. 
1621 1722. 

20-28. The ambition of the sons of Zebedee 
(MklO 35 ). The special promise to Peter 
(16 18 ) had aroused the jealousy of the other 
two most intimate disciples, who now came to 
claim the two most prominent of the twelve 
thrones promised in 19 28 , making no mention 
whatever of Peter. The incident is a painful 
one, coming as it does immediately after the 
warning in the parable, and the prediction of 
the Passion. 

20. The mother] Her name was Salome 
(27 56 compared with Mkl5 40 ), and it is gener- 
ally supposed that she was sister to the "Virgin, 
and therefore our Lord's aunt : see on Jnl9 2 -5. 

21. The right hand was the first place of 
honour, the left the second : cp. the saying of 
Rabbi Acha, ' The Holy and Blessed God will 
cause King Messiah to sit at his right hand, 
and Abraham at his left.' 22. Ye know not 
what ye ask] The mere fact that you ask for 
such a thing, shows that you are at present 
worthy not of the highest but of the lowest 
place in the kingdom : see vv. 16, 26. To 
drink of the cup] ' Cup,' a metaphor for ' lot 
in life,' is here used of Christ's rejection, per- 
secution, and death: cp. Isa51 17 ('the cup of 
fury'), Jer49 12 25 15 Ezk23 33 . To be bap- 
tized . . baptized with] Interpolated from Mk ; 
omitted by RY. The ' baptism ' has the same 
meaning as the ' cup.' 23. Ye shall drink 



indeed of my cup. James was martyred (Ac 
12 2 ). According to tradition, John had many 
strange experiences ; such as, exile in Patmos, 
immersion in boiling oil, poison ; but sur- 
vived these ordeals, and died a natural death. 

Is not mine to give] i.e. in this way, as a 
piece of favouritism. Euthymius well says, 
' Why is He, who is all powerful, unable to 
give this ? Not from want of power, but from 
regard to justice. This eminence is reserved 
for those who are worthy to attain it. For it 
is not only participation in a death like mine 
which wins the first seat, but undisputed pre- 
eminence in all good qualities.' 

25-27. See on Lk 22 25, 26. 2 6. Minister] 
RM l servant.' 27. Servant] RM ' bond- 
servant.' 

28. A ransom for many] lit. ' a ransom 
instead of many.' An important doctrinal 
passage showing the importance which Jesus 
attached to His own death. He regards it as 
a redemption price, which, since men cannot 
pay it for themselves, He pays for them, and so 
releases them from the bondage of sin and death. 
In the OT. it is the ransom price paid for 
slaves (Lvl9 2 0), for captives (Isa45 13 ), and for 
the ransom of a life (Ex21 3 Nu35 31 ). 

Many] either indicates all mankind, laying 
stress upon their multitude, or else those who 
actually accept redemption, as distinguished 
from those for whom the redemption price is 
paid : see 26 28 . 

After v. 28 the Codex Bezse introduces an 
interesting saying of Jesus which may possibly 
be authentic : ' But do you seek to become 
greater from what is less, and less from what 
is greater? Accordingly when ye have been 
invited to supper, and enter the house, recline 
not in the chief places, lest haply one more 
honourable than thou enter afterwards, and 
the host (or master of the feast) come and say 
to thee, " Go down yet lower," and thou be 
shamed. But if thou recline in the inferior 
place, and one inferior to thee comes in, the 
host will say to thee, "Eat thy supper higher 
up," and this shall be profitable to thee.' Cp. 
Lkl48. 

29-34. Two blind men at Jericho (MklO 46 
Lkl8 35 ). Two apparent discrepancies call for 
notice : (1) St. Mark and St. Luke mention 
only one blind man ; (2) St. Luke says that the 
man was healed as Jesus was entering Jericho, 
not as he was leaving it. Euthymius says, 
' Some say that one of these blind men, Bar- 
timaeus, was the more distinguished of the 
two, and so was mentioned by St. Mark and 
St. Luke, while the other was passed over as 
being his attendant, as in the case of the two 
demoniacs (8 28 ). But my own conjecture is, 
that one of these blind men is to be identified 
with St. Mark's and the other with St. Luke's, 
for St. Luke's blind man was apparently healed 



691 



20. 30 



ST. MATTHEW 



21. 



when Christ was entering into Jericho, and not 
when he was leaving it.' A more modern 
reconciliation is that the miracle took place 
between the old town of Jericho and the new 
city called Phasaelis, built by Herod the Great. 
The miracle might, therefore, be described with 
equal propriety as performed when leaving the 
old town, or when approaching the new. 

30. Son of David] i.e. the Messiah : see 9 27 . 

31. Rebuked them] not because they dis- 
believed that Jesus was the Messiah, ' but out 
of honour to Jesus lest He should be dis- 
turbed.' They cried the more] a lesson in 
persistence in prayer, and its answer. 

34. Followed him] not only in the way, but 
in the Way (Ac 19 9). 

CHAPTEE 21 

The Triumphal Entry. Cleansing of 
the Temple 

Chronology of the Last Week of Christ's 
Life, commonly called Holy Week (chiefly 
after Hastings' ' Dictionary of Christ and the 
Gospels '). 

Sabbath, Nisan 8. Arrival at Bethany (Jn 
12 1 ). Supper in the evening (Jnl2 2 " 8 
Mt 26 6 " 13 , where see notes). 

Palm Sunday, Nisan 9. Triumphal entry 
into Jerusalem (21 i). The children's 
Hosannas, and healings in the Temple 
(21 14-16). Return to Bethany (21 17). 

Monday, Nisan 10. Return from Bethany 
(2118). Blasting of the fig tree (2119). 
Cleansing of the Temple (21 i2 , where see 
notes). Retires to Bethany (MklliQ). 
Conspiracy of His enemies (Lkl9 47 ). 

Tuesday, Nisan 11. Returning early He 
finds fig tree withered (Mkll 2 °). His 
authority to teach questioned. The tri- 
bute money. The brother's wife. The 
first commandment of all. ' What think 
ye of Christ?' (chs. 21,22). Woes on 
the Pharisees (c. 23). Jesus in the Trea- 
sury. The widow's mite (Mkl2 41 ). 
Visit of the Greeks (Jnl2 2 0). Christ 
finally rejected ( Jn 1 2 37 ). Lament over 
Jerusalem (23 37 " 39 ). Great prophecy of 
the fall of Jerusalem, and the Second 
Advent of the Son of man, followed by 
parables concerning the judgment (chs. 24, 
25). Counsel of Caiaphas (26 8 ). 

WEDNESDAY, Nisan 12. This day was pro- 
bably spent in retirement at Bethany (cp. 
Jn 12 30 ). On the evening of this day 
some place the supper at Bethany at 
which Jesus was anointed (Mk 1 I ' -'•' 
Mt26«" 18 ), but see above, Nisan 8. The 
bargain of .1 udas (26 ' '). 

Thursday, Nisan 13. In the afternoon pre- 
parations for the last supper (26 17 ). In 
the evening, the last supper with the 



Twelve in the upper room (26 20 ). The 
feet-washing (Jnl3 2 ). Departure of 
Judas. Institution of the Holy Com- 
munion (26 26 ). Discourses in the upper 
room (Jnl3 31 -14 31 ). Departure from 
the upper room (Jnl4 31 ). Allegory of 
the Vine (JnlS 1 ). The Comforter pro- 
mised (Jnl6). Christ's high-priestly 
prayer ( Jn 1 7). Gethsemane (26 37 ). The 
agony lasts i one hour' (Mkl4 37 ). 

Good Friday, Nisan 14. About midnight 
Jesus is arrested (26 47 ). Preliminary 
trial before Annas (Jnl8 13 ). Peter's 
denials, about 3 a.m. (Jnl8 27 ). Jesus 
sent to Caiaphas (Jnl8 24 ). Trial before 
the Sanhedrin at daybreak, about 4 a.m. 
(27 1). Sent to Pilate, about 6 a.m. (27 2 ), 
from Pilate to Herod (Lk 23?), and 
back to Pilate (Lk23 n ). Delivered to 
be crucified (Jnl9 16 ). Jesus crucified, 
9 a.m. (seeMkl5 25 , but contrast Jn 
19 14 , ' about the sixth hour '). Darkness 
from 12 noon to 3 p.m. (27 45 ). Death of 
Jesus, 3 p.m. (27 50 ). (The paschal lambs 
were being sacrificed in the Temple at 
the time of Christ's death, cp. Jnl9 36 . 
In the evening was the Jewish Passover. 
Our Lord, knowing that His death was 
imminent, had eaten it the night before.) 
Burial of Jesus (27 57 ). 

Easter Eve, Nisan 15. The first day of 
unleavened bread and the sabbath (Jn 
19 31 ). The sepulchre sealed (2762). 

Easter Day, Nisan 16. The resurrection 
very early (Mk 16 9 , etc.). "Visit of the 
women to the sepulchre (28 1 ). Visit of 
Peter and John to the sepulchre (Jn 20 3 ). 
Appearance to Mary Magdalene (Jn 
20H-18). In the afternoon appearances to 
the two disciples (Lk 24 1 3 ), and to Peter 
(Lk 24 34 ). In the evening appearance to 
the apostles, Thomas being absent (Lk 
24 3 6 Jn 20 19). 

X— XX. Solemn entry into Jerusalem (Mkll 1 
Lkl9 2 9 Jnl2i 2 ). More than a third of the 
entire Gospel narrative is occupied with the 
last week of Christ's life, commonly called Holy 
Week. The cause of this is to be sought, 
partly in the special importance which the 
Apostolic Church attached to the death of 
Jesus, partly in the indelible impression which 
the words and acts of that solemn time made 
upon the disciples, and partly in the extreme 
activity of Jesus at this period, which crowded 
the last days of His life with striking events 
and sayings. All the: evangelists lay stress on 
the voluntary character of the death of Jesus. 
They represent Him as coming up to Jerusa- 
lem deliberately to encounter it, as being the 
designed aim and end of His ministry (20 28 
2139 26 2 .i 2 . 2 s,3P,54 ? etc.). In view of His 



692 



21. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



21. 8 



approaching death, which might appear to be 
a complete abnegation of His claim to be the 
Messiah, He judged it expedient to make the 
claim openly, and accordingly made arrange- 
ments for a formal entry into Jerusalem riding 
on an ass, as the Messiah was expected to do, 
and no longer restrained the enthusiasm of 
His followers, who were allowed openly to 
salute Him as the Son of David, i.e. the 
Messiah. The motives of political prudence 
which had previously restrained Him from an 
open avowal, had now ceased to operate. He 
knew that He had alienated the bulk of the 
Galileans, and that Jerusalem, in spite of 
certain appearances to the contrary, was 
thoroughly hostile. He therefore feared no 
political consequences from the superficial 
revival of popularity with which His change 
of policy would be greeted, the more so as He 
was about to raise the expectations of His 
adherents only for a moment, in order effect- 
ually to quench them. 

The entry into Jerusalem is the one gleam 
of light in the dark days that closed our Lord's 
ministry. Its success was due to several 
causes : (1) The crowd was composed largely 
of Galileans, many of whom still remained 
faithful to Jesus. (2) His bold change of 
policy won back for a moment many who had 
left Him for His procrastination. (3) The 
extraordinary enthusiasm with which He was 
received in Jerusalem itself is to be explained 
by the recent raising of Lazarus, which had 
made a deep impression in the capital 
(Jn 11 45-48 129,17). 

Peculiar to St. Matthew is the mention of 
the two animals ; to St. Luke the complaint 
of the Pharisees, and the weeping over the 
city ; to St. John the mention of the palm- 
branches, and of the fact that natives of Jeru- 
salem went out to welcome Jesus. 

i. When they drew nigh] The synoptists make 
no break in the journey from Jericho to 
Jerusalem (20 m. of bad uphill travelling), 
but St. John says that Jesus came to Bethany 
six days before the Passover (i.e. on Friday or 
Saturday), and stayed there until the triumphal 
entry, which was probably on Sunday (Jn 12 1 ). 

Bethphage] lit. ' House of Figs.' There 
was perhaps a village of this name, but in the 
Talmud Bethphage is the name of an extensive 
district stretching from the base of Olivet to 
the walls of Jerusalem, and perhaps all round 
the city. ' Whatever is in the exterior circuit 
of Jerusalem is called Bethphage.' ' What is 
meant by " outside the wall " ? Rabbi Johanan 
said, Outside the wall is Bethphage.' 

Mount of Olives] i.e. the range of hills facing 
Jerusalem on the E. and lying round about 
from NE. to SE., and separated from the Holy 
City by the Yalley of Jehoshaphat or Kidron. 
It contains four summits : (1) Galilee or 



Scopus, due NE. of the Temple site, and about 
a mile distant ; (2) the Ascension, due E. of 
the Temple site, and distant about f m., 2,600 
ft. high, and commanding a fine view of the 
city, the Olivet of the Gospels ; (3) the 
Prophets, the S. spur of this ; (4) the Mt. of 
Offence, f m. SE. of the Temple site. 

The traditional Gethsemane is at the foot 
of the Ascension towards Jerusalem. Stanley 
says that Jesus did not pass over the summit 
of the Ascension, but took the road which 
passes between the Prophets and the Mt. of 
Offence, ' because it is, and must always have 
been, the usual approach for horsemen and for 
large caravans.' 

2. An ass tied, and a colt] The two animals 
are mentioned only by St. Matthew. An 
unused animal was preferred for an occasion 
like the present (see Mklia 1S6?). 3. The 
Lord] i.e. Jesus. The ready way in which 
the owner parted with the animals proves that 
he was a disciple, and this is an argument for 
an earlier ministry of Jesus in Jerusalem. 

5. A combination of Isa62 n with Zech9 9 . 
The rendering is free, partly following the 
Heb. and partly the Septuagint. According to 
St. John, the disciples did not at the time 
perceive that Jesus was fulfilling this prophecy. 

And a colt] i.e. ' even a colt.' Zechariah 
makes no reference to two animals. 

7. And put on them their clothes] either 
because they were uncertain which one He 
intended to mount, or in order gaily to capari- 
son both animals for the procession. Eastern 
garments are brightly coloured. And they set 
him (RY ' he sat ') thereon] i.e. on the clothes 
placed upon the colt, not, as some take it, 
that He rode upon both animals alternately. 

By riding upon the ass Jesus deliberately 
fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah, and so 
claimed to be the Messiah. The ass was chosen 
rather than the horse, because the ass was a 
symbol of peace, the horse of war ; the ass of 
humility, the horse of pride. The Jews fully 
accepted the Messianic reference of Zech 9 9 . 
Rabbi Salomo said, ' This cannot be interpreted 
except of King Messiah.' 

8. Spread their garments] An extraordinary 
token of respect, such as was paid to kings and 
great conquerors (2 K 9 13 ). 

Plutarch says of Cato the younger that ' he 
was escorted, not with prayers which are com- 
mon, nor with praises, but with tears and em- 
braces which could not be satisfied, the people 
spreading their garments under his feet, and 
kissing his hands.' 

It is said of Rabbi Nicodemus, son of Gorion, 
that, ' whenever he went into the school to 
lecture, his pupils spread garments of wool 
under his feet.' In quite recent times the in- 
habitants of Bethlehem spread their garments 
on the road under the feet of the horse of the 



693 



21. 9 



ST. MATTHEW 



21. 18 



English Consul of Damascus, whose assistance 
they were anxious to obtain. 

9. That went before] These were the multi- 
tudes mentioned by St. John, who went out 
from Jerusalem to meet Jesus. Those who 
followed behind were the Galileans. Hosanna 
to the son of David] This can only mean, 
' Glory and honour to the Son of David,' just 
as St. Mark's phrase, ' Hosanna in the highest,' 
is translated by St. Luke, ' Glory in the highest 
(heaven).' How ' Hosanna ' comes to have 
this meaning, is disputed. It is taken from 
Psll8 25 , where it is addressed to God, and 
means ' Save (us) now.' Probably it had be- 
come a mere exclamation of praise, ' a kind of 
holy hurrah,' the consciousness of its gram- 
matical meaning being lost, as in the case of 
1 Alleluia.' This is clearly the case in the 
1 Didache,' which has the phrase, ' Hosanna to 
the God of David' (Did. 10). 

The exclamation ' Hosanna ' was used chiefly 
at the Feast of Tabernacles. The seventh day 
of that feast was called v Hosanna Day,' and 
the branches carried by the worshippers were 
called ' Hosannas.' The events of Palm Sun- 
day are thus an imitation of the ritual of 
that festival. 

It is sometimes said that the well-known 
classical custom of carrying palms in token of 
victory was unknown to the Jews of our Lord's 
time ; but certainly the palms carried Rev 7 9 
seem to be symbols of victory. 

12-17. Cleansing of the Temple. Hosannas 
of the Children (Mklli* Lkl9 45 ). In St. 
Matthew this event seems to take place on 
Palm Sunday, but Mk ll 11 makes it clear that 
it did not occur till next day. On reaching 
Jerusalem, Jesus went into the Temple, and 
' looked round about on all things,' but, the 
hour being late, retired to Bethany. 

This cleansing of the Temple is probably not 
the same as that described Jn2 13 (see notes 
there), but a distinct event. For, (1) both 
events are definitely dated by the evangelists : 
(2) the repetition of the act is natural, the 
abuses, during a period of two years, having 
had time to recur ; (3) the omission of the 
former event by the synoptists, and of the 
latter by St. John, are explained by the 
general <lesign of the synoptists to record 
only tin' (i;ililc;in ministry, and of St. John 
to supplement rather than duplicate the synop- 
tic narratives. The cleansing of the Temple 
and of its worship, and of the priesthood, were 
among the expected activities of the Messiah, 
according bo .Mai 3 '" : ''. 

The incident of the children in the Temple 
is peculiar bo St. Matthew. 

12. The tables of the moneychangers] Ac- 
cording bo Bdersheim bhe Temple-market was 

\vli;it is culled in the Talmud ' the booths of 
the sons of Annas.' The bulk of the enormous 



profits went to increase the wealth of Annas, 
his family, and adherents. The Talmud fre- 
quently speaks in strong language of the ini- 
quities of this traffic, which was swept away 
by a strong explosion of popular feeling three 
years before the destruction of Jerusalem. 

The money-changers sat in the Temple- 
court, (1) to receive the half-shekel which was 
due from every male Israelite at this period 
(see on 17 24 ), and could be paid either at home 
or in Jerusalem ; (2) to change foreign money 
into Jewish currency, with which alone the half- 
shekel could be paid, or animals for sacrifice 
be bought. The money-changers' commission 
was called Kollubos, hence the money-changers 
were called Kollubista>. They probably paid 
a large percentage of their profits to Annas. 

Plumptre compares with this incident ' the 
state of the great cathedral of London, as 
painted in the literature of Elizabeth and 
James, when mules and horses laden with 
market produce were led through St. Pauls as 
a matter of every-day occurrence, and bargains 
were struck there, and burglaries planned, and 
servants hired.' 

13. Isa567 Jer7U. 

14-16. Peculiar to St. Matthew. 14. The 
blind and the lame] who were begging at the 
Temple gates (Ac3 2 ). 15. Sore displeased] 
because even children were calling Jesus l son 
of David,' i.e. ' Messiah.' Boys under fourteen 
are meant. 

17. Bethany] He probably lodged with 
Lazarus and his sisters. Bethany was on the 
further side of the Mt. of Olives, about 15 
furlongs distant (Jnll 18 ), on the road to 
Jericho. 

18-22. Cursing of the fig tree (Mkll 12 " 14 
and 1 1 80-25). St. Mark makes it clear that the 
fig tree was cursed on Monday morning as they 
left Bethany, but that the effect of the curse 
was not noticed till Tuesday morning. 

This, the only miracle of wrath worked by 
Jesus, is also a revelation of God's mere} 7 , for 
whereas the countless miracles of mercy were 
all wrought upon men, this one was wrought 
upon a tree. 'He parches the tree' (says 
Theophylact), ' that He may teach men wis- 
dom.' k He exercises His power ' (says Eu- 
thymius), ' not on a man, because He is a lover 
of men, but on a plant.' The whole incident 
is an acted parable. There is no reason to 
suppose that Jesus was really hungry, or ex- 
pected to find figs. St. Mark says expn issly 
that the time of figs was not yet. Probably 
His words and actions were entirely symbolic, 
like those of the prophets (Jerl3i 27 2 IK 
22", e tc.), 

The one fig tree, standing apart from all 
other trees, is the Jewish nation, and whereas 
it alone had leaves, while the other trees 
were bare, it signifies that whereas Israel made 
594 



21. 20 



ST. MATTHEW 



21. 3-1 



great professions of righteousness and of the 
service of God, the other nations of the earth 
made none. Both Jew and Gentile were, 
indeed, equally unfruitful, but the Jew added 
to his unfruitfulness the appearance of fruit, 
for it is the peculiarity of the fig tree that its 
fruit appears and is well developed before 
there is any sign of leaves. When, therefore, 
leaves appear on a fig tree, ripe fruit may 
justly be expected. The fault of the fig tree, 
therefore, was not that it had no fruit, which 
was not to be expected at that season, but that 
it pretended to have it, and had not. 

The curse of perpetual barrenness pronoun- 
ced by Jesus upon the fig tree, i.e. upon Israel, 
has received a signal fulfilment. In the time 
of Christ it was an active missionary religion, 
making thousands of proselytes in every pro- 
vince of the empire, and leavening religious 
thought far beyond its own borders. Now it 
enrolls no proselytes. 

20. How soon] EY ' How did the fig tree 
immediately wither away ? ' The disciples, 
instead of asking the meaning of the miracle, 
ask how it was done ? Jesus did not explain its 
symbolical meaning, but made it an object- 
lesson in the power of believing prayer. 

21. Cp. 17 20 Lkl7 6 1 Cor 13 2 . Be thou re- 
moved] a proverbial expression for something 
very difficult. The rabbis, who could solve 
questions of great difficulty, were called 
'rooters up of mountains,' and it was said of 
a skilful teacher that ' he plucked up moun- 
tains and ground them one upon another.' 

22. All things] Not all things absolutely, but 
all things of which the petitioners are worthy. 

23-27. Christ's authority to teach challenged 
(Mkll27Lk20 1 ). 

23. The chief priests] A deputation from 
the Sanhedrin, seeking some excuse to ex- 
communicate Him. By what authority?] 
Jesus had not received rabbinical ordination, 
and had no authority therefore to teach as a 
rabbi. Doest thou these things] referring 
not only to His teaching, but to His cleansing 
of the Temple, His miracles, His triumphal 
entry into the city, and His ministry in 
general. 27. We cannot tell] To be forced 
to admit their ignorance, was more damaging 
to their reputation than a definite answer 
would have been, for one of the most im- 
portant duties of the Sanhedrin, according to 
the Mishna, was to judge between true and 
false prophets, and to inflict exemplary pun- 
ishment upon the latter. Neither tell I] By 
implication Jesus claimed the authority of a 
prophet, or an even higher authority. 

28-32. Parable of the Two Sons (peculiar to 
St. Matthew). The ' certain man ' is God, 
and He is represented as a father, to set forth 
His impartial love to all mankind, righteous 
and sinful alike. The son who said 'I go, 



sir,' and went not, is the chief priests, scribes, 
and Pharisees, who ' rejected for themselves 
the counsel of God, not having been baptised 
of John' (Lk7 3( >). The other son, who at 
first insolently refused to go, and then repented 
and went, is the publicans and harlots, who 
' believed John, and were baptised by him.' 
More generally the first class embraces those 
who are satisfied with the outward form of 
godliness and with the avoidance of open sin ; 
the second class those who, though sinners, 
know that they are such, and so are more 
easily brought to repentance. 31. Before you] 
Graciously intimating that the door of repent- 
ance was still open to them. 32. In the way 
of righteousness] i.e. of legal righteousness. 
The Pharisees had no excuse for neglecting 
the preaching of John, for it was based on the 
Law which they idolised, and ran counter to 
none of their cherished convictions. The 
preaching of Christ was different, and could 
not easily be received by strict Jews, unless 
they had first passed through the preliminary 
baptism of John. 

33-46. The Wicked Husbandmen (Mk 12 1 
Lk20 9 ). The doctrinal importance of this 
parable, which belongs to the oldest tradition, 
is great. In it Christ claims to be in a unique 
sense the Son of God. He calls Moses and 
the prophets slaves and bondservants, and 
places Himself at an immense elevation above 
them as the beloved Son of the Householder, 
and the sole heir of His possessions. The 
parable contains a remarkable prophecy of the 
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans 
(v. 41). 

33. ' The householder is God, who on 
account of His tender love is called a man. 
The vineyard is the people of the Jews planted 
by God in the land of promise. The hedge 
is the Law, which hindered them from min- 
gling with the nations, the winepress the altar 
of sacrifice, the tower the Temple, the husband- 
men, the teachers of the people, i.e. the 
Pharisees and scribes. And the householder 
(God) departed, when He no longer spoke to 
them in the pillar of cloud, or perhaps the de- 
parture of God is His longsuffering ; for God 
seems to sleep and to be in a far country, when 
He is longsuffering, and does not call men to 
account for their sins the moment that they 
are committed ' (Theophylact). Tower] i.e. a 
watchtower for the keepers who were set to 
guard the vineyard when the grapes were 
nearly ripe (Job 27 ^ Song 16 IsalS). 

34. Time of the fruit] 'In the history of 
souls and of nations, there are seasons which 
even more than all other are times of fruit ; 
when God requires such with more than usual 
earnestness, when it will fare ill with a soul or 
a nation, if these be not found' (Trench). 
' And the fruits of the vineyard are the keeping 



695 



21. 35 



ST. MATTHEW 



22.9 



of the commandments of the Law, and the 
practice of the virtues ; and the servants are 
the prophets who when sent to demand from 
Israel obedience to the Law and a virtuous life, 
were variously maltreated ' (Euthymius). 

35. Killed] According to tradition Isaiah 
was sawn asunder, and Jeremiah stoned : see 
also2Ch2420-22andcp.Hebll. 37. They will 
reverence my son] l This He said, not as if 
they would do so, for He knew they would 
not, but pointing out what they ought to do' 
(Euthymius). ' When God is said to doubt 
about the future, it is that human free-will 
may be preserved ' (Jerome). 

41. They say] Jesus extorts their condem- 
nation from their own lips. Otherwise in St. 
Mark and St. Luke. He will, etc.] RV ■ He 
will miserably destroy those miserable men.' 
The allusion is to the destruction of Jerusalem 
70 a.d., and the end of the Jewish dispensation. 

Other husbandmen] i.e. the ministers of the 
Christian Church, many of them Gentiles, who 
succeeded to the charge which the scribes and 
Pharisees neglected. 

42. The stone, etc.] Psll8 22 Ac 4". The 
' stone,' of course, is Christ. The ' builders ' 
are the Jews. The ' head of the corner ' is the 
most important position in a building, so that 
Christ represents Himself as the foundation 
upon which the Kingdom of God was to be 
built up in spite of His rejection by the Jews. 

In the Ps. the ' stone ' is the Jewish nation, 
rejected and despised by the Gentiles during 
the captivity, but after the return restored to 
a place of honour among the nations of the 
earth. But on the principle that what is said 
of Israel applies especially to the Messiah, the 
rabbis interpreted the passage Messianically, 
e.g. Rabbi Salomo on MicS 1 said, 'It is the 
Messiah the Son of David, of whom it is written, 
The stone which the builders rejected,' etc. 

43. The favour of God will be withdrawn 
from a nation that obeys not His will, and 
bestowed on one that does. The kingdom = 
the privileges of the kingdom. 44. Wetstein 
well says, ' He who falls upon a great stone is 
bruised indeed, but can be healed, but he upon 
whom a great stone falls, is ground as it were 
to dnst. Like the chaff that is scattered to the 
winds.' Spiritually interpreted, those who fell 
upon the stone are those who stumbled a1 the 
humiliation of Christ, but were to be reco\ ered 
by His glorious Besurreotion. Those upon 
whom the stone fell, are those who did not 
suffer themselves to be recovered even by 

thai miracle, and so were involved in the 

common destruction of the Jewish nation. 
Euthymius Bays, 'Christ is called the corner- 
stone, because as the corner-stone unites in 

itself tWO Walls, SO also Christ unites in Himself 

two peoples, the Gentiles and the .lews, ami 
by faith makes them one.' 



CHAPTER 22 

Parables of the Marriage of the King's 
Son and the Wedding Garment 

1-14. Marriage of the King's Son (peculiar 
to St. Matthew). Jesus concludes His discourse 
by reiterating in still clearer and stronger 
language the teaching of the last parable, viz. 
His Divine Sonship, the impending destruction 
of Jerusalem, the rejection of the Jews, and 
the call of the Gentiles. He concludes with 
a warning to the Gentiles not to abuse the 
mercy about to be extended to them, by appear- 
ing at the feast (i.e. becoming Christians) with- 
out the garment of repentance and pureness 
of living. 

This parable is probably quite distinct from 
that of the Great Supper (Lk 14 16). The latter 
says nothing of the wedding garment, of the fall 
of Jerusalem, or of the Sonship of Christ. 
Its occasion, moreover, was entirely different, 
and, from its contents, it was obviously spoken 
before the hostility between Christ and the 
Pharisees had reached its height. 

1. And Jesus answered] viz. their attempt to 
seize Him, 21 46 , by another parable. 2. A 
certain king] i.e. God. A marriage] RV 'a 
marriage feast,' which would last seven or 
fourteen days[(Gn 29 2 ? Jg 1 4 12 Tob 8 W). The 
marriage is between Christ and His Church 
(Rev 21 2 2 Cor 11 2 Isa545, etc.), which begins 
here, but is perfected in the world to come. 
For Jewish ideas as to the Messiah's great 
feast, see on 8 11 . 3. His servants] i.e. Moses 
and the prophets, and especially the Baptist, 
the last and greatest prophet of the old dis- 
pensation. Them that were bidden] i.e. the 
Jews. 

4. Other servants] i.e. the Apostles. The 
repetition of the invitation was a Jewish custom. 
' What ' (said the rabbis) k was the boast of 
the men of Jerusalem ? Not one of them 
went to a banquet, unless he were twice in- 
vited. 1 6. The remnant] are the chief priests, 
scribes, and Pharisees, who were the chief 
persecutors of the apostles (AcS 40 7 58 12 2 
1!\ etc.), as distinguished from the nation 
generally, which only 'made light of the 
Apostles' message. 7. Hisarmies] 'The armies 
of the Romans, who, under Vespasian and 
Titus, slew these, murderers, and burnt their 
city, Jerusalem.' 

8. Then saith he] Not indicating that no 
Gentile converts were to be made before that 
date, hnt that from that time 'the fulness of 
the Gentiles' would begin (Roll 26 ). 9- Into 
the highways] RV ' the partings of the high- 
ways' More probably it means the places 
where the roads from the country enter a 
city, and bo by metaphor, Gentile territory 
(Grimm). So also Euthymius : 'He calls the 
cities and villages of the Gentiles the outlets 



696 



22. 10 



ST. MATTHEW 



22. 24 



of the highways, signifying the forlorn state 
of the Gentiles.' 

To feast the poor was quite common. The 
Talmud says, ' It was a custom among rich men 
to invite poor travellers to feasts.' 

io. Both bad and good] Signifying, as in 
the parable of the net, that the Church is to 
consist of good and evil, and that the entrance 
into it is not to be denied to any but scandalous 
sinners. 

ii. To see (RV ' behold ') the" guests] The 
scene changes to the last judgment, when the 
fitness of the guests to be there will be the 
subject of a solemn scrutiny. Theophylact 
well says, ' The entrance to the marriage feast is 
without scrutiny, for by grace alone were we all 
called, both good and bad. But the subsequent 
life of those who have entered in, will not be 
without scrutiny, but the King will make a 
most exact scrutiny of those who after their 
entry into the faith, shall be found with filthy 
garments. Let us therefore tremble, reflect- 
ing that unless a man live a pure life, faith by 
itself is of no avail, for not only is he cast out 
of the marriage feast, but is cast into the 
fire.' A wedding garment] Eastern etiquette 
is strict, and to appear without the festive 
garment that custom prescribes, would be a 
serious offence. Since the judgment is accord- 
ing to works, the wedding garment is not faith, 
or imputed righteousness, but a holy life. 

13. The servants] KM ' ministers,' i.e. the 
angels. 

14. Cp. 20 16 . Some think that this indicates 
that only a few of all mankind will be finally 
saved, but Theophylact is probably right in 
saying that it refers to the Jews of our Lord's 
time, all. of whom were called, but few were 
chosen, because few accepted the invitation. 
The ' calling ' must be carefully distinguished 
from the ' choosing.' The calling is the act of 
God, and does not depend on human will ; but 
whether a man is finally chosen or not, de- 
pends upon his own conduct after his call. 

15-22. The tribute money (Mk 12 is Lk 20 2 °). 
The Sanhedrin, not having the power of life 
and death, tried to entrap Jesus into an answer 
which might be made an excuse for handing 
Him over to Pilate on a charge of rebellion 
and treason. The Pharisees, who concocted 
the plot, did not appear in it openly, but sent 
their disciples, and the Herodians, who, from 
hostility to Jesus, were quite willing to join in 
the attempt to destroy Him. 

16. Herodians] i.e. partisans of the dynasty 
of the Herods. They supported the Roman 
domination. 

17. Is it lawful ?] The party of the Zealots, 
founded by Judas of Galilee, held that, Israel 
being a theocracy, and God the only King, it 
was unlawful to pay tribute to any foreign 
power. The Pharisees asked whether Christ 



agreed with Judas. The hypocrisy of the ques- 
tion appears in this, that the Pharisees at heart 
agreed with Judas, yet they were plotting to 
put Jesus to death on a charge of supporting 
his policy. Tribute] see on 17 25 . 

19. A penny] see on 18 28 . It was a Roman 
coin, and the Jewish schools held it for a 
maxim that he whose coin was in circulation 
was king. The rabbis said, ' Wheresoever the 
money of any king is current, there the inhabit- 
ants acknowledge that king for their lord.' So 
in the Talmud, Abigail refuses to recognise 
David as king, saying, ' The money of our 
Lord Saul as yet is current.' 

20. Whose . . image ?] The rabbis objected 
to human figures on coins as savouring of 
idolatry. Edersheim says, ' Neither Herod nor 
Herod Antipas had any image on their coins. 
This must therefore have been either a foreign 
one (Roman), or else one of the Tetrarch 
Philip, who exceptionally had the image of 
Tiberius on his coins. ' See Edersheim, ' Life,' 
App. II. 

21. Render therefore unto Caesar] A preg- 
nant saying, destroying the basis of Jewish 
nationalism, and defining the relation of Church 
and State for all time. A brief exposition 
must suffice. Christ showed, (1) His sympathy 
with imperialism, as opposed to national and 
racial particularism. Intending Himself to 
found a universal Church, He openly showed 
His sympathy with the great and beneficent 
empire which broke down the barriers of 
national hatred and prejudice, established uni- 
versal peace, and ensured the diffusion of 
culture, knowledge, and useful arts ; (2) that 
submission and loyalty to civil power is a 
duty binding on the conscience. Christ says not 
only 'Give,' but 'Render,' signifying that sub- 
mission is due ; (3) that nevertheless there are 
limits to the obedience due to the civil power. 
When Caesar asks not for tribute, but for wor- 
ship, as actually happened at this time, he is to 
be resisted ; if the State prescribes the religious 
worship of its subjects, obedience is not due ; 
(4) that consequently Church and State are 
not one thing, but two, each with its peculiar 
powers given by God, and that all attempts 
to amalgamate them, or to subject the one to 
the other, are wrong ; (5) that religious perse- 
cution is unlawful. The State has no authority 
to enforce any particular religion within its 
borders, and the Church has no authority to 
use the sword of the magistrate in its behalf. 

2 3-33- The Sadducees and the Resurrection 
(Mk 1 2 is Lk 20 27 ). A less dangerous interview 
than the preceding. The Sadducees sought to 
bring Jesus into contempt and ridicule with the 
multitude by asking Him a question which they 
thought He could not answer. 

23. Sadducees] see on 3 7 . 24. Shall marry 
his wife] see Dt25 5 . The Levirate marriage 



697 



22. 28 



ST. MATTHEW 



22. 43 



was falling into disuse at this time. The 
Mishna (200 A.D.) recommends that the cus- 
tom should no longer be observed. 28. Whose 
wife shall she be ?] Two errors underlay the 
question : (1) That in the resurrection men 
will rise to a natural life ; (2) that the Law 
will continue in force. The sceptical Sadducees 
naturally represented the doctrine of the Resur- 
rection in its most ridiculous form. 

There was some division of opinion among 
the rabbis as to whether resurrection would 
be to a natural or to a supernatural (spiritual) 
life. A few took the spiritual view, e.g. 
Rabbi Raf is reported to have often said, ' In 
the world to come they shall neither eat, nor 
drink, nor beget children, nor trade. There 
is neither envy nor strife, but the just shall sit 
with crowns on their heads, and shall enjoy 
the splendour of the Divine Majesty.' But 
the majority inclined to a materialistic view 
of the resurrection. The pre-Christian book 
of Enoch says that the righteous after the 
resurrection shall live so long that they shall 
beget thousands. The received doctrine is 
laid down by Rabbi Saadia, who says, ' As 
the son of the widow of Sarepton, and the 
son of the Shunamite, ate and drank, and 
doubtless married wives, so shall it be in the 
resurrection ' ; and by Maimonides, who says, 
' Men after the resurrection will use meat and 
drink, and will beget children, because since 
the Wise Architect makes nothing in vain, it 
follows of necessity that the members of the 
body are not useless, but fulfil their functions.' 
The point raised by the Sadducees was often 
debated by the Jewish doctors, who decided 
that ' a woman who married two husbands in 
this world is restored to the first in the next.' 

30. The angels] Jesus takes the oppor- 
tunity of rebuking the Sadducees' disbelief in 
angels (Ac23 8 ). 

32. I am the God of Abraham] Ex3 6 . The 
proof of the resurrection is taken from the 
Law, not because the Sadducees rejected the 
Prophets and Hagiographa, of which there is 
no certain proof, but because to every Jew 
the Law was of higher authority than any 
other p;irt of the canon. Theophylact says, 
1 He said not " I was," but " I am the God of 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob." For though they 
are dead, yet they live through the hope of 
the resurrection. Here the Lord opposes the 
heresy of the Sadducees. Baying, "God is not 
the God of the dead, i.e. of men who have 
altogether perished, but of the living, i.e. of 
those who have immortal souls, and though 
they are now dead will rise again." ' 

Strictly Bpeaking, the argument of Jesus is 
an argument for hnmaxi immortality, but to 
Jewish minds the idea of immortality aeces- 
sarily carried with it the idea of a resurrection. 

34-40. The great commandment of the 



Law (Mk 12 28 ). Considering that this question 
was asked by an individual Pharisee, that 
there is nothing ensnaring in it, and that 
Jesus commended His questioner, saying, 
1 Thou art not far from the Kingdom of God ' 
(Mk), it is probable that this was not a 
temptation, but a test, an honest appeal for 
information on the part of one who had heard 
His last answer with admiration. St. Luke 
records a somewhat similar incident in another 
connexion (Lk 10 25 ). Some regard it as another 
version of this incident. 

35. A lawyer] i.e. a scribe, or rabbi. 
Tempting him] i.e. proving Him, testing 

His penetration and knowledge of the Law by 
a hard question. 

36. Which is the great commandment ?] A 
question debated by the Jewish schools. The 
best Jewish opinion coincided with our Lord's. 
Philo, our Lord's contemporary, says, ' To 
speak briefly, of the innumerable detailed 
exhortations and commandments, the two 
which in the most general manner sum up the 
whole, are the duties of piety and holiness 
towards God, and of lovingkindness and 
justice towards man. Each of these is sub- 
divided into various special duties, all of them 
praiseworthy ' : see on 7 12 . The first com- 
mandment is Dt6 5 , the second Lvl9 18 . The 
former formed part of the prayers of the 
phylacteries, daily recited by every Jew : see on 
23 5 . Both are somewhat freely quoted accord- 
ing to the LXX. 37. Heart . . soul . . mind] 
i.e. all one's powers. ' Heart ' in Hebrew is 
the inward man, sometimes the understand- 
ing : ' soul ' is life, often, but not always, 
physical life ; k mind ' is nearly the same as 
reason, or rational soul. It must here be 
understood as embracing spirit, i.e. the reli- 
gious faculty. 

41-46. The title Son of David (Mkl2« 
Lk20 41 ). A saying of Jesus from the oldest 
tradition, of great doctrinal importance. He 
declares Himself dissatisfied with the honour- 
able title of Son of David, because He is in 
reality also David's Lord. By applying Ps 1 10 
to Himself He claims, (1) a seat at God's right 
hand ; (2) lordship over all the human race ; 
(8) an eternal priesthood and empire : ' Thou 
art a priest for ever after the order of 
Melchizedek.' 

41. Jesus asked them] Having repelled the 
attack of the Pharisees. Jesus takes the offen- 
sive, and demonstrates that they are wrong to 
regard the Messiah as a mere man. 43. DavidJ 
The question has been raised whether our 
Lord here definitely decides the Davidic 
authorship of PsllO. Probably not. His 
object is to show that the Pharisees' low view 
of the Messiah is inconsistent with their own 
premises, not to teach the true authorship of 
the Psalm. 



T>98 



22. 44 



ST. MATTHEW 



5.7 



44. The LORD (i.e. God) said unto my keep onerous rules, which they themselves will 



Lord] i.e. to David's Lord, the Messiah, Ps 1 10 1 . 
The Jews fully accepted the Messianic inter- 
pretation of this Psalm. Rabbi Joden said, 
' In the time to come the Holy and Blessed 
God will place King Messiah at His right 
hand, according to PsllO.' 

CHAPTER 23 

Denunciation of the Phaeisees 
1-36. Final denunciation of the Scribes and 
Pharisees. The other synoptists insert in this 
place a brief utterance directed against the 
scribes (Mk 1238-40 Lk20 45 ^), but the dis- 
course as it stands is peculiar to St. Matthew. 
A portion of it, however, is inserted by St. 
Luke at an earlier period, on the occasion of 
a dinner at a Pharisee's house (Lk 1 1 37-52)^ an d 
this suggests that we have here a collection of 
sayings against the scribes and Pharisees really 
spoken on various occasions. The scene is 
the Temple. In the foreground are Jesus and 
His disciples ; a little farther off the multi- 
tudes ; in the background are the discomfited 
Pharisees, who, instead of attacking, are now 
attacked. Christ addresses first the multitudes 
(vv. 1-7), then the disciples (vv. 8-12), finally 
the scribes and Pharisees (vv. 13-36). 

2. Sit in Moses' seat] The scribes (who 
were ordained with the laying-on of hands) 
claimed to have received their authority 
through an unbroken succession from Moses. 
The ' sitting ' refers to the judicial power, 
and the authority to teach, which all scribes or 
rabbis possessed, and which was centred in the 
Great Sanhedrin. In rabbinical writings 
one who succeeds a rabbi at the head of 
his school is described as 'sitting on his seat,' 
because the rabbis taught sitting on a raised 
seat. Sit] or, 'sat,' i.e. succeeded to Moses' 
authority. 3. All therefore whatsoever] In 
spite of the wickedness and hypocrisy of the 
scribes, they were to be obeyed and respected 
on account of their office, to which they had a 
legitimate right, until their place was taken 
by the Apostles. Similarly a duly ordained 
Christian minister, however much he may de- 
serve to be despised as a man, is yet to be 
tolerated as Christ's representative till he be 
deposed by lawful authority. 

4. Lkll 46 . Bind heavy burdens] a meta- 
phor from overloading a beast of burden. The 
1 burdens,' which they ' bind into bundles,' 
are the intricate and troublesome observances 
which the scribes had added to the written 
Law, and had declared to be more binding than 
the Law itself : see on lo 2 . The one good 
point about the Sadducees was that they re- 
jected these human traditions. Will not move 
them (Lk ' touch them ') with one of their 
fingers] much less bear them upon their 
shoulders. They require their disciples to 



not observe, or (as others interpret it) they 
will not stretch out a finger to adjust these 
legal burdens to the backs of others, so that 
they may comfortably bear them. 

5. Make broad their phylacteries] Every 
male Jew above the age of thirteen was re- 
quired to say both morning and evening, ex- 
cept on sabbaths and feasts, when the synagogue 
services took their place, ' the prayers of the 
phylacteries.' The phylacteries themselves 
were cubical boxes (size from ^ in. to 1^ in.), 
made of the skin of a clean animal, and 
attached to a broad strip of material, by 
which they were bound to the body at prayer- 
time. Two were worn. The head-phylactery 
was so fastened to the brow that the prayer- 
box came between the eyes. This was the 
one which the Pharisees made broad, i.e. as 
large and conspicuous as possible. The arm- 
phylactery was tied round the left arm on the 
inside, so as to be near the heart, and during 
use was invisible, being covered by the sleeve. 
The head-phylactery was divided into four 
compartments, containing on little rolls these 
four portions of scripture: EX13 1 " 10 13 11 ' 16 
Dt 4 4 " 9 11 13 ' 21 . The arm-phylactery contained 
the same passages written on a single roll. 
The rabbis held these phylacteries, or tephillin, 
in the highest veneration. They were to be 
kissed when put on or off, they were holier 
than the frontal of the high priest's mitre, 
they were a preservative against demons, 
whence their name phylacteries, i.e. amulets 
(from a Gk. word meaning ' to guard '). 
They were sworn by, by touching them. 
God Himself was said to wear them, and to 
swear by them when He swore by ' His holy 
arm.' Orthodox Jews find the wearing of 
the phylacteries commanded in the Law (Ex 
13 ^ Dt6 8 ll 18 ), but the Karaite Jews 
dispute the interpretation and do not wear 
them. The phylacterial prayers being said at 
stated times, the Pharisees would arrange to be 
seen saying them in public, at the ' corners of 
the streets ' : see on 6 5 . The borders] or, 
rather, ' holy tassels ' : see on 9 20 . In our 
Lord's time they were worn publicly on the 
four corners of the outer garment. Modern 
Jews wear them secretly on an under garment 
called a tallith, for fear of ridicule. In the 
synagogue a second and larger tallith is worn 
during the prayers to cover the head and 
neck. This tallith, or prayer-veil, was perhaps 
in use in our Lord's time. 

6. Lk 1 1 43 Mk 1 2 38. The chief seats in the 
synagogues were the semicircular bench round 
the ark facing the congregation. See further 
on2028Mkl239 Lkl4^. 

7. Rabbi] (Aramaic) lit. ' my master,' a 
title of respect applied to a scribe duly or- 
dained in Palestine (cp. our ' Reverend '). Our 



699 



23. 9 



ST. MATTHEW 



23.27 



Lord, though unordained, received the title 
by courtesy. 

9. Father (Aramaic abba) and masters (v. 10) 
are also titles of the scribes, the former 
being chiefly used as a prefix to the name, e.g. 
Abba Shaul. Some Christians take these pro- 
hibitions literally, and say that it is antichristian 
to use such titles of respect as ' Reverend,' 
' Father in God,' ' Venerable,' and the like, 
which correspond to the titles of the scribes. 
But what Jesus condemned was not the titles 
themselves, so much as the presumptuous claims 
which the titles implied. The rabbis really 
did put themselves in the place of G-od, and 
almost on an equality with Him. Their tra- 
ditions were more binding than the Law, and 
were regarded as in a sense binding upon God. 
One rabbi went the length of being buried 
in white garments to show that he was worthy 
to appear before his Maker. Another is said 
to have been summoned to heaven by God to 
settle a point of the law of ceremonial purifi- 
cation : see on 15 2 . 

13-36. The Seven Woes on the Scribes and 
Pharisees. Jesus, knowing that His death was 
at hand, and that the conversion of His enemies 
was hopeless, poured upon them a torrent of 
righteous indignation, in the manner of the 
prophets of old. These woes apply equally to 
the ministers of the gospel, who having the 
cure of souls, abuse it as did the Scribes. 

13. Lkll 52 . Shut up, etc.] i.e. prevent the 
nation from being converted. The Kingdom of 
Heaven is here the Church. 14. The omission 
of this v., which has been wrongly inserted from 
Mkl2 40 Lk20 47 , reduces the eight woes to 
seven : see on Mk. 15. To make one prose- 
lyte] The Ethiopic version has the interesting 
reading ' to baptise one proselyte.' As, how- 
ever, there is no evidence that the Pharisees 
were particularly anxious to make proselytes 
to Judaism, it is perhaps more probable that 
our Lord alludes to their zeal in making prose- 
lytes from among the Jews to their own sect. 

Child of hell] lit. ' a son of Gehenna,' i.e. one 
fit to go thither : see on 5 22 . Why two-fold 
more ? Because the vices of teachers appear 
in an accentuated form, and without any re- 
deeming features, in scholars. Others say, 
' Because out of a bad heathen bheymade a worse 
Jew.' Others suggest a different translation 
altogether, viz. ' You make him a more deceitful 
child <>f hell than yourselves.' 

16-22. On dishonest casuistry. The lax 
moralists of that time invented ways of evading 
the obligation of truthfulness, by saying that 
certain forms of swearing were binding and 
others not. Tims an oath by the Temple or 
the altar might he broki □ w ithout sin, but not 
an oath by the gold of the Temple, or by the 
gift on the altai-. Sueh re! i neine.nts were a 
direct enoonragemenl bo dishonesty and un- 



truthfulness, and our Lord denounced them 
with terrible severity, declaring that a man's 
word or oath, in whatever words expressed, is 
absolutely binding. The lesson here taught 
is truthfulness and honesty in general, as well 
as the sanctity of oaths. Christ's teaching 
here is not inconsistent with 5 34 , where from 
a higher ideal standpoint He forbids oaths 
altogether. 16. It is nothing] i.e. it is not 
binding. The gold of the temple] J. Lightfoot 
is probably right in regarding this gold, together 
with the ' gift on the altar ' (v. 18), as dedi- 
cated to God, i.e. as Corban. An oath in which 
the word Corban was mentioned was held to 
be specially binding : see on 1 5 5 » 6 . A debtor] 
i.e. bound by his oath. 

23. Lkll 42. J. Lightfoot remarks, 'The 
tithing of herbs is from the rabbins. This 
tithing was added by the scribes, and yet 
approved of by our Saviour, when He saith, 
" Ye ought not to leave these undone." ' The 
more scrupulous rabbis tithed not only the 
seeds but the leaves and stalks of these herbs. 

Cummin] used in cooking as a condiment. 

The weightier matters] Alluding to but not 
adopting the rabbinical distinction between 
the ' heavy ' and ' light ' precepts of the Law. 
Among the ' heavy ' precepts were the sabbath, 
circumcision, and the prohibition to profane 
the Divine Name. Hillel and Shammai differed 
somewhat in their classification of the 613 pre- 
cepts which the Law was supposed to contain. 
Judgment] stands here, by a Hebraism, for 
1 righteousness.' Faith] honesty, truthfulness, 
trustworthiness. These ought ye] i.e. Ye ought 
to have observed judgment, mercy and faith, 
and also to have tithed mint, anise and cummin. 

24. A proverb meaning that the scribes 
scrupulously avoid insignificant breaches of the 
Law, while continually breaking its great com- 
mandments. Strain at a gnat] RV 'strain 
out a gnat,' viz. out of the wine that you are 
about to drink. The ' gnat ' here is probably 
a minute animal bred from the fermentation 
of wine, and regarded by the rabbis as un- 
clean. The camel was also unclean (Lv 1 1 4 ). 

25. Lk 1 1 8fl . Ye make clean] see Mk 7 4 . 
But within they] (i.e. the cups and dishes) 

are full of food and drink which has been 
obtained by extortion and excess. 

26. Cleanse first that] i.e. first earn your meat 
and drink by honest labour, not by extortion, 
then your cups and dishes will be clean in 
God's sight. 

27. Whited sepulchres] Contact with sepul- 
chres defiled, so that t he Jews smeared them 
with liniewash yearly on the 15th day of Adar 
lest travellers touching them unawares should 
be made unclean. In Lk 1 1 44 Jesus compares 
the Pharisees to unmarked, here to marked, 
sepulchres, because they defiled those who 
came into close contact with them. 



700 



23. 28 



ST. MATTHEW 



24. 2 



28. Alexander Jannasus, the Maccabean 
king of the Jews (c. 104-78 B.C.), gave utterance 
to a very similar sentiment. On his deathbed 
he warned his wife to k take heed of painted 
men, pretending to be Pharisees, whose works 
are the works of Zimri, and yet they expect 
the reward of Phineas.' 'Painted men' are 
explained to mean 'men whose outward show 
doth not answer to their nature.' 

29-31. Lkll 4 ^ 48 . 29. Tombs of the 
prophets, etc.] It is natural to suppose that 
Jesus alluded to some actual building oper- 
ations then going on, or recently completed 
near Jerusalem. Herod the Great appears to 
have built or adorned the tombs and cenotaphs 
of many Jewish worthies. Calvin well re- 
marks, ' It is customary with hypocrites thus 
to honour after their death good teachers and 
holy ministers of God, whom they cannot 
endure while they are alive. It is a hypocrisy 
which costs little to profess a warm regard for 
those who are now silent.' 31. Unto your- 
selves] or, l against yourselves.' The v. is an 
ironical commentary on the statement of the 
Pharisees (v. 30), ' If we had been in the days 
of our fathers,' etc. Jesus retorts, ' You wit- 
ness to yourselves by your words that you are the 
literal sons of those who killed the prophets. 
You witness against yourselves by your actions 
that you are also their sons spiritually, for you, 
like them, reject the words of the prophets 
who are among you, viz. the Baptist and 
Myself.' 32. Fill ye up then] i.e. ' Carry out 
your wickedness to the full, as your fathers 
did, by putting Me to death. You desire to do 
so, and I shall not hinder you.' 33. See 3 7 
1234. 

34-36. Lkll 49 " 51 . 34. I send unto you] 
The parallel in St. Luke (which see) has 
' Therefore also said the wisdom of God, I will 
send unto them prophets,' etc. The prophets, 
etc., are the apostles, prophets, teachers, evan- 
gelists, and other ministers of the Apostolic 
Church. Observe that here, as in 13 52 , our Lord 
speaks of Christian ministers under Jewish 
titles as ' wise men ' (i.e. rabbis) and scribes. 

35. That upon you] ' The scribes and Phari- 
sees are regarded as the representatives of the 
people, for whom, as their leaders, they are 
held responsible ' (Meyer). The righteous 
blood] i.e. the penalty for shedding it. 

Zacharias son of Barachias] Jesus probably 
said • Zachariah,' as in St. Luke, without men- 
tioning the father's name, but the evangelist or 
one of the earliest copyists, who thought it 
necessary to distinguish among the twenty- 
nine Zachariahs of the OT., and understood 
the canonical prophet to be meant, added the 
words l son of Barachias.' There can be no 
real doubt that the person meant is Zechariah, 
son of Jehoiada (see 2Ch24 21 ), concerning 
whom there was a Jewish tradition, that his 



blood could not be removed by washing, but 
remained bubbling on the ground where it had 
been shed. In the Jewish arrangement of the 
books of the sacred Canon, Chronicles stands 
last, so that Jesus chose His examples from 
the first and last books of the Jewish Bible. 

37~39- Pathetic lament over Jerusalem (Lk 
13 34 > 35 ). St. Luke places these words in an- 
other, and much less suitable connexion. As 
they occur in St. Matthew they form a worthy 
close to our Lord's ministry in Jerusalem. 

37. How often] ' It is fair to assume that 
Christ's exclamation over Jerusalem presup- 
poses that the capital had repeatedly been the 
scene of His ministrations, which coincides 
with the visits on festival occasions recorded 
by John: cp. AclO 39 ' (Meyer). Under her 
wings] see 2Esdrasl 30 . 38. Your house] 
i.e. either, (1) the city itself, (2) the Temple, 
or, (3) the Jewish dispensation. 39. Till ye 
shall say, Blessed is He, etc.] i.e. either, (1) 
till the Second Advent, when they will see 
Christ as judge, and will unwillingly say 
' Blessed is He that cometh,' or, (2) till the 
conversion of Israel (see Roll), when true 
believers will see Christ by faith and willingly 
say, ' Blessed is He that cometh,' etc. 

CHAPTER 24 

The Destruction op Jerusalem and the 
End of the World foretold 

1. Jesus went out] RV ' Jesus went out 
from the temple, and was going on his way, 
and his disciples,' etc. 

The buildings] The magnificent buildings, a 
mass of marble and gold, were not yet finished 
(see Jn 2 20 ). The rabbis said, ' He who has 
not seen the temple of Herod, has never seen 
a beautiful building. The sanctuary was made 
of green and white marble. . . Herod intended 
to have the building covered with gold, but 
the rabbis dissuaded him, saying that it was 
sufficiently beautiful as it was, for it appeared 
like the waves of the sea.' Josephus says, 
' The front of the temple was covered all over 
with plates of gold of great weight, and at the 
first rising of the sun reflected back a fiery 
splendour, etc. . . The temple appeared to 
strangers, when they were at a distance, like a 
mountain covered with snow, for those parts 
of it which were not gilt were exceedingly 
white. Of its stones some were 45 cubits in 
length, 5 in height, and 6 in breadth.' (A 
cubit = 18 in.) 

2. One stone] Josephus, an eyewitness, says 
' Caesar (i.e. Titus) now gave orders to demolish 
the whole city and temple, except the highest 
towers and the west wall. All the rest was so 
thoroughly laid even with the ground by those 
that dug it up to the foundation, that there 
was left nothing to make those who came 
thither believe that it had ever been inhabited.' 



701 



24. 3 



ST. MATTHEW 



24.7 



The Talmud says, ' On the ninth day of Ab 
(July- Aug.) the city of Jerusalem was ploughed 
up.' 

3-51. Great prophecy of the destruction of 
Jerusalem, and the end of the world (Mkl3 3 
Lk 2 1 7 ). Many of the most serious difficulties 
of this great discourse disappear when it is 
realised that our Lord referred in it not to 
one event but to two, and that the first was 
typical of the second. This is especially clear 
in St. Matthew's Gospel. The disciples ask 
Jesus (v. 3) for information on two subjects : 
(1) the date of the approaching destruction of 
the Temple, (2) the sign that will precede His 
second coming at the end of the world. That 
these two events were clearly distinguished in 
the mind of Christ Himself, and, therefore, 
in this discourse as He delivered it, admits 
of demonstration. Lk 2 1 24 especially, which 
speaks of 'the times of the Gentiles,' during 
which Jerusalem shall be trodden down by the 
heathen, and the Jews dispersed into all lands 
' till the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled,' 
places an indefinite interval between the 
fall of Jerusalem and the end of the world. 
Similarly in St. Matthew and St. Mark, Jesus 
declares that He is ignorant of, or is not allowed 
to reveal, the date of the end of the world 
(24 36 Mkl3 32 ), but expressly says that the 
fall of Jerusalem will take place within the 
lifetime of the Apostles ( 1 23 ). A gain the state- 
ment that the end will not come till the gospel 
has been preached to all nations (24 14 ) post- 
pones the end indefinitely: cp. also 22 1 " 14 . 
The reasons why the two events are not equally 
distinguished in the discourse as we have it, 
are mainly four : (1) Our Lord's words, as in 
other cases, are condensed. We have not a 
full report of the speech, but its most striking 
passages, which being isolated from their con- 
text, are naturally somewhat difficult to inter- 
pret. (2) At the time when the speech was 
committed to writing, the apostles believed 
that Christ's second coming would occur in 
their lifetime, and that the fall of Jerusalem 
and the Last Judgment would be coincident : 
see on lTh4 15 . This belief would affect, if 
not the faithfulness of their report, at any rate 
the arrangement of it. It would cause the 
evangelists to group together, as if referring to 
the same event, sayings which really referred 
to events widely sundered in time. (3) The 
discourse perhaps contains some sayings not 
spoken at this time, but inserted here because 
believed to refer to the same events. The 
hypothesis of extensive additions cannot indeed 
be admitted. Nevertheless, it is quite in the 
manner <>!' the evangelists, and especially of 
St. Matthew, to group together in a single dis- 
course utterances delivered at different times. 
(4) Our Lord for devotional reasons desired 
His disciples always to regard His coming as 



if it were near. The time of it was purposely 
not revealed, in order that Christians might 
live in a state of continual watchfulness, look- 
ing for their Lord's coming. Such continual 
exhortations to watchfulness were easily under- 
stood to imply that the Second Coming was 
near. 

Other views of the scope of the discourse 
are, (1) that it refers entirely to the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem ; (2) or entirely to the Last 
Judgment ; (3) or that ' the coming ' of Christ 
is a continuous process lasting from the fall of 
Jerusalem to the Second Advent ; (4) or that 
Christ's ' coming ' represents the extension of 
His kingdom which followed the Resurrection, 
or Pentecost, or the fall of Jerusalem ; (5) or 
that His coming refers to the coming of the 
Comforter, in whom Christ Himself returns to 
earth. 

Some suppose (but without sufficient war- 
rant) that the sections Mk 1 3 7 ' 9a > 14 "20, 24,27, 30-31^ 
were not spoken by Christ, but formed part 
of a short Christian apocalypse composed 
shortly before the fall of Jerusalem. 

3. Olives] A magnificent view of the site of 
the Temple is obtained from this hill. The 
disciples] viz. Peter, James, John, Andrew 
(Mk). These things] i.e. the overthrow of the 
Temple. The end of the world] i.e. the Last 
Judgment. But those who refer the discourse 
entirely to the destruction of Jerusalem, under- 
stand by it the end of the Jewish dispensation. 

4-14. Ebrard regards this section as referring 
to the last judgment, but in the opinion of 
most it refers to the fall of Jerusalem, with 
the possible exception of verse 14, q.v. 

5. I am Christ] RV 'lam the Christ,' i.e. 
the Messiah. The false Messiahs who appeared 
before the fall of Jerusalem were Simon Magus, 
Menander, Dositheus, and perhaps Theudas, 
who raised a rebellion in 45 or 46 a.d. 

6. Wars, etc.] There were three threats of 
war against the Jews by Caligula, Claudius, 
and Nero, as to the first of which Josephus 
remarks that the death of Caligula ' happened 
most happily for our nation in particular, 
which would have almost utterly perished, if 
he had not been suddenly slain.' There was 
also a war between Bardanes king of Parthia 
and Izates king of Adiabene, and between 
the same Izates and Bardanes' successor, 
Vologases. War was also continually threat- 
ened between Rome and Parthia. The end] 
according to the ordinary view is the end 
of the troubles, i.e. the fall of Jerusalem, 
not the end of the world. 

7. Nation shall rise] i.e. there will be 
massacres and civil tumults. One fearful 
massacre happened at Seleucia on the Tigris, 
where dwelt three hostile nations, Greeks, 
Syrians, and Jews. The Greeks and Syrians 
joined together against their common enemies 



702 



24. 8 



ST. MATTHEW 



24. 20 






the Jews, and slew about 50.000 of them. 
Similarly at Cassarea, in one hour's time 
about 20,000 Jews were massacred. Famines] 
Ac II 28 . The whole reign of Claudius (41- 
54 A.D.) was a time of great scarcity. Jose- 
phus mentions a famine in Palestine about 
46 a.d. in which many died of starvation. 

Pestilences] omitted by RY. Earthquakes] 
There was an unexampled number at this 
period devastating the provinces of Asia, 
Achaia, Syria, Macedonia, Campania, etc. 
Josephus mentions one in Palestine accom- 
panied by ' amazing concussions and bellow - 
ings of the earth — a manifest indication that 
some destruction was coming upon men.' 

8. Beginning of sorrows] RY ' of travail.' 
Jewish writers speak frequently of the so- 
called ' sorrows of the Messiah,' which are 
to last nine months, and to be the birth-pangs 
of the coming age. They would be a period 
of internal corruption, and outward distress, 
famine, and war, of which Palestine was to 
be the scene, and Israel the chief sufferers. 
Some of these sorrows would fall upon the 
Messiah Himself (Edersheim). 

9, io. See on 10 17 -' 23 . 

ii. False prophets] see on v. 5. Josephus 
speaks of l a body of wicked men, who de- 
ceived and deluded the people under pretence 
of divine inspiration, who prevailed with the 
multitude to act like madmen, and went before 
them into the wilderness, pretending that God 
would there show them the signals of victory ' : 
see also 2 Pet 21 Un2i8 4i. 12. Cp.HeblO 25 
Rev2 4 . 13. Shall endure] i.e. shall resist the 
enticements of false prophets, stand firm in 
persecution, and not suffer his love of Christ 
to grow cold. Unto the end] viz. of the tribu- 
lation ; but it may mean unto the uttermost, 
or, unto death. Shall be saved] i.e. either 
literally by flight to Pella (v. 16), or, more 
probably, saved spiritually. 

14. Since the gospel had not been preached 
to the whole world, or even to the whole 
Roman world by 70 a.d., as indeed Christ 
Himself indicated (10 23 ), many suppose that 
' the end ' here is the last judgment. Those 
who understand it to refer to the fall of 
Jerusalem, point out that by that time the 
gospel had been preached not only in the East, 
but at Rome, and perhaps in Spain and Gaul 
(R 15 24, 28). 

15-28. The flight of the Christians before 
the fall of Jerusalem. 

15. The abomination of desolation] i.e. the 
abomination which makes the Temple deso- 
late, by causing God to forsake it (Dan9 27 ). 
Some definite event is meant, because it is the 
signal of instant flight (vv. 16-20). It is to 
happen before the fall of Jerusalem, and in 
k the holy place,' i.e. in that part of the Temple, 
which only the priests could enter. The only 



event which answers this description is the 
capture of the Temple by the Zealots, or 
Assassins, 66 or 67 a.d., and the abominations 
which then ensued. The Zealots turned the 
Temple into a camp, defiled it with blood, 
made a creature of their own high priest, and 
finally caused the daily sacrifices to cease. 

St. Luke's version, ' when ye see Jerusa- 
lem encompassed by armies,' is not an in- 
terpretation of 'the abomination of desolation,' 
but another sign outside Jerusalem, which took 
place at the same time as the desolation within. 
Jerusalem was encompassed with armies, (1) 
in 66 a.d. by the troops of Cestius Gallus ; 
(2) in 68 a.d. by those of Yespasian ; (3) in 
70 a.d. by those of Titus. The first invest- 
ment is St. Luke's signal for flight. Soon 
after this the Zealots seized the Temple and 
the city, guarded the gates, and prevented all 
escape. The prophecy in Daniel originally 
referred' to the profanation of the Temple by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 169-168 B.C., but its 
application to the events of 66-70 A.D. is very 
suitable. 

Other views of the nature of the ' abomina- 
tion of desolation ' worthy of notice are that 
it is, (1) the Roman eagles, or standards ; 
(2) a statue of Titus erected on the site of the 
Temple ; (3) the appearance of Antichrist at 
the end of the world : cp. 2Th2*. 

Whoso readeth, let him understand] not 
' let him that readeth the prophet Daniel un- 
derstand,' for the reference to Daniel is absent 
from St. Mark (see RY), but ' let him that 
readeth this prophecy of Christ's understand.' 
The occurrence in both evangelists is a proof 
that the common authority used by St. 
Matthew and St. Mark was not oral tradition, 
but a written document. 

16. Flee into the mountains] Eusebius says, 
' But the members of the Church in Jerusalem, 
having been commanded before the war in 
accordance with a certain oracle given by reve- 
lation to the men of repute there, to depart 
from Jerusalem, and to inhabit a certain city of 
Persea called Pella, all the believers in Christ 
in Jerusalem went thither, and when now the 
saints had abandoned both the royal metropolis 
itself and the whole land of Judaea, the ven- 
geance of God finally overtook the lawless 
persecutors of Christ and His Apostles.' 

17. Not come down] but escape by the out- 
side staircase, or over the roofs of the houses : 
see on 9 2 . 

20. On the sabbath day (peculiar to St. 
Matthew, the Jewish evangelist). Alf ord says, 
' That they were not said as any sanction of 
observance of the Jewish sabbath is most cer- 
tain ; but merely as referring to positive im- 
pediments which might meet them on that 
day, the shutting of the gates of cities, etc., 
and their own scruples about travelling further 



703 



k. 21 



ST. MATTHEW 



24. 3J. 



than the ordinary sabbath day's journey 
(about a mile English) ; for the Jewish Chris- 
tians adhered to the Law till the destruction of 
Jerusalem ' (see Intro. § 6). 

21. See Dan 1 2 1 . Josephus says, ' The multi- 
tude of those that perished exceeded all the 
destructions that either men or God ever 
brought upon the world.' ' The number of 
those that perished during the whole siege was 
1,100,000.' 22. Those days] i.e. of the siege 
of Jerusalem, which occupied less than five 
months. No flesh] i.e. no inhabitants of the 
theatre of war, Palestine. Be saved] i.e. be 
left alive. The elect] i.e. the Christians. 

23-26. Chrysostom and others, translating 
then ' afterwards ' (which it may mean), refer 
these vv. to the Last Judgment, but it is better 
to suppose that the fall of Jerusalem is still 
spoken of. 24. False Christs, and false pro- 
phets] see on vv. 5, 11. Signs and wonders] 
J. Lightfoot illustrates from the Talmud the 
magical practices of the Jews. ' The senior 
who is chosen into the council, ought to be 
skilled in the arts of astrologers, jugglers, 
diviners, sorcerers,' etc. ' The chamber of 
Happarva (in the Temple) was built by a cer- 
tain magician by art magic' ' Rabbi Joshua 
outdoes a magician in magic and drowns him in 
the sea.' 26. (Lkl7 23 .) If they] i.e. they who 
are deluded by false Messiahs. Behold, he] viz. 
the Messiah. In the desert] Some of the false 
prophets did actually lead out their dupes to 
the desert. In the secret (RY ' inner ') cham- 
bers] a poetical expression for ' in hiding.' 

27, 28. Whether these vv. describe Christ's 
coming to destroy Jerusalem, or His second 
coming to judge the world, or both, is doubt- 
ful. The context suggests that the destruction 
of Jerusalem is meant, but it is just the con- 
text which is doubtful, for St. Mark omits 
both vv., and St. Luke gives them in quite a 
different connexion. As originally spoken, they 
probably referred to Christ's second coming. 

27. (Lk 17 24 .) The second advent of the Son 
of man will be confined to no one locality, but 
will be manifested instantaneously to the whole 
universe. But if the reference is to the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, this v. describes the 
conspicuous and world-renowned nature of 
the event. 

28. A parable or proverb (Lk 17 37 ). Just as, 
wherever a carcase may happen to be, eagles 
or vultures will invariably be found; so at 
Christ's second coming, wherever a man dead 
in trespasses an<l sins is found, there also 
will Christ be revealed as an avenging judge. 
Thus 'the carcase' represents the wicked. 
and 'the eagles,' Christ and His avenging 
angels of judgment. Those who suppose the 
fall of Jerusalem to be meant, understand by 
• iiir carcase,' the .Jews, and by ' the eagles, 1 the 
Roman armies. 



29-42. Most commentators refer these vv. 
(in the main) to the Second Advent, though 
some think that the fall of Jerusalem is still 
meant. 

29. Immediately] RY 'But immediately.' 
This discourse, in the form in which it has 
come down to us, seems to place the Second 
Advent immediately after the fall of Jerusalem. 
Solutions of the difficulty : (1) Plumptre con- 
siders ' the boldest answer as the truest and 
most reverential,' and finds the explanation in 
Christ's ignorance of ' that day and hour ' 
(Mk 13 32 ). But although Christ was ignorant, 
as man, of the exact day and hour of His 
Second Advent, He at least knew that it was 
separated from the fall of Jerusalem by an 
immense interval (see intro. to this discourse). 
Even if we assume, with Plumptre, His com- 
plete ignorance of the date, we are no nearer 
a solution ; for if He did not know the date, 
He would not attempt to fix it. (2) Stier 
maintains the theory of ' prophetic perspective.' 
As men gazing from a distance on two distant 
mountain peaks, one behind the other, see them 
in close proximity, so Christ saw the two events 
' in close proximity, overlooking the wide in- 
tervening space.' A legitimate hypothesis, but 
inconsistent with the fact that Christ was fully 
aware of the ' wide intervening space.' (3) 
That ' immediately ' is to be interpreted with 
prophetic latitude, and may mean after an in- 
terval of thousands of years, as when our Lord 
says, ' And behold I come quickly ' (Rev 22 20 : 
see 2 Pet 3 8 > 9 ). This is the best explanation of 
the passage as it stands. (4) That ' immediately 
after ' means immediately after the premonitory 
signs of Christ's second coming, which have 
been omitted in the evangelists' report of the 
speech, which is doubtless condensed. The 
sun, etc.] prophetic imagery for the fall of 
earthly empires, thrones, and powers, and 
human pride (Isal3 10 ). 

30. The sign of the Son of man] As Chris! 
does not explain this sign, it is useless to guess 
what it will be. In tradition it is the Cross. 
' Then shall appear the Cross in the sky. 
shining more brightly than the sun, to convict 
the Jews ' (Theophylact). This interpretation 
is already found in the ' Didache.' 

Mourn] lamenting their unbelief and dis- 
obedience : cp. Zechl2 12 Dan7 13 Rev 1 ~. 

31. Usually explained of the gathering of 
believers into heaven at the last day. Those 
who think that the fall of Jerusalem is meant, 
explain it of the gathering of the heathen into 
the Church from all quarters of the world after 
that event, or of the flight of the Christians 
from all quarters of Palestine to Pella. 

34. This generation] i.e. Jerusalem will he 
destroyed within the lifetime of men now 
living. This literal meaning is not to be 
evaded, as, for example, by regarding 'this 



704 



24. 36 



ST. MATTHEW 



25. 3 



generation ' as the human race, or the Jewish 
nation, or the Christian Church, or the universe. 

36. But of that day] i.e. the Day of Judg- 
ment. Not the angels of heaven] RV adds, 
! neither the Son,' which, however, RM omits : 
see on Mk 13 32. 

40, 41. The general idea is that, though to 
human eyes the righteous and the wicked will 
appear exactly the same, the angels in the 
judgment will be able to distinguish. 

40. One shall be taken] viz. into glory, by 
the angels. The other left] viz. for reproba- 
tion, or punishment. But if the fall of 
Jerusalem is meant, the ' taking ' means the 
successful flight from Judaea and Jerusalem ; 
the being ' left ' means failure to flee. 

43-51. An exhortation to faithfulness and 
watchfulness addressed specially to the Apostles 
and other chief ministers of the Church (Lk 
12 39 - 4(3 ). It appropriately closes the discourse, 
but whether it really belongs here may be 
doubted. St. Luke introduces it in a quite 
different connexion. 

43. The goodman (RY ' master ') of the 
house] i.e. in the application of the parable, 
the Apostles, and their successors in posts of 
authority in the Church. The thief] i.e. on 
account of the suddenness and unexpectedness 
of His coming, our Lord : see 1 Th 5 2 Rev 16 15 . 
Although the second coming is chiefly in view, 
it must be remembered that Christ comes in 
judgment to the individual soul at death. 

Broken up] R Y l broken through ' : see 6 19 . 

45. A faithful and wise servant (RM ' bond- 
servant ')] though referring primarily to the 
Apostles and ministers of the Church, may be 
extended to all who have the care of the souls of 
others, or exercise spiritual influence over others 
(the l household '). 46. When he cometh] viz. 
at the Second Advent, or at the servant's 
death. 47. Make him ruler] RY ' set him over 
all that he hath,' i.e. make him great in the 
future Kingdom of Heaven, and sharer of His 
own throne. Our Lord implies that in heaven 
there will be various degrees of authority : cp. 
Lkl9 n - 27 . 49. To smite] a metaphor for the 
abuse of authority : cp. Ac20 29 lPet5 3 . 

51. Cut him asunder] RM ' severely scourge 
him,' i.e. consign him to the place of final 
punishment. 

CHAPTER 25 

The Ten Yirgins. The Talents. The 

Sheep and the Goats 

The whole of this c, which is entirely con- 
cerned with the Second Advent, and contains 
some of the most striking of all Christ's say- 
ings, is peculiar to St. Matthew. 

1-13. Parable of the Ten Virgins. Pro- 
fessing Christians, who alone are addressed 
here, are warned of the absolute need of 
sufficient oil, i.e. of sufficient depth and 



reality in the spiritual life, if they are to be 
admitted into Christ's kingdom hereafter. 
Unless the life of the soul is continually 
nourished by secret prayer, devout meditation 
upon God's Word, and reverent use of the 
Sacraments, there is extreme danger that the 
lamp of piety will flicker out, that even the 
outward show of conformity to Christ's Law 
will cease to be, and that death or the Second 
Advent will find the soul not ready. 

1. Then] i.e. in the period immediately 
before the Second Advent. The kingdom of 
heaven] i.e. the Church on earth. Unto ten 
virgins] The ten virgins are not simply 
Christians, but good Christians ; not all the 
baptised, but those who make some attempt 
to act up to their Christian profession. The 
number ten represents the whole number of 
those who are apparently good Christians. It is 
chosen because among the Jews it was a com- 
plete number. Ten Jews constituted a congre- 
gation. Which took their lamps] RM ' torches,' 
i.e. their Christian profession. The ' lamps ' 
are all that is outward in the life of professing 
Christians, as the oil is all that is inward. 
To meet the bridegroom] All Christian life 
is a going out to meet the bridegroom, i.e. a 
preparation for the second coming of Christ. 

In the parable the wedding is supposed to 
take place at night. The bridegroom, accom- 
panied by his friends, goes in procession to the 
bride's house to fetch her home to his. On the 
return journey the virgins, the friends of the 
bride, are supposed to join the procession, and 
to enter with her into the bridegroom's house, 
where, in accordance with Jewish custom, the 
wedding feast was held. The customs of the 
Jews with regard to weddings differed little 
from those of the Greeks and Romans, or of 
modern Oriental nations, who invariably cele- 
brate weddings at night. The marriage of 
Christ with His Church is represented in the 
parable as taking place in the world to come, 
the betrothal having taken place in this world. 

2. And five of them were wise and five were 
foolish] The foolish virgins are not identical 
with the wicked, or the hypocrites. There is 
nothing insincere about them, they are only 
foolish and shallow. They have some oil, 
that is, some genuine religion, but not enough. 
They are like those in the parable of the 
sower who have no depth of earth. They 
endure for a time, but cannot carry through 
what they have begun. Their stock of perse- 
verance and patience is soon exhausted, and 
their lamps go out. 

3. Took no oil with them] Oil is the 
symbol of the Holy Spirit, and of inward 
sanctification (Ac 10 38 Hebl9 Un220,27). 
Here it stands for all that is earnest and 
sincere in the Christian life : secret prayer, 
faith, humility, charity, and good works. 



45 



705 



25.4 



ST. MATTHEW 



25. 21 



4. Oil in their vessels] The foolish virgins 
took some oil, but not enough. The wise 
virgins took an extra supply, in case the 
bridegroom delayed his coming. 

5. Tarried] A hint (but it is no more) that 
Christ would not come as soon as the first 
Christians expected. Slumbered and slept] 
If a definite meaning is to be given to this 
detail it represents the repose of faith, the 
serene confidence in God, which those who 
have found Christ, and have ordered their 
lives after His word, have a right to feel. 
The confidence of the foolish virgins, however, 
was misplaced. 

6. At midnight] i.e. the time of the Second 
Advent and the resurrection of the dead. 

8. Are gone out] RY l are going out.' 

9. Not so ; lest] RY ' Peradventure there 
will not be enough.' Jerome says : ' This answer 
they make not from avarice, but from fear. 
For each individual soul will receive the reward 
for his own deeds, nor in the day of judgment 
can the virtues of one make amends for the 
vices of another.' To them that sell] Clearly 
the bridegroom, though on the point of 
coming, had not yet come. If this detail is 
to be pressed, ' they that sell ' are the teachers 
and ministers of the Church (Origen). 10. And 
the door was shut] viz. the door of heaven. 

12. I know you not] i.e. because in the true 
sense you have never known Me : cp. JnlO 14 . 

14-30. Parable of the Talents (distinct 
from, though similar to, that of the Pounds, 
Lkl9 n " 27 , q.v.). The parable is intended for 
all Christians, warning even those of the 
meanest ability to use to the best advantage 
the talents with which God has entrusted 
them, if they would share in the future king- 
dom of Christ. It suitably follows and 
supplements the parable of the virgins ; for 
whereas that represented Christ's servants as 
waiting for Him, this represents them as 
working for Him ; and whereas that laid 
stress on their inward spiritual life, this lays 
stress on the outward activities in which the 
spiritual life shows itself. It differs from the 
parable of the pounds in being addressed to 
the disciples alone, in its simpler structure, 
and in its not inculcating the doctrine of 
diversities of rewards in the world to come. 
' This parable shines clearest in the light of 
the circumstances. Jesus and His disciples 
are still on Olivet overlooking Jerusalem and 
the temple in all their glory. Jesus had fore- 
told their destruction. What was the cause 
of that ruin ? Because the nation had buried 
the talent God had entrusted to them, instead 
of using it for Iliin.' 

14. A man] i.e. .Icsus Christ. Travelling 
into a far country] viz. when lie ascended into 
heaven. An ancient writer beautifully says : 
1 Ho calls His going to the Father a journey 



into a far country out of love to the saints 
whom He left on the earth, for He was more 
truly in a far country when He was on earth.' 
Theophylact says : ' He is said to go into a far 
country, because He is long-suffering, and does 
not immediately demand the fruit of men's 
works, but waits.' His own servants] lit. 
' slaves.' In ancient times slaves practised 
trades and professions, kept shops, carried on 
businesses, paying the whole, or a certain per- 
centage, of their profits to their masters. 

15. Talents] see on 1 8 24 . ' It seems better 
to explain the five (talents) more extensively 
of all the gifts of God, whether called those 
of nature, or of grace, of condition, or oppor- 
tunities, or sacraments. One receives five 
talents and another two ; one has a deeper 
insight into God's word, or has constitution- 
ally a more kind or liberal disposition than 
another, or is trained up with more abundant 
means of grace, and with opportunities of 
turning the same to good account, or with a 
higher station in God's Church than another ' 
(Isaac Williams). 

According to his several ability] God gives 
men spiritual gifts according to their natural 
capacities ; e.g. a man with a natural gift of 
eloquence becomes by God's grace a good 
preacher ; a man of natural piety, a spiritual 
guide ; a wealthy man, a philanthropist ; a pro- 
found philosopher, a theologian ; a man of 
high social position, a powerful influence by 
virtue of his example, etc. 

16. Traded] Christians are said to trade 
with their talents, when they employ them to 
the profit of their own souls and the benefit 
of others. Other five talents] The talents made 
in trade are the good which Christians do to 
themselves and others by the due use of the 
talents with which God has entrusted them. 
The talents gained by the apostles were human 
souls converted by them. 18. Digged in the 
earth] The man who hides his talent, is he 
who neither employs his abilities for his own 
spiritual advantage, nor for that of others. 

19. After a long time] Another hint that 
the Advent may be delayed. Reckoneth with 
them] viz. at the Judgment. 

21. Well done] In this parable the servants 
having been equally faithful and diligent, 
receive, despite the difference of the talents 
entrusted to them, an equal reward. It is 
different in the parable of the pounds, where 
the servants, having shown different degrees of 
diligence, receive different rewards. The les- 
son of both parables is that not ability but 
faithful diligence is rewarded. Over many 
things] 'Here again, as in 24 4 \ we have a 
glimpse given us into the future that lies be- 
hind the veil. We see that the reward of 
faithful work lies, not in rest only, but in en- 
larged activity. The world to come is thus 



706 



25. 24 



ST. MATTHEW 



25. 41 



connected by a law of continuity with that in 
which we live ; and those who have so used 
their " talents " as to turn many to righteous- 
ness, may find new spheres of action, beyond 
all our dreams, in that world in which the ties 
of brotherhood that have been formed on earth, 
are not extinguished, but, so we may rever- 
ently believe, multiplied and strengthened ' 
(Plumptre). The joy] viz. of eternal blessed- 
ness (v. 34). 

24. The one talent] ' Yery instructive is 
the fact that it is the recipient of the one 
talent who proves the defaulter here. Hence- 
forward none may excuse his sloth on a plea 
like this. So little is committed to my charge 
that it cannot matter how I administer that 
little. It is so little I can do for God, what 
signifies that little whether it be done or left 
undone ? ' (Trench). I knew thee that thou 
art an hard man] ' The churl accounted his 
lord churlish, esteeming him such a one as 
himself. He did not believe in his lord's for- 
giving love, and in his gracious acceptance of 
that work with all its shortcomings, which 
was done for him out of a true heart, and with 
a sincere desire to please him ' (Trench). 

27. To the exchangers] RY 'bankers.' 'We 
cannot regard these words as a perfectly idle 
sentence, for they furnish an appropriate 
thought. These timid natures who are not 
adapted for independent labour on behalf of 
the kingdom of God, are now advised at least 
to associate themselves with persons of greater 
strength, under whose guidance they may apply 
their gifts to the service of the Church ' 
(Olshausen). With usury] i.e. ' with interest.' 

29. For unto every one] see 13 12 . It is a 
law of the natural as well as of the spiritual 
world, that the disuse of a faculty finally leads 
to its complete loss, whereas the due use of it 
leads to its development and increase. 

30. Weeping] RY ' the weeping.' The 
penalty is not merely exclusion, as in the case 
of the foolish virgins, but punishment, in 
addition. 

31-46. The last judgment described (peculiar 
to St. Matthew). Christ here speaks of the 
judgment of Christians alone, because that 
was the question which most concerned the 
Apostles and their future converts. That the 
persons to be judged are described in v. 32 as 
' all the nations,' is in no way inconsistent with 
this. Jesus foresaw, and frequently prophesied, 
that His religion would become universal (8 11 , 
etc.), and therefore appropriately described 
the Christians who at the Last Day will rise to 
be judged, as all the nations of the earth. 
A common interpretation, however, is that the 
judgment of all mankind is meant. Against 
this is to be set not so much the title ' Lord,' 
which even His enemies will then give to 
Christ, as the statement that all the persons 



judged had regarded Christ as their Master 
during their lifetime, and had recognised the 
duty of serving Him. 

32. All the nations] see above. 

Sheep . . goats (or, ' kids ')] The sheep are 
the righteous ; the goats, from their com- 
parative worthlessness, the wicked. 

33. His right hand . . the left] These ex- 
pressions have the same significance in most 
languages. In Plato's ' Republic ' Er the 
Pamphylian is allowed to see the judgment 
after death executed by the judges of the 
underworld. The judges sit between two 
gaps, one leading to heaven, the other to hell. 
' After passing sentence, the judges commanded 
the just to take the road to the right upwards 
through the heaven, and fastened in front of 
them some symbol of the judgment which had 
been given ; while the unjust were ordered to 
take the road downward to the left, and also 
carried behind them evidence of all their 
evil deeds.' Similarly the rabbis said, ' Those 
on the right hand are the just, who study the 
Law, which is at the right hand of God 
(Dt 33 2 ) ; those on the left are the wicked, 
who study riches (Prov 3 16 ).' 'In those on 
the right hand righteousness, in those on the 
left hand guilt, preponderates.' 

34. The King] i.e. Christ Himself, appear- 
ing in the glory of His kingdom : cp. Rev 19 16 . 

Inherit] i.e. receive by right of sonship. 

35. For I was an hungered, and ye gave me 
meat] Faith in Christ being presumed (for 
the persons judged are professing Christians), 
the Judgment proceeds according to works, by 
which a living is distinguished from a dead 
faith (Jas 214-26). The absolute Lordship of 
Christ over the human race is expressed in a 
very simple yet most emphatic way when it is 
said that every good deed done to a fellow- 
creature is a good deed done to Christ, and 
that at the Last Day all men will be judged 
according to their attitude to Him. 

The rabbis also have some great sayings 
on charity that deserve to be remembered. 
' Whoever exercises hospitality willingly, to 
him belongs Paradise.' ' To entertain a 
traveller is a greater thing than to receive a 
manifestation of the Divine Majesty.' 'Who- 
ever gives a crust to a just person, is as if he 
had observed the five books of the Law.' 
' Whoever visits the sick, shall be free from 
the judgment of Gehenna.' ' Imitate the 
deeds of God. God clothes the naked (Gn 
3 21 ) ; do thou also clothe the naked. God 
visits the sick (Gn 18 1 ), do thou also visit the 
sick. He consoles mourners (Gn 25 n ), do 
thou also console mourners.' 

41. Ye cursed] but not of My Father. Ye 
are the authors of your own ruin. Prepared] 
not for men, but for the devil and his 
angels. 



707 



25. 46 



ST. MATTHEW 



26.14 



46. Everlasting] RY ' eternal,' as also in v. 41 . 
' Woe to all sinners, and especially to those 
who have no pity. It is the man who had no 
pity who is banished to the fire, for instead of 
love he put in his heart hatred. This is the 
sum of all vices, and its chief manifestation 
is inhumanity ' (Euthymius). 

In the view of the present writer, the eternity 
of future punishment, as of future reward, is 
a necessary deduction from the doctrine of 
the immortality of the soul, and is expressly 
affirmed in this passage. The nature of it 
seems by no means so certain. Probably an 
essential part of it will be the loss of free- 
will, the abuse of this faculty being punished 
by its loss. Future punishment will in any 
case exhibit God's mercy and benevolence, as 
well as His justice. 

CHAPTER 26 

The Betrayal. The Last Supper. Ar- 
rest of Jesus, and Trial before the 
High Priest 
1-5. A Council is held against Jesus (Mk 

141IA221: cp. JnlS 1 ). 

2. After two days] This fixes the date as 
Tuesday, if the Passover was on Thursday 
night ; or Wednesday, if, as is more probable, 
it was on Friday night. Is betrayed] This 
clear prediction is peculiar to St. Matthew. 

3. And the scribes] RY omits. The palace] 
RY ' the court,' i.e. the central quadrangle, 
the house being built round a square plot of 
ground, like a college. From the place of 
meeting it may be inferred, but not with cer- 
tainty, that this was not a formal meeting of 
the Sanhedrin. Caiaphas] in full, Joseph 
Caiaphas, son-in-law to Annas, was appointed 
high priest by the Roman procurator Yale- 
rius Gratus (Pilate's predecessor), and there- 
fore before 26 a.d. He was deposed by 
Yitellius 37 a.d. 5. Not on the feast day] 
RY 'Not during the feast.' This strongly 
favours the view that the Jewish Passover 
that year took place on Friday night. If the 
Passover took place on Thursday night, as 
many maintain, Jesus was crucified on the 
feast day itself, which extended from the 
Passover evening till sunset the next day. 

6-13. Jesus is anointed in the House of 
Simon the Leper (Mk 14 3 Jnl2* : see further 
on Jn). This incident seems in St. Matthew 
and St. Mark to take place on Tuesday or 
Wednesday evening, but the true chronology 
is probably given by St. John, who places it 
six days before the Passover. It is inserted 
here probably from the light it throws upon 
th.' character of .Indus (see St. John's narra- 
tive), whose treachery immediately follows in 
the Bynoptists. For a similar, but quite dis- 
tinct incident, sec Lk7 36 . 

Sonic authorities (but without good reason) 



distinguish between this anointing and that of 
Jnl.2 1 , making altogether three anointings. 

6. Simon the leper] His leprosy must have 
been healed, or he could not have entertained 
guests. The incurable character of leprosy 
renders it a sure conjecture that he owed his 
healing to Jesus. It is probably no more than 
a coincidence, yet it is a very singular one, 
that in the very similar incident in Lk 7 36 , the 
name of the host is also Simon. This Simon 
was probably a near relation of the family of 
Lazarus. 

7. A woman] i.e. Mary, sister of Lazarus 
(Jn). A quite untrustworthy but widely- 
spread tradition identifies her with the ' sinner ' 
of Lk7 37 , who is (also without any sufficient 
reason) often identified with Mary Magdalene. 

Alabaster box . . poured it on his head] see 
on Lk7 37 > 38 . His head] St. John says 'his 
feet.' Anointing was customary both in Jew- 
ish and Gentile feasts. The Talmud says, 
1 The school of Shammai saith, He holds sweet 
oil in his right hand and a cup of wine in his 
left. He says grace first over the oil, and 
then over the wine. He blesseth the sweet 
oil and anoints the head of him that serves.' 
Here, however, it is one who sits at meat who 
is anointed. 

8. His disciples] St. John mentions espe- 
cially Judas. 9. For much] for 300 denarii 
(Mk, Jn). 11. Ye have the poor] cp. Dtl5 n 
Mkl4 7 . 12. My burial] Another prediction 
of His death, followed in the next v. by a re- 
markable prophecy of the universal extension 
of His religion. 

14-16. Judas betrays Jesus (Mkl4 10 Lk 
22 3 ). The exact date cannot be fixed. It may 
have been as early as Sunday night, or Mon- 
day. Y. 16 implies a considerable interval 
between the betrayal and the arrest. The 
paltry sum for which Jesus was betrayed (the 
price of a slave, Ex21 32 ) has raised the ques- 
tion whether avarice was really the main mo- 
tive of Judas. There have even been attempts 
to place his conduct in a favourable light, as 
if his desire was to bring about a rising of the 
people at the time of the feast, and so to con- 
strain ' the dilatory Messiah to establish His 
kingdom by means of popular violence ' 
(Paulus), or by the exercise of His super- 
natural power. This is possible, but not prob- 
able. Judas was thoroughly alienated from 
Jesus. He found his Master's ideals diverging 
more and more widely from his own. Instead 
of an earthly kingdom, in which Judas hoped to 
hold a lucrative position, Christ seemed to be 
aiming at an impracticable ideal, which might, 
perhaps, be very beautiful, but which certainly 
did not seem to be a practical way of making 
money. He had already embezzled money 
from the common purse, and he could not be 
ignorant that he was suspected and disliked by 



708 



26. 15 



ST. MATTHEW 



26. 24 



his colleagues, and that his true character had 
long been discerned by his Master. His former 
love and trust were now turned to hatred and 
contempt, and in a frenzy of disappointed 
ambition he betrayed Jesus. Yet, when the 
fatal deed was done, there came a revulsion of 
feeling, and he would fain have undone it. 

15. They covenanted with him] RV l they 
weighed unto him,' in accordance with ancient 
custom (Gn23 16 ), but money was .probably at 
this period always coin, not bullion. 

17-30. The Last Supper (Mk 14 12 Lk 22 ' Jn 
13 1 ). For the order of events see on Jn, 
and intro. to c. 21. The question whether the 
Last Supper was the Jewish Passover or not, 
is discussed in a note on Jnl8 28 , where it is 
argued that Jesus, knowing that He would be 
crucified on Friday, celebrated the Passover on 
Thursday evening, a day before the legal time. 
That the Jewish Passover did not take place 
till Friday evening (after the crucifixion) is 
abundantly plain from the Fourth Gospel (see 
especially Jnl8 28 ), and even in the Synoptic 
Gospels, which at first sight give an opposite 
impression, there are sufficiently clear indica- 
tions that this was the case. The chief are, 
(1) The purpose of the priests not to take 
and execute Jesus during the festival, lest a 
tumult should arise (26 5 RV). (2) It was 
contrary to custom to hold trials and execute 
criminals on the first and holiest day of the 
feast, which was kept as a sabbath. (3) The 
feast day would not be called simply ' Prepara- 
tion,' i.e. Friday. (4) The officers and the 
disciples would not have carried arms on the 
: feast day. (5) Joseph of Arimathea would 
not have bought a linen cloth, or the women 
have prepared spices on that day (Mkl5 46 
Lk2358). 

17. The first day of . . unleavened bread] As, 
\ according to St. Mark and St. Luke, this was 
the day on which the Passover lambs were 
slaughtered, it must mean the day before the 
Passover (Jewish reckoning), i.e. from sunset 
on Thursday to sunset on Friday. The last 
supper was held on Thursday evening, and the 
lambs were killed at 3 p.m. on Friday, but that 
would be on the same day, according to 
Jewish ideas. 

In strict usage 'the first day of unleavened 
i bread ' meant the first day of the Passover 
festival, which began with the paschal supper. 
But it is possible that the day before this, when 
the paschal lambs were sacrificed, and all leaven 
was expelled from the houses, was popularly 
y spoken of as ' the first day of unleavened 
bread.' 

The disciples came to Jesus] at or after sun- 
set on Thursday, and within an hour or two 
the necessary preparations for the supper were 
complete. Where wilt thou that we prepare] 
' For they might anywhere ; since the houses 



at Jerusalem were not to be hired, but during 
the time of the feast, they were of common 
right ' (J. Lightfoot). The rabbis say, ' It 
is a tradition that nouses were not let for 
hire at Jerusalem, because they were not pri- 
vately owned, nor were beds, but the house- 
holder received from his guests as a recompense, 
the skins of the animals sacrificed.' To eat the 
Passover] The Last Supper is here called 
' the Passover,' because in many respects it 
resembled it. It is not, however, certain that 
there was a lamb. Jesus Himself was the 
Lamb, and, as He intended to supersede the 
type by the reality, it was not absolutely 
necessary for the type to be present. 

The paschal lamb was slain in the court of 
the Temple on the afternoon of the 14th 
Nisan, and was eaten the same evening after 
sunset, when the 15th Nisan had already be- 
gun : see Ex 12, etc. 

18. The Master saith] It is clear that the 
man was a clisciple, so that here is another 
synoptic proof of a previous ministry of Jesus 
at Jerusalem. St. Mark and St. Luke here add 
additional details to the narrative, implying a 
miraculous gift of foresight on our Lord's 
part. My time is at hand] The disciple would 
doubtless be surprised at the proposal of 
Jesus to keep the Passover a day before the 
legal time. The apostles were therefore in- 
structed to give the reason : ' My time is at 
hand,' i.e. My death will happen before the 
legal time of the Passover arrives. 

20. He sat down] RV ' He was sitting at 
meat,' or, rather, ' reclining.' For the attitude 
at table, see on Jnl3 23 . The Law (Exl2 n ) 
required the Passover to be eaten standing, 
but this was no longer observed. The Talmud 
says, ' It is the custom of slaves to eat stand- 
ing, but now let them eat reclining, that it 
may be discerned that at the exodus they 
went out from slavery into freedom.' 

23. He that dippeth] RV k He that dipped ' 
(Ps41 9 ). St. John describes this incident in 
much fuller detail. 

24. It had been good] A popular expres- 
sion. The rabbis said, ' Whoever knows the 
Law and does it not, it were better for him 
never to have been born.' ' If a man does not 
attend to the honour of his Creator, it were 
better if he had not come into the world.' 

The justice of Judas's punishment, seeing 
that the betrayal of Jesus was predestined, 
has been much discussed. The solution pro- 
bably is that the betrayal by Judas was not 
predestined. It was morally certain that in a 
state of society like that in Palestine in our 
Lord's time, a teacher like Jesus would be 
betrayed by some one, but that some one need 
not have been Judas. Judas was rightly 
punished because he freely took the evil 
business upon himself. For the probable 



709 



26. 25 



ST. MATTHEW 



26. 29 



reasons why Jesus chose Judas to be an 
Apostle, see on Jn6 71 . 

25. Master] RV k Rabbi.' Thou hast said] 
i.e. Yes : a rabbinical idiom never found in 
the OT. 

After v. 25 the evangelist probably (though 
not certainly) intends it to be understood that 
Judas at once withdrew (see v. 47), thus agree- 
ing with St. John, who also represents the 
traitor as leaving before the institution of the 
Holy Sacrament. In St. Luke Judas appears 
to be present and to receive the Sacrament, but 
that is probably because the third Gospel does 
not relate the events in order : see on Lk and 
on Jn 13 30. 

26-30. Institution of the Lord's Supper (Mk 
14 22 Lk22 19 1 Cor 1 1 23). It is not certain how 
far Jesus at the Last Supper followed the cus- 
tomary Passover ritual, but it is clear that He 
did so to some extent. The following gives 
the usual order of proceedings, omitting a few 
details : 

(1) The first cup was blessed and drunk. (2) 
The hands were washed while a blessing was 
said. (3) Bitter herbs, emblematic of the so- 
journ in Egypt, were partaken of, dipped in 
sour broth made of vinegar and bruised fruit. 
(4) The son of the house asked his father to 
explain the origin of the observance. (5) The 
lamb and the flesh of the thank offerings 
(chagigah) were placed on the table, and the 
first part of the Hallel sung (Pss 113, 114). 
(6) The second cup was blessed and drunk. (7) 
Unleavened bread was blessed and broken, a 
fragment of it was eaten, then a fragment of 
the thank offerings, then a fragment of the 
lamb. (8) Preliminaries being thus ended, the 
feast proceeded at leisure till all was consumed. 

(9) The lamb being quite finished, the third 
cup, the cup of blessing, was blessed and drunk. 

(10) The fourth cup was drunk, and meanwhile 
the second part of the Hallel (Pss 115-118) was 
sung. 

Those who partook of the Passover were 
required to be ceremonially clean, and to have 
been fasting from the time of the evening 
sacrifice, which on this day was offered early, 
about 1.30 p.m. All male Israelites above the 
age of fourteen were required to partake of it. 

26. As they were eating, Jesus took bread] 
This may correspond with No. 7, but it seems 
more probable that both the bread and the wine 
were consecrated together at the close of the 
meal, the bread when it was almost, and the 
cup when it was quite, finished. 

The Jewish ritual of breaking the Passover 
bread was as follows: 'Then washing his hands, 
and taking two loaves, he breaks one, and lays 
the broken loaf upon the whole one, saying, 
i 4 Blessed be He who causoth bread to grow out 
of the earth." Then, putting a piece of bread 
and some bitter herbs together, he dips them 



in the sour broth, saying this blessing : "Blessed 
be Thou, O Lord God, our eternal King, He 
who hath sanctified us by His precepts, and 
commanded us to eat." Then he eats the un- 
leavened bread and bitter herbs together.' But 
it is unlikely that Jesus, who was founding a 
new rite, followed the Jewish ritual in every 
detail. 

This is my body] see on v. 30. 

27. The cup] RY ' a cup.' Since it was taken 
after supper (St. Luke and St. Paul), and is 
expressly called by the latter the ' cup of 
blessing' (ICorlO 16 ), it was clearly the third 
cup of the paschal supper, called by the rabbis 
the ' cup of blessing' (No. 9). The ritual was as 
follows : (1) It was washed and cleansed ; (2) 
the wine in it was mingled with water, and it 
was blessed ; (3) it was crowned, i.e. the wor- 
shippers stood round it in a ring ; (4) the 
householder veiled his head and sat down ; (5) 
he drank it, holding it with both hands. 

That the cup of the Christian sacrament was 
also mingled with water, was indicated by Jesus 
Himself, when He called it ' this fruit of the 
vine.' The Talmud says, ' The rabbis have a 
tradition. Over wine which hath not water 
mingled with it they do not say the blessing, 
" Blessed be He that created the fruit of the 
vine," but, "Blessed be He that created the fruit 
of the tree." ' And it is added, ' The wise agree 
with Rabbi Eleazar, that one ought not to bless 
over the cup of blessing till water be mingled 
with it.' 

28. My blood of the New Testament] RY 
' my blood of the covenant.' This is a clear 
proof that Jesus regarded His death as an 
atoning sacrifice for the sins of the world, and, 
therefore, as altering the relation of the whole 
human race to God. As Moses had once made 
a covenant with God by the blood of victims 
sprinkled on the people (Ex 24 8 ), so now Jesus 
by His own blood made a new and better 
covenant. 

Shed for many] i.e. probably ' for mankind, 1 
stress being laid on their multitude. 

29. I will not drink henceforth, etc.] (Mk 1 4 - b 
Lk22 18 ). These mysterious and beautiful 
words are a well-known ' crux ' of interpreters. 
It seems clear, however, that they are to be 
taken as referring to the whole rite of the 
Lord's Supper, and not simply to the ' fruit of 
the vine,' or cup. This is evident from Lk 22 ir \ 
' I will not any more eat thereof ' (viz. of the 
Christian Passover or Supper) 4 until it be ful- 
filled in the kingdom of God.' Interpretations 
fall into two main classes, according as ' the 
kingdom of God ' Q My Father's kingdom ') is 
understood to refer to the period after the Re- 
surrection, or to the period after the Judgment. 
According to the first interpretation, the sacred 
rite which Jesus now institutes, and which He 
will not again celebrate until He has triumphed 



710 



26. 30 



ST. MATTHEW 



26. 30 



over death and sat down a conqueror on the 
throne of His Father's kingdom, will, after 
the Ascension, and especially after the descent 
of the Spirit, be to the disciples a new thing. 
No longer will the shadow of disappointment 
and seeming failure hang over their meetings. 
The sin of the world will have been atoned 
for, death will have been conquered, the Spirit 
will have been given, and Jesus will be present 
at the feast, not, as now, in the body of His 
humiliation, but in the power of His risen and 
glorious life. According to the other interpre- 
tation, the Lord's Supper is regarded as a type 
and prophecy of the eternal marriage supper of 
the Lamb (Revl9 9 ). These two views do not 
exclude one another. The title ' this fruit of 
the vine ' which Jesus applies to the sacred cup 
even after consecration, would seem to exclude 
the mediaeval doctrine of Transubstantiation. 

30. Sung an hymn] i.e. the second part of 
the Hallel (Pss 115-1 18) which accompanied 
the fourth Passover-cup : see No. 10 above. 

Additional Notes on the Last Supper 

(a) Its theological and apologetic importance. 

On the night of the Last Supper the fortunes 
of Jesus were at their lowest ebb. There was 
treason in His own camp. The triumph of 
His enemies was at hand, and He looked 
forward with certainty on the morrow to the 
degrading death of a common malefactor. 
Yet He chose this moment to ordain a rite in 
which His death should be commemorated by 
His followers to the end of time, showing 
that He foresaw His resurrection and the 
future triumph of His cause. Such conduct 
under such circumstances shows a strictly 
supernatural gift of faith and insight. More- 
over He chose this moment of deepest depres- 
sion and seeming failure, for the most studied 
declaration of His true Divinity. For what 
less than divine can He be said to be, whose 
death atones for the sins of the whole world, 
and reconciles the human race to G-od ? And 
how can He be other than the Author of Life 
Himself, who declares that His Body and 
Blood are the spiritual food and drink of 
mankind ? If all the records of Christianity 
had perished, and only the rite of the Holy 
Communion remained, it would still remain 
certain that One had appeared on earth who 
claimed to be the Divine Saviour of the world, 
and whose death was believed to have been 
followed by a glorious Resurrection and 
Ascension. 

(b) The doctrine of the Lord's Supper. 
Space does not permit us to give an adequate 
account even of the best-known interpreta- 
tions of our Lord's words in instituting this 
holy rite. All that can be done here is to 
indicate a few leading points which the reader 
may find devotionally helpful. 



(1) Although some earnest believers have 
seen in the Lord's Supper nothing but a bare 
commemoration of the Lord's death, yet the 
great majority of Christians in all ages have 
believed that, attached to devout and reverent 
participation in the rite, is a special covenanted 
blessing, which cannot (ordinarily at least) be 
obtained in any other way, and which is 
necessary for the nourishment and growth 
of the spiritual life. Such a view seems 
clearly to underlie the statement of St. Paul 
(ICorlO 16 ), that 'the cup of blessing which 
we bless ' is to the faithful communicant ' the 
communion,' i.e. the partaking in common with 
others, ' of the blood of Christ,' and ' the bread 
which we break,' ' the communion of the body 
of Christ.' 

(2) The covenanted blessing is generally 
conceived as a special realisation of the 
union between the believer and his Saviour, as 
suggested by our Lord's own allegory of the 
Yine and the Branches (Jnl5) spoken imme- 
diately after the institution, and by that of 
the Bread of Life ( Jn 6), which was intended 
to prepare the way for it. It is specially 
true at the Table that ' Christ dwells in our 
hearts by faith,' ' we are one with Christ and 
Christ with us,' ' we dwell in him and he in 
us,' and He is in us the fountain of life, 
sanctification, and cleansing. 

(3) The primary reference of the rite is to 
the death of Christ. The ' broken body ' and 
' shed blood ' symbolise the atoning death 
upon the cross. It is implied that those who 
with faith and due thankfulness approach the 
Table, ' obtain remission of their sins, and all 
other benefits of his passion.' 

(4) At the same time the reference is not 
exclusively to Christ's death. He does not 
say ' Do this in remembrance of my death,' 
but ' Do this in remembrance of me,' i.e. of all 
that I am to Christians ; — of My incarnation, 
resurrection, and ascension, as well as of My 
death. To the early Christians the rite was 
very largely a memorial of the Resurrection, 
and as such was regularly celebrated on the 
first day of the week (Ac 20 7 ). 

(5) Accordingly in the Supper it is with the 
ascended and glorified Lord that the Christian 
holds communion. While commemorating the 
tragedy of Calvary he communes with Him 
who ' is alive for evermore, and has the keys 
of hell and of death ' (Rev 1 18). He joins in 
the heavenly worship of ' the Lamb as it 
had been slain,' who, in recompense for His 
humiliation, is now endowed with almighty 
power (Rev5 6 ). 

(6) There is some difference of view among 
believing Christians as to how the scriptural 
expressions, eating and drinking Christ's flesh 
and blood (Jn 6 53 ), or Christ's body and blood 
(1 Cor 10 16 ), are to be understood. Many think 



711 



26.31 



ST. MATTHEW 



26. 44 



that Christ is present in the ordinance only 
according to His divine nature, and that He 
communicates to believers not His actual body 
and blood, but only the benefits which the 
offering of these upon the Cross procured for 
mankind. Others, however, interpreting our 
Lord's mysterious words in a more literal 
sense, are of opinion that Christ is present 
in the ordinance not only in His Deity, but 
also in His glorified humanity, and that in 
some spiritual and ineffable, but still most real 
manner, He imparts to believers not only His 
Godhead, but also His Manhood, making 
them partakers, not in figure only, but verily 
and indeed, of His sacred body and blood. 
We are here in the presence of very deep 
mysteries, of which we should speak with awe 
and reverence, remembering how very limited 
our faculties are. 

(7) The Supper is a memorial rite, ' this do 
in remembrance of me,' more literally, ' as my 
memorial' (Lk22i9 1 Cor 11 24). Some have 
regarded it as a memorial before man only, 
but the prevailing opinion among Christians is 
that it is a memorial also before God, a pleading 
before the Father of the merits of the precious 
death of His Son. The word used (anamnesis) 
is a rare one, and in biblical Greek means 
uniformly a memorial before God, both in the 
OT. (see e.g. Lv24? LXX), and in the NT. 
(HeblO 3 ). There is good reason, therefore, 
for thinking that this may be the meaning 
here. 

Note. At this point must be inserted 
Jn 14-17. 

31-35. Jesus predicts His Death, the scatter- 
ing of the disciples, the fall of Peter, and His 
own Resurrection (Mkl427 Lk223i Jnl3 3 S). 

31. I will smite] freely adapted from Zech 
13 7 , a strictly Messianic passage. The quota- 
tion is intended to alleviate the scandal of the 
disciples' conduct, by showing that it was fore- 
told. 33. Peter answered] ' He ought rather 
to have besought Christ, and begged for aid 
(against the coming temptation). But he 
sinned in three ways at once : (1) in contradict- 
ing the Prophet and the Christ, (2) in placing 
himself above the rest, (3) in trusting in him- 
self alone, and not in the help of God. Where- 
fore also he was permitted to fall, that he 
might be humbled, and might learn not to 
trust too much in himself, and that others also 
might learn the same. Also he was allowed 
to fall that he might learn to love more. For 
he to whom more is forgiven, loves more' 
(Euthymius). 34. Before the cock crow] i.e. 
before llir <l;i\ begins to dawn. There is 
practically no difference of meaning between 
bhia and 'before the cockcrow twice' (Mk), 
for when the cork once begins to crow in the 
morning, he does so at frequent intervals. 
The rabbis say, 'They do not keep cocks at 



Jerusalem on account of the holy things 
(which they might pollute) ; nor do the priests 
keep them throughout all the land of Israel.' 
But this law was clearly not enfored. 

36-46. The Agony in the Garden (Mkl4 3 2 
Lk22 40 ). The peculiar intensity of Christ's 
agony at Gethsemane presents a difficult pro- 
blem. It cannot have been due to fear of 
death, for He came to Jerusalem expressly to 
die, and never faltered in His resolve, nor is the 
foreseen flight of the disciples, the treachery 
of Judas, the denial of Peter, and the sin of 
the Jewish nation in rejecting and crucifying 
Him, sufficient to account for it. Perhaps the 
explanation is to be found in the mystery of 
the Atonement. He was to bear the sins of 
the whole world, and the thought of that 
awful burden oppressed Him. ' The Lord felt 
the bitterness of death, He tasted it as the 
wages of sin ; and this alone is the bitterness 
of death — not His own, but so much the pro- 
founder and keener as the sin of the whole 
world ' (Dale). 

The best commentary on Gethsemane is 
Heb5 7 . Important additional details are 
found in St. Luke's Gospel (Western text). 

36. Gethsemane] lit. ' oil-press.' On the 
W. slope of Olivet, near the foot. 'It is 
now ' (says Sir C. W. Wilson) ' a small enclo- 
sure surrounded by a high wall. The ground 
is laid out in flower-beds, which are carefully 
tended by a Franciscan monk ; but the most 
interesting objects are the venerable olive- 
trees, which are said to date from the time of 
Christ, and which may in truth be direct 
descendants of trees which grew in the same 
place at the time of the crucifixion.' The 
gardens of Jerusalem were outside the city, 
because it was forbidden to plant a garden 
within the walls. 

37. Peter, etc.] In this hour of agony He 
clung to the companionship of His closest 
friends, to whom also, as spectators of the 
glory of the Transfiguration, His present 
humiliation would be less of a stumbling- 
block. And very heavy] RV 'and sore 
troubled.' 

39. Let this cup] i.e. not merely His death, 
but all that was implied in bearing the sins of 
the world in His own body on the tree : cp. 
2022. The prayer, 'Let this cup pass,' was 
not sinful, because it was accompanied by the 
resolution to submit to the divine will, what- 
ever it was. Not as I will] As Christ was 
God and man, there were in Him two wills, 
a human will and a divine will, and the former 
did not always conform itself to the latter 
without an inward struggle : cp. Jn5 30 G 38 . 

40. Asleep] ' You promised to die with me, 
and could you not watch with me one hour ?' 
(Euthymius). 41. Temptation] i.e. the tempta- 
tion to forsake and deny Christ. 44. The 



712 



26. 45 



ST. MATTHEW 



26.57 



third time] not a ' vain repetition,' but a 
repetition of intense earnestness. In great 
agony men do not frame many words, but say 
the same words many times. 45. Sleep on 
now] spoken with reproachful irony, ' You 
have slept through My agony. Sleep also 
through My betrayal and capture.' 46. Let 
us be going] i.e. not to escape, but to meet 
the betrayer. 

47-56. Jesus is taken (Mkl4 4 3 Lk22 4 ? Jn 
1 8 2 ) : see further on Jn. 

47. From the chief priests] These were the 
Temple guard of Levites, sent by the Sanhedrin. 
St. John mentions that Roman soldiers were 
also present. 48. Kiss] ' It was not unusual 
for a master to kiss his disciple ; but for a 
disciple to kiss his master was more rare ' (J. 
Lightfoot). 

49. Hail, master] RY ' Hail, Rabbi.' 
Kissed] a different word : ' Kissed and 

embraced him effusively.' Jesus received the 
kiss, (1) to soften the heart of Judas by His 
gentleness, if that were possible ; (2) in the 
words of St. Hilary, l to teach us to love our 
enemies, and those whom we know to be 
bitter against us.' 

50. Friend, wherefore art thou come ?] RY 
' Friend, do that for which thou art come.' 
Lk adds, ' Betrayest thou the Son of man with 
a kiss ? ' Here follows in St. John a dialogue 
between Jesus and those who came to seize 
Him ; after which they all fell to the ground. 

51. One of them] The synoptic tradition 
suppresses the name, probably to ensure the 
safety of Peter. St. John alone mentions 
that it was Peter, with whose character the 
act fully accords. His sword] see Lk22 38 . 

A servant] RY ' the servant ' (' slave '). 
His name was Malchus (Jn). St. Luke alone 
mentions that Christ healed him. 

52. All they that take the sword, etc.] cp. 
Revl3 10 . This incident is a practical com- 
mentary on the third Beatitude (5 5 ). It 
discourages resort to violence on the part of 
Christ's followers, and recommends instead 
the meek endurance of injuries. Peace, not 
war, is their mission. Another interpreta- 
tion has been given, 'All they that take the 
sword,' i.e. rashly and on their own authority, 
1 shall perish by the sword,' i.e. are worthy to 
perish by the sword, i.e. the sword of the 
magistrate. ■ So that Christ here renews the 
precept given to Noah, ' Whoso sheddeth man's 
blood, by man shall his blood be shed ' (G-n 9 6 ). 

55. I sat daily] This cannot merely refer 
to the two, or at most three days' ministry 
during Holy Week, but indicates a more 
extended ministry at Jerusalem at an earlier 
period, as the Fourth Gospel relates. 

57-68. Trial before Caiaphas (MkU^s Lk 
22 54). The synoptists omit the preliminary 
examination before Annas recorded by Jn, 



because it led to nothing. St. John omits the 
trial before Caiaphas, because it had already 
been recorded. From St. Matthew and St. 
Mark it might be thought that the trial took 
place immediately after the arrest, but St. 
Luke, whose narrative is here independent, 
makes it clear that there was a considerable 
interval, during which the rest of the members 
of the Sanhedrin were summoned. The chief 
enemies of Jesus had not gone to bed, and 
were already assembled. It was necessary to 
wait for the morning (Lk22 66 ), because it was 
unlawful to try capital offences at night. 
There was, however, very little attempt on 
the part of the Jewish authorities to preserve 
even the forms of a legal trial. The time of 
the trial would be about 4 a.m. 

The following account of the judicial 
procedure of the Sanhedrin in capital cases is 
abridged from Schurer, who follows the 
Mishna. The members of the court sat in a 
semi-circle. A quorum of 23 was required. 
In front of them stood the two clerks of the 
court, of whom the one on the right hand 
recorded the votes for acquittal, and the one 
on the left hand the votes for condemnation. 
The ' disciples of the wise ' (pupils of the 
scribes) occupied three additional rows in 
front. It was required to hear the reasons 
for acquittal first (a regulation violated in the 
case of Jesus) and afterwards the reasons for 
condemnation. The ' disciples of the wise ' 
could speak, but only in favour of the prisoner. 
Acquittal could be pronounced on the day of 
the trial, but condemnation not till the follow- 
ing day (this regulation also was violated, 
though some suppose that there were two 
meetings, one on Thursday night, the other 
on Friday morning to render the proceedings 
technically legal). Each member stood to 
give his vote, and voting began with the 
youngest member. For acquittal a simple 
majority sufficed ; for condemnation a majority 
of two was necessary. 

Was the assembly which condemned Jesus 
a regular and formal meeting of the Sanhedrin? 
Edersheim denies it, because ' All Jewish 
order and law would have been grossly in- 
fringed in almost every particular, if this had 
been a formal meeting of the Sanhedrin.' 
But the case of Stephen shows how little the 
Sanhedrin cared for order and law, when it 
was really angry. A stronger argument is 
drawn from the place of meeting, which was 
apparently the high priest's palace, though 
none of the evangelists expressly say so, and 
Lk 22 66 possibly suggests the contrary. This 
was certainly not the proper place for the 
Sanhedrin to meet, but we are not in a position 
to say that at this time such a meeting-place 
was impossible or even unlikely. The legal 
place of meeting was the Hall G-azith (lit. 



713 



26. 58 



ST. MATTHEW 



26. 75 



'Hall of Hewn Stones') which was on the 
Temple mount, and probably within the Temple 
enclosure. But the Mishna says that forty 
years before the fall of Jerusalem the Sanhe- 
drin removed to the ' booths,' or ' shops.' 
Whether these booths were in the Temple, or 
in Jerusalem, or on the Mt. of Olives, is un- 
certain, but if such an irregularity as meeting 
in the ' booths ' was possible, so also was that 
of meeting in the high priest's house. 

58. Unto the . . palace] R V ' unto the court ' 
(i.e. quadrangle) ' of the high priest ' : see on 
v. 3. The servants] RV ' the officers.' 

59. Sought false witness] That the judges 
sought witnesses at all, much less false wit- 
nesses, is enough to condemn them to perpetual 
infamy. 

61. I am able to destroy] At the worst this 
was a boastful remark, and could not be made 
the basis of a capital charge. This incident 
strikingly confirms the accuracy of the dis- 
courses recorded in the Fourth Gospel, which 
alone records this saying of Christ (Jn2 19 ). 
The false witnesses distorted the saying. Christ 
did not say ' I am able to destroy,' but ' Destroy 
this temple,' i.e. ' If you destroy this temple.' 

63. I adjure thee by the living God] Jesus 
consents to be put on His oath, thus declaring 
oaths before a magistrate to be lawful. The 
Christ, the Son of God] The high priest asks 
not merely whether He is the Messiah, but 
whether He is a divine Messiah. To claim to 
be the Messiah whom all good Israelites were 
expecting, was no crime, but to claim to be 
the Son of God, in the sense of God's equal, 
was blasphemy. Here the synoptists again 
strongly confirm the peculiar features of the 
Fourth Gospel, for how did the high priest 
know or suspect that Jesus claimed to be 
divine, unless Jesus had publicly said so at 
Jerusalem, as related in the Fourth Gospel? 
(Jn 5^-47 856-59 1088). 

64. Thou hast said] Christ's exact words 
which St. Mark and St. Luke render by ' I 
am ' (see 20 25). Nevertheless] better, ' more- 
over.' Hereafter (RV 'Henceforth') ye shall 
see, etc.] Jesus here makes two distinct 
statements : (1) That henceforth, i.e. from 
the Ascension onwards, His enemies will be- 
hold Him sitting on the right hand of God, 
and causing His Kingdom mightily to prevail 
over the earth, in spite of all their efforts to 
prevent it. (2) That they will also see Him 
one day coming to judgment seated on the 
clouds of heaven. The reference is to Dan 7 13 , 
which was then interpreted of the Messiah. 

65. Rent his clothes] The Jewish law was : 
'They thai judge a blasphemer first ask the 

witness, ami bid him speak out plainly what 
he hath heard ; and when lie speaks it, the 
judges, standing on their feet, rend their gar- 
ments and do not sew them up again.' 



66. He is guilty (RV ' worthy ') of death. 
To condemn Jesus at once, was contrary to 
the law, which was, ' Judgment in capital 
causes is passed the same day if it be for 
acquitting ; but if it be for condemning, it 
is passed the day after.' The reason is, ' He 
delays his judgment, and lets it rest all night, 
that he may sift out the truth.' But Eder- 
sheim remarks, ' It seems, however, at least 
doubtful, whether in case of profanation of 
the divine name, judgment was not immediately 
executed.' The trial was further illegal, as 
being held on the eve of the Passover, for 
' Let them not judge on the eve of the sabbath, 
or on the eve of a feast day.' After passing 
sentence of death the judges were bound to 
taste nothing the whole day. The punishment 
for blasphemy was stoning. 

67. Fulfilment of Isa50 6 . 

68. Prophesy] Christ was blindfolded at 
the time. The mockery was carried out by 
the ' officers ' of the Sanhedrin. 

Additional Note on the Trial 

The synoptists all agree that Jesus was 
condemned for blasphemy, i.e. for claiming 
more than human powers and attributes. 
This is inconsistent with the contention of 
those who maintain that Jesus merely pro- 
fessed to be a mere human teacher, or at most 
a prophet. The trial itself is enough to show 
that there is essential unity between the 
synoptists and the Fourth Gospel in their 
doctrine of Christ's person. The Christ of the 
synoptists at the last great crisis of His life 
makes the same tremendous claims as the 
Christ of St. John, and is put to death for 
making them. 

69-75. Peter's Denials (Mkl466 Lk22^ 
j n 18 15-18, 25 27). The accounts agree in all 
main features, but the details are difficult to 
harmonise exactly. All agree that Peter was 
three times charged with being a disciple, and 
three times denied it ; also that a cock crew 
at the time of the third denial, reminding 
Peter of the words of Jesus. St. Luke and 
St. John represent Peter in a somewhat more 
favourable light than St. Matthew and St. 
Mark, for they say nothing of his cursing and 
swearing. St. Luke alone mentions the look of 
Jesus which went to the heart of Peter. St. 
John represents the denials as taking place in 
the court of Annas, the synoptists in that of 
Caiaphas, hut perhaps both had apartments in 
the same building. In any case the account 
of St. John, who was an actual eyewitness, is 
to be preferred : see on Jn. 

69. In the palace] RV ' in the court,' i.e. 
in the quadrangle. 

75. Wept bitterly] ' Thou hast seen Peter's 
sin, see also his repentance. For to this very 
end were the sins and the repentances of the 



714 



27. 1 



ST. MATTHEW 



27. 11 



saints written, that whenever we sin, we may- 
imitate their repentance. And Peter was 
allowed to fall not only for the reasons men- 
tioned before, but also that he might learn to 
make allowances for those that stumble, know- 
ing from his own experience what human 
weakness is ' (Euthymius). 

CHAPTER 27 
Before Pilate. The Crucifixion 
i,2. Jesus delivered to Pilate (Mkl5* Lk 

23 1 Jnl8 2s : see on Jn). 

i. When the morning;] Since according to St. 
Luke, who follows an excellent and independ- 
ent authority, the trial itself did not take 
place ' until it was day ' (Lk22 66 ), this second 
meeting must be placed some time later in 
the morning, considerably after cock-crowing 
(26 74 ). The object of the meeting, which 
was evidently largely attended, was simply to 
consider how to induce Pilate to carry out the 
sentence, and not as some think to pronounce 
sentence of death, and so technically to comply 
with the law which forbade the death sen- 
tence to be pronounced on the day of the 
trial. 

2. Pilate] the fifth Roman procurator of 
Judaea, was appointed in 26 a. d., and held 
office for ten years. He was then summoned 
to Rome to answer certain charges made 
against him, and was banished to Yienna in 
Gaul, where he is said to have committed suicide. 
The Roman governor resided generally at 
Caesarea, but came to Jerusalem at Passover 
time to keep order. The Sanhedrin could not 
lawfully execute Jesus without the consent of 
Pilate (Jn 18 31 ), and Pilate was not likely to 
regard seriously the purely religious charge 
upon which Jesus had been condemned. 
They, therefore, altered the charge to one of 
treason (v. 11). 

3-10. End of Judas (see Acl 18 ). The di- 
vergences of the two accounts of the end of 
Judas are well known. In St. Matthew he 
hangs himself ; in Acts he is killed by a fall. 
In St. Matthew the priests buy a field with the 
blood-money to bury strangers in ; in Acts 
Judas himself buys a field, presumably for his 
own purposes. It is possible by various in- 
genious conjectures to harmonise the accounts, 
but the truth of the matter probably is that the 
Apostles did not care to investigate at the 
time so hateful a subject as the fate of the 
traitor, and that when the Gospels came to be 
written the exact circumstances could no 
longer be ascertained. 

3. When he saw that he was condemned] 
This somewhat favours the view that Judas 
did not intend by betraying Jesus to cause His 
death. But it is more probable that the meek 
demeanour of the Sufferer at His arrest and 
during His trial, brought about a revulsion of 



feeling in Judas, who now detested himself for 
what he had done. ' This is the way of the devil. 
Before we sin, he suffers us not to see the 
evil of it, lest we should repent. But after 
the sin is done, he suffers us to see it, to 
cause us remorse, and to drive us to despair ' 
(Euthymius). Repented himself] Yet his sor- 
row was not of a godly nature (2 Cor 7 9 ), for it 
led to despair, and further sin. 4. What is 
that f] His wicked companions in crime desert 
him when the crime is done. 5. In the temple] 
RV ' into the sanctuary,' i.e. into the holy place. 
Judas in his recklessness and despair penetrated 
where no one but the priests had a right to 
enter, or, it may be, standing outside the holy 
place, flung the money violently through the 
door. 6. It is not lawful] An argument from 
Dt23 18 . The treasury] lit. 'the Corbanas,' 
so called because what was placed in it was 
'Corban,' i.e. given to God : see Jn8 20 . 

7. Bought] In Acts Judas buys the field. 

The potter's field] The potter probably used 
to obtain clay from it. 8. The field of blood 
(Heb. AceldamaJ\ In Acts it receives its name 
from the death of Judas in it. 

9. By Jeremy the prophet] This quota- 
tion, really from Zech 1 1 12 > 13 (q.v.), is ascribed 
to Jeremiah, because Jeremiah stood first in 
the book of the Prophets, from which it was 
taken ; the order being Jeremiah, Ezechiel, 
Isaiah, the Twelve Minor Prophets. The pas- 
sage is paraphrased rather than quoted. 

This explanation is due to J. Lightfoot, 
who quotes ' a tradition of the rabbis.' ' This 
is the order of the prophets. The book of 
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings (former pro- 
phets), Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Isaiah, the Twelve 
(latter prophets).' Other explanations are, a 
lapse of the evangelist's memory ; the word 
Jeremiah due not to the evangelist but to 
the first transcriber, who was thinking of 
Jerl8 2 ; an oral or traditional utterance 
ascribed to Jeremiah ; a quotation from a 
lost work of Jeremiah. 

And they took] or, ' I took.' Whom they] 
RV 'whom certain,' RM 'or, whom they 
priced on the part of the sons of Israel.' 

10. And gave] RM k and I gave.' 

1 1-26. Trial before Pilate] (Mkl5 2 Lk23i-? 
13-25 j n is 28_i9 16). St. Matthew and St. Mark 
give practically the same account. St. Luke 
and St. John are independent of one another 
and of the others. All give a substantially 
harmonious account of the trial. Peculiar 
to St. Matthew was the dream of Pilate's wife, 
the washing of Pilate's hands, and the cry of 
the people, ' His blood be on us and on our 
children.' Peculiar to St. Luke are the exact 
formulation of the political charges (viz. 
stirring up rebellion against Caesar, refusing to 
pay tribute to Caesar, and professing to be 
Christ or king), and the trial before Herod. 



715 



n. 11 



ST. MATTHEW 



27. SI 



The peculiarities of St. John are many (see on 
Jn). The chief are the conversations between 
Pilate and Jesus, Pilate's merciful purpose in 
scourging Jesus, and the final cry which over- 
came Pilate's resistance, ' If thou let this man 
go, thou art not Caesar's friend.' 

Pilate does not appear at the trial in an 
altogether unfavourable light. He is not with- 
out a rude sense of justice. He shrinks from 
the guilt of innocent blood, and finally yields 
only to the fear of being accused at Rome 
of disloyalty if he exasperates too much the 
Jewish leaders. Pilate shows his truly Roman 
contempt for the Jews, his superstition, and, 
what often goes with superstition, his shallow 
scepticism. He was, however, genuinely im- 
pressed with Jesus, which shows that he was 
not without religious susceptibility. 

ii. Thou sayest] i.e. 'I am.' But Jesus 
explained to Pilate privately that His kingdom 
was not of this world (Jn). Here, as so often, 
the Fourth Gospel alone renders the narrative 
clearly intelligible. 15. At that feast] This is 
the only evidence of such a custom, which is, 
however, appropriate to the season of the 
Passover, which commemorates a deliverance. 

17. Barabbas] Some ancient authorities 
have here the interesting reading ' Jesus Ba- 
rabbas,' which may really have been the man's 
full name. The people may have preferred 
him to Christ because he had led a rebel- 
lion against Rome, whereas Christ had said, 
' Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's.' 
The two thieves probably belonged to his 
company. 

19. His wife] In tradition her name is given 
as Procla, or Claudia Procula, and she is said 
to have been inclined to Judaism, or even to 
have been a proselyte, and afterwards to have 
become a Christian. In the Greek Church 
she is canonised. From the time of Augustus 
the wives of provincial governors commonly 
accompanied their husbands. 

20. The multitudes were not unfriendly, 
until the chief priests used their influence 
against Jesus. 

24. Washed hi a hands] A piece of Jewish 
symbolism (see Dt21 8 ) adopted by Pilate to 
make himself intelligible to the multitude. 

I am innocent] It was customary for Gentile 
judges to protest 'before the sun' that they 
were innocent of the blood of the person about 
to be condemned. 

25. His blood be on us] A cry of blind and 
vindictive rage. They care not who bears the 
blame, so that Jesus be put to death. There 
is tragic irony in this unconscious prophecy, 
which was fulfilled in two ways. (1) As a 
curse upon the unbelieving part of the nation, 
on whom the blood of Jesus was avenged at 

the destruction of Jerusalem. (2) As a bless- 
ingupon believers, 00 whom the blood of Jesus 



came for sanctification, and the remission of 
sins : cp. Jnll 50 . 

26. Scourged] in accordance with the Roman 
custom before crucifixion. The culprit was 
stripped and tied in a bending posture to a 
pillar, or stretched on a frame, and the punish- 
ment was inflicted with a scourge made of 
leathern thongs, weighted with sharp pieces of 
bone or lead. Criminals sometimes died under 
it. According to St. John, Pilate scourged 
Jesus to move the Jews to pity. 

27-30. Jesus is mocked by the Roman 
soldiers (Mk 1 5 16 Jn 19 *). 

27. Common hall] RY ' palace ' : see on Jn 
18 28 . But the expression may mean 'bar- 
racks.' The whole band] RM ' cohort' : about 
600 men: see on Jnl8 3 > 12 . 28. Stripped 
him] RM ' Some ancient authorities read, 
clothed Him.' The latter is probably right. 
He had been stripped previously for scourg- 
ing. A scarlet (or purple) robe] an emblem 
of royalty. The reed was to represent a 
sceptre. 

31-34. He is led to the Cross (Mk 1 5 20 Lk 
23 26 Jnl9 16 ). The cross was regarded as the 
most horrible and most degrading form of pun- 
ishment, fit only for slaves. ' It is an outrage 
for a Roman citizen to be bound ; a crime for 
him to be scourged. It is almost parricide 
to have him put to death. What can I call 
having him crucified ? No word can be found 
adequate to describe so monstrous a proceed- 
ing ' (Cicero). Crucifixion was not a Jewish 
punishment. It originated among the Phoe- 
nicians, from whom it passed to the Greeks 
and Romans. Alexander the Great once 
crucified 2,000 Tynans. After the death of 
Herod the Great, Varus crucified 2,000 rioters. 
The crucifixion of Jesus was unconsciously 
avenged by the Romans, who, after the fall 
of Jerusalem, crucified so many Jews that 
there was neither wood for the crosses nor 
room to set them up. The cross consisted of 
two parts, a strong stake or pole 8 or 9 ft. 
high, which was fixed in the ground, and a 
movable cross-piece (patibulum), which was 
carried by the criminal to the place of execu- 
tion. Sometimes the patibulum was a single 
beam of wood, but more often it consisted of 
two parallel beams fastened together, between 
which the neck of the criminal was inserted. 
Before him went a herald bearing a tablet 
on which the offence was inscribed, or the 
criminal himself bore it suspended by a cord 
round his neck. At the place of execution 
tin criminal was stripped and laid on his back, 
and his hands were nailed to the patibulum. 
The patibulum, with the criminal hanging from 
it. was then hoisted into position and fastened 
by nails or ropes to the upright pole. The 
victim's body was supported not only by the 
nails through the hands, but by a small piece 



Tic 



27. 32 



ST. MATTHEW 



27. 45 



of wood projecting at right angles (sedile), on 
which he sat as on a saddle. Sometimes there 
was also a support for the feet, to which the 
feet were nailed. The protracted agony of 
crucifixion sometimes lasted for days, death 
being caused by pain, hunger, and thirst. 
Jesus was crucified on a cross with four arms 
{crux immissa), as is proved by a title being 
placed over His head. 

The Seven Words from the Cross 

(1) ' Father, forgive them ; for they know 
not what they do' (Lk23 34 ). 

(2) ' Yerily I say unto thee, To day shalt 
thou be with me in paradise ' (Lk 23 43 ). 

(3) ' Woman, behold thy son ! Behold thy 
mother!' (Jnl9 2(5 . 27 ). 

(4) k My God, my God, why hast thou for- 
saken me?' (Mt2746p s 22i). 

(5) 'I thirst' (Jnl928). 

(6) 'It is finished' (Jnl930). 

(7) ' Father, into thy hands I commend my 
spirit' (Lk2346p s 315). 

32. As they came out] viz. of the city, exe- 
cutions being forbidden within the walls 
(Nul535 1K2113 Ac 7 58 Heb 13 12). Up to this 
point Jesus had carried His own cross (jpati- 
buluni) : see Jnl9 17 . The tradition that 
Jesus fainted under the cross is probably 
true: see Mkl5 22 . He had been greatly 
weakened by the scourging. Simon] If Simon 
was coming home from working in the fields 
(see Mk, Lk), this is another indication that 
the Feast of the Passover had not yet begun. 
He was probably a Jew resident in Jerusalem, 
but born at Cyrene in Libya (N. Africa) 
where there were many Jews. The Cyrenians 
had a synagogue in Jerusalem (Ac 6 9 ). Simon 
afterwards became a Christian (Mkl5 21 : cp. 
Rol6i3). 

Compelled] see on 5 41 . Here is to be in- 
serted Christ's address to the daughters of 
Jerusalem (Lk23 28 ), among whom, tradition 
says, was Berenice, or Yeronica, a pious woman 
of Jerusalem, who gave Him her kerchief, or 
napkin, that He might wipe the drops of agony 
from His brow. The Lord accepted her offer- 
ing, and, after using it, handed it back to her, 
bearing the image of His face miraculously 
impressed upon it. This napkin, it is alleged, 
is now in St. Peter's at Rome, but possession 
of it is claimed also by Milan, and Jaen in 
Spain. The legend of Yeronica is unhistori- 
cal, but interesting from its wide diffusion. 

33. Golgotha (Aramaic), or Calvaria (Latin), 
means ' a skull.' It received its name either 
from being the place of execution, or from 
being an eminence shaped like a skull. It 
was certainly not a ' mountain,' as it has 
been popularly called since the 5th cent. 
Calvary was close by the garden in which 
Jesus was buried (Jn), and there is no reason 



why the traditional site (which lies within the 
Church of the Holy Sepulchre) should not be 
the true one. ' The traditional site, the Church 
of the Holy Sepulchre, has lately been proved 
to lie beyond the second wall, which was the 
outside wall at the date of the Crucifixion, and 
several rock tombs have been found about it. 
It was near a road. It may therefore have 
been the site ' (Dr. G-. A. Smith). Similarly 
Sir C. Warren. 

34. Vinegar (RY ' wine ') . . mingled with 
gail] Mk l wine mingled with myrrh ' : see 
Ps69 21 . Pious women of Jerusalem were ac 
customed to offer to condemned criminals a 
draught of wine and myrrh just before their 
execution, to stupefy them. The editor of the 
Gk. Matthew, not understanding the custom, 
and thinking that the myrrh was added to 
make the cup bitter and distasteful to Jesus, 
has rendered it ' gall,' seeing in the incident a 
fulfilment of Ps69 21 . Tasted] Jesus tasted 
it, in acknowledgment of the kindness of the 
women who offered it, but would not drink it, 
because He would die for the sins of the world 
with ail His faculties of mind unimpaired. 

35. Crucified him] It is important to notice, 
as bearing upon the question of the reality of 
Christ's death and resurrection, that the feet 
were nailed as well as the hands. Even if 
Christ was not quite dead, the nailing of the 
feet would effectually prevent His leaving the 
tomb to appear to the apostles : see Lk 24 40 . 
The time of the crucifixion was the third hour 
according to St. Mark, but after the sixth 
hour according to St. John : see on Jnl9 14 . 

Parted his garments] At this time the 
criminals' clothes were the perquisites of the 
executioners. That it might be fulfilled] This 
reference to Ps22 18 is omitted by RY : see 
on Jnl9 2 3» 2 4. 

37. The variations of the inscription on the 
cross are unimportant. St. John alone states 
that it was written in Greek, Latin, and 
Hebrew. 38. Thieves] RY 'robbers,' i.e. 
brigands, as distinguished from thieves : see 
on Lk. 39. Passed by] The reference to 
the passengers along the roads is another 
indication that this was a working day, not 
the Passover. 40. Thou that destroyest the 
temple (RY 'sanctuary')] They called upon 
Him to perform what He was actually about 
to do, for ' the temple ' was His body : see 
Jn2 2 i. 43. He trusted in God] Ps 22 8. The 
action of the judges in jeering at the sufferings 
of the man they had condemned to death, is 
indecent and brutal. Their misuse of the 
words of Scripture is blasphemous. 45. From 
the sixth hour (noon)] Jesus had now been 
about three hours on the cross (Mk 1 5 25 ). 

Darkness over all the land (or, 'earth')] 
The chief, if not the only, historical objection 
to this darkness, is the silence of Josephus. 



717 



27.46 



ST. MATTHEW 



27. 56 



But Josephus is silent, not only as to this, 
but as to almost every event connected with 
Christianity. Whether as a» coincidence, or as 
a miracle, the fact of the darkness must be 
received, for the oldest tradition is unanimous 
on the point. The theory of an eclipse is 
impossible, as the moon was at the full. The 
apocryphal Gospel of Peter says, ' And it was 
midday, and darkness covered all the land of 
Judaea. And many went about with lamps 
thinking that it was night, and they fell. Then 
the sun shone out, and it was found to be the 
ninth hour.' 

46. Eli, Eli, etc.] PS22 1 . It is not certain 
whether Jesus spoke in Hebrew or Aramaic, 
for most MSS contain a mixture of both. 

These words are a cry of the human nature 
of Jesus, which alone could suffer desertion, 
when He experienced the bitterness of death. 
They may serve to comfort Christian men 
and women when they experience the greatest 
of all trials, the temporary withdrawal of the 
consciousness of G-od's presence. But a deeper 
meaning is also to be sought. Upon the cross 
Jesus was making atonement for the sins of 
the world, ' bearing our sins in his own body 
on the tree,' for upon Him was laid ' the iniquity 
of us all.' He was so closely identified with 
the race which He came to save, that He felt 
the burden of its sin, and cried as the Repre- 
sentative of Humanity, ' My God, my God, why 
hast thou forsaken me ? ' 

' The Lord was forsaken, that we might not 
be forsaken ; He was forsaken that we might 
be delivered from our sins and from eternal 
death ; He was forsaken that He might show 
His love to us, and manifest to us His justice 
and His pity ; that He might attract to Him- 
self our love, in short that He might exhibit 
to us a pattern of patience. The way to 
heaven lies open, but it is steep and difficult. 
He willed to go before us with an example 
full of wonder, that the way might not alarm 
us, but that the stupendous example of a 
suffering God might incite us ' (St. Cyprian). 

47. Calleth for Elias] RV ' calleth Elijah.' 
' No Jew could have mistaken Eli for the 
name of Elijah, nor yet misinterpreted a quo- 
tation of PS22 1 as a call for the prophet' 
(Edersheim). ' The Jews said this in mock- 
ery, having many stories of appearances of 
Elijah to rescue men from peril of death' 
(Wetstein). 

48. Vinegar] i.e. posra, the sour common 
wini' drunk by the Roman soldiers. What- 
ever may have been the sentiments of the 
bystanders, the motive of the man who offered 
the vinegar was compassion. The Fourth 
Gospel alone gives the reason of the act. It 
was our Lord's fifth word, ' I thirst ' (Jnl9 2s ). 

49. Here many ancient authorities insert 
an account of the spear-thrust mentioned 

71 



Jnl9 34 . It is remarkable that the interpola- 
tion (if such it is) mentions the spear-thrust 
before the death of Jesus, and not after it, as 
in St. John. 

50. Cried again] with a loud voice in 
triumph, 'It is finished' (Jnl9 30 ), adding 
immediately, 'Father, into thy hands,' etc. 
(Lk23 46 ). 50. Yielded up] He died volun- 
tarily (Jn 10 18 ). 

51. The veil of the temple] Two veils, a 
cubit apart, hung before the Holy of Holies. 
They are said to have been 40 cubits (60 ft.) 
long, 20 wide, and of the thickness of the 
palm of the hand. Both were rent. Josephus, 
for obvious reasons, does not record this event. 

The significance of the rending of the veil 
is variously understood. Some see in it a 
sign that the old covenant was at an end, the 
sacrifices abolished, and the divine presence 
withdrawn from the Temple, even the Holy 
of Holies being now made common ground, 
open to the feet of all. Others who regard 
the Holy of Holies as a type of heaven, and 
the rest of the Temple as a type of earth, see 
in the rending of the veil the removing of the 
barrier between heaven and earth, the recon- 
ciling of God and man through the death of 
Christ: cp. HeblO^.so. 

The earth did quake] Probably to be con- 
nected with the rending of the veil. ' In the 
Gospel (according to the Hebrews) we read 
that the lintel of the Temple of infinite size 
was broken and divided. Josephus also relates 
that the angelic powers, who once presided 
over the Temple, then together cried out, Let 
us depart from these abodes ' (Jerome). The 
statement of Josephus, however, refers to a 
later period. Rocks rent] ' It would not be 
right altogether to reject the testimony of 
travellers to the fact of extraordinary rents 
and fissures in the rocks near the spot' 
(Alford). ' To this day Golgotha is a proof 
of it, where the rocks were rent on account of 
Christ ' (St. Cyril of Jerusalem, 315-386 A.D.). 

52. The graves were opened] i.e. by the 
shock of the earthquake. And many bodies 
of the saints, etc.] i.e. they rose, not immedi- 
ately, but with Christ at His Resurrection. 

This incident seems to be a pictorial set- 
ting forth of the truth that in the Resurrection 
of Christ is involved the resurrection of all 
His saints, so that on Easter Day all Christians 
may be said in a certain sense to have risen 
with Him. 

54. The Son of God] RM ' a son of God,' 
i.e. a hero or demi-god, which is more suitable 
in the mouth of a heathen soldier. St. Luke, 
' Truly this man was righteous.' 

55. Ministering] It was the custom of 
Jewish women to contribute to the support of 
famous rabbis : see on Lk 8 1 " 3 . 

56. Mary Magdalene] Most authorities 



11. 57 



ST. MATTHEW 



28. 9 



-egard ' Magdalene ' as equivalent to ' of 

[agdala,' a town near Tiberias. There is no 

"ound for the common identification of this 

[ary with the sister of Lazarus, or Avith the 

'sinner ' who anointed our Lord's feet (Lk7 37 ). 

Mary the mother of James and Joses] St. Mark 

calls this James, c James the little ' : see on 

Jnl9 25 . The mother of Zebedee's children] 

i.e. Salome (Mk). The synoptists omit all 

mention of the presence of the Virgin, either 

because she had been already led away by 

St. John, or because she was not one of the 

ministering women. 

57-61. Burial of Jesus (Mkl5 42 Lk23 51 
Jnl9 38 : see on Jn). The burial of Jesus in 
the tomb of a wealthy and influential man was 
a literal fulfilment of Isa 53 9 : ' with the rich 
in his death.' 

57. Arimathaea] unidentified. Perhaps Ra- 
mathaim Zophim in the hill-country of Ephraim. 
Joseph] According to St. Luke he was a mem- 
ber of the Sanhedrin, who had not consented 
to the death of Jesus. According to St. John 
he was assisted by Nicodemus. 58. Begged 
the body] According to St. Mark, Pilate assured 
himself that Jesus was really dead before 
surrendering the body. It was not lawful to 
suffer a man to hang all night upon a tree, 
Dt21 23 . Strictly speaking, Jesus had no 
legal right to honourable burial. The Jewish 
law was, ' They that were put to death by the 
council were not to be buried in the sepulchres 
of their fathers, but two burial places were 
appointed by the council.' 60. He had hewn] 
Only St. Matthew mentions that the tomb 
belonged to Joseph. 61. The other Mary] 
i.e. Mary the mother of James and Joses. 

62-66. The sepulchre is guarded (peculiar 
to St. Matthew). It is sometimes argued that 
this incident is unauthentic, because the ene- 
1 mies of Christ would not be likely to remem- 
ber obscure prophecies of the Resurrection, 
which even the disciples failed to understand. 
This view is possible. But they remembered 
the obscure saying, ' Destroy this temple,' etc., 
two years after it had been spoken, and there 
was a still more recent and clearer prediction 
addressed to the Pharisees (12 40 ). 

62. Now the next day] RY ' Now on the 
morrow, which is the day after the Preparation.' 
The ' Preparation ' is the usual word for Friday. 

63. After three days] Jn2i9 Mtl2*o, etc. 
65. Ye have] RM ' Take a guard,' viz. of 

Roman soldiers. 66. And setting- a watch] 
RY ' the guard being with them.' 

CHAPTER 28 

The Resurrection 

For the Resurrection see special article. 

1-10. The Resurrection and appearance to 

the women (Mk^i Lk 241 J n 20 1 ). If it be 

remembered that a considerable number of 



women visited the tomb — Mary Magdalene, 
Mary mother of James, Salome (Mk), Joanna 
(Lk), and ' the other women with them ' (Lk) — 
the fragmentary accounts of the evangelists 
are not very difficult to arrange in order. 

(1) Mary Magdalene and the other women 
visit the tomb immediately after the resurrec- 
tion, and see one angel (Mt, Mk), or two (Lk). 

(2) She runs at once to Peter and John, who 
were probably alone at Peter's house, and thus 
misses the appearance of Christ to the women 
recorded by St. Matthew. (3) The other 
women returning more leisurely are met by 
Christ Himself (Mt), and report what they 
have seen to the other apostles. (4) Mary 
returns to the tomb, and after the departure 
of Peter and John, sees Jesus in the garden 
(Jn). Other arrangements of the events are 
also possible. 

I. In the end of the sabbath] RY 'late on 
the sabbath.' Strictly speaking, the Jewish 
sabbath closed at sunset, but here St. Matthew, 
adopting the popular method of reckoning, 
regards the sabbath as lasting till dawn on 
Sunday morning. ' Late on the sabbath ' is, 
therefore, between midnight and dawn on 
Sunday, as indeed is expressly stated. The 
other Mary] i.e. Mary, the mother of James. 
The women had come with ointment and spices 
(Mk, Lk) to anoint and embalm the body, 
either not knowing what Joseph and JSTicodemus 
had done, or supposing that the work had been 
too hastily performed owing to the approach 
of the sabbath, which was also the feast day. 

2-4. The descent of the angel, the earth- 
quake, and the consternation of the watchers, 
which accompanied the resurrection, are pecu- 
liar to St. Matthew. He does not, however, 
state that the resurrection itself was visible, 
as do many of the later authorities. 

5. The angel] Mk ' a young man' ; Lk ' two 
men.' In Mk and Lk the angel (or angels) 
appears inside the tomb. Such slight discre- 
pancies harmonise well with the excited feelings 
which such a vision would be likely to pro- 
duce. Minute and detailed agreement in inde- 
pendent narratives under such circumstances 
would be suspicious. Fear not ye] The words 
of the angel are nearly the same in St. Matthew 
and St. Mark, but considerably different in 
St. Luke, who follows an independent tradition. 
St. Luke, who records no Galilean appearances, 
naturally omits the reference to Galilee. 

7. He goeth before you into Galilee] as, in- 
deed, Jesus Himself had already promised 
(2632). 

9. Jesus met them] This appearance is pecu- 
liar to St. Matthew. All hail] A common Jewish 
salutation. ' How do they salute an Israelite ? 
" All hail." ' 

Held him by the feet] viz. to kiss them. 
This was not uncommon. 'As Rabbi Janni 



719 



28. 10 



ST. MATTHEW 



28. 18 



and Rabbi Jonathan were sitting together, a 
certain man came and kissed the feet of Rabbi 
Jonathan.' ' When Rabbi Akiba's wife came 
to him, she fell at his feet and kissed them.' 
Cp. 2K4 27 . Worshipped him] now with more 
than merely human reverence. It is notice- 
able that Jesus never repelled any mark of 
reverence shown to Him, however profound. 

io. Into Galilee] again emphasising the 
importance of this meeting. 

The appearance to the women is not regarded 
by recent critics as belonging certainly to the 
oldest form of the tradition. 

11-15. Bribery of the guards (peculiar to 
St. Matthew). The report of the soldiers may 
have had something to do with the conversion 
of so many priests described in Ac 6 7 . 

11. Chief priests] These were Sadducees, 
hostile to any idea of a resurrection. 12. As- 
sembled] This was a packed, informal meeting 
of the Sanhedrin. 13. His disciples, etc.] A 
somewhat inconsistent statement, since if they 
were asleep, they could not know that the 
disciples had stolen the body. It is important, 
however, to notice that this fiction of the chief 
priests demonstrates that the tomb was empty, 
and that, therefore, the resurrection of Jesus 
was a bodily resurrection. 14. And secure 
you] The ordinary punishment for an offence 
of this kind was death (Acl2 19 ), but Pilate 
would hardly trouble himself about what the 
soldiers had done while under the orders of 
the chief priests. 

16-20. Appearance on a mountain in Gali- 
lee (peculiar to St. Matthew, but there can be 
little doubt that the original ending of St. 
Mark, which is unfortunately lost, recorded 
the same appearance : see Mkl6 7 ). It is 
highly probable (see on v. 16), but is incapable 
of strict proof, that this appearance is identical 
with that to five hundred brethren at once 
mentioned by St. Paul (lCorl5 6 ). At any 
rate, it is a meeting of great importance, being 
mentioned once by the angel and twice by our 
Lord (26 32 28 10 ). If there were five hundred 
living persons who could give a particular 
account of this incident, the rapid way in 
which the evangelist passes over it is in part 
accounted for. 

16. The eleven disciples] This does not of 
necessity imply that no others were present, 
but only that the words of Jesus were mainly 
addressed to them. Where Jesus had ap- 
pointed them] St. Matthew does not say when 
Jesus made this appointment, thus indicating 
that he does not profess to give a full account 
of the appearances after the resurrection. That 
the meeting was by appointment renders it pro- 
bable that all the disciples who could possibly 
be brought together were present. 

17. They worshipped him] Certainly with 
divine worship : see Jn20 28 . But some 

7 



doubted] or, as the G-k. may perhaps be more 
correctly translated, ' but others doubted,' i.e. 
not the Eleven, but others who were present. 

The doubt may have arisen from the 
change which had passed over our Lord's now 
glorified body (Mkl6!3 Lk24ie Jn 21 4), but 
more probably from the reason which Paley 
gives : ' Christ appeared first at a distance ; 
the greater part of the company, the moment 
that they saw Him, worshipped, but some as 
yet, i.e. upon this first distant view of His 
person, doubted ; whereupon Christ came up 
to them (v. 18) and spake to them, etc' : the 
doubt, therefore, was a doubt only at first, 
for a moment, and upon His being seen at a 
distance, and was afterwards dispelled by His 
nearer approach, and by His entering into 
conversation with them. 

18. And Jesus came] RY ' came to them,' viz. 
to resolve their doubt by giving them a close 
view of His person. It is worthy of notice 
that in all the appearances after the resurrec- 
tion, our Lord allowed the disciples either to 
touch or to come into very close proximity to 
His risen body. His anxiety to remove all 
reasonable doubts as to the cardinal fact of 
His bodily resurrection, is especially evident 
in Lk 24 39 j n 20 20, 27. 

All power (authority) is given] lit. 'was 
given,' viz. at My resurrection. ' There was 
given Me, says Jesus, as man, the power which 
I before possessed as God ' (Euthymius) : cp. 
Eph 1 20 " 22 . ' Human nature, which was before 
condemned, now sits in heaven personally 
united to the Divine Word, and is adored by 
angels. For in truth human nature which was 
before enslaved, now in Christ rules the 
Universe ' (Theophylact). 

The view, which dates the glorification of 
Christ, not from the Ascension, but from the 
Resurrection, is safely grounded on this pas- 
sage. It is the view of St. Augustine, of 
most of the fathers, of Albertus Magnus, of the 
schoolmen, and of many modern authorities. 
Von Gerlach correctly says, ' The Resurrection 
of Jesus, and not His Ascension, was His 
entrance into the new eternal, divine, and 
heavenly life, as in it all power in heaven 
and upon earth was already given to Him.' 
Similarly Milligan, ' The glorification of Jesus 
began at His Resurrection, not at His Ascen- 
sion ' ; and Westcott, ' After the Resurrection 
our Lord belongs already to another realm, so 
that the Ascension only ratifies and presents 
in a final form the lessons of the forty days in 
which it is included.' 

The only really doubtful point is the 
locality of Christ's body during the forty 
<lavs ; whether it was in heaven at God's 
right hand (Theophylact, Milligan, Rothe, 
etc.), or on earth (Aquinas). In either case, the 
heavenly reign and glory of Christ had begun. 



•_'() 



28. 19 



ST. MATTHEW 



28. 20 



19. And teach (RY ' make disciples of) all 
nations, baptising them (or ' by baptising them ')] 
In the clearest possible language Christ ex- 
presses His intention of founding a universal 
religion. It has sometimes been argued that 
these words cannot be authentic, because of 
the subsequent unwillingness of the Church of 
Jerusalem, and even of Peter, to receive Gen- 
tile converts. But the question in the Acts 
was not whether Gentile converts should be 
received, but whether they should first be cir- 
cumcised. 

The argument against infant baptism drawn 
from this passage (that infants cannot be 
[ taught,' and therefore should not be baptised, 
disappears in the RV, which says that the 
apostles are 'to make disciples of all nations 
by baptising them.' To Jewish hearers such 
words would naturally suggest infant baptism, 
because the idea of infant disciples or proselytes 
was familiar to Judaism : see on 19 13 - 15 . 

In the name (RY ' into the name ') of the 
Father, etc.] One of the leading dogmatic texts 
in the NT., being the nucleus around which the 
Apostles' Creed subsequently grew. It teaches, 
(1) the divinity of Christ, for no mere man 
could thus insert his name between those of the 
Father and of the Holy Spirit. (2) The unity of 
the Godhead, for one ' name,' or divine nature, 
belongs to the three. (3) The Trinity of per- 
sons, for since the former two are persons, so 
also is the third. (4) The subordination of the 
coequal persons to one another, viz. the Son 
to the Father, and the Spirit to both. ' Let 
therefore Arius and Sabellius be put to shame, 
Arius because Christ said not " Into the names 
(pi.)," but " Into the name (sing.)," and the 
name, or deity, of the Three is one. Where- 
fore the Three are but one God. Sabellius, 
because the Lord made mention also of the 
three persons, not of one person having three 
names, sometimes being called the Father, 
sometimes the Son, and sometimes the Spirit, 
as Sabellius ignorantly affirmed ' (Theophylact). 

The RY changes ' in the name ' to ' into the 
name.' If the difference is to be pressed (which 
is not certain), it implies that baptism is a 
change of religious condition. The baptised 
person passes from a state of alienation from 
God into a state of union and reconciliation 
with Him. This passage does not record the 
first institution of Baptism, which had been 
in use from the beginning of the ministry, 
but its solemn promulgation as a rite of uni- 
versal, perpetual, and necessary observance : 
i see Jn3 22 4!. 

Although the Trinitarian formula in this 
passage is found in all MSS and versions, some 
recent critics regard it as an interpolation, or 
at least as an unauthentic utterance of Jesus. 
They argue that all the baptisms described in 
the NT. are into the name of Jesus, not into 



' \ 



the name of the Trinity (Ac2 38 8™ 10 48 19 5 ), 
and that so definite, and, as it were, stereotyped, 
a formulation of Trinitarian doctrine, must be 
later than the apostolic age. These arguments 
are not without weight, nevertheless there are 
important considerations on the other side. 
For the formula, whether spoken by Jesus or 
not, dates certainly from the apostolic age. It 
was clearly known to Clement of Rome (90 
A.D.), who has three Trinitarian statements, 
mentioning Father, Son, and Holy Spirit thrice 
in that order ; it forms the basis of the earliest 
form of the Apostles' Creed (circ. 100 a.d.); it is 
expressly quoted in the 'Didache' (c. 100 a.d.) ; 
and is definitely alluded to by Justin Martyr 
(150 A.D.). It may be doubted whether any 
other single text of the NT. has such early and 
satisfactory attestation. Nor is it easy to say, 
with such a definite Trinitarian formula before 
us as 2 Cor 13 14 , that the baptismal formula 
must necessarily be later. Trinitarian doctrine 
and approximations to it, are diffused through 
the whole NT. literature, and the prevalence 
of such a type of teaching is most naturally 
accounted for by supposing that it has behind 
it some such pregnant utterance of our Lord 
as the present, the meaning of which was 
gradually unfolded subsequently under the 
guidance of the Spirit. The argument from 
the baptisms ' into the name of Jesus ' or of 
' the Lord Jesus ' in Acts is more plausible 
than strong. In no case is the actual formula 
given, and we cannot be sure that the author 
means more than that the baptisms in question 
were Christian baptisms. The 'Didache' (c. 
100 a.d.), like Acts, speaks of Christian bap- 
tism as being into the name of the Lord 
Jesus, but when it comes to describe the rite 
in detail, prescribes the Trinitarian formula, 
and that only. 

20. Teaching them] ' Next because it is not 
sufficient merely to be baptised, but it is neces- 
sary also to do good works after baptism, He 
saith, " Teaching them to observe all things 
whatever I commanded you," not one or two 
only, but all my commandments. Let us 
tremble therefore, brethren, reflecting that if 
one thing be lacking in us, we are not perfect 
servants of Christ, for we are required to keep 
all ' (Theophylact). 

Lo, I am with you] This presence of Christ 
by His Spirit may be taken in the most com- 
prehensive sense: — in His Church, to guide it 
into all the truth ; in the assemblies of the 
faithful, to receive their worship, and to pre- 
sent their petitions to the Father ; in the 
official acts of His ministers, as being the 
true High Priest and Pastor of His Church ; 
and in the hearts of the faithful, as the 
source of their spiritual life and growth. 
The omnipresence of Christ implies His 
divinity. 



46 



721 



ST. MARK 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Life of St. Mark. Mark, i.e. Marcus, a 
common Roman praenomen, was the name by 
which the evangelist was usually known in 
Gentile and Christian circles. His original 
Jewish name was John (Ac 1 2 12 ). As St. Mark 
was the cousin of St. Barnabas, it is plausibly 
suggested that, like him, he was a Levite, settled 
in Cyprus (Col4 10 ). An ancient tradition 
states that ' he ministered in the priesthood in 
Israel, being according to the flesh a Levite ' ; 
and that ' after his conversion, he amputated 
his finger that he might be rejected from the 
priesthood.' Certainly in early times he bore 
the title of Kolobodactylus, i.e. ' maimed in the 
finger,' but it is possible that the loss of 
his finger was due to accident or congenital 
malformation. 

According to an unnamed ancient presbyter 
who lived in the apostolic age, St. Mark was 
not a follower of Jesus, but a convert of St. 
Peter. The presbyter's account is confirmed 
by certain indications in the NT. It is clear 
from the Acts that the mother of St. Mark, 
whose name was Mary, was living in Jerusalem 
not long after the crucifixion (12 12 ), She was 
a woman of some wealth, occupying her own 
house, and employing several servants or slaves. 
St. Peter probably lodged with her (12 12 ) ; at 
any rate, her house was used as a church, and 
formed an important Christian centre. St. 
Peter, being thus an inmate of the same house 
with St. Mark, was enabled to convert him, 
and afterwards spoke of him as 'Mark my 
son,' i.e. my convert (lPet5 13 ) : cp. 1 Cor4 15 . 

At the time of the crucifixion St. Mark, 
though not a convert, was probably already an 
enquirer. In Mkl4 51 mention is made of a 
certain young man who was so much interested 
in the fate of Jesus, that when the arrest took 
place, he hastily rose at midnight and followed 
the procession. This picturesque but unim- 
portant incident is recorded by no other 
evangelist, and since the name is suppressed, 
it is at least probable that the young man was 
St. Mark himself. If this is correct, it would 
appear that St. Mark, though not technically a 
k hearer ' of Jesus, was at least a witness of 
some of the events of Holy Week. 

It is probable that St. Mark, as a convert of 
St. Peter, sympathised more with the Jewish 
party led by that Apostle than with the Gentile 
party of St. Paul. This probably gives the 
true explanation of the distressing incident 



related in Acl3 13 . Barnabas and Paul had 
brought Mark from Jerusalem to Antioch 
(Ac 1 2 25 ), and had chosen him to act as their 
' minister ' (i.e. ministerial assistant for such 
work as catechising and baptising converts, 
which was not ordinarily done by the Apostles 
in person, 1 Cor 1 14-17) n their first missionary 
journey (Ac 13 5 ). But after passing through 
Cyprus, Mark left them and returned to Jeru- 
salem (Acl3 13 ). The causes of this action 
were partly personal. St. Mark, it seems pro- 
bable, resented the growing ascendency of St. 
Paul over his cousin St. Barnabas, but most of 
all he disliked St. Paul's treatment of uncir- 
cumcised Gentiles as the equals of circumcised 
Jews. He therefore preferred to return to 
the thoroughly Hebrew Church of Jerusalem. 
The breach was not healed even by the Coun- 
cil of Jerusalem, which occurred some three 
or four years later. Soon after that event, 
when Barnabas proposed to Paul to take Mark 
on another missionary journey, St. Paul re- 
fused, and a warm dispute parted the two 
friends, St. Mark accompanying St. Barnabas 
to Cyprus (Acl5 37 ). Ultimately, however, 
the breach between St. Mark and St. Paul was 
healed. St. Paul, writing from his prison in 
Rome (61 a.d.), speaks of him in affectionate 
terms as a companion and fellow-labourer 
(Philemon v. 24 Col 4 10 ). A few years later, 
writing shortly before his death (66 a.d.), 
he speaks of him as ' profitable to me for the 
ministry,' or, rather, ' profitable to me for 
ministering,' and bids Timothy bring him with 
him (2 Tim 4 ii). 

But it is as the companion of St. Peter that 
St. Mark is best known to ecclesiastical tradi- 
tion. According to the apostolic presbyter 
before referred to, St. Mark became the l inter- 
preter ' of St. Peter, probably after the release 
of St. Paul from his first imprisonment. St. 
Peter, in all probability, was not a very good 
Greek or Latin scholar. Preaching in Aramaic, 
he required the services of an interpreter to 
translate his sermons clause by clause into 
Greek or Latin, as the case might be, and also 
to conduct his correspondence. The relation 
of St. Mark to St. Peter as his 'interpreter ' is 
confirmed by 1 Peter, written from Rome, 
where St. Peter says, ' The church that is at 
Babylon (i.e. Rome), elected together with 
you, saluteth you ; and so doth Marcus my 
son' (lPet5 13 ). 



722 






INTRO. 



ST. MARK 



INTRO. 



After the martyrdom of St. Peter (circ. 
67 a.d.) little is known of the life of St. Mark. 
Tradition makes him the founder and first 
bishop of the important Church of Alexandria. 
He is not spoken of as a martyr by any writer 
earlier than the 5th cent. He is commemor- 
ated by the Church on April 25th. 

2. Authorship of St. Mark's Gospel. The 
direct authorship of the second Gospel by St. 
Mark has never been disputed in the Church, 
and even modern negative criticism is dis- 
posed to regard him as the author of at 
least the nucleus of the present Gospel. In 
ancient times it was sometimes alluded to as 
the ' memoirs of Peter,' or ' Peter's Gospel,' it 
being the common opinion that St. Mark did 
no more than reproduce the substance of St. 
Peter's preaching. The most ancient witness, 
the apostolic presbyter whose sayings are re- 
corded by Papias about 130 a.d., gives the 
following important testimony : ' Mark having 
become (or, having been) Peter's interpreter, 
wrote all that he remembered (or all that Peter 
related) ; though he did not [record] in order 
that which was said or done by Christ. For 
he neither heard the Lord nor followed Him ; 
but subsequently, as I said, [attached himself] 
to Peter, who used to frame his teaching to 
meet the [immediate] wants [of his hearers] ; 
and not as making a connected narrative of 
the Lord's discourses. So Mark committed 
no error, as he wrote down some particulars 
just as he recalled them to mind. For he took 
heed to one thing — to omit none of the facts 
that he heard, and to state nothing falsely in 
[his narrative of] them.' From this it appears 
that the presbyter, while satisfied with St. 
Mark's general care and accuracy, was for 
some reason or other dissatisfied with his 
' order,' preferring probably either that of St. 
Luke, who was specially careful to write ' in 
order,' or that of St. John, who gives a dis- 
tinct chronology. The presbyter's statement 
that St. Mark's Gospel depends on St. Peter 
is confirmed by internal evidence. It records 
three events — the raising of Jairus' daughter, 
the Transfiguration, and the Agony — at which 
only Peter, James, and John were present. 
James was soon martyred (Acl2 2 ). John 
wrote an independent Gospel. Peter alone 
remains as St. Mark's authority for these 
events. 

3. Its Literary History. St. Mark's Gospel, 
having been used by St. Matthew and St. 
Luke, must be earlier than either. Its exact 
date depends upon the date assigned to the 
latter Gospel. If St. Luke's Gospel was 
written, as many suppose, during St. Paul's 
imprisonment in Rome about 61 a.d., St. 
Mark's Gospel must be dated about 60 a.d., 
or earlier. But the date of the third Gospel 
is quite uncertain, hence many authorities date 



St. Mark as late as 66-70 a.d., relying mainly 
on Mk 13 14 , on which see the notes. Ancient 
testimony is divided as to whether the 
Gospel was written before or after St. Peter's 
martyrdom (64 or 67 a.d.). The oldest wit- 
ness, Irenaeus (177 A.D.), says, 'After the 
decease of [Peter and Paul] Mark, the disciple 
and interpreter of Peter, himself also de- 
livered to us in writing the substance of 
Peter's preaching.' But a witness nearly as 
ancient, Clement of Alexandria, says, ' When 
Peter had preached the "Word publicly in Rome, 
and by the Spirit had declared the gospel, 
his hearers, who were numerous, exhorted 
Mark, as one who had followed him a long 
time, and remembered what was said, to write 
down his words. Accordingly Mark composed 
the Gospel and circulated it among those who 
asked him to write it. When Peter heard of 
it he neither hindered nor encouraged the 
work.' 

That the Gospel was published at Rome 
is attested by nearly all the ancient authorities, 
and is the general verdict of modern criticism. 
The only passage which seems to suggest a 
Palestinian origin is 13 14 . In this v. the 
evangelist shows his special affection and 
solicitude for the Churches of Jerusalem by 
inserting a special warning to them to watch 
for the sign of the desecration of the Temple, 
and immediately upon its occurrence to flee to 
a place of safety. But it does not follow that 
the evangelist, at the time of writing, was 
actually in Palestine. In distant Rome his 
thoughts would often turn to his old home at 
Jerusalem and his relations and friends in the 
neighbourhood, and nothing is more natural 
than that he should insert such an affectionate 
warning as this verse contains. 

For the history of the Gospel after pub- 
lication, the probable loss of its original 
ending, and the authorship of the present 
appendix, see on 16 9-20 . 

St. Mark certainly wrote in Greek. The 
recent attempts to prove an Aramaic original 
have failed to carry conviction. 

4. Contents and Character of the Gospel. 
The second Gospel is addressed to Gentile 
Christians, primarily those of Rome. This 
is shown by its careful explanations of Jewish 
customs, localities, etc., washings (7 3 ), Pass- 
over (14 12 ), Preparation (15 42 ) ; and especially 
of Aramaic words, ' Boanerges ' (3 17 ), ' Ta- 
litha cumi' (5 41 ), l Corban' (7 11 ), 'Ephpha- 
tha' (734), 'Bartim8eus'(10 4 <5), ' Abba' (1436), 
'Eloi,' etc. (15 34 ) : also by its numerous 
Latinisms, 'denarius' (6 37), 'census' (12 14 ), 
' centurio ' (15 39 ), ' quadrans ' (12 42 ), ' legio ' 
(5 9 ), ' sextarius ' (7 4 ), ' speculator ' (6 27 ), ' satis 
facere' (15 12 ). Significant also in this con- 
nexion is the fact that it contains no direct 
mention of ' the Law,' and hardly a single 



723 



INTRO. 



ST. MARK 



1.1 



quotation from the OT., except in reports of 
our Lord's speeches. The Gospel has little, 
if any, theological or party tendency. It 
contains few of our Lord's numerous dis- 
courses, probably because extensive collections 
of them already existed. Of the numerous 
parables it records only four : the Sower (4 3 ), 
the Seed growing secretly (4 26 ), the Mustard 
Seed (4 30 ), and the Wicked Husbandmen 
(12 1 ); of the great discourses only one, the 
prophecy of the fall of Jerusalem (1 3 5 ). Its 
aim is to present a graphic picture of the 
events of the ministry as St. Peter knew them, 
from the baptism to the resurrection. It 
deals almost entirely with the objective facts, 
especially the miracles of healing, which it 
describes with great fulness. 

As compared with the parallel narratives of 
St. Matthew and St. Luke, St. Mark's narra- 
tive is characterised by a vividness, fulness, 
and wealth of detail, which seem due to the 
testimony of an actual eye-witness. He notices 
our Lord's looks and emotions, His compas- 
sion (1 41 ) ; His anger (3 5 ) ; His turning about 
in the throng (5 30 ) ; His sighing and looking 
up to heaven (7 34 )j; His leading the blind 
man, spitting, and putting His hands on his 
eyes (8 23 ) ; His sitting down and calling the 
Twelve (9 35 ) ; His putting His hands on little 
children (10 16 ) ; His love of the young ruler 
(10 21 ). He mentions graphic details neglected 
by the other evangelists : the two thousand 
swine (5 13 ) ; the sitting down in ranks by 
hundreds and by fifties (6 40 ) ; the crucifixion 
at ' the third hour ' (15 25 ) ; the sitting in the 
sea (4 *) ; the sleeping on a pillow (4 38 ) ; the 
sitting over against the treasury (12 41 ). His 
accounts of the healing of demoniacs are par- 
ticularly full. He evidently regarded these 
miracles as a special proof of Christ's Messianic 
dignity. 

5. Matter Peculiar to this Gospel. The 
second Gospel contains only about 30 vv. 
peculiar to itself. These include the parable 
of the seed growing secretly (4 26 ), the heal- 
ing of the blind man at Bethsaida (8 22 ), and 
the story of the young man who fled from 
his pursuers (14 rjl ). 

6. Analysis of the Gospel. 

(1) The Forerunner of Jesus (l 1 ' 8 ). 

(2) The baptism and temptation (I 9 - 13 ). 

(3) The ministry in and near Capernaum 

(114-434). 

(4) The ministry on both sides of the Sea 
..fCalilee (435-723). 

(5) In the neighbourhood of Tyre and Sidon 

(7 24-30). 

(»',) () nil,, .astern side of the lake (7 31-8 21). 

(7) At Bethsaida (8 22-26). 

(8) Journey to Csesarea Philippi (8 27-920). 

(9) The last journey to Jerusalem (9 3 0- 
10 5 2). 



(10) Holy Week (111-1547). 

(11) The Resurrection (16). 

7. Relation to the other Synoptic Gospels. 
Since St. Mark contains hardly any matter not 
also contained in St. Matthew and St. Luke, 
he has until recent times been comparatively 
neglected. By the ancients he was regarded 
as an abbreviator of St. Matthew, and a few 
modern authorities have held the same view. 
But at present the superior originality of St. 
Mark is conceded on all hands, and it is gener- 
ally admitted that the first and third evangel- 
ists derived from him all those incidents which 
they record in common with him. 

Some critics have argued from the ad- 
mitted ' priority ' of St. Mark, that he alone 
is trustworthy, but this is a precarious infer- 
ence. There is not the least evidence that 
the ' logia,' or collections of discourses used 
by St. Matthew and St. Luke are either less 
trustworthy or less ancient than the Second 
Gospel. For further information on this 
subject the reader is referred to art. ' The 
Synoptic Problem.' 

8. St. Mark and the Miraculous Birth of 
Jesus. It is sometimes argued that, because 
St. Mark did not mention our Lord's birth of 
a virgin, he disbelieved it. But his silence is 
sufficiently explained by his design of record- 
ing only those facts about our Lord's life, of 
which St. Peter had personal experience. St. 
Peter's knowledge of Jesus began at His 
baptism, so that St. Mark naturally began his 
narrative at this point. Some think that St. 
Mark wrote before the miracle of our Lord's 
conception was generally known ; others that 
he shows his knowledge of it in 6 3 . 

9. The last Twelve Verses : see on I6 9 - 20 . 
(The commentary on St. Mark in a work of 

this kind is necessarily a skeleton, because 
nearly the whole subject-matter has already 
been dealt with in the commentary on St. 
Matthew. By referring, as directed, to the 
parallel passages in St. Matthew [and occasion- 
ally in St. Luke], the student will be able to 
supply whatever is deficient in the commentary 
on St. Mark.) 

CHAPTER 1 

Baptism of Jesus. Beginning of the 

Ministry 
1-8. Appearance of John the Baptist (Mt 
3 1 Lk 3 1). See on Mt and Lk. St. Mark's Gos- 
pel, being based on the reminiscences of Peter, 
begins with the public ministry of Jesus, or, 
rather, with His connexion with the Baptist, 
through which Peter and other apostles first 
became acquainted with Him. It, therefore, 
omits the birth narratives, although it is pos- 
sible that St. Mark was acquainted with them 

(sec on 6 8 ). 

I. The beginning] It is clear that at first 



724 



1. 2 



ST. MARK 



3.6 



the elementary preaching of the gospel by the 
apostles began with the baptism of Jesus by 
John, and that it was only subsequently, and 
to the initiated alone, that the secret of our 
Lord's miraculous birth was disclosed. The 
reasons for this prudential reserve during the 
Virgin's lifetime are obvious. The Son of 
God] These words are omitted by Westcott 
and Hort, practically on the authority of a 
single MS. They are rightly retained by the 
RV, and by Swete. 2. In the prophets] RV ' in 
Isaiah the prophet.' The quotation, however, 
is not entirely taken from Isaiah, but partly 
from MalS 1 and partly from Isa40 3 . The 
quotation from Malachi does not occur in the 
parallels. Before thy face] In the Heb. ' be- 
fore my face.' This was clearly a Christian 
adaptation of the passage : see on Mt 1 1 10 . 

9-1 1. Baptism of Jesus (Mt3 13 Lk3 21 ). See 
on Mt. 

12,13. The temptation (Mt 4 ! Lk 4 !). See 
on Mt. St. Mark alone has the graphic touch 
that He was ' with the wild beasts.' 

14, 15. Arrest of John and beginning of 
the Galilean ministry (Mt4*2 Lk4i* Jn4i- 3 ). 
See on Mt. 

16-20. Call of Simon, Andrew, James, and 
John (Mt 4 is, cp. Lk 5 !). See on Mt. 

21-28. A demoniac healed in the synagogue 
at Capernaum (Lk4 31 ). A striking point in 
this miracle is the testimony of the demon to 
Christ's Messiahship, which, however, He re- 
fused to accept. If the possession was real, 
the demon's confession of Christ as 'the Holy 
One of God' was probably extorted by fear. 
If the possession was not real, but imagined 
by the insane man, the confession was probably 
due to the man's instinctive sense that a person 
with supernatural powers was present, ready 
to heal him. 

22. Taught] To teach with authority, as 

' distinguished from mere exhortation, was only 

allowed to those who had received rabbinical 

ordination. Christ was probably allowed to 

; teach, like John, as a prophet, not as a rabbi. 

24. What have we, etc.] The plural is 
generally understood to prove the actual ex- 
istence of the indwelling evil spirit. At the 

I same time, it is a well-known fact that if 
an insane person is the victim of a delusion, 
he adapts all his words and actions to accord 
1 with it. If the insane person believed that 
1 he was possessed by a devil, he would be likely 
to speak in the plural. The Holy One of God] 
see Jn6 69 . 

25. It was not expedient that Christ or the 
f apostles should receive what was generally 

supposed to be diabolical testimony (MtlO 25 
; 1224). 2 6. Torn] better, ' convulsed.' 27. What 
new doctrine] RV ' A new teaching.' 

29-34. Healing of Simon's wife's mother 
and others (Mt 8 ^ Lk 4 38). See on Mt. Ob- 



serve St. Mark's graphic touch, And all the 
city was gathered together at the door. 

35-39- Tours through Galilee (Lk 4 42 ). See 
onMt423. 

35. Prayed] To spend a night, or a great 
part of a night, in prayer, was our Lord's way 
of preparing for preaching (v. 38), for working 
miracles (9 29 ), and for other important actions, 
such as the choice of the Twelve (Lk G 12 ). 

40-45. The leper cleansed (MtS 1 Lk5 12 ). 
See on Mt. 

45. (Peculiar to Mk.) It explains the reason 
why Jesus so often enjoined secrecy on those who 
were healed. He was afraid that the popular 
enthusiasm would lead to political complications. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Sick oe the Palsy 

1- 1 2. Healing of the palsied man (MtQ 1 Lk 
5 1 ?). See on Mt. 

13-17. CallofLevi(Mt99Lk5 2 ?). SeeonMt. 

16. The scribes and Pharisees] RV 'the 
scribes of the Pharisees ' : implying that some 
scribes were Sadducees, though this was rare. 

18-22. The controversy on fasting (Mt 914 
Lk5 33 ). SeeonMt. 

21. New cloth] RV 'undressed cloth.' Else 
the new piece] R V ' else that which should fill 
it up, taketh from it, the new from the old, 
and a worse rent is made.' 

22. Old bottles] RV ' old wine-skins.' And 
the wine is spilled] R V ' and the wine perisheth 
and the skins : but they put new wine into 
fresh wine-skins.' 

23-28. Plucking the ears of corn on the 
sabbath (Mt 1 2 1 Lk 6 1). See on Mt. 

26. In the days of Abiathar the high priest] 
RV ' when Abiathar was high priest.' A well- 
known difficulty, for Ahimelech seems to have 
been the high priest at this time. ' The whole 
expression, which occurs neither in Mt nor 
Lk, is omitted by a very important group of 
authorities, and may be an editorial note ' 
(Swete). If it be retained, it is not to be 
regarded as a mere blunder, but as a deliberate 
inference from the somewhat conflicting data 
of the OT. For whereas in 1 S 21 1 Ahimelech 
appears as high priest, and is shortly afterwards 
slain by Saul for his friendship with David 
(IS 22 16), in 2S817 ICI1I8I6 246 he appears 
long after his supposed death, officiating in the 
priesthood together with Zadok. and is repre- 
sented as the son, not the father of Abiathar. 
St. Mark's expression is, therefore, quite in 
harmony with one of the two conflicting OT. 
accounts. Such confusions of proper names 
are not uncommon in the OT. 

CHAPTER 3 

Choice of the Twelve 
1-6. The withered hand (Mt 12 9 Lk 6 6 ). See 
on Mt. 6. Herodians] see on Mt22 16 . 



725 



3.7 



ST. MARK 



4. 26 



7-12. Withdrawal of Jesus. Multitudes 
healed. See on Mt 1215-17. St, Mark's ac- 
count is much fuller. Observe here (a) the 
extraordinary sensation made by the appear- 
ance of Jesus, as shown by the great distances 
from which the multitudes were drawn ; (b) 
the enormous number of cures, without any 
allusion to failures. Clearly the miracles re- 
corded are only a very small proportion of the 
miracles performed. 

8. Idumaea] The district S. of Judaea and 
the Dead Sea. Beyond Jordan] This district, 
like Tyre and Sidon, was mainly Gentile, and 
it is possible that among those healed were 
some Gentiles. 

io. Plagues] lit. ' scourges,' diseases being 
regarded as a divine chastisement. 1 1 . Thou 
art the Son of God] i.e. ' the Messiah.' See 
on 121-28. 

13-19*. Choice of the Twelve (MtlO 2 Lk 
6 12 ). See on Mt. 

17. Boanerges] The sons of Zebedee are 
so named from their vehement character, and 
perhaps also from their powerful eloquence 
(cp. 9 38 10 37 Lk9 53 ' 56 ). So Virgil speaks of 
' the twin Scipiadae, those two thunder-bolts 
of war.' The form Boanerges is corrupt 
and its derivation doubtful. Probably it 
stands for the Heb. B'ne regesh, ' sons of 
tumult.' Regesh means ' thunder ' in Arabic, 
and it may have done so (+hough there is 
no clear evidence that it did) in Hebrew 
and Aramaic. 

18. The Canaanite] RV ' the Cananaean ' or 
'zealot' : see on MtlO 4 . 

i9 b -30. Christ is accused of dealings with 
Beelzebub (Mt 1 2 22). See on Mt. 

19. An house] perhaps Simon's. 20. A 
graphic touch derived from the personal re- 
miniscences of Peter. 21. His friends] From 
v. 31 they appear to have been His mother and 
brethren. l There is both a logical and chrono- 
logical relation between this attitude of our 
Lord's family and this new phase of the oppo- 
sition of the scribes. The logical relation is 
foiiii'l iii the language of the two. His family 
said ■■ II< is beside I Hmself " ; the scribes said, 
•• Be is possessed by the devil himself." It is 
not, however, implied at all that His family 
w;is in sympathy with the scribes, their appre- 
hension being simply that His mind was un- 
settled, and that lie needed to he put under 

ant. This lack of human sympathy with 

I Inn led JeoUB to point out the higher reality of 
spiritual relationship and association' (Gould). 
The Fourth Gospel agrees wnh the Bynoptists 
in representing the 'brethren 1 as unbelievers 
and altogether unsympathetic (.In 7 i. Only 
their anxiety, not their unbelief, i^ t" In' attri- 
buted to tin- Virgin mother ! sec Jn2 8 . 

31-35. His mother and His brethren ( M t 1 2 ''' 
LkH'-'j. See on Mt, and on v. 21. 



CHAPTER 4 

Parable of the Sower. Stilling the 
Tempest 

1-9. Parable of the Sower (Mtl.3 1 Lk8 4 ). 
See on Mt. 

10-20. The parable interpreted (Mtl3 10 
Lk8 9 ). See on Mt. 

21-25. Further remarks upon teaching by 
parables (Lk8 16 " 18 ). Omitted by Mt, who 
introduces these sayings in other connexions, 
viz. Mt5 15 7 2 10 2 6, which see. 

21. A candle] RV k the lamp.' A bushel] 
RV ' the bushel.' A bed] RV ' the bed.' A 
candlestick] RV ' the stand.' St. Matthew in- 
troduces this saying into the Sermon on the 
Mount (Mt5 15 ). There it bids the disciples 
give to the world the light of a good 
example. Here it bids them enlighten the 
world by their teaching. 22. For there is 
nothing hid] ' Our Lord corrects a false im- 
pression which might have arisen from the 
mention of a mystery (v. 11). If the gospel 
was for a moment treated as a secret, it was so 
only because this temporary secrecy was essen- 
tial to its successful proclamation after the 
Ascension. Those to whom the secret was now 
confided were charged with the responsibility 
of publishing it then ' (Swete). See further on 
MtlO 26 , where the saying recurs. 23. See on 
Mt 1 1 15. 24. Take heed what ye hear ( AV, 
RV). The context, however, requires that 
this should be rendered ' Understand (weigh 
well the meaning of) what ye hear,' a quite 
possible rendering. With what measure ye 
mete] i.e. ' ye measure.' ' In that measure in 
which you measure your attention to My teach- 
ing, in the same measure will spiritual under- 
standing be measured unto you ' (Euthymius). 
This proverb occurs in several connexions 
(Mt 7 2 kk 6 38 q. v.). 25. To the diligent student 
of divine truth more of divine truth shall be 
revealed. The slothful student shall not only 
learn no more, but shall even forget what he 
already knows. In Mtl3 12 25 19 , the context 
being different, these words have a different 
meaning. 

26-29. The seed growing secretly (the only 
parable peculiar to Mk). Tatian in his ' Diates- 
saron ' places it immediately before the Tares. 
Such a position for it is suitable, but it is wrong 
to regard it, with Weiss, as only an imperfect 
and mutilated version of that parable. 

The point of the parable is not so much the 
secret invisible energy of the seed, or divine 
Word. ;is that of the earth into which the seed 
falls, i.e. the moral and spiritual nature of man. 
The seed of Christianity will grow, because 
the soil into which it will fall is suitable to 
nourish it. The human seul is 'naturally 
Christian' (Tertullian). and Christianity is the 
' natural religion.' Christianity can, therefore, 
26 



4.26 



ST. MARK 



6.27 



propagate itself without human effort, and 
often does so. 

26. A man] i.e. the apostles and other 
preachers of the gospel. Cast seed] i.e. 
preach the gospel by word or example. The 
ground] i.e. the souls of men. 

27. Sleep, and rise] i.e. ministers of the 
gospel having preached the word are to pur- 
sue their ordinary employments without undue 
anxiety. Yisible results may be slow, but the 
seed is sure to germinate, because the soul of 
man is specially fitted by God to receive it, 
and will by its own spiritual activity cause it 
at last to bear fruit. Christ does not, however, 
discourage due pastoral care. Though the 
earth brings forth of herself, ' this does not 
exclude due cultivation, and rain from heaven, 
and sunshine ' (Bengel). 

28. First the blade, etc.] Therefore mis- 
sionaries who have no results to show, are not 
to be discouraged. In India at present, few 
converts are made, but the seed is being sown, 
and the time of the harvest will come. 

29. The harvest] is an earthly harvest. It 
is gathered in Christian lands, when a faithful 
pastor, after long waiting, gathers in a harvest 
of true penitents and genuine servants of 
Christ. It is gathered in heathen lands, when 
the hindrances to the gospel are at last re- 
moved, and the people ask for baptism. Many, 
however, regard 'the harvest ' here as that at 
the end of the world. 

30-32. The grain of mustard seed (Mtl3 31 
Lkl3 18 ). See on Mt. 

33, 34. Mtl3 34 > 35 . See on MtlS 1 * 1 *. 

35-41. Stilling the storm (Mt 8 18 > 23 " 27 Lk 
8 22 ). See on Mt. St. Mark's graphic details 
should be noticed — ' the other boats with Him,' 
v. 36, and ' the pillow (cushion) in the stern,' 
v. 38. 



CHAPTER 5 
The Gadarene Demoniac. 
Daughter 



Jairus' 



1-20. The Gadarene (Gerasene) demoniac 

(Mt8 28 Lk8 26 ). See on Mt ; Mk's account 
is much the fullest. 

1. Gadarenes] RY 'Gerasenes.' 9. Mk and 
Lk (not Mt) state that the man called him- 
self ' Legion,' because he believed himself to 
be possessed by numerous devils. 

18-20. Our Lord thought the quiet of home 
life better for the man than the excitement of 
going about with Him. He told him to pro- 
claim the miracle, because in this mainly 
Gentile district there was no danger of popular 
excitement. 20. Decapolis] see on Mt4 25 . 

21-43. The woman with the issue, and 
Jairus' daughter (Mt9 18 Lk8 4 0). See on Mt. 

30. Knowing that virtue (peculiar to Mk 

and Lk). 37. Mk and Lk (not Mt) mention 

1 that Peter, James and John witnessed this 



miracle. These three were also privileged to 
be present at the Transfiguration and the 
Agony in Gethsemane. 

41. Talitha cumi] (peculiar to Mk). St. 
Mark heard from St. Peter's lips the exact 
Aramaic words spoken by Jesus. 

CHAPTER 6 
Yisit to Nazareth. Mission of the 
Twelve. Execution of the Baptist. 
Feeding of the Five Thousand. 
Walking on the Sea 

1-6. Visit to Nazareth (Mtl3 54 ). 

3. Is not this the carpenter ?] Mt ' Is not 
this the carpenter's son ? ' Baur, Bleek, 
Renan, and Hilgenfeld regard St. Mark's 
version of this expression as a proof that he 
was acquainted with the Yirgin Birth. ' Mark 
tolerates not the paternity of Joseph even in 
the mouth of Nazarenes ' (Hilgenfeld). Most 
scholars dispute the inference. 

It is not quite certain whether Jesus was a 
carpenter or a smith. The Greek word may 
mean either. According to an ancient tradition 
He made ploughs and yokes. 

Celsus (160 a.d.) derides the mean and ser- 
vile occupation of Jesus, but manual work 
was honoured among the Jews. ' It is in- 
cumbent,' said the rabbis, ' on the father to 
circumcise his son, to redeem him, to teach 
him the Law, and to teach him some occupa- 
tion.' Rabbi Judah said, 'Whosoever teacheth 
not his son to do some work, is as if he taught 
robbery.' Rabbi Meir said, 'Let a man always 
endeavour to teach his son an honest trade.' 

5. He could there do] This expression, as 
presenting an apparent difficulty to faith, is 
more original than St. Matthew's 'He did 
not there many mighty works.' Of course 
the inability was moral. Jesus required faith 
in those who were to be healed, or in persons 
connected with them, and only in a very few 
cases waived this requirement ( Jn 5 13 ). 

7-13. Mission of the Twelve (Mt 10 * Lk 9 1 ). 
See on Mt. 13. Anointed] cp. Jas5 14 . 

14-29. Herod and Jesus. Execution of the 
Baptist (Mt 14 1). See on Mt : cp. Lk 9 *. 

20. Observed him] RY ' kept him safe.' 
He did many things] RY ' he was much per- 
plexed.' Herod's conscience was uneasy. 

21. High captains] RM ' or, military tri- 
bunes, Gr. chiliarehs.' Chief estates] RY ' the 
chief men.' 22. The daughter of . . Herodias] 
Hort, relying upon only five MSS, alters this 
into ' his daughter Herodias,' a reading which 
is clearly the blunder of some scribe, since it 
violates, as Weiss says, c all history, all gram- 
mar, and the context.' 27. An executioner] 
AYmg. ' one of his guard.' The word is Latin, 
corresponding either to speculator, 'a watcher,' 
a soldier of the bodyguard, or speculator, ' one 
armed with a javelin,' and so an executioner. 



727 



6. 30 



ST. MARK 



8. 26 



The word often occurs in rabbinical Hebrew in 
the sense of an executioner. 

30-44. Return of the apostles. Feeding 
the five thousand (Mt 1 4 is Lk 9 10 Jn 6 1). See 
on Mt and Jn. The graphic touches in Mk 
should be noticed : ' Come ye yourselves 
apart,' etc. ; ' no leisure so much as to eat ' ; 'as 
sheep not having a shepherd ' ; 'the green 
grass ' ; ' like garden beds.' These are re- 
miniscences of the eyewitness Peter. 

40. Ranks] i.e. groups, lit. ' garden-beds.' 

45-52. Walking on the sea (Mt 14 22 Jn 6 1 5 ). 
See on Mt and Jn. 

53-56. Miracles in the land of Gennesaret 
(MU434). SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER 7 
Eating with Unwashed Hands. The 
Syrophcenician Woman. Healing of a 
Deaf Man 

1-23. Eating with unwashed hands (Mt 
151). See on Mt. 

3, 4. A note added by St. Mark for the 
benefit of his Gentile readers, who would not 
be familiar with Jewish customs. St. Mat- 
thew's Jewish readers needed no such explan- 
ation. 3. Wash their hands oft] lit. 'wash their 
hands with the fist.' The Jewish custom was 
to wash the hands up to the wrist, and that is 
probably the meaning here, although it is hard 
to extract it from the present (perhaps corrupt) 
Gk. text. Wetstein thinks that ' a fist ' is the 
minimum quantity of water (£ of a hi?/, or pint), 
which was allowed for washing the hands. 
1 A quarter of a hin of water is the quantity 
appointed for one man's hands.' The AY, 
amending the text, reads, ' Except they wash 
their hands o/V.' RV gives ' diligently,' a 
possible conjecture. 

4. Except they wash] lit. ' baptise them- 
selves.' The Jews carefully distinguished 
• washing ' the hands, i.e. pouring water over 
them, from 'baptising' or dipping them. In 
v. 3 J touring water over them is meant ; but 
here, after a visit to the market-place, in which 
all kinds of defilement would be met with, 
dipping them is regarded as necessary. Dip- 
ping thfi bands was performed before meals, 
trashing at meal-times. Washing of cups, etc.] 
The details are too intricate bo be given here. 

In some eases the articles were washed, in 

others only sprinkled. The 'cup' is the Let. 

sextariut 1 pint. And of tables] rather, 'of 
i>i«l>.' or, oonchea for reclining at dinner. 

11. Corban] see on M I I ■>'■. 

19. Purging all meats] l!V ' This },<■ said, 

ing all m< ats clean' : see os Mt L6 1 * 80 . 
24 30. The Syrophcenician woman (Mt 

I.Y-'I). See 00 Mt. 

31-37- The deaf man with an impediment in 
his speech (peculiar to Mk). This miracle 
li selected bj Bft for its unusual character. 



Usually our Lord healed instantaneously, here 
by stages : usually by a word, here by material 
means. The reason for the difference of 
treatment must be sought in the spiritual state 
of the sufferer. The miracle was done pri- 
vately that the man, in the absence of the 
multitude, might be able to concentrate his 
attention. Jesus made use of the language of 
signs, because the man was deaf. He put his 
fingers in His ears, indicating that He would 
pierce through the obstruction. He touched 
His tongue, indicating that He would remove 
the impediment in his speech. Having thus 
produced faith in the man, He worked the 
miracle. Edersheim thinks that our Lord used 
this elaborate process because the man was a 
Gentile, and, therefore, was with more diffi- 
culty brought to believe and to understand. 
31. Tyre] see on Mtl5 21 . 

33. Spit] RV k spat ' : see Jn 9 6 . ' He spat 
on his tongue, using a means of healing ac- 
cepted in popular opinion of Jew and Gentile. 
The use of saliva for cures is universally re- 
cognised by the rabbis ' (Edersheim). 

34. Signed] moved by the afflictions of hu- 
manity. Ephphatha] Here, as often, St. Mark, 
following St. Peter, preserves the actual Ara- 
maic expression of our Lord : cp. 5 41 . 

The ceremony of ' opening the ears,' i.e. 
touching them with saliva and saying '■Eph- 
phatha, Be opened,' was introduced into the 
Baptismal service probably in the 4th cent. 

CHAPTER 8 
Feeding the Four Thousand. The Sign 
from Heaven. Healing of a Blind 
Man. Confession of Peter 

1-10. Feeding the four thousand (Mtl5 32 ). 
See on Mt. 

11-13. A sign from heaven sought (Mt 
16 1 ). SeeonMt, 

14-21. A warning against the leaven of the 
Pharisees and of Herod (Mt 16 *). See on Mt, 

22-26. A blind man healed at Bethsaida 
(peculiar to Mk, and selected, like the healing 
in 7 32 , for its unusual features). The man was 
healed in stages, probably because his faith was 
imperfect. Jesus first strengthened his faith 
by partly healing him, and then, when his faith 
was adequate, completed the cure. 

22. Bethsaida] see on Jn 1 49 . 23. Spit] 
Bee on 7 :!:i . Put his hands] cp. 9 1S 1<» 1: *. 

24. I see, etc.] RV 'I see men ; for I be- 
hold fchem as trees walking.' Medical testi- 
mony agrees with the process here described. 
Cheselden says of a patient of his who. 
having been horn blind, recovered his sight. 
When he first saw, he knew not the shape 
of anything, nor any one thing from another, 
however different in shape or magnitude.' 

26. Neither go, etc.] RV ' Do not even enter 
into the village.' 
28 



8. n 



ST. MARK 



10. 17 



27-C. 9 1 . Confession of Peter (Mtl6 13 
Lk9 18 ). SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER 9 

The Transfiguration. An Epileptic 

healed. Prediction of His Death 

2-8. The Transfiguration (MU7 1 Lk9 28 ). 
See on Mt. 

9-13. A question about Elijah. See on 
Mt 17 9-13. 

14-29. An epileptic healed (Mtl7 14 Lk9 3 7). 
See on Mt. 

23. If thou canst believe] RV ' If thou 
canst ! All things,' etc. 29. By prayer and 
fasting] RV omits ' and fasting,' but the evi- 
dence for it is strong. 

30-32. Prediction of the Passion (Mtl7 22 
Lk9 43 ). SeeonMt. 

33-37. The controversy as to which should 
be greatest (Mt 18 1 Lk 9 46 ). See on Mt. 

38-40. The man casting out devils in Christ's 
name (Lk9 49 ). The apostles report that a 
private Christian, who had not been called to 
the apostolic office ('he followeth not with us,' 
Lk), and had received no definite commission 
from Christ to work miracles, as the apostles 
had (3 15 ), was nevertheless casting out devils 
in Christ's name. Jealous for the privileges 
of their newly acquired office, they forbade 
him, but Christ says that they ought to have 
welcomed his help. Cp. the history of Eldad 
and Medad (Null 26 ), where Moses rebukes 
Joshua for the same jealous attitude. The 
lesson is that the spiritual gifts of the laity 
ought to be fully developed and utilised for 
the good of the Church, and that the clergy 
ought to welcome and not be jealous of their 
help. 

38. John] The name only in Mark. The 
fiery temperament of Boanerges here comes out. 

39. That can lightly speak evil of me] RY 
' and be able quickly to speak evil of me.' The 
success of the man's ministry proved the 
genuineness of his faith. If he had been an 
enemy of Jesus, he could not have worked the 
miracles : see Acl9 13 . 40. For he that is not 
against us is on our part] Much to be preferred 
is the more pointed version of Lk, which is 
also strongly attested here : ' For he that is not 
against you is for you ' (Lk RY). The meaning 
is, The man, though without your apostolic 
commission, was doing, and doing successfully, 
the very same benevolent work that you were 
doing. You ought, therefore, to have esteemed 
him a friend and a helper, not an enemy. A 
jealous and exclusive spirit is unworthy of the 
ministers of Christ. 

41-50. On offences (Mt 18 6 Lk 17 *). See on 
Mt. 41. SeeonMtlO 42 . 44,46. These vv. 
(which are identical with v. 48) are omitted by 
the best modern authorities. 

48. Where their worm dieth not] Isa 66 24 . 



Literally, the worm is the maggot bred in pu- 
trefying substances (Exl6 20 Isa 14 U Acl2 23 ). 
Figuratively it stands for the moral corruption 
and degradation which follow upon a long 
course of wilful sin, and ultimately issue in 
eternal death. The lost soul, being at length 
hopelessly corrupt, and loathsome even to 
itself, has its own hell within it. 

49. For every one shall be salted with fire] 
The conclusion of this v. (and every sacrifice 
shall be salted with salt) is omitted by the RY, 
but is too strongly attested to be safely re- 
jected. The saying is a most difficult one, and 
there are about twenty different interpreta- 
tions. The probable meaning is, Every believer 
shall be ' salted,' i.e. purified and prepared for 
eternity, by the ' fire ' of discipline, i.e. by the 
struggles with the flesh (v. 43), and other 
afflictions and temptations of this life ; and 
' every sacrifice,' i.e. every person, who presents 
himself, his soul, and body, to be a reasonable, 
holy, and living sacrifice to God, shall be 
' salted,' i.e. purified and prepared for eternity, 
by the salt of divine grace. The ' salt ' here is 
the salt of the new covenant, i.e. the grace 
which is given to believers in Christ : see 
Lv2i3. 

50. Salt is good] ' Divine grace is good, 
but if the divine grace given to you as Chris- 
tians dies, owing to your neglect to use it, 
how will you revive it ? Preserve and make 
due use of the divine grace given to you, 
especially the grace of charity, and thus you 
will be at peace with one another.' In Mt5 13 , 
by an easy transference, the apostles them- 
selves are called ' salt,' as possessing divine 
grace. Among the ancients salt was an 
emblem of wisdom and of friendship. To 
the latter signification our Lord alludes when 
He says, ' Have peace one with another.' 

CHAPTER 10 

The Question of Divorce. The Rich 
Young Man. Blind Bartimjeus 

1-12. The question of divorce (Mtl9 3 ). 
See on that passage, and on Mt5 32 . St. Mark 
represents our Lord as prohibiting divorce 
absolutely, without mentioning any exception. 

1. SeeonMtl9! : cp. Lkl7 n . 

13-16. The blessing of little children (Mt 1 9 13 
Lkl8i5). SeeonMt. 

17-22. The rich young man(Mt 19 16 Lk 18 8 ). 
See on Mt. 

17. Good Master] Mk and Lk represent 
the young man as saying, ' Good Master, what 
shall I do that I may inherit eternal life ? ' 
and Jesus as replying, ' Why callest thou 
me good ? ' etc. ; whereas Mt represents the 
young man as saying, ' Master, what good 
thing shall I do, that I may have eternal 
life ? ' and Jesus as replying, ' Why askest 
thou me concerning that which is good ? ' 



729 



10. 18 



ST. MARK 



12. 38 



etc. (RV). The true version is clearly that of 
Mk and Lk. The author of Mt (or perhaps 
an early scribe, for there is considerable 
reason for thinking that the original text 'of 
Mt agreed with Mk and Lk) altered the text 
slightly, to prevent the reader from supposing 
that Christ denied that He was good. 

1 8. Why callest, etc.] RV 'Why callest 
thou me good ? None is good save one, even 
God.' Since Jesus declares Himself, and is 
repeatedly declared by others to be sinless 
(JnG^i 8 4 <> 1430 l Pet 2 22 Un3 5 , etc.), this 
cannot mean that He was not good, but that 
for some reason or other on the present 
occasion He refused the title. (1) According 
to some He refused it, because in the sense 
in which it was offered, it was unequal to 
His merits and His claims. The young man, 
they think, called Him good, in the sense in 
which he would have called any eminent 
Rabbi good, whereupon our Lord pointedly 
remarked that only God is good, meaning, 
' If you call me good in the same sense in 
which God is good, I am willing to accept 
it, but if you call me good in a merely 
human sense I reject it as insufficient.' (2) 
The other view is that the human nature of 
Christ, although ' sinless ' during the whole 
of His earthly life, was not ' good ' in the 
absolute sense. He advanced in ' goodness.' 
Passing through the different stages of a truly 
human experience, He acquired by conscious 
effort the virtues proper to each. He learned 
obedience (Heb5 8 ), and was perfected through 
sufferings (Heb2 10 ). He was truly tempted 
as we are, yet without sin (Heb2 18 4 15 ), and 
maintained His virtue by prayer and constant 
watchfulness (Heb5 7 MtU23'.). God, how- 
ever, is 'good' absolutely. He can neither 
be tempted of evil nor advance in goodness. 
It is only as God, not as man, that Christ is 
• good ' in the absolute sense. 

23-31. The perils of riches. The reward of 
those who despise them (Mt 1 9 24 Lk 1 8 24). See 

on Ml. 

30. For their temporal losses they will have 

a hundredfold return in spiritual Mrssings, 

including boly fellowship with saints and 
angels. 'Houses' ami 'lands' perhaps stand 
for rioh spiritual possessions. It their literal 
meaning is to be pressed, our Lord indicates 
that, owing to the prevailing spirit of brotherly 
love, which issued in the apostolic communism, 
Christiana would enjoy their houses ami Lands 

in common, as member! of one family. 

Persecutions] A startling word in the midsi 
of a shower of blessings. Xel persecutions are 
often, to a Christian, the greatest blessing of all. 

32 34. The passion predicted (Mt2u'~ 
Lk 18 W ). Bee on Mt. 

35-45. The ambition of James and John 
(Mt20»), See on Ml 



46-52. Blind Bartimaeus (Mt 20 29 Lk 1 8 35 ). 
See on Mt. The name of the blind man (Bar- 
Timaeus lit. ' son of Timaeus ') is given only 
byMk. 

CHAPTER 11 
Jesus rides into Jerusalem. The Fig 
Tree. Cleansing the Temple. Christ's 
Authority challenged 

1 -1 1. The entry into Jerusalem (Mt21 1 
Lk 19 29 J n 12 12). See on Mt and Jn. 

10. Blessed be the kingdom of our father 
David] These words, peculiar to Mk, show that 
the people expected Him to set up an earthly 
kingdom like David's, and that immediately. 

12-14. Cursing of the fig tree (Mt21i8). 
See on Mt. 

15-19. Cleansing of the temple (Mt21i2 
Lk 1 9 *5). See on Mt and on Jn 2 l *. 

16. An y vessel] This prohibition is peculiar 
to Mk. The people make a thoroughfare 
through the Temple, carrying with them 
baskets, household utensils, etc. 17. Of all 
nations] These words, though found in Isa56 7 , 
are recorded only by Mk. They show that 
our Lord distinctly contemplated the call of 
the Gentiles. 

20-26. The withering of the fig tree. The 
power of faith (Mt 2 1 »> See on Mt. 

25. This v. does not occur in the parallel 
passage in Mt, but there is something similar 
in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6 14 ). 

Stand] The customary attitude of prayer : 
see on Mt6 5f . 

26. This v. is omitted by many modern 
critics ; but there is considerable evidence for 
its retention: cp. Mt6 15 18 35 . 

27-33- Christ's authority to teach (Mt 21 23 
Lk20i). SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER 12 

"Various Incidents and Discourses in 
the Temple 

1-12. The wicked husbandmen (Mt21 33 
Lk209). SeeonMt. 

13-17. The tribute money (Mt 22 is Lk20 20 ). 
See on Mt. 

18-27. Tne Sadducees and the Resurrection 
(Mt22«8 Lk202?). See on Mt, 26. In the 
bush] RV % in the place ' (i.e. passage) ' con- 
cerning tli(> bush.' 

28-34. The great commandment (Mt 22* ' ). 
Bee on Mt. 

35-37- Is Christ the son of David (Mt22" 

Lk20"). Sec ou Mt. 

38 40. Warning against the scribes (Lk 20 ' ). 
Mt inserts nt this point a long and Bevere 
discourse againsl the scribes and Pharisees 
(Mt 23 '). 

38. ( 'p. Mt 23A (23 "). Long clothing] (lit, 
'stol.s'). The word is used in LXX for 
priestly and royal robes, and in NT. for dress 



730 



12.39 



ST. MARK 



14. 51 



worn on festive occasions. Not the use, 
but the ostentatious use, of dignified costume 
is condemned by Christ. Salutations] see on 
Mt23 7 . 39. Uppermost rooms, etc.] RV 
' chief places at feasts.' If there were three 
on a couch, the chief guest lay in the middle. 
If there were two on a couch, he lay on the 
right side. 40. Devour widows' houses] De- 
vout women were accustomed to contribute to 
the support of famous rabbis (15 41 Lk8 2 ), and 
our Lord probably here refers to the abuse of 
such generosity. But inasmuch as the scribes 
and Pharisees were the rulers and judges of 
the nation, He may refer to their corruption 
and rapacity in the administration of justice, 
whereby they oppressed the poor. 
41-44. The widows' mite (Lk21 1 ). 

41. The treasury] According to the Talmud 
there were in the Court of the Women thirteen 
chests for offerings called ' Trumpets,' from 
which three times in the year, before the three 
chief feasts, the money was transferred to the 
treasury called Corbanas. Each was marked 
with the object to which the offerings it 
received were to be devoted, e.g. temple ex- 
penses, sacrifices, oil, wine, incense, sacred 
vessels, etc. Cp. Jn8 20 . Money] lit. 'brass.' 
Perhaps small copper coins, such as the as and 
quadrans, are meant (Mt5 26 10 29 ). 

42. A (lit. ' one ') poor widow] cp. Mt21 19 : 
' one fig tree.' 

42. Two mites] lit. ' two lepta, which make 
a quadrans.' The lepton was a Greek coin, 
the smallest in circulation, equivalent to -L of 
a denarius, or \ of a farthing. The widow 
offered two, because the rabbis forbade a single 
lepton to be placed in the almschest. 

43. Hath cast more in] i.e. more in propor- 
tion to her means, and so has pleased God 
more. ' A certain woman offered a handful 
of wheat meal, and the high priest despised 
her, saying, How worthless this is to eat, how 
worthless to offer. But in a dream it was 
revealed to him. Despise her not, for it is the 
same as if she had offered her soul (or, life)' 
(The Talmud). 'Liberality is estimated ac- 
cording to a man's substance ' (Aristotle). 

CHAPTER 13 
Great Prophecy of the Fall of Jerusa- 
lem AND OF THE END OF THE WORLD 

1-37. Christ's great prophecy (Mt24 x Lk 
215). See on Mt. 

14. Spoken of by Daniel the prophet] RY 
rightly omits these words. Let him that 
readeth understand] Words of the evangelist, 
not of Jesus, intended to warn Palestinian 
readers to watch carefully for the fulfilment 
of this sign, and immediately afterwards to 
flee for their lives. They do not necessarily 
indicate, as some think, that the fulfilment 
was already imminent, and that therefore the 



date of the Gospel is as late as 66-70 a.d. 
See on Mt 2415. 

32. Neither the Son] This is the true read- 
ing not only here, but in Mt24 36 , where it has 
been altered in many MSS, probably as being 
a difficulty to faith. Rightly to understand 
it, we must remember that Jesus possessed 
two complete and perfect natures, the divine 
and the human. In His divine nature He 
knew all things whatsoever, but in His human 
nature He knew only such things as He willed 
to know. And since it was not expedient that 
we should know the day and the hour of the 
Last Judgment, He willed to be ignorant of 
it. This avowed ignorance implies no limita- 
tion of Christ's divine nature. Christ had 
no will but His Father's. When the Father 
willed to withhold from Him any of His 
designs, His will was to be ignorant. 

The Arians taught that the Son was ignorant 
even in His divine nature, but Athanasius re- 
plied, ' But lovers of Christ recognise that the 
Word did not say, "I know not," as being the 
Word, for He knew ; but He thus indicated 
His humanity, showing that ignorance is part 
of human nature.' 

CHAPTER 14 

The Last Supper. Arrest and Trial of 
Jesus 

1, 2. A council of the Priests against Jesus 
(Mt 26 1 Lk 22 1). See on Mt. 

3-9. The anointing at Bethany (Mt26 6 
Jn 12 !). See on Mt and Jn. 

10, 11. Judas betrays Jesus (Mt 26 14 Lk 22 3). 
See on Mt. 

12-16. Preparations for the Last Supper (Mt 
26^Lk22?). See on Mt. 

17-26. The Last Supper (Mt 26 20 Lk 22 1* Jn 
13-17 1 Cor 11 23). See on Mt, Lk, Jn, 1 Cor. 

24. The new testament] RY ' the covenant.' 
RM ' Some ancient authorities insert new.'' 

27-31. Jesus foretells Peter's denial. See on 
Mt26 31 , where the other references are given. 

30. Before the cock crow twice] ' Twice ' is 
omitted by important ancient authorities, and 
is open to some doubt. The other three 
evangelists speak of only one crowing of the 
cock. 

32-42. Agony in Gethsemane (Mt26 36 Lk 
2240 : C p. Jnl8i). See on Mt. 

36. Abba] Aramaic for 'father.' Peculiar 
to Mk. 

43-50. Arrest of Jesus (Mt2647 Lk22*7 
Jn 18 2). See on Mt and Jn. 

51, 52. The young man who followed. The 
incident being peculiar to St. Mark, and a 
quite unimportant one, it is often supposed by 
modern commentators that the young man was 
the evangelist himself. Mark's mother cer- 
tainly lived in Jerusalem (Acl2 12 ). Other 
conjectures are St. John, James the Lord's 



731 



14. 51 



ST. MARK 



16.9 



brother, or a resident in the house where the 
last supper had been eaten. 

51. A linen cloth] probably a night-dress, 
but J. Lightfoot thinks that it was a tallith 
(i.e. the large or synagogue tallith: see on 
Mt23 5 ), which the young man, for ascetic 
purposes, wore as his only garment. 

53-65. Trial of Jesus (Mt26" Lk2254.ee). 
See on Mt and Jnl8 12 . 

58. I will destroy] Clearly the accusation 
was that Jesus had plotted to burn or other- 
wise destroy the Temple. Much less satis- 
factory is St. Matthew's version, ' I am able 
to destroy the Temple.' The words, ' that is 
made without hands,' and ' another made with- 
out hands,' are peculiar to Mk. Westcott and 
Hort give in their margin the remarkable 
reading, 'but in three days I will effect the 
resurrection of another (Temple) made with- 
out hands.' See on Mt26 G1 Jn2*9. 

66-72. Peter denies Jesus (Mt26 69 Lk22*5 
Jn 1 8 15 > 25). See on Mt and Jn. 

68. And the cock crew] Omitted by im- 
portant ancient authorities, and rejected as an 
interpolation by Westcott and Hort and RM. 
See on v. 30. 72. The second time] Omitted 
by important ancient authorities ; bracketed by 
Swete : see on v. 30. 

When he thought thereon] An expression 
of uncertain meaning, but the AY is prob- 
ably right. Other interpretations : — ' having 
covered his head' (Theophylact, Field), 'he 
began to weep ' ; 'he wept vehemently ' ; 
k when he had set his eyes on Jesus, he wept ' ; 
' when he had rushed outside, he wept.' 

CHAPTER 15 
Tin; Trial befoee Pilate. The Cruci- 
fixion 

1-15. Trial before Pilate (Mt 27L 11 Lk 23 Lis 
.Jnis-'-). Bee (»n Mt and .In. For the trial 
before Berod sec on Lk23 8 . 

16-20. The mockery (Mt 27 - 7 ). See on Mt. 

16. Praetorium] sec on Jn 18 

21-41. The Crucifixion (Mt27 w Lk23 20 Jn 
19"). Bee on Mt. Lk. .Jn. 

21. Alexander and Rufus] These names oc- 
cur only in .Mk. Thej were clearly Christians 
of eminence, wll known in the Roman Church 
for which this" Gospel was composed. Rufus 
is probably the Elufus of Etol.6 18 , where he 
1- called ■ chosen in the Lord.' Who Alex 
ander was, is unknown. It is unlikely thai 
be Lb identical with any of the other Alexanders 
mentioned in NT.t \. d9 M I Tim L*>2Tim 1 14), 

28. Nearly all modern editors omil this v. 
It is generally regarded as interpolated from 
Lk22 87 , which, however, is not parallel, 

31. Himself he cannot save] JIM 'Can he 
no 1 save himself? 1 40. The less] i.e. the Little, 
generally identified with the son of Alphsus 

(Mt In ). 



42-47. Burial of Jesus (Mt27 5 ? Lk23 50 Jn 
19 38 ). See on Mt and Jn. 

43. Waited for the kingdom of God] cp. Lk 
2 25, 38 # This, which is also St. Luke's expression, 
answers to St. Matthew's, ' who also himself was 
Jesus' disciple.' Joseph had discovered the King 
of the Kingdom for which he waited. 

44. Whether, etc.] RM ' Whether he were 
already dead.' 

47. Mary the mother of Joses] lit. 'Mary 
of Joses' (or 'of Joseph,' for that spelling 
is also strongly supported). Who was this 
Mary ? She can hardly be the same as the 
'Mary of James' in 16 1 , for the evangelist 
(even if drawing from different sources) would 
hardly describe the same woman as ' of Joses ' 
and ' of James ' in two consecutive verses. 
Nor is it easy to identify her with Mary the 
mother of James and Joses (15 40 ). She is 
not called ' Mary the mother of James and 
Joses,' or even ' Mary of James and Joses,' 
but simply ' Mary of Joses ' (or ' Joseph '). 
Hence it is most natural to translate, ' Mary 
the daughter of Joses ' (Joseph), and to re- 
gard her as the daughter (or just possibly 
the wife) of Joseph of Arimathasa, or of some 
unknown Joses (Joseph). 

CHAPTER 16 
Ttie Resurrection 

1-8. The women at the tomb, and the angel 
(Mt 28 1 Lk 24 1 Jn 20 1). See on Mt and Jn. 

1. Mary the mother of James] lit. 'Mary 
of James,' i.e. probably ' Mary daughter of 
James,' or just possibly ' Mary wife of James.' 
She is perhaps the same as Mary the mother 
of James and Joses, 15 40 . 

9-20. Conclusion of the Gospel. One uncial 
MS gives a second termination to the Gospel 
as follows : ' And they reported all the things 
that had been commanded them briefly (or 
immediately) to the companions of Peter. And 
after this Jesus Himself also sent forth by them 
from the east even unto the west the holy and 
incorruptible preaching of eternal salvation.' 

Internal evidence points definitely to the 
conclusion that the last twelve vv. are not by 
St. Mark. For, (1) the true conclusion cer- 
tainly contained a Galilean appearand' (Mk 
16?, cp. 14^8), an d this does not, (2) The 
style is that of a bare catalogue of facts, and 
quite unlike St. Mark's usual wealth of graphic 
detail. (3) The section contains numerous 
words and expressions never used by St. Mark. 

(4) Mkl6 9 makes an abrupt fresh start, and 
isnol continuous with the preceding narrative. 

(5) Mary Magdalene is spoken of (16 9 ) as if 
she had not been mentioned before, although 
she has just been alluded to twice (15 47 10 1 ). 

(6) The section seems to represent not a pri- 
mary tradition, such as Peter's, but quite a 
secondary one, and in particular to be depend- 



732 



16.9 



ST. MARK 



16. 20 



ent upon the conclusion of St. Matthew, and 
uponLk24i3f-. 

On the other hand, the section is no casual 
or unauthorised addition to the G-ospel. From 
the 2nd cent, onwards, in nearly all manu- 
scripts, versions, and other authorities, it 
forms an integral part of the Gospel, and it 
can be shown to have existed, if not in the 
apostolic, at least in the sub-apostolic age. A 
certain amount of evidence against it there is 
(though very little can be shown to be inde- 
pendent of Eusebius the Church historian, 
265-340 A.D.), but certainly not enough to 
justify its rejection, were it not that internal 
evidence clearly demonstrates that it cannot 
have proceeded from the hand of St. Mark. 

The most probable account of the literary 
history of the section seems to be the follow- 
ing. The Gospel of St. Mark, being the first 
extensive and authoritative account of our 
Lord's life as distinguished from His dis- 
courses, attained at its first publication (55- 
60 a.d.) a considerable circulation, first in the 
W. and afterwards in the E. At that time it 
concluded with an account of the Galilean 
appearance, which is now only to be found in 
St. Matthew (Mt28 16 ). The subsequent pub- 
lication of the First and Third Gospels, which 
incorporated practically its whole subject- 
matter, and were far more interesting as con- 
taining discourses, practically drove it out of 
circulation. When at the close of the apos- 
tolic age an attempt was made (probably in 
Rome) to collect the authentic memorials of 
the Apostles and their companions, a copy of 
the neglected Second Gospel was not easily 
found. The one that was actually discovered, 
and was used to multiply copies, had lost its 
last leaf, and so a fitting termination (the 
present appendix) was added by another hand. 
A recently discovered Armenian MS (1891) 
definitely ascribes the appendix to Ariston, 
i.e. probably Aristion, ' a disciple of the Lord ' 
mentioned by Papias (130 a.d.). 

Some think that the Gospel originally con- 
cluded at 16 8 ( ; for they were afraid'), but 
this is unlikely. Such a conclusion would be 
unaccountably abrupt — more so in the Greek 
than in the English ; and 16 7 14 28 prepare the 
way for and anticipate a Galilean appearance. 

9-1 1. Appearance to Mary Magdalene. See 
on Jn20 14 . 

9. Seven devils] cp. Lk8 2 . 

10. She went] cp. Lk24 1( > Jn20 18 . As they 
mourned and wept] cp. Lk24 17 . The author 
of the ' Gospel of Peter ' (150 a.d., or earlier) 
must probably be added to the early witnesses 
to these twelve vv., for he writes, ' And upon 
all these things we fasted and sat mourning 
and weeping night and day until the" sabbath. 
. . But we, the twelve disciples of the Lord, 
wept and were grieved.' 11. Believed not] 



This appendix lays great stress on the slowness 
of the apostles to believe (vv. 13, 14). Cp. Mt 
2817 Lk 24 11. 25, 37 j n 20 25, 27. 

12, 13. Appearance to two disciples. They 
were walking to Emmaus : see Lk24 13 . 

12. In another form] This is an explanation 
of the fact that Christ was not at first recog- 
nised. It differs somewhat from that of St. 
Luke, ' Their eyes were holden, that they 
should not know him' (Lk24 16 ). 13. Neither 
believed they them] Another slight discrepancy 
with St. Luke, who says (Lk24 34 ) that when 
the two disciples reached Jerusalem they were 
greeted with the words, ' The Lord is risen 
indeed, and hath appeared to Simon.' 

14-18. Appearance to the eleven. This is 
variously identified with the appearance on 
the evening of the resurrection day (Lk24 36 
Jn 20 19 ), and with the final interview (Ac 1 6 ). 
But Swete is probably right in thinking that 
after an allusion to the first appearance to the 
Eleven on Easter Day, the writer passes on to 
give a summary of the words of Jesus spoken 
on various occasions during the forty days. 

14. Upbraided them] According to certain 
ancient MSS mentioned by Jerome (340- 
420a.d.), the apostles thus replied to our 
Lord's reproaches : ' This age is the very 
essence of iniquity and incredulity, and on 
account of unclean spirits permits not the true 
virtue of God to be apprehended. Do Thou, 
therefore, now at this time reveal Thy justice 
(or, righteousness).' 

15. Go ye into all the world] This seems 
part of the same charge as that mentioned 
Mt28 18 . To every creature] EY 'to the 
whole creation.' A rabbinical expression for 
mankind in general. 

16. Baptism is here declared necessary to 
salvation only for those who have heard 
the gospel message. It is not declared 
necessary for unevangelised heathen, or for 
those who have not attained the age of reason. 
Not the want of baptism, but contempt of it 
condemns a man. (For infant baptism, see 
on Mtl9 13 - 15 .) Damned] i.e. condemned. 

17. New tongues] Some MSS omit ' new ' : 
see on Ac 2 4 . The gift of miracles was given 
in order to assist the diffusion of the gospel at 
the very first. When Christianity was firmly 
planted, the gift of miracles was withdrawn. 

18. Serpents] cp. LklO 19 Ac28 3 . Drink 
any deadly thing] There is no example in the 
NT., but St. John and Barsabas (Acl 23 ) are 
said in early tradition to have drunk a cup of 
poison unharmed. Lay hands on the sick] 
doubtless at the same time anointing them 
with oil (6 1 3 Jas5 14 ). 

19. 20. The Ascension (Lk24 5 o Acl 9 , which 
see). 19. On the right hand] the place of 
highest honour and power. 20. Signs follow- 
ing] viz. the miracles mentioned in vv. 17, 18. 



733 



ST. LUKE 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Life of St. Luke. The word ' Luke ' 
(LouJcas) is a contraction of the Latin name 
Lucanus, often found in inscriptions. 

St. Luke was a Gentile, or, as others think, 
a proselyte, of Antioch in Syria, where he 
followed the profession of a physician (Col 
4 14 ). His connexion with Antioch which tra- 
dition affirms, is confirmed by the ' Western ' 
reading of Ac 1 1 28 , which implies that St. Luke 
was present when the prophet Agabus deli- 
vered his famous prophecy before the Church 
of Antioch. The same passage proves that 
he was not a convert of St. Paul, but one of 
the earliest members of the Church of Antioch, 
which apparently had from the beginning 
baptised Gentiles as well as Jews (see on Ac 
1 1 20 , where the true reading is ' Greeks '). 

He became a follower of St. Paul, and his 
companion in his missionary journeys. Many 
facts about his travels with St. Paul can be 
gathered from the Acts, because, though he 
does not name himself, he generally speaks of 
the Apostle's party as ' we ' when he was 
present, and ' they ' when he was absent. It 
thus appears that he joined the apostle at 
Troas on the Second Missionary journey (about 
50 A.D.), and accompanied him to Philippi 
(Ac 16 10). Here St. Paul left him (17 1 ). 
After this for several years we cannot trace 
his movements, but he was probably engaged 
in missionary work in the district, for when 
St. Paul returned to Philippi some seven years 
later on his third missionary journey, St. Luke 
was still there (Ac20 r> ). He then accom- 
panied St. Paul on the rest of his travels until 
they reached Rome abonl 59 or 60 a.d. 

During St. Paul's firsi imprisonment St. 
Luke was with him, though perhaps not con- 
tinuously (Col I 11 Philemon v. 24). He was 
also a companion <>f St. Paul during his second 

imprisonment (about 67 A. I).), when the 

Apostle was expecting martyrdom (2Tim4 n ). 

Nothing certain is known <>f St. Luke's 

subsequent life. A third-century authority 

says, 'Luke, by nation :i Syrian of Antioch, 
a <ii^-iple of the apostles, and afterwards a 
follower of St. Paul, served his master blame- 
lessly till bis confession (martyrdom?). Pot 
h:i\ ing neither wife nor children he died in 
Bithynis at the age of 7 I. filled with the Holy 
Ghost.' 

2. Authorship of the Gospel. The canonical 
authority and authenticity of Si Luke's Gospel 



7.">4 



have never been questioned until quite recent 
times, and the following considerations seem 
to set the question beyond doubt. 

It is admitted on all hands that Luke and 
Acts are by the same author. The reference 
in Acts to the ' former treatise,' the descrip- 
tion of which exactly suits the Gospel (Ac 1 J ), 
the common dedication to Theophilus (l 3 
Ac 1 x ), the general similarity of style, and the 
definitely Pauline conception of Christianity 
which both exhibit, are sufficient proofs of 
identity of authorship. That this author was 
St. Luke is proved at length in the Intro, 
to Acts (q.v.). 

St. Luke's Gospel was used (and abused) 
by the heretic Marcion, 140 a.d. ; copiously 
quoted by Justin Martyr, 150 a.d. ; included 
by Tatian in his harmony of the four Gospels 
(Diatessai-o/i), 160 a.d. ; used without doubt 
of its authenticity by Irenaeus, 177 a.d. ; 
Theophilus of Antioch, 180 a.d. ; Tertullian, 
200 a.d. ; and included in the Muratorian 
Canon of Scripture, 200 a.d. 

3. Date, etc. The date of composition 
cannot be certainly determined. It is later 
than Mark, of which it appears to make use, 
and earlier than Acts, to which it forms an 
introduction. If, as seems probable, Acts 
was written at Rome about 62 a.d., Luke 
may be assigned to the preceding year, i.e. 
to the early part of St. Paul's imprisonment 
at Rome. Some suppose it to have been 
written earlier, about 57 a.d., at Csesarea. and 
others considerably later, about 74, or even as 
late as 80 a.d. 

4. Sources. When St. Luke wrote, a large 
number of written accounts of our Lord's life 
and work already existed (1 !), and it is 
to be supposed that he made diligent use of 
them. But since during the two years and 
more of St. Paul's imprisonment ai Csesarea 
(Ac 24 2 7) St. Luke was in Palestine, it is 
more than likely that he made good use of his 
opportunities of consulting the eyewitnesses 
themselves. Of written sources he almost 
certainly used St. Mark's Gospel. He is also 
said by some to have used St. Matthew's 
4 Logia,' i.e. a collection of our Lord's dis- 
courses written by St. Matthew, and now 
incorporated in the First Gospel. But the 
differences of wording and arrangement in the 
BayingS of our Lord common to the First and 
Third Gospels render this supposition some- 



INTRO. 



ST. LUKE 



INTRO. 



what hazardous. For a full discussion of 
this difficult question, the reader is referred to 
the article, l The Synoptic Problem.' 

Critics rightly argue from the presence in 
St. Luke's Gospel of a long section (9 51 -19 28 ), 
almost entirely peculiar to himself, that St. 
Luke must have used some ' special ' source, 
i.e. some circle of traditions unconnected with 
those mainly Galilean traditions which under- 
lie Mt and Mk. The materials for this section 
were either collected in Judasa, or more pro- 
bably in Peraea, where most of the incidents 
are located. The birth narratives must also 
be assigned to a special source, which has been 
thought, from the nature of the information, 
to have been the Virgin mother herself. It is 
quite possible that she was still living when St. 
Luke was in Palestine. Since St. Luke is well 
informed about Herod, it is possible that one 
of his informants was Joanna, wife of Chuza, 
Herod's steward (8 s ). 

Relation to St. John. There are some 
curiously close parallels between St. Luke's 
Gospel and St. John's. Both allude to the 
ministry in Judaea (4 44 13 34 ). Both mention 
the visit of Peter to the sepulchre (24 12 ), the 
sisters Martha and Mary (10 38 ), the appearance 
on Easter Eve (24 36 ). Both place the prediction 
of Peter's denial at the last supper (22 34 ), 
and the denial itself before the trial (22 54 ). 
Yet St. John's Gospel is probably quite inde- 
pendent of St. Luke's. 

Relation to St. Paul. Ancient tradition 
exaggerated the influence of St. Paul upon 
St. Luke's Gospel. St. Paul's expression, 
' according to my gospel ' (Ro 16 25 ), was under- 
stood to mean ' according to St. Luke's Gospel.' 
Irenaeus says, ' Luke, the companion of Paul, 
put down in a book the gospel preached by 
him (Paul),' whereas St. Luke himself says 
that he compiled his Gospel from the narra- 
tives of eyewitnesses. Yet the Pauline 
influence is real. Religious universalism is 
a more marked feature of this than of the 
other synoptic Gospels, and so is the doctrine 
of salvation by faith. The account of the 
Lord's Supper (at least in the usual text) is 
nearer to St. Paul's than to the synoptic 
account. 

Relation to Marcion. The heretic Marcion 
issued about 140 A.D., an edition of St. Luke 
which began with Christ's teaching at Caper- 
naum, and omitted many important passages. 
Some modern critics, at the risk of discrediting 
the authority of the Third Gospel, have main - 
tained that Marcion's version of it is the only 
genuine one. It is, however, now generally 
recognised that the existing version of St. 
Luke is the older, and that Marcion altered 
it to suit his peculiar doctrinal views. 

5. Style. Although not written in pure 
Attic Greek, St. Luke's Gospel and Acts 



have greater pretensions to style than any 
other NT. documents. St. Jerome says, ' his 
style is more polished, and savours of secular 
eloquence.' This is specially true of his pre- 
face, which follows classical models. But 
St. Luke varies his style to suit his subject- 
matter. Sometimes, as in the chs. describing 
the Nativity, he is intensely Hebraic, imi- 
tating the LXX. Sometimes, especially when 
describing our Lord's actions and words, he 
falls into the common unadorned style of 
the synoptic evangelists. But everywhere his 
style has its own distinctive marks, by which 
it can be readily recognised. He shows a con- 
siderable knowledge of the technical vocabu- 
lary of the Greek physicians, which harmonises 
with St. Paul's statement that he was a 
medical man (Col 4 14 ). 

6. Aim and Character. The Gospel is in- 
tended primarily for the edification of a single 
individual, Theophilus, a man of high position 
living at Rome, and apparently a convert of St. 
Luke. Yet there can be no doubt that it 
was intended to reach a large circle of Gentile 
readers. St. Luke claims for his narrative 
fulness, accuracy, order, and exhaustive re- 
search. In pursuance of his plan of writing 
' in order,' he attempts to fix the chronology, 
and to place the gospel history in its true con- 
nexion with contemporary secular events. It 
is clear, that, like St. Paul, his sympathies were 
cosmopolitan, and that he was interested in the 
wider life and culture of the great empire. Of 
special dogmatic or party purpose the Gospel 
shows little trace. The writer is frankly a Paul- 
inist, laying stress on the universal character 
of Christianity, but there is scarcely a trace of 
bias against the Twelve, or Jewish Christianity. 
This is especially clear in the Acts, where the 
exploits of Peter are as sympathetically re- 
corded as those of Paul. St. Luke's universal- 
ism is shown by the pedigree from Adam (3 23 ), 
by the praise accorded to Samaritans (10 33 ), by 
the rebuke of Jewish intolerance against that 
people (9 52f - 17 llf '), and by the appoint- 
ment of the 70 disciples whose mission was 
to carry the gospel to the Gentiles (c. 10). 
Universalism characterises our Lord's first- 
recorded discourse (4 24f -), and is emphasised 
in the discourses after the Resurrection (24 47 
Ac 1 8 ). Equally characteristic is the idea of 
free grace, not by the works of the Law, but 
by faith. St. Luke is full of the spirit of the 
Christian missionary, and delights in those 
words and acts of Jesus which offer salvation 
to the poor, the outcast, and the abandoned 
criminal. This sentiment is also found in 
Mt, who has the parable of the Lost Sheep, 
and the saying, ' the Son of Man came to seek 
and to save that which was lost ' ; but in St. 
Luke it is much more prominent. He alone 
records the touching parable of the Prodigal 



735 



INTRO. 



ST. LUKE 



Son, and the conversion of the penitent 
thief. 

Some critics detect in St. Luke an Ebionite, 
i.e. a socialistic or communistic tendency. 
He certainly shows a special sympathy with 
the poor (4 1S 14 13 19 s 21 3 ), and records many 
warnings of our Lord against wealth (6 24 , etc.). 
He even regards community of goods as pre- 
ferable to private property (Ac 2^, etc.), but 
it must be remembered that the apostolic com- 
munism was voluntary (Ac5 4 ). Other exam- 
ples of this tendency are the parables of Dives 
and Lazarus, of the Rich Fool, and of the Un- 
just Steward. Another possible example is 
the beatitude, ' Blessed are ye poor ' (6 20 ), 
where St. Matthew has ' poor in spirit.' 

In speaking of our Lord, St. Luke, like 
St. John, is careful to notice the effect of 
His words and works on those who witnessed 
them : ' He was glorified of all ' (4 15 ) ; ' they 
were all astonished at the majesty of God ' 
(9 43 ) ; ' and all the people, when they saw it, 
gave praise unto God' (18 43 ). He also re- 
cords carefully our Lord's prayers, being alone 
in mentioning that our Lord prayed on six 
distinct and memorable occasions: (1) At His 
baptism, 3 21 ; (2) after cleansing the leper, 
5 1G ; (3) before calling the Twelve apostles, 
6 12 ; (4) at His Transfiguration, 9 29 ; (5) on 
the cross for His murderers, 23 34 ; (6) with 
His last breath, 23 46 . St. Luke, like St. 
Matthew, is specially interested in our Lord's 
discourses. He preserves more often than 
St. Matthew, a record of the circumstances in 
which the words were actually spoken, where- 
as St. Matthew collects and arranges them 
according to subject-matter. Hence St. Luke 
bo scatter whal St. Matthew has collected. 

7. Matter peculiar to St. Luke. A proof of 
St. Luke's diligence in collecting materials is 
that about half of his Gospel consists of matter 
peculiar to himself. He alone mentions the 
parables of the Two Debtors (7 41 ), of the 
Good Samaritan (10 80 ), of the Friend at Mid- 
night (115), of the Rich Fool (1216), of the 
Barren Fig Tree (13 6 ),of the Lost Coin ( l.V.i. 
of the Prodigal Son (15 11 ), of the Unjust 
Steward (16 2 ), of Dives and Lazarus (16 19 ), 
of* tin- Onjusl Judge (IS 1 ). °f the Pharisee 
and Publican 1 1 8 9 ) ; also the following mira- 
cles: the miraculous draught of fishes (o 1 ), 
the raising of bhewidow'a Bon (7 11 ), the cure 
of a woman with a spirit of infirmity (13 10 ), 

Of B dropsical man (ll 1 ). of I'll l-'jMTs (17 11 ), 

of Halchus'fl 1 ar (22 '■' ). 

P.. - much other important matter 

is peculiar to lnm, e.g. the firsi two chs., the 
questions put to John the Baptisl by the 

people (3 ! "- ' ' ). 1 li<- topic of conversation at the 

Transfiguration (9 •*), the conversion of Zac- 
cheua (19 1 ), the weeping over Jerusalem 
(19**), the promise to Simon that his faith 



should not fail (2231), the bloody sweat (22 **), 
the trial before Herod (23 7 ), the words ad- 
dressed to the women of Jerusalem (23 27 ), the 
incident of the penitent thief (23 40 ) ; the 
words on the Cross, ' Father, forgive them ; 
for they know not what they do,' and 'Father, 
into thy hands I commend my spirit ' (23 34 > 46 ) ; 
the walk to Emmaus (24 12 ), and most of the 
details of the appearance on the evening of 
Easter Day (24 36 ). It should be observed 
that almost the whole of the long section 
(9 51 -19 28 ) consists of matter peculiar to St. 
Luke. Some of the sayings in it are found 
also in Mt, but generally in a different con- 
nexion. 

8. Analysis of the Gospel. 

(1) The preface, li- 4 . 

(2) The infancy and boyhood, l 5 -2 52 . 

(3) Ministry of the Forerunner, 3 1 " 20 . 

(4) The preparation for the ministry, 
Christ's baptism, pedigree, and temptation, 
3 21 -4 !3. 

(5) The Galilean ministry, 4 14 -9 50 . 

(6) The later ministry, mainly in Peraea, 
9 51 -19 28 . Many of the incidents recorded in 
this section really belong to other periods of 
the ministry. Marks of locality and date are 
vague and rare. 

(7) The last visit to Jerusalem and the 
Passion, 19 29 -23. 

(8) The Resurrection (and Ascension?) c. 24. 

9. The Text. Besides the two ordinary 
types of text, viz. that used by the Authorised 
Version and that used by the Revisers, there 
is another interesting type of text, generally 
called ' Western,' of very great antiquity. It 
is characterised by omissions, additions, and 
sometimes by changes. Some chief omissions 
are in 1 41 1 2 39 23 34 24 s«> 4 «. si . The chief addi- 
tion is after 6 4 . The most interesting change 
of text is in the account of the institution 
of the Lord's Supper, which, in its 'Western ' 
form, has no affinity with St. Paul's account 
of that event. Several of the 'Western' read- 
ings are discussed in the commentary, and 
as they are now regarded as of considerable 
importance, the student is recommended to 
make himself acquainted with them. In the 
Acts the ' Western ' text is a still more 
important and interesting problem. 

CHAPTER 1 
Birth of John. The Annunciation 
1-4. Preface. To write a preface to a his- 
tory is not a Jewish, but a classical custom, 
and by following it St. Luke shows himself a 
true Gentile, trained in Greek culture and 
imitating classical models. Here he affects 
classical elegance and correctness of expres- 
sion, but in the course of his Gospel he 
generally [nutates the simpler synoptic style. 
This Preface contains all that is really 



73G 



1.1 



ST. LUKE 



1. IS 



known as distinguished from what is guessed 
about the sources of the Synoptic Gospels. 
Its main statements are, (1) that already, when 
St. Luke was compiling his Gospel (56-58 a.d.), 
many earlier Gospels existed ; (2) that these 
Gospels were based upon the evidence of the 
eyewitnesses ; (3) that these eyewitnesses were 
the apostles and official Christian teachers ; 
(4) that the eyewitnesses ' delivered ' their testi- 
mony in the form of a more or less definitely 
fixed tradition, which may have been either 
oral or written ; (5) that Christians were 
definitely instructed and catechised in the 
contents of this tradition. 

St. Luke claims for his Gospel, (1) diligence 
in collecting all available materials, (2) fulness, 

(3) careful investigation especially of the 
earliest period (our Lord's birth and infancy), 

(4) orderly arrangement, (5) accuracy. 

I. Surely believed] RV 'fulfilled.' 2. Even 
as] i.e. these narratives were in exact accord- 
ance with the evidence of the eyewitnesses. Eye- 
witnesses] i.e. mainly the Apostles themselves, 
perhaps also the seventy disciples. 

3. In order] may refer either to chrono- 
logical order, or to orderly arrangement 
according to subjects. 

Most excellent Theophilus] Some think that 
Theophilus is not a real person, but an ideal 
name for a Christian reader ('beloved of God'). 
More probably Theophilus was a distinguished 
Roman citizen resident in Rome. The epithet 
' most excellent ' was under the empire pecu- 
liarly appropriated to Romans of high rank, 
and became in the 2nd cent, a technical title 
indicating equestrian rank. This is probably 
its sense here. Both Felix and Festus, ad- 
dressed by this title in Ac23 26 243 26 25 , were 
4 knights ' (equites). Acts is also dedicated to 
Theophilus. 

4. Instructed] lit. ' catechised,' i.e. taught by 
means of question and answer. At a very early 
period, probably in the apostolic age, candidates 
for baptism (' catechumens ') were required to 
go through a preliminary course of training 
in Christian doctrine and morality, of which 
catechising formed a prominent part. Theo- 
philus was probably one of St. Luke's own con- 
verts, who had with other catechumens attended 
regular catechising on the life of our Lord. 

5-25. Conception of John the Baptist. The 
rise of Christianity was preceded by a long 
period of four hundred years, during which pro- 
phecy was silent, and the religious guidance of 
the nation passed to the rabbis and the scribes, 
who made void the Law of God by their tradi- 
tions. The advent of Christ was heralded by a 
great revival of prophecy, and by the restora- 
tion of direct communications from God to 
man through supernatural agency, as in the 
cases of Zacharias, Joseph, Mary, Elisabeth, 
Simeon, Anna, the shepherds, the Magi, and, 



in particular, John the Baptist, who, though he 
left no written prophecies, and worked no 
miracle, was declared by our Lord to be the 
greatest of the prophets, yea, and more than a 
prophet. 

5. The classical style of the preface now 
changes abruptly to one which is deeply tinged 
with Hebraisms. This Hebraic style continues 
to the end of c. 2. Some scholars explain it 
by supposing that St. Luke is here using a 
Hebrew document. Herod] see Mt2 1 . 

The course of Abia (Abijah)] David divided 
the priests into twenty-four ' courses ' or 
groups, each of which in rotation was respon- 
sible for the Temple services for a week. 
Each course, therefore, officiated twice a year, 
at an interval of six months. The course of 
Abijah was the eighth. After the Captivity 
only four courses returned, but these were 
subdivided into twenty-four courses under 
the old names. The course of Abijah is said 
to have officiated in April and October : see 
lCh243Nehl2i. 

6. Righteous] i.e. according to the OT. 
standard. They were good, pious Jews, strict 
and careful observers of the Mosaic Law, but 
not, of course, sinless. 9. Lot] To avoid 
disputes the various functions were decided 
by lot. To burn incense] This was done daily, 
morning and evening (Ex30 6 ' 8 ). The daily 
sacrifice of the lamb was offered on the great 
altar of burnt offering outside the Temple 
proper, in front of the porch. The incense 
was offered inside the Temple on the golden 
altar of incense which stood before the veil 
of the Holy of Holies. The officiating priest 
was alone within the Temple while offering 
the incense, and the other priests and the 
people were outside worshipping in the various 
Temple courts. Only once in a lifetime could 
a man enjoy this privilege, and he was ever 
afterwards called ' rich.' It was the ' highest 
mediatorial act,' ' the most solemn part of the 
day's service, symbolising Israel's accepted 
prayers.' 

11. An angel] It was said of the high priest 
Simon the Just (died 320 B.C.) that 'for 
those forty years wherein he had served as 
high priest, he had seen an angel clothed in 
white coming into the Holy Place on the Day 
of Atonement and going out again.' St. Luke 
gives special prominence to the ministry of 
angels, and the appearances which he records 
are particularly difficult to account for as sub- 
jective phenomena: see 126 29>!3,2i 12 « 15 10 
1622 22 4 3 24 4 .23, an a often in Acts. 

12. Was troubled] cp. 2 9 Jg6 2 2 13 22 , etc. 

13. My prayer] Probably not for offspring, 
but for the coming of the kingdom of God, 
and of the Messianic salvation, the only suit- 
able prayer for so solemn an occasion. It 
was a maxim of the rabbis that ' a prayer in 



47 



737 



1. 15 



ST. LUKE 



1.28 



which there is no mention of the kingdom 
of God is no prayer at all.' John] lit. ' Jeho- 
vah is gracious. 1 

15. John was a Nazirite, i.e. one of a class 
of men in Israel who consecrated themselves 
to God by abstaining from all intoxicants, by 
avoiding with scrupulous care all ceremonial 
defilement, and by wearing the hair long, 
Nu 6 1_21 . Usually men made the Nazirite vow 
for a definite time, not less than thirty days, 
but John, like Samson, Samuel, and the 
Rechabites in the OT., was a Nazirite for life. 
There are some examples of the Nazirite vow 
even among Christians (Ac 18 18 21 26 ). James 
the Lord's brother is said by Hegesippus to 
have been a life-long Nazirite. 

John, the Nazirite and dweller in the 
wilderness (probably also a celibate), repre- 
sents the austere and ascetic type of piety 
which few can imitate. Jesus, purposing in 
His life to offer an example to all mankind, 
came eating and drinking, and sharing the 
joys and sorrows and even the recreations of 
ordinary society. Both these types of piety, 
the ascetic and the social, have their place in 
the Kingdom of God. 

Filled with the Holy Ghost] As Jesus was 
conceived without sin, so his forerunner was 
sanctified in the womb, though the reference 
is less to personal sanctification than to conse- 
cration to the prophetic office : see Jer 1 5 Gal 
1 15 . 17. Go before him] RY 'go before his 
face,' i.e. before the face of Jehovah. Elias] 
RV 'Elijah': see Mai 4 5. 6 and on Mtl7 1( >. To 
turn the hearts, etc.] Malachi's exact words are, 
1 He shall turn the heart of the fathers to the 
children, and the heart of the children to their 
fathers.' 'The fathers' are the patriarchs and 
prophets of Israel, ' the children ' are their de- 
generate descendants who have alienated the 
heart of ' their fathers' by their disobedience 
to their godly precepts. The preaching of John 
will turn the heart of the children to imitate 
their just (i.e. pious) ancestors, and thus the 
heart of their ancestors, now alienated, will 
he turned to them in love and approbation. 

18. With the unbelief of Zacharias compare 
the laughter of Abraham, Gn 1 7 17 , and of Sarah, 

(JnlS 1 -. To ask for a sigD was not in itself 

wrong. Abraham, Gideon, and Hezekiah had 
done so without rebuke. Hut the appear- 
ance <-f the angel oughl itself to have been a 
sufficient ugn to Zacharias. 

19. I am Gabriel, etc.] cp. Tobl2 16 , 'I am 
Kapha* 1. one of the seven holv angels which 
present the prayers <>f the saints, and go in 
before the glory of the I loly One.' Two angels 

only are named in the canonical Scriptures, 

Gabriel (lit. 'the mighty man of God'), Dan 
H" ; 9 n ,and Michael (lit". ' Who is like God?'), 
Dan in >■••-' 1l" Jade v. 9 Revl2*. In the 
Apocrypha. Raphael and Oriel are also named. 



The rabbis say that the Jews learnt the names 
of the angels in Babylon. 

The apparent sanction given here to current 
Jewish angelology is a good instance of the 
accommodation to human ideas which is so 
common in both Testaments. God's messenger 
reveals himself by the name of Gabriel, because 
that was the name by which he was commonly 
known among the Jews. The Jews themselves 
did not suppose that they knew the real names 
of the angels. According to the rabbis the 
names of the angels represented their mission, 
and were changed as their mission was changed. 

21. Marvelled that he tarried] RY 'Mar- 
velled while he tarried.' The people were 
afraid that the officiating priest might be struck 
dead for omitting some formality (Lvl6 13 ), 
hence the custom was for the priest to finish 
his ministry as quickly as possible. Once when 
Simon the Just delayed too long, the people 
became so anxious that they almost broke into 
the Holy Place. Afterwards they reproached 
him for his want of consideration for them. 

22. Came out] His duty was now to pro- 
nounce the priestly benediction (Nu6 24 ), but 
this he was unable to do. 23. The days] i.e. the 
week of the course of Abijah. 24. Hid herself 
five months] She desired to devote herself en- 
tirely to prayer and thanksgiving for so signal 
a mercy. The reproach of childlessness was 
deeply felt : see Gn30 23 1 S 1 \ etc. 

26-38. The Annunciation (see on Mtl). 
Wonder and awe and adoring praise are the 
emotions with which Christians have ever re- 
garded the unspeakable condescension of Him 
who, ' when He took upon Him human nature 
to deliver it, did not abhor the Virgin's womb.' 
That Mary fully understood who her child 
was to be, cannot be supposed. The thought 
of such a condescension of the Author of 
nature as is implied in the words of the Creed 
' conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the 
Virgin Mary,' is overwhelming even to us ; to 
Mary it would have been so appalling that she 
could not possibly have performed the duties 
of a mother. Hence the angel was only per- 
mitted to reveal to her, that her son would be 
the Messiah, and the ' Son of God ' in some 
specially exalted yet human sense. The whole 
narrative moves within the circle of Jewish 
OT. ideas, and this is a proof of its truth, for 
an invented story would certainly show marks 
of a Christian origin. The grace, modest 
reticence, and inimitable simplicity of the 
narrative, are in marked contrast to the vulgar 
details of the Apocryphal Gospels. The festival 
of the Annunciation (the day on which our 
Lord became man) is kept on March 25th. 

26. The sixth month] i.e. from the concep- 
tion of .lohn.v. 24. Nazareth] see on Mt2 28 . 

28. Came in] Local tradition states that 
Gabriel appeared to her as she was drawing 



738 



5 



i. m 



ST. LUKE 



1.46 



water at the fountain of the Virgin outside 
Nazareth, where the Church of the Annuncia- 
tion now stands. But, as the angel k came in ' 
to her, she must have been in the house, per- 
haps engaged in prayer, as painters are fond 
of representing her. Two well-known devo- 
tions have been founded on this incident : (1) 
the « Ave Maria ' ( ( Hail, Mary ! ') ; (2) the 
' Angelus.' 

Highly favoured] or, rather, ' endued with 
grace ' (EM), not, as the Yulgate has it, ' full 
of grace.' She is addressed not as the mother 
of grace, but as the daughter of it (Bengel). 
The angel recognised in Mary a holiness of 
an entirely special kind, which God had given 
her to fit her to be the mother of the Holy 
One. Sinless in the absolute sense she pro- 
bably was not (see on Jn2 4 ), yet we may 
reverently believe that no one approached the 
perfection of holiness and purity so nearly as 
she. Blessed art thou among women] These 
words are omitted by many good authorities : 
see on v. 42. 32. His father David] This 
seems to imply the Davidic descent of Mary : 
cp. v. 27, which is ambiguous, and v. 69. 

34. How shall this be, seeing I know not a 
man ?] The traditional view of this passage, 
which sees in it a proof of the perpetual vir- 
ginity of our Lord's mother, is perhaps correct. 
Unless Mary had resolved to remain a virgin 
after her marriage with Joseph, and had 
obtained her husband's consent to do so, she 
would not. as a betrothed woman, regard it as 
impossible that she should have a child : see 
onMtl25 1250. 

35. The Holy Ghost, etc.] Mary would 
doubtless understand 'the Holy Ghost' im- 
personally, as the creative power of God, but 
St. Luke's readers would understand it per- 
sonally, as frequently in the Acts. The Holy 
Ghost, (1) miraculously forms and hallows our 
Lord's human body and soul at His concep- 
tion ; (2) descends upon Him with an abiding 
unction at His baptism, consecrating Him to 
the Messianic office and preparing Him for 
His ministry ; (3) brings about the mystical 
union of the ascended Christ with His people. 

Overshadow] like the Shekinah in the 
Temple, or the cloud of glory at the Trans- 
figuration, which symbolised the divine pre- 
sence. We have here ' a new, immediate and 
divine act of creation, and thus the transmis- 
sion of sinfulness from the sinful race to him 
is excluded.' That holy thing, etc.] RY 'that 
which is to be born shall be called holy, the 
Son of God.' Mary would probably under- 
stand from this that her Child was to be sin- 
less, but not that He would be divine, because 
the Son of God was an accepted title of the 
Messiah. 

36. Unasked, the angel gives Mary a sign. 
He who has caused Elisabeth to conceive con- 



trary to nature can make good His word to 
Mary also. Thy cousin] RY 'thy kinswoman. 1 
It does not follow from this that Mary be- 
longed, like Elisabeth, to the tribe of Levi. 
Male descent alone determined the tribe, and 
Mary may have been related to Elisabeth on 
her mother's side. 

38. Behold the handmaid (lit. ■ the slave ') 
of the Lord] In these words of humble sub- 
mission Mary accepts her great destiny. She 
does so freely, with full understanding of the 
difficulty of her position. The future she 
leaves in God's hand. Be it unto me accord- 
ing to thy word] This sacred moment, which 
marks the beginning of our Lord's incarnate 
life, should be contrasted with Gn3 6 . There 
the disobedience of a woman brought sin and 
death into the world. Here the obedience of 
a woman brought salvation, reversing the 
effect of the Fall. 

39-56. Mary's visit to Elisabeth. The 
Magnificat. This beautiful narrative must be 
derived from Mary herself, probably directly. 
It is told as vividly and minutely after a lapse 
of half-a-century as if it were an event of 
yesterday. Clearly it was one of those things 
which the Virgin mother kept and pondered 
in her heart. 

39. Into a city of Judah] or, ' into a city 
called Judah ' (i.e. possibly Juttah, a priestly 
city near Hebron). 

41. The babe leaped] The Jews believed 
that children were intelligent before birth : 
cp. Gn25 22 . 42. Blessed art thou among 
women] A Hebraism for ' Thou art the most 
blessed of all women ' : see on v. 48. 

43. The mother of my Lord] The aged 
Elisabeth acknowledges that the young maiden 
is greater and more highly favoured than she, 
because she is ' the mother of my Lord,' i.e. of 
the Messiah. 44. See on v. 41. 45. For there 
shall be a performance] RM ' that there shall 
be,' etc. 

46-55. The Magnificat. This glorious song 
of praise, which has been used in the services 
of the Church from early times, tells us more 
than anything else in the NT. of the character 
of our Lord's mother, and of her spiritual 
fitness for her exalted destiny. She was one 
who diligently searched the Scriptures, and 
was able in spite of her youth to enter into 
their deepest spiritual meaning. Not that she 
had risen as yet beyond the standpoint of 
Judaism. She still regarded the coming of 
the Kingdom as an overthrow of Herod's 
dynasty and a restoration of Jewish nation- 
alism (vv. 52, 54). But her thoughts were 
fixed on its ethical character. It meant to her 
the setting up of the ideal of humility, gentle- 
ness, and charity, in place of the pride of tem- 
poral greatness, a thought which her Son 
carried further when He said, ' Except ye be 



739 



1.46 



ST. LUKE 



1.68 



converted, and become as little children, ye 
shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.' 
In the Magnificat Mary appears as a prophetess, 
like Hannah, whom she closely imitates, but 
greatly excels in spiritual elevation : see 1 S2 1 . 
The genuineness of the Magnificat is manifest 
from its thoroughly Jewish character. It 
contains no trace of definitely Christian ideas. 
These may be read into it, and were intended 
by the Holy Spirit to be ultimately read into 
it, but they are not there in such a form as to 
be apprehended by those who are not already 
Christians. The Magnificat is conveniently 
divided into two parts : (1) vv. 46-49, (2) vv. 
50-55. The first part is personal in character, 
expressing the exultant praise of the holy 
mother for the signal favour which God has 
shown her, and foretelling that all future 
generations will call her blessed. The second 
part sets forth the character of the Kingdom 
as a moral revolution, and a reversal of all 
existing standards of goodness and greatness. 

46. In the Gospels (not in the Pauline 
Epistles) k soul ' and l spirit ' are synonymous . 

47. In God my Saviour] In Mary's idea 
of ' salvation ' was doubtless included deliver- 
ance from foreign power as well as spiritual 
deliverance. ' God my Saviour ' is, of course, 
in accordance with OT. ideas, God the Father. 
Not till much later did she come to regard her 
Son in this aspect. 48. The lo-v estate] cp. 
1 S 1 n . Mary, though descended from David, 
was in humble circumstances. 

All generations shall call me blessed] Pro- 
phetically spoken. She has become the pat- 
tern of womanhood and motherhood to the 
whole Christian world, and her song has been 
enshrined in the Liturgy of every Christian 
Church. Reverence for our Lord's mother, 
even in its abuses, has not been without its 
elevating effect on humanity. 'It is remark- 
able,' says a judicious writer, ' that one of 
w bom we know nothing except her gentleness 
and her sorrow, should have exercised a mag- 
netic power upon the world incomparably 
greater than was exercised by the most majestic 
female patriots <>f Paganism. Whatever may 
l>. thought of its theological propriety, there 
can be little donbl that the Catholic reverence 
for the Virgin has done much to elevate and 
purify the ideal of woman, and to soften the 
manners of men. It supplied in a great 
measure the redeeming and ennobling element 

in thai strange amalgam of religious, licentious, 

and military feeling which was formed round 
women in the age <>f chivalry, and which no 

succeeding ohai • of babil or belief has wholly 
destroyed ' (Le< 

49. r P . i-si 1 [9 50. Cp. Psl03". 51- Cp. 
Pb89 10 . With prophetic certainty Mary re 
gards the putting down of pride, and the 
establishment <»f meekness as already achieved. 



52. Cp. Job 5 11 1219 IS 27. The mighty] 
EY ' princes,' include Herod and his dynasty, 
but the main idea is that a kingdom based on 
humility and love has entered into the world, 
more powerful than all earthly kingdoms, and 
destined to revolutionise them. 53. Cp. Pss 
1079 3410 1S25. In true OT. style spiritual 
and temporal blessings are conceived of as 
united in the Messianic age. The temporal 
needs of the poor and lowly are to be cared 
for and their wrongs redressed. All things 
needful both for their souls and bodies will be 
bountifully supplied. 54. Cp. Ps98 3 . 55. Cp. 
Mic7 20 . The national feeling is pronounced. 
The Gentiles are not mentioned, except in- 
directly in the allusion to the promise to 
Abraham. The true translation of vv. 54, 55 
is (see RV) ' He hath helped Israel his servant, 
that he might remember mercy towards Abra- 
ham and his seed for ever, as he spake to our 
fathers.' 56. Joseph's discovery of Mary's 
condition (Mt 1 ls ) must have been subsequent 
to her return to Nazareth. 

57-80. Birth and childhood of the Baptist. 
The Benedictus. 

59. The eighth day] Circumcision took place 
on the eighth day, even though it was the sab- 
bath : see Jn 7 22 . At the circumcision of a 
child the circumciser said, ' Blessed be the 
Lord our God, who hath sanctified us by his 
precepts and hath given us the law of circum- 
cision.' The father replied, ' Who hath sanc- 
tified us by his precepts and hath commanded 
us to enter the child into the covenant of 
Abraham our father.' 63. Writing- table] i.e. 
a tablet covered with wax for writing upon. 

68-79. Tne Benedictus. 4 This song, which 
was composed in the priest's mind during the 
time of his silence, broke solemnly from his 
lips the moment speech was restored to him, 
as the metal flows from the crucible in which 
it has been melted the moment that an outlet 
is made for it ' (Godet). It consists of five 
strophes, each of three vv., but is most con- 
veniently divided into two portions : (1) vv. 
68-75, (2) vv. 76-70. In the first portion 
Zacharias praises God for having now fulfilled 
His promises to Israel by raising up the Mes- 
siah in David's house, to save Israel from 
foreign oppression, and to establish peace, 
true religion, and righteousness. In the second 
portion Zacharias directly addresses his son as 
the destined forerunner of the Messiah, and 
the preacher of repentance to Israel. The 
Bong (loses with a beautiful description of the 
salvation which the Messiah will bring to His 

people. 

'I'll is BOng, like the Magnificat, is purely 
Jewish in tone. It does not even mention 
the (i. utiles, and it is only in the light of sub- 
sequent events that a Christian sense can be 
read into it. 



740 



1.68 



ST. LUKE 



2.5 



68. Hath visited] The past tense may ex- 
press Zacharias' certainty that the Messiah will 
come, but more probably it implies prophetic 
knowledge that the conception of Jesus has 
already taken place. Redeemed] To Zacharias 
this would mean political redemption from 
foreign rule as well as spiritual redemption. 

69. An horn of salvation] The power of the 
Messianic King is likened to the strength of a 
bull, or wild-ox (AV ' unicorn '), which is re- 
presented by his horns : cp. 1 S 2 10 2 S 22 3 Ps 
75 10 , etc. David] The expression implies that 
Mary was descended from David. 

70. Since the world began] may be taken 
literally, Adam being regarded as the first 
prophet. More probably it is used vaguely 
for ' in olden times.' 

71. Enemies] i.e. Herod and the Romans, 
but when Christians sing this hymn, they mean 
Satan and all the enemies of Christ. 72. To 
perform the mercy promised to our fathers] 
RV ' To shew mercy towards our fathers.' 
The RV implies that the patriarchs, though 
dead, still exist, and take an interest in the 
fortunes of their posterity, a doctrine affirmed 
with authority by Christ (Mt22 32 ). 

Covenant] The ' covenant ' and ' the oath ' 
(v. 73) are identical, though the irregular 
grammatical construction conceals this : see 
O n 22 16-18. 76. Of the Lord] Zacharias under- 
stood it of Jehovah ; Christians understand 
it of Christ. 77. This v. well describes the 
character of John's ministry, which joined the 
announcement of the Kingdom with the preach- 
ing of repentance. Translate, ' To give unto 
his people knowledge of salvation — salvation 
which consists in the remission of sins.' 

78. The dayspring] The Gk. word here 
(anatole) is ambiguous. It may either mean 
the rising of a heavenly body, and hence the 
heavenly body itself, so that the Messiah is 
virtually called ' the Sun ' or ' Star of Israel,' 
or it may mean ' the Branch,' a title applied 
to the Messiah (Jer235 33 1 5 Zech3S 6 12 ). 

79. Peace] not successful war is Zacharias' 
ideal for the Messianic period, and not only 
earthly peace, but ' peace with God.' 

CHAPTER 2 
Birth and Childhood of Jesus 

1-5. The census of Quirinius. There are 
two historical difficulties in connexion with 
St. Luke's mention of the census of Quirinius : 
(1) There is no direct evidence, except St. 
Luke's statement, that Augustus (31 b.c-14 
a.d.) ever held a census of the whole Roman 
empire. (2) Quirinius was not governor of 
Syria at the time of our Lord's birth (about 
7 or 6 B.C.), but either Sentius Saturninus (9-6 
B.C.), or Quinctilius Varus (6-4 B.C.). 

As to (1), the absence of direct confirmatory 
evidence ought not to be sufficient to discredit 



a statement which is made as a result of care- 
ful enquiry, by a nearly contemporary author 
who is honestly striving to be accurate (1 3 > 4 ), 
and which is in itself credible, and in accord- 
ance with Augustus's character and methods 
of administration. In 8 B.C. he carried 
out a census of Roman citizens throughout 
the empire, and it is quite possible that he 
also planned a general census, which, how- 
ever, owing to administrative difficulties, was 
not completely executed in every part of 
the empire. (2) Although Quirinius was not 
governor of Syria in 7, 6 B.C., he may have 
been there as ' legatus Caesaris ' to conduct 
the census, or more probably to carry on the 
war with the troublesome tribe of the Homo- 
nadenses. It was not unusual, when a pro- 
vince was in a disturbed state, for the civil 
and military administration to be placed in 
different hands. It is probable, therefore, 
that, when our Lord was born, Saturninus or 
Varus was at the head of the civil, and 
Quirinius of the military, administration of 
Syria. Quirinius was civil governor of Syria 
some twelve years later (6 A.D.), when he 
carried out the well-known census of AC5 37 , 
mentioned also by Josephus (' Ant.' xviii. 1.1, 
2. 1). It is known, however, from an inscrip- 
tion discovered at Tivoli, in 1764, that he 
held office in Syria at an earlier date, when he 
subdued the Homonadenses, and for this ex- 
ploit was honoured by two ' supplicationes ' 
(solemn thanksgivings to the gods), and the 
decorations of a triumphing general. We may 
conjecture, therefore, that this was in 7, 6 B.C., 
at the time when, according to St. Luke, the 
earlier and less-known census took place. 

1. Augustus] The first Roman emperor. His 
actual reign dated from the battle of Actium 31 
B.C. to his death in 14 a.d. Taxed] RV ' en- 
rolled.' This enrolment was perhaps simply a 
census or numbering of the inhabitants. The 
second enrolment under Quirinius in 7 a.d. 
was for purposes of taxation, and excited a 
rebellion (Ac5 37 ). 

2. Cyrenius] RV ' Quirinius.' 

3. Into his own city] It was a fixed prin- 
ciple of Roman government to respect the 
feelings and even the prejudices of subject 
peoples, and Herod, being a foreigner whose 
rule was barely tolerated by patriotic Jews, 
had every reason not to give offence. He 
enrolled his pagan subjects, therefore, in the 
Roman manner, but allowed the Jews the 
privilege of being enrolled in their place of 
origin according to their family and tribe. 

5. His espoused wife] RV ' who was be- 
trothed to him.' Yet they were probably 
married, because it was contrary to Jewish 
custom for betrothed persons to live together, 
and Joseph would wish to protect Mary by 
making her his wife as soon as possible. 



741 



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ST. LUKE 



2. 25 



6. 7. The Nativity. SeeonMt2 1 . There 
is an inward fitness that He, who for our sake 
emptied Himself of His glory, should be born 
in a stable and laid in a manger, but assuredly 
it would never have occurred to any one, Jew 
or Christian, to invent such a story, which 
accordingly may be accepted as authentic his- 
tory. By the manner of His birth Jesus 
showed His sympathy with the hard lot of the 
poor, and His contempt for human splendour. 
He also gave a foretaste of His future man- 
ner of life, when He -was despised and re- 
jected of men, and had no place to lay His 
head. 

7. Firstborn] A technical term among the 
Jews, signifying ' that which openeth the womb ' 
(Ex34 19f -), and not implying the birth of other 
offspring. That St. Luke uses it in this tech- 
nical sense is clear from 2 22 > 23 . No room] It 
is clear from Mt2 n that as soon as the enrol- 
ment was over, and the crowds attending it 
had dispersed, Joseph and Mary obtained a 
house in Bethlehem, intending to settle there 
permanently, since it was the most fitting 
place for the residence of the Messiah. 

8-20. Announcement to the shepherds, who 
visit the Holy Family. As Jesus was born in 
a stable, so His birth was first announced to 
peasants, in token that the gospel was meant 
for the poor and ignorant, as well as for the 
rich and learned. 

8. Shepherds] David himself had been a 
shepherd at Bethlehem (1 S 16 n ). The flocks 
at Bethlehem were destined for the Temple 
sacrifices, and the shepherds who kept them 
occupied a higher social position than other 
shepherds, who were considered outcasts by 
the scribes because of their necessary isolation 
from religious ordinances. There was a 
Jewish tradition that the birth of the Messiah 
would be proclaimed from the ' Migdol Eder,' 
' the tower of the flock,' which lay near Beth- 
lehem on the road to Jerusalem (Edersheim). 

10. To all people] RV ' to all the people' 
(of Earael). There is here no express mention 
of the Gentiles. 11. A Saviour] The spiritual 
is certainly prominent here — 'a Saviour 
from sin and death.' This title of Jesus is 
rare in the Gospels, being found only here and 
in .In \ '': several times in Titos and 2Peter. 

Christ the Lord: KM ' Anointed Lord.' 

12. Shall be a sign] IiY 1- the sign.' The 

unusual sighl <>f an infant in a manger would 

rign tliat the angel had spoken the truth. 

14. 'I'Ip- 'Gloria in exceLus' (Glory . . in 
the highest), in which tin- hosts of heaven 
praised God foi Hi^ nrondrous love to mankind 
shown in the [ncarnation, was expanded into a 
morning hymn ai early as the 2nd cent., and 
h;is been sung in the Communion service <>f 
the Western Church for man] Taking 

the old reading of the A V. the hymn, which 



consists of two lines, may be thus paraphrased : 
(1) The angels are praising God in highest 
heaven for Christ's Nativity. (2) On earth men 
enjoy peace with God, and peace and goodwill 
with one another. But the reading of the R V 
(' men of good pleasure ') is preferable, and the 
meaning is, (1) The angels are praising God in 
highest heaven for Christ's Nativity. (2) There 
is peace on earth (peace with God and peace 
with one another) among men to whom God 
shows His favour by this wondrous birth. 

The hymn goes beyond the words of the 
angel,* in declaring that God's favour in Christ 
is extended to all mankind. 

19. Mary's was a quiet and reflective nature: 
cp. v. 51. These two vv. suggest that it was 
from her the information contained in these 
chapters was derived. 

21. The Circumcision. Although our Lord 
was sinless, He was subjected to a rite which 
symbolised the putting off of the sinful lusts 
of the flesh. Although He was the Son of 
God, it behoved Him to be made a child of God 
through the covenant of Abraham. Now first 
His redeeming blood was shed, and the pain 
of the Circumcision was a foretaste of Calvary: 
cp. Mt3i5 Ro83 Heb2i7 Gal-M. Under the 
new covenant the sacrament of Holy Baptism 
(the circumcision made without hands, Col 2 n ) 
has 'fulfilled,' and taken the place of cir- 
cumcision. 

22-38. The Purification and Presentation in 
the Temple. Women after childbirth were 
unclean, for a boy forty days, for a girl eighty 
days. They were then bound to present an 
offering for Purification, viz. a lamb for a 
burnt offering and a pigeon for a sin offering. 
Poor women might offer two pigeons, as the 
mother of Jesus did: see Lvl2 2 . A firstborn 
son was presented to God and redeemed with 
five shekels of the sanctuary (10 or 12 shil- 
lings), Ex 13 2 Nu8^ I8 15 . Neither of these 
ceremonies necessitated personal attendance of 
the mother in the Temple. A woman could 
offer her sacrifices of purification by proxy, and 
a firstborn son could be presented, and his 
redemption price paid to a priest anywhere. 
Joseph and Mary went to the Temple because 
they were near, and because they loved the 
house of God. 

22. Her purification] RV 'their purification,' 
i.e. either, (1) the Jews' purification, or (2) the 
purification of mother and child. Strictly 
speaking, however, only the mother (not the 
child) was ceremonially unclean. 

2 5~35- Simeon and the Nunc Dimittis] 
Simeon belonged, like Zacharias and Anna, to 
the class of humble and devout Jews who 
' looked for the redemption of Jerusalem,' 
and whose type of piety was very different 
from that of the scribes : see vv. 37, 38. To such 
penona the sacrificial system of the Old Cove- 



7 12 



2.25 



ST. LUKE 



% 40 



nant and the spiritual teaching of the prophets 
had been a true preparation for Christ, and 
consequently God shed abroad among them the 
gift of prophecy, and revealed to them truths 
to which the doctors of the Law were blind. 

25. Devout] more exactly k God-fearing.' 
The word is peculiar to St. Luke (Ac2 5 8 2 
22 12 ). The consolation of Israel] a common 
expression among the rabbis for the Messianic 
age. k So may I see the consolation ' was a 
usual form of oath. 26. The Lord's Christ] 
the same as ' the Christ of God ' (9 20 ), i.e. 
k Him whom God has sent as the Messiah.' 

29-32. This beautiful hymn (usually called 
the k Nunc Dimittis '), which has been used in 
the evening service of the Church since the 
4th or 5th century, is in thorough harmony 
with the spirit of this Gospel. It expressly 
includes the Gentiles in Christ's Kingdom, in 
accordance with the OT. prophecies. 

29. The meaning is, ' My master and owner, 
now thou givest freedom to thy slave by a 
peaceful death, according to the prophetic 
word that thou spakest ' (v. 26). Simeon 
regards his release from the toils and troubles 
of life as an enfranchisement from slavery, a 
change to a state of freedom and rest. In 
peace means ' in a state of peace with God.' 

30. Thy salvation] is practically personal, 
meaning the Messiah. 

31. All people] RY ' all peoples,' i.e. all 
the nations of the earth. 32. A light, etc.] 
RY'A light for revelation to the Gentiles,' 
i.e. the Messiah is the Light of the Gentiles, 
sent by God to reveal His truth to the heathen 
world. He is also the glory of the chosen 
people, because all nations in glorifying the 
Messiah will glorify the nation from whom 
the Messiah springs. ' In those days ten men 
of all languages of the nations shall take hold 
of the skirt of him that is a Jew, saying we 
will go with you, for we have heard that God 
is with you' (Zech8 23 ). 

33. Joseph and his mother] RY ' his father 
and his mother.' Since Joseph filled the place 
of a father to Jesus, he was naturally called his 
father : cp. v. 27, ' the parents.' 

34, 35. These vv. contain the first hint in 
the NT. of the sufferings of the Messiah, and 
of His holy mother. 

34. Behold this child, etc.] This child will 
divide Israel into two opposite camps. Some 
will reject His claims. To such He will be 
' a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence ' 
(Isa8 14 ), i.e. the occasion of their spiritual 
ruin. Others will accept His claims. Such He 
will raise through their faith to a higher 
spiritual life, which may be rightly called a 
resurrection (rising 1 again) from death to life. 

35. Yea, a sword] This prophecy was ful- 
filled when Mary saw her Son rejected, con- 
demned, insulted, scourged, and crucified. 



That the thoughts] i.e. that the true charac- 
ters of men (as shown in their reception or 
rejection of Jesus) may be made manifest. 

36-38. Anna the prophetess also recognises 
Jesus as the Messiah, and speaks of Him as 
such among those who ' looked for the redemp- 
tion of Jerusalem.' Her manner of life is 
described in detail, because she is a type of 
the ' widows indeed ' of the Christian Church 
(lTim5 5 ), who did not marry again, but 
devoted themselves to works of charity and 
piety. 

36. Prophetess] The title shows that Anna 
was known as a prophetess before this incident. 
Other instances of prophetesses are. Miriam, 
Deborah, Hannah, Huldah, and the daughters 
of Philip. Aser] RY ' Asher.' It is clear 
that members of other tribes than Judah and 
Levi returned from the Captivity. 

37. If she was married at 12, which is 
possible in the East, she must have been 103 
years old. Departed not] i.e. was unfailing 
in her attendance. 38. All them that looked, 
etc.] see on vv. 25-35. 

39. Return to Nazareth. St. Luke repre- 
sents the Holy Family as returning to 
Nazareth immediately after the Purification, 
without any allusion to the visit of the Magi, 
or the flight into Egypt. This seems to indi- 
cate that he did not use St. Matthew's Gospel. 

40. Growth and spiritual development of 
Jesus. The information may have been 
gained from the mother herself. Waxed 
strong in spirit] RY omits ' in spirit.' 

Filled with wisdom] lit. 'becoming full of 
wisdom' : cp. v. 52, ' increased in wisdom.' As 
Jesus was perfect God and perfect man so He 
possessed completely the attributes of both 
natures. As God He knew all things, but as 
man He ' waxed strong (in spirit), becoming 
filled with wisdom,' and ' increased in wisdom 
and stature, and in favour with God and man.' 
As an infant He possessed the knowledge 
proper to an infant ; as a boy, that proper to 
a boy ; as a man, that proper to a man ; as the 
anointed Messiah (3 22 ), that proper to one 
commissioned to establish the Kingdom of God 
on earth ; and as the ascended and glorified 
Redeemer, that proper to one who, as man, 
and not simply as God, rules the entire uni- 
verse (Mt28 18 ). What this means we may 
not be able to say, but we may rest assured He 
still feels for man, and understands his needs. 
Although it was always possible for Him who 
was God as well as man, to draw, if the needs 
of His mission required it, upon the inexhaust- 
ible stores of His divine knowledge (cp. Jn 1 48 ), 
yet it was His usual custom to obtain His 
information through human channels and 
from human sources, and, even as a teacher, to 
use chiefly the ample stores of His super- 
naturally enlightened human knowledge. This 



743 



2. 40 



ST. LUKE 



>. 1 



supernatural enlightenment far exceeded both 
in range and in penetration that granted to 
the greatest of the prophets — it was the know- 
ledge which was granted to the Incarnate Son 
for the purpose of communicating to man the 
Father's perfect and final revelation ; but it 
was limited in accordance with its object, and 
did not embrace matters which it was inex- 
pedient for man to know, and therefore for 
the Incarnate Son to reveal: see on Mkl3 32 , 
and cp. Ac 1 7 . 

40-52. The boy Jesus in the Temple. We 
know nothing directly of the childhood of 
Jesus except this one incident, which is re- 
corded entirely for the sake of the remarkable 
utterance in v. 49. 

41. As women were not obliged to attend, 
Mary's regular keeping of the feasts is a mark 
of special piety : cp. v. 22. 

42. Twelve years] Jesus accompanied His 
parents for the first time, because He was 
approaching his thirteenth year, in which He 
would become, by Jewish custom, ' a son of 
the Law,' i.e. subject to its obligations. 

43. Tarried behind] Jesus was probably 
staying with friends, and thought that His 
parents would remain in Jerusalem for the 
whole Passover week. Instead of this they 
seem to have left after two days, as was often 
done. 

46. After three days] They ^pent one day 
looking for Him in the caravan, one day in 
the return journey to Jerusalem, and found 
Him on the third day. Doctors] i.e. scribes 
or rabbis. Among the famous men who may 
possibly have been present were the aged 
Hillel and Shammai, Rabban Simeon, Gamaliel, 
Annas, Joseph of Arimathaea, Nicodemus, 
Johanan ben-Zacchai, Caiaphas. It is said 
(bill it is not certain) that there was a syna- 
gogue within the Temple enclosure, where 
members of the Sanhedrin gave public in- 
Btraction on sabbaths and festivals. Hearing 
them] not beaching them, as the Apocryphal 
Gtospels say. 

49. How is it] 'Not a reproof, but an 
expression of surprise. He is not surprised 
at their Coming hack for Him, hut at their not 

knowing where to find Him.' About my 
Father's business] This translation is possible, 

hut that of the \{\\ 'in my I'at litr's house.' 

is more probable. The words mean ! ' There 

is only one plan- in Jerusalem where I. the 
Son of God, mighl !><• expected to he found, 
ami that i^ in m\ Father's lions,'. - The utter- 
ance shows that even at this early age Jesus 
was oonsoions thai Bis brae father was not 
Joseph (as B - mother's words seemed to 

imply, v. 48 ). hut ( kxi 

50. Understood not] The laps<- of twelve 
years during which no miracle had occurred, 
had portly obliterated the impression made by 



the remarkable circumstances of the Nativity. 
This and the next v. furnish another indication 
that St. Luke's information was obtained from 
St. Mary. 51. Was subject] The evangelist 
guards against the possible supposition that 
Christ's words in v. 49 were intended as a 
repudiation of His parents' authority over 
Him. 52. See on v. 40. 

CHAPTER 3 

John's Ministry. Baptism and 

Genealogy of Jesus 

1-14. Preliminary Ministry of the Baptist 
(Mt3iMkli). See on Mt. 

1. In the fifteenth year] If the years of 
Tiberius are reckoned from the death of 
Augustus, who died 14 a.d., the date is 28, 29 
a.d. Most authorities, however, suppose that 
the years of Tiberius are here reckoned from 
11 a.d., when he was made the colleague of 
Augustus in the empire, with equal authority 
over all the provinces and armies. This gives 
the date 25, 26 a.d. for the beginning of the 
ministry of John. Jesus, who appeared soon 
afterwards, was, therefore, probably baptised 
26 a.d., and kept the first Passover of His 
ministry (Jn2 13 ) 27 a.d. Allowing three 
Passovers to the ministry, the crucifixion took 
place in 29 a.d. 

Pilate] see on Mt27 2 . 

Herod being tetrarch] see art. ' Dynasty of 
the Herods.' 

Philip] the tetrarch, is to be carefully dis- 
tinguished from his brother Herod Philip, who 
was of private station. He was the son of 
Herod the Great by a woman of Jerusalem 
named Cleopatra. He ruled for 38 years 
without reproach, and was favourably dis- 
tinguished from the other sons of Herod by 
his gentleness and want of ambition. Jo- 
sephus says of him : ' He was moderate, and 
peaceful in his rule, and spent his whole life 
in his country. He went out with only a 
small retinue, always taking with him the 
throne on which he might sit and judge. 
Whenever he met any one who had need of 
him, he made no delay, but set down the 
throne wherever he might be, and heard the 
case.' See, further, art. 'Dynasty of the 
Herods.' 

Lysanias] The only Lysanias mentioned in 
profane history as ruling over Abilene was 
executed 36 B.C. by the triumvir Mark Antony. 
at the instigation of Cleopatra, queen of 
Egypt. Hi '_r<'\ rrned not only Abilene, hut 
also [turaea and other extensive districts. The 
Lysanias of St. Luke is probably his grandson. 

Abilene] the territory round Abila. a town 
of some importance, situated on the River 
Ahana. in a gorge of Mt. Antilibanus, 18 
Roman m. from Damascus on the way to He- 
liopolis or Baalbec. There are still to be seen 



744 



3. 2 



ST. LUKE 



4. 18 



there an ancient temple, ancient aqueducts, 
and a Roman road. 

2. Annas, etc.] RV ' in the high priesthood 
of Annas and Caiaphas.' A peculiar expres- 
sion to indicate a peculiar state of things. 
Annas held office from 7-14 a.d., when he 
was deposed by Pilate's predecessor, Valerius 
Gratus. But inasmuch as his successors were 
either his relations, or entirely devoted to his 
interests, he retained supreme power, and was 
probably regarded by orthodox Jews as the 
rightful high priest. Ex-high priests retained 
their title, and Annas is called high priest 
again, Jnl8 19 Ac4 6 : see on Jnl8 13 and 
Mt21i2. Caiaphas] see on Mt26 3 Jnll49 
18 13 . The word of God came] John received 
a definite call to his ministry, like Isaiah (Isa 6) 
and Jeremiah (Jerl). 4. See on Isa 40 3 . 

5, 6. (Peculiar to Lk.) ' Spiritually inter- 
preted, the valleys would represent unbelief 
and all sins of omission which must be filled up 
by the diligent adding of grace to grace (2Pt 
I 5 - 7 ). The mountains would mean pride and 
haughtiness and self-will and obstinacy, which 
must be humbled and cast down. The 
crooked places would signify all sorts of 
deceit and guile and hypocrisy and untruth- 
fulness. The rough ways would picture 
anger, strife, envy, hatred, malice, and all 
uncharitableness.' 

10-14. See on Mt3. 

15-17. John's witness to Jesus (Mt3 n 
Mkl<). See on Mt. 

18-20. John is imprisoned by Herod (Mt 
143 Mk 6^). See on Mt. 

21, 22. Baptism of Jesus (Mt3 13 Mkl^). 
See on Mt. 

23-38. Genealogy of Jesus. See on Mt 1 1 . 

23. Thirty years] The legal age for the 
Levites to begin their ministry (Nu4 3 > 47 ). 

38. Son of Adam] see on Mt 1 1 . 

CHAPTER 4 

The Temptation. Nazareth. Capernaum 
1-13. The Temptation (Mt4* Mkl 12 ). See 

on Mt. 

5. Lk inverts 2nd and 3rd Temptations. 

13. For a season] ' These words signify 
" until a favourable time." The conflict fore- 
told so precisely, can be none other than that 
of Gethsemane. " This is your hour and the 
power of darkness," said Jesus at this very 
time (22 53 ), and a few moments before He 
had said, " The prince of this world cometh " 
(Jnl4 3 °)' (Godet). 

14, 15. Return to Galilee. Beginning of 
the Ministry proper (Mt4*2 Mkl** Jn4M3). 
See on Mt and Jn. 

14. In the power of the Spirit] Christ's 
miracles and preaching in Judaea ( Jn 1 29 -4 42 ) 
had already made Him famous, so that when He 
was come unto Galilee, the Galileans received 



Him, having seen all the things that He did at 
Jerusalem at the feast ( Jn 4 45 ). 

16-30. Visit to Nazareth. See Mtl3 53 
Mk 6 !. It must remain doubtful whether this 
visit to Nazareth, which Lk places at the begin- 
ning of the Galilean ministry, is identical with 
that placed considerably later by Mt and Mk. 
In any case, Lk here makes use of an important 
independent source. On synagogues see on 
Mt 4 23. 

16. As his custom was] When living at 
Nazareth, Jesus had been accustomed to read 
the lessons as an ordinary member of the 
congregation. Even boys under age were 
allowed to do this. Stood up for to read] The 
Law and the Prophets, but not the Hagio- 
grapha, were read standing. The rabbis said : 
' They do not read the law otherwise than 
standing up. Nay, it is unlawful for him that 
readeth to lean upon anything.' ' A man may 
read out of the book of Esther either standing 
or sitting, but not so out of the Law.' Jesus 
having stood to read, sat to expound. As He 
read in Hebrew, the Methurgeman, or Inter- 
preter, translated into the vernacular Aramaic. 
See on Mt2«. 

17. There was delivered . . the book (or ' a 
roll ')] The rolls were in the charge of the 
hazzan, or attendant (v. 20), who handed them 
to the reader, and received them back when 
read. Sometimes the prophets formed a single 
roll, sometimes (as here) they were divided 
into books. 

18. From Isa 61 !> 2 , with one clause 'to set 
at liberty them that are bruised ' inserted from 
Isa 58 6 , LXX. This passage, in which the 
prophet declares to the exiles in Babylon their 
approaching deliverance, is now read in Jewish 
synagogues on the Day of Atonement, and may 
so have been read even at that time. The 
reading was very short (two verses only), 
because a sermon was to follow. When there 
was no sermon, the reading was made con- 
siderably longer. 

The Spirit of the Lord, etc.] In Isaiah this 
is a soliloquy of the Righteous Servant of 
Jehovah, whom our Lord identifies with Him- 
self. The Jews generally regarded it as a 
soliloquy of the prophet himself. He hath 
anointed me] viz. at My baptism. He hath 
sent me to heal the brokenhearted] RV omits. 

To preach deliverance] RY ' to proclaim 
release to the captives.' The original words 
have reference to the release of the Jewish 
captives from Babylon. Jesus applies them 
to the release of sinners from the guilt and 
bondage of sin, through His ministry. The 
blind] Spiritual blindness is here chiefly in 
view. To set at liberty them that are bruised] 
From Isa 58 6 . Our Lord purposely inserted 
these words in the passage read according to a 
common custom. The rabbis said, ' The reader 



745 



4. 19 



ST. LUKE 



5.1 



of the prophet may skip from one text to 
another, but he may not skip from prophet 
to prophet, but in the twelve (minor) prophets 
it is lawful.' 19. To preach the acceptable 
year of the Lord] In Isaiah this is the year 
of the return, but Jesus applies it to His 
earthly ministry. It is not to be inferred 
from this that Christ's ministry lasted only 
a year. 

21. This day is this scripture, etc.] With the 
emphatic self-assertion of this sermon, cp. 
the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5-7). 22. Bare 
him witness] i.e. declared that the report of 
His power as a preacher was not exaggerated. 

And they said] or, rather, ' bid they said,' 
according to the Heb. idiom, which has only 
one word for 'and' and 'but.' Is not this 
Joseph's son ?] and, therefore, not the Messiah, 
or a prophet, or any one great. 

23. Physician, heal thyself] The defect or 
malady from which, in the opinion of the 
Nazarenes, Christ was suffering, was want of 
consideration among those who knew Him best, 
especially his fellow-townsmen. Let Him 
remove that defect by working such miracles as 
would convince them that He was a teacher 
sent from God, and He would then be more 
successful in 'healing,' i.e. converting, others. 
The Nazarenes were jealous because Jesus had 
worked miracles at Capernaum and other 
places before He worked any at Nazareth. 
The proverb occurs frequently in rabbinical 
writings, 'Physician, heal thine own lameness.' 
' In a sad state is the city whose physician has 
the gout, and whose steward has one eye.' 

24. No prophet is accepted] RV 'accept- 
able.' The truth is a familiar one. We 
often think lightly of what is very familiar. 
The blessings at our doors are those we value 
least. Here and in Mtl3 57 , Christ's 'own 
country ' is Nazareth, where He was brought 
up. In Jn 4 44 it is perhaps Judaea, where He 
was born. There is a curious parallel in the 
life of ' the heathen Christ,' Apollonius of 
Tyana, who is represented as saying, ' What 
wonder is it, if, when I am esteemed by the 
rest of mankind as like a god, and by some 
even as a god, my <>wn country alone until 
now refuses to recognise me V ' Plutarch says, 
1 Vmi will find thai few of the most prudent 
ami wisest of mankind have been appreciated 

in their own country.' Another ancient writer 

says, ' All the philosophers seem to have had 
a hard life in their own country.' 

25-27. The vv. contain a refusal to work 

miracles in Nazareth. St. Matthew (13 58 ) 
gives the reason i ' because <>f their unbelief.' 

25. Elias] RV 'Elijah.' Our Lord gives 

two instances of prophets, who. being dis- 
honoured in their own country, went and con- 
ferred [rreat blessings upon foreigners. Three 
years and six months] So also in Jas5 17 . This 



does not agree with the OT., which says that 
the rain returned in the third year (1K17 1 
18 1 ), but it agrees with Jewish traditional 
usage, which frequently introduced the number 
three and a half, as being half of the mystical 
number seven. ' Ever since the persecution 
under Antiochus Epiphanes, three years and 
a half (=42 months =1,260 days) had become 
the traditional duration of times of great 
calamity (Dan7 25 12* Rev 11 2, 3 12 6, u 135)' 
(Plummer). 

27. Eliseus] RY ' Elisha.' 

28. They are angry with Jesus for ventur- 
ing to compare Himself with the old prophets, 
and for rebuking them for their want of faith 
in Him. 

29. That they might cast him down] per- 
haps as a preliminary to stoning Him as a 
blasphemer — ' The place of execution was twice 
a man's height. One of the witnesses throws 
him down,' etc. As the local synagogues 
with their ' bench of three ' could not condemn 
to death, Plummer conjectures that this was 
what the Jews call the ' rebel's beating.' This 
was administered by the people without trial 
and on the spot, when any one was caught in 
what seemed to be a flagrant violation of some 
law or tradition (Jn 8 59 10 31 Ac 2 131,32). 

30. Went his way] A mysterious restraint 
upon the power of His enemies is implied as 
in Jnl8 6 . 

31. Migration to Capernaum. See on Mt4 13 . 
3i b -37. Demoniac healed in the synagogue. 

Mkl23. SeeonMkl2if. 

38-41. Healing of Simon's wife's mother 
and others (Mt 8 u Mk 1 ™). See on Mt. 

42-44. Retirement to a desert place. Preach- 
ing tours (Mk 1 35). See on Mt 4 23-25. 

44. The synagogues of Galilee] The best 
critics read, ' the synagogues of Judsea.' This 
is the only express mention by the synoptists 
of the Judaean ministry, but see on Mt23 37 

CHAPTER 5 
Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 
The Palsied Man 
i-ii. First miraculous draught of fishes 
(peculiar to Lk). Many critics identify this 
incident with that recorded in Mt4 18 and Mk 
1 '". But there are important considerations 
on the other side : (1) the persons are different 
(there four disciples, here Peter is addressed); 
(2) the words used, though similar in sense, 
are very different in form ; (3) the disciples 
are not said to have l left all' in Mt, but only 
to have left their father in the ship. More- 
over, in Mt and Mk the disciples are fishing, 
here they are washing their nets before putting 
them away. Besides, if Mt and Mk really de- 
scribe the same event, why do they omit the 
most striking incident of all, the miraculous 
draught of fishes ? See on Mt 4 18 . 



746 



5.5 



ST. LUKE 



6. 20 



The incident was probably a miracle, but it 
is possible to give a plausible natural explana- 
tion of it. Tristram says : ' The thickness of 
the shoals of fish in the Lake of Gennesareth 
is almost incredible to any one who has not 
witnessed them. They often cover an area of 
more than an acre ; and when the fish move 
slowly forward in a mass, and are rising out 
of the water, they are packed so close together, 
that it appears as if a heavy rain was beating 
down on the surface of the water.' Fish so 
closely packed as this could not easily escape. 

5. Master] implying that he was already a 
disciple. This particular word is peculiar to 
St. Luke. 

8. Depart from me] ' Peter perceived that 
His command was effectual beyond expecta- 
tion, and that He was a divine and super- 
natural man, and, therefore, feeling himself 
unworthy, begged Him to depart ' (Euthymius). 
It is natural for the sinful soul to shrink from 
the presence of the all-holy God. The near- 
ness of God had been brought home to St. 
Peter by the miracle which he had just wit- 
nessed : cp. Ex20 18 > 19 . 

10. Catch men] lit. ' catch them alive.' The 
apostles are to catch men for life, not for 
death, by means of their preaching. In the 
works of Clement of Alexandria, 200 a.d., there 
is a beautiful hymn to Christ as the fisher : 

1 Fisher of mortal men, 
Even of those that are being saved, 
Ever the holy fish 
From the -wild ocean 
Of the world's sea of sin 
By thy sweet life thou enticest away.' 

12-16. The leper cleansed (Mt8* Mkl*0). 
See on Mt. 

16. And prayed] Peculiar to Lk, who more 
often than any other evangelist mentions our 
Lord's prayers. 

17-26. The Paralytic (Mt9* Mk2 1 ). See 
on Mt. 

27-39. Call of Levi, and the controversy as 
to fasting (Mt9 9 Mk2 13 ). See on Mt. 

39. (Peculiar to Lk.) Christ means that 
He cannot expect the disciples of John and 
of the Pharisees, who have tasted the old wine 
of the Law, and found it good, to receive at 
once and without difficulty the new teaching. 

The old is better] So AY and KM ; but RY 
1 the old is good.' 

CHAPTER 6 
Choice of the Twelve. Sermon in the 
Plain 
1-5. Plucking the ears of corn (Mt 12 1 Mk 
223). See on Mt and Mk. 

1. On the second sabbath after the first] Gk. 
deuteroproton, lit. ' second-first.' There is 
considerable ground for omitting this obscure 
expression as interpolated, and reading simply, 



' on a sabbath,' with the RY. If, however, it 
is genuine, it probably means, ' on the second 
sabbath after the waving of the sheaf on the 
second day of the Passover festival' (see 
Lv23 1-15 ). It was the custom to number the 
sabbaths from Passover to Pentecost from 
this day. Of the numerous other interpreta- 
tions the best are, 'the second chief sabbath 
of the year' (i.e. Pentecost), and 'the first 
sabbath of the second month of the year.' The 
' Jewish Encycl.' conjectures that the disciples 
were blamed for plucking the ears before the 
sheaf was waved, which was forbidden (L v 23 15 ). 

5. In one important MS, the Codex Bezae, 
this v. is placed after v. 10, and in its place is 
inserted this remarkable incident and saying 
of Jesus : ' On the same day He saw a man 
working on the sabbath, and said to him : 
" man, if thou knowest what thou doest, 
blessed art thou. But if thou knowest not, 
cursed art thou, and a transgressor of the 
law." ' The utterance is perhaps authentic. 
' In substance it certainly bears the mark of 
genius. I regard it as an interpolated frag- 
ment of a true tradition ' (Meyer). ' We 
may believe that this traditional story is true ' 
(Plummer). ' Its form and contents speak for 
its originality, and, I am disposed to believe, 
its authenticity ' (Alford). On the contrary, 
Godet says, ' This can only be an invention 
or a perversion.' 

6-1 1. The man with the withered hand 
(Mtl29Mk3i). See on Mt. 

12-19. Choice of the Twelve (MtlO 2 
Mk3!3). See on Mt and Mk. 

16. Judas the brother of James] So AY and 
RM. But RY ' Judas the son of James.' 

17. In the plain] RY 'on a level place.' 
This may have been a plateau, high up the 
mountains, but see on MtS 1 . 

20-49. Great sermon to the disciples and 
in part to the multitudes. It forms here the 
ordination address of the Twelve. In what 
sense it is identical with the Sermon on the 
Mount is explained on MtS 1 . That it is for 
all practical purposes the same sermon, but 
abridged, is shown by the fact that it contains 
only five verses (vv. 24-26, 39, 40) which are 
not in St. Matthew's version, and that it 
follows St. Matthew's order. 

Analysis : (1) Four beatitudes, on the 
poor, the hungry, weepers, and the hated 
(vv. 20-23). 

(2) Four woes, on the rich, the full, 
laughers, and the well spoken of (vv. 24-26). 

(3) Exhortation to love, as shown in re- 
turning good for evil, not resisting evil, loving 
enemies, not judging rashly (vv. 27-38). 

(4) Exhortation to stringent self-examin- 
ation on the part of those who presume to 
guide others, lest they be found to be hypo- 
crites (vv. 39-45). 



747 



6. 20 



ST. LUKE 



7.24 



(5) Exhortation to obedience. The strong 
foundation upon which obedient Christians 
build (vv. 46-49). 

St. Luke's sermon is much less striking than 
St. Matthew's. It omits the whole question 
of the relation of the Gospel to the Law, and 
all those passages in which Christ claims to 
be the supreme Legislator, Judge, and Ruler 
of the human race ; it has only four beatitudes 
instead of eight, and in general gives the im- 
pression of an abridged and imperfect report, 
in which some of the sayings, owing to ex- 
tensive omissions, do not appear in their true 
context. Some, but not all, of St. Luke's 
omissions can be accounted for by the fact 
that his Gospel was intended for Gentiles. 

Some critics profess to find in St. Luke's 
sermon an Ebionitic, or as we should now say, a 
socialistic or communistic tendency. Probably 
wrongly, for by k the poor ' and 'the hungry,' 
St. Luke does not mean the literally such, any 
more than St. Matthew, who expressly speaks 
of ' the poor in spirit,' and of those who 
' hunger and thirst after righteousness.' So 
also St. Luke's rich, well-fed, and prosperous 
persons, are not simply the well-to-do, but 
those who have the vices of their station. 
Our Lord never approves poverty or con- 
demns riches simply as such. See on Mt. 

20-23. Four Beatitudes. See on Mt5 3 " 12 . 

22. Separate you] viz. by excommunication. 
The usual sentence was for thirty days, during 
which the excommunicated might not come 
within four cubits of any one. 

24-26. Four woes (peculiar to Lk). The 
1 woes ' refer chiefly to future punishment in 
the world to come, but not exclusively, for in 
the siege of Jerusalem they received a literal 
fulfilment. 

24. You that are rich] i.e. those who, pos- 
sessing wealth, trust in it (MklO 24 ), or spend 
it in selfish luxury like Dives (Lkl6 19 ), and 
despise the poor (Jas2 6 ), and oppress them 
(Jas5 4 ). Ye have received your consolation] 
cp. Abraham's words to Dives (16 25 ), 'Son, 
remember thai thou in thy lifetime receivedsi 
(in full) thy good things.' 25. You that are 
full] and careless of your poorer brethren's 
needs, like the rich man 'who fared sump- 
tuously every day' (16 w ). Shall hunger] 

Spiritual destitution is meant, in this world 

and the next. That laugh] The godless, con- 
temptuous laughter of the wicked ( Boclusl 9 80 ) 

it meant. Inno.-ent mirth is approved by 
Christ (Lkl.')-' 1 ). Mourn and weep] viz. in 
the world t<» come. 
26. A warning to all Christian ministers 

and teachers w>\ to court popularity by speak 

ing smooth words, and Baying •Peace, when 

there is no peace.' Plutarcfa r< lates of Phoeion 

the Athenian. ' Once while he was delivering 
a public speech and makings good impression, 



and saw that all his hearers were equally 
pleased with what he said, he turned to his 
friends and said, k> Surely I must have for- 
gotten myself, and said something wrong." ' 
Similarly Diogenes Laertius relates of a cer- 
tain philosopher, that when some one an- 
nounced to him that all men were praising 
him, he replied, ' Why, what evil have I done ?' 

The false prophets] cp. Jer5 31 6 14 8 11 
Ezkl3io. 

27-38. Exhortations to love, forgiveness of 
injuries, and avoiding of rash judgments. 

27-30. See on MtS 39 " 42 . 

31. See on Mt7 12 . 

32-36. See on MtS 42 " 48 . 

37, 38. See on Mt7 x » 2 . 

39. St. Matthew gives this saying in a much 
more suitable connexion (Mtlo 14 ), where it is 
applied to the Pharisees. Here it appears to 
mean that before judging others we must 
judge ourselves, otherwise we shall be blind 
leaders of the blind. The ditch] RV ' a pit.' 
Palestine is full of unf enced wells, quarries, etc. 

40. Another saying which occurs in a more 
natural context in MtlO 24 , q.v. 

41-45. Exhortation to stringent self-exami- 
nation on the part of religious guides. 

41. 42. See on Mt7 3 " 5 . 

43-45. See on Mt7 16 - 20 , and Mtl2 33 . 3 5. 
46-49. Obedient hearing. See on Mt 7 21 ' 27 . 

CHAPTER 7 
Raising of the Widow's Son. The 

Woman who was a Sinner 
i-io. Healing of the centurion's servant. 
See on Mt8 5 . 

11-17. The raising of the widow's son 
(peculiar to Lk). On the credibility and 
significance of Christ's miracles of resurrection, 
consult Mt9 18 Jnlli. 

11. Nain] 25 m. SW. of Capernaum on the 
hill 4 little Hermon ' as it slopes down to the 
plain of Esdraelon : now a squalid collection 
of mud-hovels. Much people] RV 'a great 
multitude.' Lazarus also was raised in the 
presence of a multitude of witnesses. 

12. Carried out] Jewish tombs were always 
outside the walls, and burials were required 
to be performed within 24 hours. Only son] 
see Jer fi 26 Zech 1 2 10 Am 8 10. T 4 . The bier] 
a mere pallet, not a coffin. 

I say unto thee] Elijah and Elisha raised the 
dead with difficulty, and after strong wrest- 
lings with God inprayer(lK17 2,, ' 21 2K4 33 .34) i 
Christ without effort, by a single word of 
power : cp. Jn 1 l 43 . 16. A great prophet] or, 
'even the prophet' (Dtl8 16 ), for only the 
very greatesl prophets had raised the dead. 

18-23. A deputation from John the Baptist. 
Bee <>n Mt 1 1 -. 

2 4~35- Christ's opinion of John. See on 
Mt 1 1 >. 



7 is 



7.29 



ST. LUKE 



8.4 



29, 30. Peculiar to Lk. 

30. Rejected] RV ' rejected for themselves 
the counsel of God.' God's 'counsel,' or 
design, was that they should be prepared for the 
coming of Christ by receiving John's baptism. 

36-50. Christ anointed at the house of 
Simon the Pharisee (peculiar to Lk). Placed 
here as an illustration of how 'Wisdom' 
(i.e. the Gospel) is justified by the changed 
life of one of ' her children ' (this sinful 
woman). ' We are still in that epoch of 
transition when the rupture between our Lord 
and the Pharisees, although already far 
advanced, was not yet complete. A Pharisee 
could still invite Him without difficulty. It 
has been supposed that this invitation was 
given with a hostile intention. But this 
Pharisee's own reflection, v. 39, shows his 
moral state. He was hesitating between the 
holy impression which Jesus made upon him, 
and the antipathy which his caste felt against 
Him ' (Godet). The woman at the time of 
the incident was no longer a ' sinner ' ; she had 
been converted by Jesus, but the Pharisee did 
not know this. 

This anointing is probably quite distinct 
from that at Bethany (Mt26 6 Jnl22), and 
the woman is not to be identified either with 
Mary Magdalene, or with Mary of Bethany, 
who were clearly women of good position and 
character (see on Mt26 6 Jnl22). 

36. Sat down] or, rather, 'lay down,' 
' reclined.' 

37. A sinner] i.e. a woman of ill fame, or, 
rather, one who had been such. She would 
have no difficulty in entering the house, as 
banquets in the East are generally public 
functions. An alabaster box (RY ' cruse ')] 
1 We have evidence that perfumed oils — 
notably oil of roses, and of the iris plant, but 
chiefly the mixture known in antiquity as 
foliatum — were largely manufactured and used 
in Palestine. A flask with this perfume was 
worn by women round the neck' (see on 
Songl 13 ). 38. As Jesus was reclining (not 
sitting) with His head towards the table and 
His feet stretched out behind Him, the woman 
could easily act as indicated. Tears] She was 
overwhelmed by penitent recollections of her 
past life, and gratitude to Him who had saved 
her from it. Hairs] To appreciate this act we 
must remember that it was one of the greatest 
humiliations for a woman to be seen with her 
hair dishevelled. Similar acts of respect were 
sometimes, but rarely, paid to rabbis. A man 
once came to kiss the feet of Rabbi Jonathan, 
because he had induced filial reverence in his 
son. .Anointing the feet was common among 
the Jews, the Romans, and the Greeks, espe- 
cially at banquets. 

39. This man, if he were a prophet] One 
good MS reads ' the prophet.' 



40. Jesus answering] The Pharisee thought 
that Jesus did not know the woman's history. 
Jesus shows the Pharisee that He can discern 
even the thoughts of his own heart. Simon] 
the same as Simeon, or Symeon. It is a mere 
coincidence that the other anointing took 
place at the house of a man of the same name. 
There are eleven Simons in the OT., nine in 
the NT., and twenty in Josephus. 41. Pence] 
i.e. denarii. According to weight a denarius 
was about 8d., but according to purchasing 
power 2s. or more. The two debts were, 
therefore, about £50 and £5. 

44. No water] cp. Gnl8* Jgl92i 1S25*!, 
and see on Jnl3 5 . 46. Oil] which was cheap, 
as opposed to ointment, which was dear. 

47. ' Thou canst see that she is a reformed 
character and that her many sins have been 
forgiven, because of the love she bears to Me, 
who have saved her from her sinful life.' It 
should be carefully observed that the woman 
loved because she was forgiven, not forgiven 
because she loved. 

To whom little is forgiven] i.e. ' Thou, 
Simon, like this woman, hast also been My 
disciple, but it is plain from the little love 
thou showest Me that, unlike her, thou hast 
not been brought to repentance through My 
ministry.' 

48. Thy sins are forgiven] Christ had for- 
given her before, when she turned from her 
old life. He now for her greater comfort 
renews the absolution. For the bearing of 
Christ's absolving power upon His divinity, 
see on Mt 9 1 ~ 8 . 49. Sins also] RV ' even 
sins.' 

CHAPTER 8 
Parable of the Sower. The Demoniac 
of Gadara 
1-3. Tours through Galilee. The minister- 
ing women (peculiar to Lk). 

2. Mary called Magdalene] see on Mt27 56 . 

Seven devils] Mkl6 9 . The 'seven' indi- 
cates the greatness of her disease, not of her 
previous wickedness. There is no evidence 
that the persons possessed with devils in the 
NT. were specially wicked, or that Mary 
Magdalene had ever been a woman of evil life. 

3. Joanna] see 24 10 . Our Lord did not, like 
the Pharisees, ' devour widows' houses.' Those 
who contributed to His support were women 
of wealth and position. Chuza] probably the 
steward of Herod Antipas, who as such managed 
his house and estates. From Joanna St. Luke 
probably obtained much of his special informa- 
tion. Susanna] Of her nothing is known. 

Ministered unto him] This illustrates our 
Lord's precept (1 Cor 9 14 ) that they which preach 
the gospel should live of the gospel. 

4-1 5. Parable of the Sower (Mt 13 1 Mk 4 1). 
See on Mt. 



749 



8. 16 



ST. LUKE 



9.61 



1 6-i 8. Further remarks on teaching by 
parables (Mk 4 21-25). See on Mk. 

19-21. His mother and brethren (Mtl2 46 
Mk33i). See on Mt. 

22-25. Stilling the storm (Mt8 2 3 Mk435). 
See on Mt, Mk. 

26-39. The demoniac in the country of the 
Gadarenes (RV ' G-erasenes ') (Mt8 2s MkS 1 ). 
See on Mt, Mk. 

40-56. Jairus' daughter. The woman with 
an issue (Mt 9 1S Mk 5 21). See on Mt. 

CHAPTER 9 

Feeding the Five Thousand. Peter's 

Confession. The Transfiguration 

1-6. Mission of the Twelve (MtlO 1 . 5 " 15 Mk 
6M3). See on Mt. 

7-9. Herod thinks that John is risen again 
(Mt 1 4 1 Mk 6 1*). See on Mt. 

10-17. Feeding of the five thousand (Mtl4 13 
Mk 6 30 J n 6 1). See on Mt and Jn. 

18-27. Confession of Peter (Mt 1 6 « Mk 8 2 ?). 
See on Mt. St. Luke's account is the most 
imperfect. Why he omits to mention the 
locality (Caesarea Philippi), and Christ's rebuke 
to Peter, which were certainly in his source, 
does not appear. He alone mentions that 
Christ was ' praying alone ' (v. 18). 

28-36. The Transfiguration (Mt 17 * Mk 9 2 ). 
See on Mt. 

31. Lk alone mentions the subject of the 
conversation, Christ's death. 

37-43. The epileptic healed (Mt 17 14 Mk 9 14 ). 
See on Mt and Mk. 

43 b -45. He predicts His Passion (Mtl7 2 2 
Mk 9 30 ). See on Mt. It is not clear why St. 
Luke omits the prophecy of the resurrection, 
which certainly was in the source used by the 
synoptists. See Mt and Mk. 

46-48. Who should be greatest (Mt 18 l Mk 
933). See on Mt. 

49, 50. The man casting out devils in Christ's 
name. See on Mk9 38 ' 41 . 

Chs. 9W-19 28 . The Peraean Ministry. Here 
begins a long and important section consist- 
ing of ten chapters (9 M -19 28 ) peculiar to the 
third Gospel, and called generally the ' Peraean 
section.' (For ' Peraea ' sec on Mt ID 1 .) From 
the narratives of Mt and Mk, who devote but 
a chapter to it (Mt in MklO), it would be 
supposed that the final journey of Jesus to 
Jerusalem occupied not more than a week or 
two, but iii St. Luke it is so crowded with 
incidents, thai several months must be assigned 
to it. It need not. however, be supposed that 
all the incidents and discourses \\ hieh St. Luke 
places in this period really belong to it. Marks 

of time are infrequent and Vague, and lend to 

the conclusion thai many of the incidents came 
into the evangelist's hands with no indications 

of date, and were, therefore, grouped together 
in this appendix to the Galilean ministry, All 



the Gospels agree in bringing our Lord to 
Peraea shortly before the Passion. 

Some think that St. Luke describes not one, 
but three journeys to Jerusalem : (1) 9 51 = Jn 
7i_1039 (Feast of Tabernacles and of Dedica- 
tion; (2) 13 22 = Jnll (raising of Lazarus); 
(3) 17 n = Jnll 55 (journey from Ephraim to 
Jerusalem). But it is better to hold that St. 
Luke describes only one journey, which partook 
largely of the nature of an extended mission- 
ary tour. 

51-56. James and John desire to call down 
fire upon a Samaritan village (peculiar to Lk). 
Though James and John did not gain their 
title ' Boanerges ' (Mk3 17 ) from this incident, 
yet it undoubtedly illustrates the character of 
the ' Sons of Thunder ' on its weaker side. 
Their desire for vengeance was a fault, but a 
generous one. They resented, not a personal 
slight, but an insult to the Master whom they 
had now come to regard as greater than Moses 
or Elijah or any OT. saint. They were right 
to be angry, but they were wrong in their anger 
to forget mercy, and to desire to destroy rather 
than to save sinners. 

51. When the time was come (RV 'when 
the days were well nigh come ') that he should 
be received up] lit. 'for His Ascension,' St. Luke 
thus indicating that His painful death would 
have a glorious issue. Set his face] see Isa 50 7 . 
St. Mark states that Jesus went before, and 
the disciples followed in amazement and appre- 
hension (MklO 32 ). 

52. Samaritans] see on Jn4 4 > 8 > 9 > 20 . To 
make ready] viz. a lodging and a meal. 

53. As though he would go to Jerusalem] 
The Samaritans expected a Messiah, but the 
fact that Jesus was going to Jerusalem to 
worship, rather than to their own holy moun- 
tain Gerizim, was a sufficient proof to them 
that Jesus was not he. The Jews often 
passed through Samaria, but they seldom 
availed themselves of Samaritan hospitality, 
though according to the rabbis ' their land 
was clean, their waters were clean, their dwell- 
ings were clean, and their roads were clean.' 

54. Even as Elias (Elijah) did] 2K1™. 
Omitted by RV. 55. Ye know not what 
manner of spirit ye are of] (omitted by im- 
portant ancient authorities, see RV), i.e. either, 
(1) ye know not that the spirit of the new 
covenant is one of forbearance and forgiveness ; 
or, (2) ye know not that the spirit which you 
exhibit comes from Satan not from God. 

56. For the Son . . save them] These beau- 
tiful words art' wanting in many ancient 
authorities, but are in any case an authentic 
utterance of Jesus, appropriately inserted here. 

57-62. Jesus is joined by new disciples. 
Se,- on MtXi'.'---"-'. 

61 , 62. Peculiar to Lk. 

61. Bid them farewell] Our Lord probably 



750 



10. 1 



ST. LUKE 



10. 30 



does not forbid the man to take leave of his 
relations, but only indicates in a striking and 
figurative way that those who aspire to be 
followers of Him, especially in the work of the 
ministry, must disentangle themselves from 
family ties, and give themselves wholeheartedly 
to the work. 

CHAPTER 10 
The Seventy. The Good Samaritan. 

Martha and Mary 
i-i6. Choice and mission of the Seventy 

(peculiar to Lk). Another step in the organ- 
isation of the Church. The Seventy receive a 
subordinate commission, similar to that of the 
apostles, to preach and to cast out devils 
(vv. 9, 17). Two motives may be discerned 
in the sending forth of so numerous a body of 
missionaries. (1) The time before His Passion 
was now short, and Jesus wished the message 
of salvation to reach as many Israelites as 
possible. (2) He wished to train His fol- 
lowers to act alone after His departure. Pro- 
bably the Twelve did not accompany the 
Seventy. Jesus kept them with Him for 
special personal training. 

The number 70 is significant. It was the 
number of the Sanhedrin. As Jesus had 
already set up twelve new Patriarchs of the 
New Israel, so now He establishes a new 
Sanhedrin. The Jews deduced this number 
from the seventy elders of Null 16 > 24 . Or 
the number may symbolise the nations of the 
earth. The Jews held, agreeably to GnlO, 
that the human race was made up of 70 peoples, 
14 descended from Japhet, 30 from Ham, and 
26 from Shem. If, as is not unlikely, the 
appointment of the Seventy took place about 
the Feast of Tabernacles, the ritual of the 
feast may have had something to do with the 
number, for then 70 bullocks were offered on 
behalf of the Gentile nations. The rabbis 
said, ' They offer seventy bullocks for the 
seventy nations, to make atonement for them, 
that the rain may fall upon the fields of all 
the world.' 

The charge to the Seventy reads like an 
abridged report of St. Matthew's charge to 
the Twelve. It contains only one v., and that 
an unimportant one (v. 8), which is not in St. 
Matthew. St. Luke, however, is not depend- 
ent upon St. Matthew, for he arranges the 
sayings in quite a different order. The close 
similarity of the two charges is best accounted 
for by supposing that Christ gave nearly the 
same directions to the Seventy as to the 
Twelve. It should be observed, however, that 
He does not confine their mission to the 
Israelites. In Peraea the Gentiles were 
numerous. 

I. Seventy] Many ancient authorities read 
'seventy-two' here and in v. 17. 6. The son 



of peace] RY ' a son of peace,' i.e. one inclined 
to peace. A Hebrew idiom. 8. Peculiar to 
Luke. The ministers of the gospel are not to 
be dainty or luxurious. 

13-15. See on Mtll 21 ' 24 , where the words 
occur in quite a different connexion. 

17-20. Return of the Seventy (peculiar to 
Lk). 18. I beheld Satan] Our Lord poetically 
compares Satan's discomfiture at the successful 
mission of the Seventy to his original fall 
from heaven. The only other allusion to the 
fall of Satan in the Gospels, and perhaps in 
the Bible, is Jn8 44 . 19. Serpents and scor- 
pions] Yictory over spiritual foes is meant, 
rather than immunity from bodily injury, yet 
cp. Mkl6 18 Ac 28 3-5. The enemy is Satan 
(Mt 13 25 ). 20. Jesus bids the disciples rejoice 
not, as they are doing, because they have 
miraculous powers, but because their names 
are enrolled as citizens of heaven in the book 
of life (Isa43 Dan 121 Ex 32 32 Rev3 5 , etc.). 

21-24. The revelation to babes (Mt 11 25-27). 
See on Mt. 

21. In spirit] RY ' in the Holy Spirit.' 
One of St. Luke's characteristic references to 
the Holy Spirit. Christ's acts and emotions, 
as well as His words were inspired. 

23, 24. See on Mt 13^17. 

25-37- Parable of the Good Samaritan 
(peculiar to Lk). This lawyer is not to be 
identified with that of Mt2235 Mkl228. 

25-28. See on Mt 22 35-40. 

29. Who is my neighbour ?] The ' lawyer ' 
intended to justify himself by showing that, 
even upon a liberal interpretation of the word 
' neighbour,' he had done his duty. He ex- 
pected Christ to say that a neighbour was a 
friend or at least an Israelite. The idea that 
a ' neighbour ' might be a foreigner had never 
occurred to him. The rabbis said, ' He excepts 
all Gentiles when he saith His neighbour.' 
' An Israelite killing a stranger-inhabitant 
doth not die for it by the Sanhedrin, because 
it is said, If any one lifts up himself against 
his neighbour.' ' We are not to contrive the 
death of the Gentiles, but if they are in any 
danger of death we are not bound to deliver 
them, e.g. if any of them fall into the sea 
you need not take him out, for such a one is 
not thy neighbour.' 

In answer Christ appealed to the man's 
conscience, not to his reason. If Christ had 
said ' a heathen is thy neighbour,' the man 
would have argued the point with learned 
subtlety. Instead of this Jesus told him a 
story in which a man treated a foreigner as a 
neighbour, and the lawyer was bound to 
confess that this was in accordance with the 
mind of God. 

30-37. A sufficient motive for this parable 
is provided, if it be understood as simply in- 
culcating the duty of benevolence to persons 



751 



10. 30 



ST. LUKE 



11.21 



of all kinds with whom we are brought in 
contact, enemies as well as friends, foreigners 
as well as fellow-countrymen, because ' God has 
made of one (blood) all nations of men for to 
dwell on all the face of the earth' (Acl7 26 
10 28 ). The traditional allegorical interpreta- 
tion, however, is too interesting to be entirely 
passed over. We give it in the words of 
Euthymius : w The man is Adam and his off- 
spring, the descent from Jerusalem to Jericho 
is the Fall. The thieves are the demons who 
beset our path, and strip us of the garments of 
virtue and the fear of God, and wound us 
spiritually by causing us to sin. Man was 
made half dead, in that he remained immortal 
in the soul, but mortal in the body. The 
Priest is the Law given by Moses, the Levite 
is the teaching of the prophets, and the good 
Samaritan is Christ Himself. The inn is the 
Church which receives every kind of man. 
The innkeeper is every ruler of the Church, 
i.e. every bishop and successor of the apostles. 
And the two pence are the Old and the New 
Testaments, which minister healing to the sick.' 

30. Jericho] see on Mt 20 29 . A city of the 
priests. The road to Jerusalem is still ex- 
tremely dangerous, being infested by brigands. 

33. Samaritan] see on Jn4 5f . 34. Oil and 
wine] used as remedies for wounds in the 
East. 35. Pence] seeonMtl8 28 . 

38-42. Jesus at the house of Martha and 
Mary (peculiar to Lk). It is a striking con- 
firmation of the historic truth of the Fourth 
Gospel, that the characters of the two sisters 
— the busy, active, hospitable Martha, the quiet, 
contemplative, teachable Mary — are the same 
there as here. 

38. Village] i.e. Bethany (Jn 1 1 1). St. Luke 
was probably ignorant of the name. Martha 
(lit. ' mistress ')] Sometimes supposed to be 
wife of Simon the Leper. She is a scriptural 
example of the virtue of hospitality. 

39. Mary] Not identical with Mary Magda- 
lene, or the 'sinner' (7 37 ). 

At Jesus' (RV l the Lord's) feet] Jesus was 
reclining on a couch for the meal, with His head 
towards the table and His feet stretched out 
behind him. Martha and Mary were both 
waiting at table, but whereas Martha occupied 
herself with offering dish after dish, and so 
vraa 'cambered about much serving,' Mary 
speni most of her time sitting behind Jesus, 
and listening to wlmt Be was Baying. When 
Martha complained that Mary allowed her to 
do all the work. Jesus said that He was quite 

contented with 1 single dish, and thai both 
sisters would honour Him more by attending 
to what Ee said, than by giving Him an elaborate 
dinner. 

42. But one thing is needful] ' There is no 
need of an elaborate meal. A few dishes or 

even one would suffice. Indeed, only one por- 

752 



tion is really necessary, that which Mary has 
chosen, to listen to Me.' Our Lord gently 
hints to Martha that He would rather have a 
quiet talk with her on heavenly things, than 
receive all these hospitable attentions at her 
hands. 

CHAPTER 11 
The Lord's Prayer. The Sign of Jonah 

1-4. The Lord's Prayer (Mt6 9 " 15 ). See 
on Mt. If the Lord's Prayer was given only 
once, St. Luke is probably right as to the 
occasion. His version, however (as in the 
case of the Beatitudes), is manifestly inferior 
to St. Matthew's. Of the seven petitions he 
omits two — the third (' Thy will be done,' etc.), 
and the seventh (' but deliver us from the evil 
one ' : see the R V). In place of Mt's beautiful 
opening, ' Our Father in the heavens,' he 
has simply, 'Father,' and for the expressive 
metaphor 'debts' he substitutes 'sins.' He 
manifestly had not access to the original and 
authentic c logia ' of the apostle Matthew, of 
which the first evangelist makes such large 
and fruitful use. 

2. Our Father which art in heaven] The 
true reading here is simply ' Father.' Thy 
will be done, as in heaven, so on earth] Modern 
editors omit this clause. 4. But deliver us 
from evil (' the evil one ')] Modern editors 
omit this clause also. 

5-8. The friend at midnight (peculiar to 
Lk). The connexion with what goes before 
is suitable and natural. Having given the 
disciples a form of intercessory prayer, Jesus 
encourages them to persevere in its use, and 
also in the use of other prayers formed on its 
model, by a homely parable, the lesson of 
which is, If a churlish man can be forced by 
importunity to give against his will, how much 
more can persevering prayer bring down from 
the bountiful Father in heaven all good things. 

8. Importunity] better, ' shamelessness.' 

9-13. Prayer and the answer to prayer 
(Mt7 7 " n , Sermon on the Mount). See on Mt. 

11, 12. In answer to prayer God gives 
neither what is useless (a stone) nor what is 
harmful (a serpent, or scorpion). The scorpion 
(10™ Dt8i5 Ezk2<3 Rev93,5,i0) i s a sma n 
poisonous crab-like animal, which, when at 
rest, is round like an egg. V. 12 is peculiar 
to Lk. 

14, 15. A dumb devil cast out (Mt 9 32-3 J). 

Sec on Mt. 

16. A sign from heaven demanded. See on 
Mt 12" li'.i. and see on verses 29f. 

17-23. Christ and Beelzebub. See on 

Mtl2"-30. 

21, 22. Lk is here fuller and more pic- 
turesque than Mt and Mk. The imagery 
Beema derived from Isa4i) 24 - 26 . 21. A strong 
man] RV ' the strong man fully armed,' i.e. 



11. 23 



ST. LUKE 



12.3 



Satan. His palace (RY ' own court ') is the 
world, so far as it is under his usurped 
dominion. His goods are the souls which he 
holds captive. His armour is his crafty devices 
for keeping them in captivity and separating 
them from all good influences. The stronger 
is Christ, who, by casting out devils and preach- 
ing the gospel, rescues souls from Satan's 
power. The spoils are the rescued souls, 
which Christ ' divides ' by setting them to 
work at various employments in His own ser- 
vice. 23. In this contest between Christ and 
Satan no one can be neutral. Gathereth . . 
scattereth] He who does not help Me to 
gather and marshal My army, is working for 
its defeat and rout. 

24-26. The peril of the vacant soul 
(Mt 1243-45). See on Mt. 

27, 28. A woman calls our Lord's mother 
blessed (peculiar to Lk). Mk and Mt insert 
at this point the incident of our Lord's mother 
and brethren wishing to % see Him (Mtl2 46 
Mk3 31 ), which St. Luke has already recorded 
in a quite different connexion (8 19 ). 

27. As he spake] What our Lord had just 
said about the danger of a relapse after a 
superficial repentance (v. 26) struck the woman 
as so true to life (probably through some un- 
fortunate experience in her own family), that 
she was moved to express her appreciation of 
His teaching openly. Blessed, etc.] Edersheim 
quote%a good rabbinical parallel : ' Blessed is 
the hour in which the Messiah was created ; 
blessed the womb whence He issued ; blessed 
the generation that sees Him ; blessed the eye 
that is worthy to behold Him.' 28. Christ 
does not deny that His mother is blessed, but 
declares that to hear His words and obey them, 
and so to be brought into spiritual fellowship 
with God, is blessing infinitely greater. 

29-32. The sign of Jonah (Mt 1238-42). 
See on Mt. 

33-36. Inward light and darkness. Christ 
is still rebuking those who refused to believe 
in Him without a special sign from heaven. 
In St. Matthew these vv. form part of the 
Sermon on the Mount. 

33. A favourite saying of Christ's occurring 
in various connexions (8 16 Mt5 15 Mk4 21 ). 
Here it means that Christ by His public preach- 
ing and miracles has made Himself so con- 
spicuous and public a ' sign ' to this generation, 
that they ought to ask for no other. 

34-36. (Mt6 22 > 23 , q.v.) If they will only 
regard His work and teaching without preju- 
dice, then their own consciences will testify- 
that He has a real mission from God. 

37-54. Christ is entertained by a Pharisee. 
He denounces Pharisaic formalism and hypo- 
crisy. For the relation of this discourse to 
Mt23 1 -36, see on Mt'23 1 . 

38. Washed] lit. 'baptised' : see on Mk? 1 ' 5 . 



39-41. See on Mt 23 25 > 26 . ' What is the use 
of you Pharisees cleansing the outward appear- 
ance of your conduct (symbolised by the out- 
side of the cup and the platter), if your souls 
within are full of greed and wickedness ? 
God, who made both the outside and the 
inside of man, expects both to be made clean. 
Only give what is within the cup and platter 
as alms to the poor, and in general practice 
generosity instead of greed, and all your 
vessels will become clean to you without 
ceremonial cleansing. 

41. Give alms of such things as ye have] A 
possible, but unlikely translation. Better, 
' Give as alms what is within (the cup and 
platter).' Others render, ' Give your hearts to 
almsgiving.' All things] i.e. all your vessels. 

42. See on Mt 23 23 . 43. See'on Mt 23 6. 
44. See on Mt23 2 ?. 46. See on Mt23 4 . 
47, 48. See on Mt23 2 9" 31 . 49-51. See on 

Mt23 34 ' 36 . 49. Therefore also said the wisdom 
of God] In Mt 23 34 the words are an utterance 
of Christ Himself. Christ's knowledge of 
the divine counsels is so complete that His 
utterances are also utterances of the Wisdom 
of God. 52. See on Mt23i 3 . The key of 
knowledge] i.e. the key which opens the door 
to knowledge of the things concerning the 
kingdom of God. 



CHAPTER 12 

The Leaven op the Pharisees. 
Rich Fool 



The 



1-12. Jesus warns His followers against 
Pharisaic hypocrisy, and exhorts them to be 
courageous in face of opposition. This speech 
is not unsuitable to the context in St. Luke, 
but the whole of the sayings are found also in 
St. Matthew's Gospel, generally in a more 
natural connexion (mostly in the charge to the 
Twelve, 10 5 " 42 ). Perhaps St. Luke here groups 
together sayings spoken at different times. 

1. When there were] RY ' when the many 
thousands of the multitude were gathered 
together.' They were attracted by the dis- 
pute between our Lord and the Pharisees 
recorded in the last c. Since our Lord begins 
by addressing His disciples, and warns them 
of coming persecutions, it may be inferred 
that the multitude was at first inclined to side 
with the Pharisees ; yet see v. 13, where the 
authority of Jesus is plainly recognised. The 
leaven] see on Mt 1 6 6, u, 12. 

2-9. SeeonMtl0 2 6- 33 . 

2, 3. These vv. have a different connexion 
and meaning in Mt. 

2. Hypocrisy, like that of the Pharisees, is 
useless and foolish, for in the Judgment Day 
there will be a merciless exposure of it. 

3. For in that day the most secret words and 
thoughts of hypocrites will be proclaimed to 
the whole creation. Therefore (RV ' Where- 



48 



753 



12. 10 



ST. LUKE 



12. 35 



fore ')] is better translated ' for,' ' because ' 
(cp. I 20 1 9 44 Ac 12 23). 

io. See on Mt 1231, 32. IIf I2 . See on 
MtlO 1 *- 20 . 

13-21. Parable of the rich fool (peculiar 
to Lk). The parable teaches that since death 
and judgment are inevitable, men ought to 
devote their attention to laying up treasure 
in heaven, not on earth. 

13. Divide the inheritance] Such questions 
were decided by the ' bench of three ' of the 
local synagogues. Christ, as usual, refuses 
to be drawn into any political or semi-political 
action. The unseasonable request of the man 
(he appears to have interrupted our Lord's 
discourse to make it), showed that his mind 
was too much set upon worldly things. 14. Who 
made me?] Cp. Ex2 14 . 15. For a man's 
life] The Gk. is difficult and the translation 
doubtful, but the sense seems to be that neither 
a man's physical nor his spiritual life is de- 
pendent upon great possessions. A healthy 
and happy human life can be lived in a state 
of comparative poverty, and spiritual life is 
rather hindered than aided by great possessions. 
Others understand it to mean that a man's life 
is not like a possession, but infinitely more 
valuable. Cp. below (v. 23), ' the life is more 
than meat, and the body is more than raiment.' 

16. Brought forth] The man's wealth was 
honestly and justly acquired. His fault was 
not injustice, but covetousness. 17. I have 
no room] l Thou hast barns, the mouths of the 
poor which can hold much ; barns which can 
never be pulled down or destroyed, for they are 
heavenly and divine, if indeed it be true that he 
who feeds the poor, feeds God ' (Theophylact). 

19. To my soul] The fool speaks as if 
earthly wealth could supply the needs of an 
immortal soul. 20. This night, etc.] lit. 
'this night do they (i.e. the angels of ven- 
geance) require thy soul of thee.' The right- 
eous man willingly and joyfully commits his 
soul to God ; but from the wicked man it is 
exacted with stern terror. 21. Rich toward 
God] On laying up treasure in heaven, which 
is here meant, see on MtG 19 ' 21 . 

There is an interesting rabbinical parallel 
to this parable : ' Once Rabbi Simeon went 
to ;i certain circumcision and there feasted. 
The father gave them old wine, seven years 
old, to drink, saying, "With this wine will I 
grow old, rejoicing in my eon." They feasted 
together till midnight. At midnight Rabbi 
Simeon, trusting to Ins own \ irtue, went out to 
go into the city, and on tin' way nut the angel 
of death, who, he perceived, was very sad. He 
asked therefore, - Why art thou bo sad?" He 
replied, " 1 am sad for the speeches of those 

who say, I will do this or that ere long, though 

they know not how quickly they may be called 

away by death. The man who just boasted. 



' With this wine I will grow old, rejoicing in 
my son,' behold his time draws near. Within 
thirty days he must be snatched away." The 
rabbi said to him, u Do thou let me know 
my time." The angel answered, " Over thee 
and such as thou art, we have no power ; for 
God, being delighted with good works, pro- 
longeth your lives." ' 

22-34. Against anxiety about wealth and 
worldly things. Almost the whole of this 
section occurs in St. Matthew's Sermon on 
the Mount. The present context, however, 
is very suitable, and is perhaps correct. 

22-31. See onMt6 25 " 33 . 

29. Neither be ye of doubtful mind] or, 
' neither be ye high-minded.' 

32. Fear not, little flock] A beautiful and 
tender saying peculiar to Lk, intended to en- 
courage the disciples who would be for so 
long in so hopeless a minority. The sense is, 
' If God is willing to give you the kingdom, 
much more will He give you food and raiment, 
therefore you need not be afraid (v. 33) to 
sell that ye have and give alms.' 33. See on 
Mtl9 21 6 2 °. Sell that ye have, etc.] Christ 
addresses not all the disciples, but those who, 
like the apostles, had received a call to leave 
all, and devote themselves to the work of the 
ministry. 

Bags (RV ' purses ') which wax not old] 
The purses which will keep your money safely 
are not your own, but those of the poor on 
whom you bestow your charity. Placed in 
those purses, your earthly treasure will become 
' treasure in the heavens that faileth not.' 

34. See on Mt6 21 . 

35-48. Exhortation to vigilance. The 
greater part of it appears also (and most ap- 
propriately) in Mt 24. The apostles and 
other ministers of the word are chiefly ad- 
dressed, though there is a lesson for all 
(v. 41 f.). The question of Peter (v. 41) is 
peculiar to Lk. 

35, 36. A little parable peculiar to Luke, 
warning the apostles to be ready for Christ's 
second coming, which will be sudden. The 
apostles are compared to slaves left to watch 
the house (the Church) while the master 
(Christ) goes to a wedding feast (i.e. ascends 
into heaven). Their loins are girded because 
they have housework to do (preaching the 
gospel and ruling the Church), and they have 
lighted lamps, because their task is to enlighten 
a dark and sinful world by their shining 
example. Christ's return from the marriage 
feasi is His Second Advent, or it may 
mean Elis judgment of each individual soul at 
death. The ' marriage feast' here is not the 
final joy of the blessed, as in the parable of 
the Ten Virgins, but Christ's session at the 
right hand of Cod between the Ascension and 
Second Advent. 



754 



12.37 



ST. LUKE 



13. 6 



The parable, though primarily intended for 
the rulers of the Church, is applicable to all 
Christians, for all have received some kind of 
commission from Christ. 

37, 38. See on Mt24 46 . These vv. con- 
tinue the parable. Those whom Christ shall 
find watching at His Second Coming, He will 
invite to share in the final feast (the joy of 
heaven) ; when He Himself will serve them, 
supplying them with all blessedness, and 
wiping away all tears from their eyes. The 
second and third watches are the second and 
third of the Roman four watches (Mtl4 25 ). 
They thus represent the dead of night, and by 
metaphor the unexpectedness of the Second 
Advent. The Jews reckoned only three night 
watches. 

39,40. SeeonMt24 43 > 44 . Another parable 
in which, by a curious inversion, the goodman 
(master) of the house means the apostles, and 
the thief Christ. Christ is so called from the 
secrecy and unexpectedness of His coming. 

41. (Peculiar to Lk.) Christ does not 
answer Peter's question directly, but His 
answer shows that He is speaking mainly of 
the apostles and those in authority. 

42-46. See on. Mt 24 45-50. 

47. 48. (Peculiar to Lk.) Christ here seems 
to assert (cp. 10 12 > 14 ) that there will be degrees 
of future punishment. 

48. He that knew not] ' The reference is 
to the future pastors of the Church. " He 
that knew not," will still be punished, for he 
could have known ; but not punished so much 
as the other, for the other was presumptuous, 
but this one was slothful ; and presumption 

J is a greater sin than sloth ' (Euthymius). They 
; will ask the more] Christ through His angels 
, will demand ' His own with usury,' i.e. will 
(demand that the talents entrusted to each 
] man shall have been improved, and turned to 
good use. In the case of the Apostles He will 
demand what souls they have gained besides 
I their own. 

49~53- The strife that the gospel will pro- 
duce. In different connexions in Mt. 

49. A paradox. The Prince of Peace comes 
jto bring strife and bloodshed, fire and sword, 
-into the world, because only through war can 

lasting peace be attained. Some, however, 
understand by fire, the fire of Christian love. 
What will I, etc.] i.e. ' how much I wish 
that it were already kindled ! ' (Theophylact). 
Other translations : ' What more have I to 
iesire, if it be already kindled ? ' (Plummer). 
What do I desire ? Would that it were 
ilready kindled ! ' (Origen). 

50. See on Mt 20 22 - Mk 10 38 . A baptism] 
.e. Christ's Passion. Straitened] i.e. afflicted, 
oppressed. 

I 51-53. See onMtlO 34 - 36 . 

54-59. Ignorance of the signs of the times. 



54-56. See onMtl6i" 3 . 

57. Peculiar to Lk. Of yourselves] Why, 
even without signs, do you not judge rightly of 
Me and My doctrine by the natural light of 
reason and conscience ? 

58, 59. See onMt5 25 > 2 <\ 

CHAPTER 13 

The Galileans killed by Pilate. The 
Unfruitful Fig Tree. Lament over 

Jerusalem 

1-9. Three exhortations to repentance, of 
which the former two are based on recent 
events, and the third is a parable. All are 
peculiar to Lk. 

1 . Whose blood Pilate] These men had evi- 
dently been killed in the courts of the Temple 
for some real or suspected sedition while they 
were slaying their victims, an act which was 
performed not by the priests, but by the 
offerers, or their servants. Nothing is known 
of this particular act of atrocity, but Philo, a 
contemporary writer, speaks of Pilate's repeat- 
ed massacres of persons uncondemned, and 
insatiable and most grievous ferocity. It was 
perhaps either the cause or the consequence of 
the enmity between Herod and Pilate men- 
tioned 23 12 . 2. Were sinners] see on Jn9 3 . 

3. Shall all likewise perish] This was liter- 
ally fulfilled at the destruction of Jerusalem, 
but probably Jesus means, ' as these have 
suffered literal death, so you shall all suffer 
spiritual death.' 4. Tower in Siloam fell] 
Another unknown incident. It is plausibly 
conjectured that this tower was part of the 
waterworks and aqueduct which Pilate built 
with the sacred money of the Temple treasury 
(Korbanas), to the great scandal of pious Jews. 
The persons killed were probably workmen, 
whose death was regarded as a judgment for 
their impiety. For ' Siloam ' see on Jn 9 7 . 

The idea was very common among the Jews 
that great calamities are a proof of great sin. 
This was the view of Job's friends, who were 
convinced that his great misfortunes argued 
him a great sinner (Job 4? 8 2 ' 14 > 20 22 5 ). Our 
Lord on several occasions strongly opposed 
this view (see Jn 9 2 ). Sometimes, no doubt, 
suffering is a direct punishment for sin, but 
not always, perhaps not generally. In the 
case of the righteous it often arises from the 
sin of others, or is permitted as a trial of 
faith, or as a means of refining and purifying 
the character. A righteous man's sufferings 
may even be directly due to his righteousness, 
as in the case of our Lord, the apostles, 
Socrates, and numerous missionaries and re- 
formers in all ages and countries. 

6-9. The Barren Fig Tree. This parable illus- 
trates the warning (vv. 3, 5), ' Except ye re- 
pent, ye shall all likewise perish.' A certain 
man (God) had a fig tree (the Jewish nation) 



755 



i 



13. 10 



ST. LUKE 



14. 5 



in his vineyard (the world), and he came (at 
various crises of their history) seeking fruit 
(good works and pure religion) and found 
none. And he said to the vine-dresser (the 
Son of God), Behold these three years (under 
the Law, under the Prophets, and under the 
Scribes) I come seeking fruit. Cut it down. 
Why, besides being unfruitful, doth it also 
cumber the ground (prevent the conversion of 
the world) ? And the vine-dresser (Christ) 
answered, Lord, let it alone this year also (for 
a further time of grace), till I dig about it and 
dung it (i.e. preach the gospel, show signs and 
wonders, send down the Spirit, do all things for 
its conversion), and if it bear fruit thenceforth, 
well ; but if not, thou shalt cut it down (i.e. shalt 
destroy the nation with its city and Temple) : 
cp. Mt21 19 . The parable is also capable of a 
more general application to the individual soul . 

10-17. The woman with a spirit of infirmity 
(peculiar to Lk). The story is told not so 
much for the sake of the miracle, as for the 
light it throws upon the question of sabbath 
observance. It is the only case of Christ's 
preaching in a synagogue recorded in the latter 
part of the ministry. 

12. He called her'] An unasked-for cure. 

14. Said unto the people] The ruler durst 
not openly rebuke Jesus, but indirectly cen- 
sured Him by censuring the people. 

15. Loose his ox] The rabbis, while per- 
mitting attention to beasts on the sabbath, did 
so grudgingly : ' It is not only permitted to 
lead a beast to the water on the sabbath, but 
also to draw water for it, yet so that the beast 
draw near and drink, without the water being 
carried to it and set down by it.' 

16. Satan hath bound] The Jews attributed 
such ills to Satan. It is not implied that the 
woman was of evil life. 

18-21. The Mustard Seed and the Leaven 
(Mt 1 3 31 ' 33 Mk 4 30 ). See on Mt. 

22-30. Are they few that be saved ? Jesus 
does not directly reply to the question, but 
\v;tin> 1 1 is hearers of the difficulty of obtaining 
salvation, of the danger of delaying repent- 
ance, and of the probable rejection of many 
unbelieving descendants of Abraham, and of 
the salvation of many believing Gentiles. 
There are close parallels in St. Matthew. 

23, 24. Sec on .Mi7 l:; ". Gate] i.e. 'door.' 

25. The master] i.e. our Lord. The 'shut- 
ting the door' bakes place at Christ's second 

coming, or perhaps at the death *>{ each indi- 
vidual. Lord, open] Bee on M t 25 '"-''-, also 
,M 1 7 :; . 26. Tins \. specially applies to the 
•Jews. 27. Depart] sec on .Mr-!.") 11 . 

28, 29. Bee on Mt *"•>-. 

30. Bee on Mi 20 1 -"'•. 

31-35. Message to Herod Antipas, and la- 
ment over Jerusalem. This threat of Herod IB 
peculiar to Lk. 



31. Certain of the Pharisees] Probably they 
wished to frighten Jesus out of the dominions 
of Herod, where He was tolerably safe, into 
Judaea, where He would be in the power of 
the Sanhedrin : cp. Amaziah's attempt to 
frighten Amos (Am7 10 -!7). Herod] For his 
biography see on Mtl4 1 ' 11 . Will] RV 'would 
fain kill thee.' Herod may have used threaten- 
ing words, or there may have been a rumour to 
that effect, but it is certain that he did not seri- 
ously seek our Lord's death : cp. 23 n . 32. That 
fox] The fox is an emblem of cunning, not of 
cruelty. Behold] i.e. ' I perform My ministry 
to-day and to-morrow (i.e. for the time ap- 
pointed), and on the third day (i.e. when My 
hour is come) I shall be perfected by death. 
No threats of Herod can shorten My ministry, 
or hasten the hour of My death.' Perfected] 
He calls His death His ' perfecting,' because 
by it He perfected His work by atoning for 
the sins of the world, also because it was fol- 
lowed by His glorious resurrection and ascen- 
sion, whereby His human nature was ' perfected ' 
or glorified. 33. Nevertheless, etc.] i.e. ' Yet 
although My death is so near, I must labour 
for the time appointed. Herod cannot pre- 
vent Me. He cannot destroy Me here in 
remote Galilee, for it is only in Jerusalem 
that a prophet can die.' Walk] RV ' go on 
my way.' Out of Jerusalem] ' The saying is 
severely ironical, and that in two ways : (1) 
According to overwhelming precedent, Jerusa- 
lem is the place in which a prophet ought to 
be put to death ; for it had obtained by usagi 
the right to slay the prophets (Grotius). (2) It 
is not Herod that will be the murderer. It is 
at your hands, in your capital that I shall die ' 
(Plummer). 

34, 35. Mt 23 37-39. See on Mt. 

CHAPTER 14 

TnE Dropsical Man. The Great Srrn.n 
Divers Sayings and Parables 
1-6. The sabbath question again. The man 
with the dropsy healed (peculiar to Lk). 

1. To eat bread] So far from being ab 
stemious on the sabbath, the Jews carried the 
pleasures of the table to excess. ' The 
Hebrews honour the sabbath chiefly by in 
viting each other to drinking and intoxication ' 
(Plutarch). 'Kabbah Abba bought flesh (^' 
thirteen butchers that he might be sure t<> 
taste the best, and paid them at the very gate, 
that he mighl hasten dinner, and all this in 
honour of the sabbath ' (Talmud). 

2. There was .. before him] Spectator 
often enter the honse to witness an Eastern 
banquet. 3. Is it lawful to heal?] S< 

Mt L2 10 . 5. An ass] Nearly all modem 
editors read -a son.' The rabbis allowed 'an 
ox or an ass. a son or a daughter, a man-ser- 
vant or a maid-servant' to be drawn out of a 



75G 



14.7 



ST. LUKE 



14. 33 



well on the sabbath. Thus they allowed to 
themselves breaches of the sabbath day which 
they denied to Christ. 

7-1 1 . On places of honour at feasts (peculiar 
to Lk, but a similar discourse occurs in the 
' Western ' text of St. Matthew, 20 2S , q. v.). It 
is probable that the dropsical man was healed 
before the dinner began, and that there then 
ensued an unseemly struggle for places, which 
gave occasion for the ' parable ' following. 

7. A parable] An elastic word. Here it 
means a piece of advice, inculcating humility. 

Chose . . the chief rooms] RV ' seats,' i.e. 
places on the couches : see on Mkl2 39 . A 
good illustration of the pride of the rabbis is 
the conduct of Rabbi Simeon ben Shetah, who 
when invited to dinner by king Jannseus(104- 
79 B.C.), placed himself between the king and 
queen, saying, ' Exalt wisdom and she shall 
exalt thee, and make thee to sit among princes.' 
But such conduct was not universally ap- 
proved, and with the advice which our Lord 
here gives may be compared the more spiritual 
teaching of other rabbis. Rabbi Akiba said, 
' Yield up thy place, and go down two or three 
seats, and sit down, until they say to thee, Go 
up higher. Go not higher of thyself, lest they 
say to thee, Go down lower, for it is better 
that they should say to thee, Go higher, than 
Go lower. Thus the son of Hillel used to 
say, 'My humiliation is my exaltation, and 
my exaltation is my humiliation.' 11. Cp. 
Mt23 12 ; repeated Lkl 8 14 . 

12-14. On entertaining the poor (peculiar 
to Lk, whose Gospel is full of sympathy with 
the poor). 12. Thy friends, etc.] A man is not 
in the true sense hospitable, who entertains 
only those who can entertain again. Such 
interested hospitality is not wrong, but there 
is no merit in it, and it does not lay up trea- 
sure in heaven. 14. At the resurrection of 
the just] i.e. at the glorious resurrection to 
life eternal which the righteous only will 
enjoy, with which is contrasted ' the resur- 
rection of condemnation ' which awaits the 
unrighteous ( Jn 5 29 ). ' The resurrection of the 
just ' here answers exactly to ' the resurrection 
from the dead,' viz. of righteous persons only 
(Phil3 n RV), as distinguished from 'the 
resurrection of the dead,' which includes all 
mankind (Acl7 32 ). Our Lord's words give 
no real sanction to the Jewish belief in two 
distinct resurrections, the first of the righteous 
the second of the unrighteous, traces of which 
some expositors find in lCorl5 23 lTh4 16 , 
and especially in Rev20 5 > 6 . 

15-24. The great supper (peculiar to Lk, 
although Mt22 1 ' 14 presents many points of 
similarity : see on that passage). Here the 
'certain man' is God, the many bidden are 
the rulers of the Jews, the servant who in- 
vites them is Jesus Christ. When the 



rulers refuse the invitation to the feast (i.e. 
to enter into Christ's Kingdom), the poor, 
the maimed, the blind, and the lame (i.e. the 
despised classes of the Jewish nation) are in- 
vited. They joyfully obey, and yet there is 
room, because the kingdom of Christ is meant 
to embrace all mankind (v. 22). Then Christ, 
through His Apostles, goes out into the high- 
ways and hedges (i.e. into heathen lands), and 
compels the Gentiles to come in. 15. Eat 
bread in the kingdom of God] The mention of 
the ' resurrection of the just,' with which, ac- 
cording to Jewish ideas, the reign of the 
Messiah would begin, reminds this Jew of the 
great feast, which the Messiah would then 
hold : see on Mt8 n . 18. The excuses show 
careless unconcern, not hardened wickedness. 
Business occupations, family ties, and various 
distractions, are pleaded as excuses for not 
taking God's summons seriously. 23. Com- 
pel them to come in] Our Lord does not here 
(as has often been supposed) sanction religious 
persecution. ' He said " Compel them," not 
commanding force to be used, but indicating 
that in the case of Gentiles a more urgent and 
persistent kind of preaching must be used, 
seeing that they were under the power of 
demons, and sleeping in the deep darkness of 
error ' (Euthymius). 24. For I say] Here 
Christ drops the parabolic form and speaks in 
His own person. ' For I (Christ) say unto 
you, that none of the Jewish rulers who have 
rejected My invitation shall taste of My sup- 
per, i.e. of the blessedness in store for the 
saints of God.' 

25-35. That we must give up all to follow 
Christ, and count the cost before we do so. 
The two parables of the Rash Builder (vv. 28- 
30) and the Rash King (vv. 31-33) are peculiar 
to Lk. The multitude who follow Jesus 
(v. 25) are inclined to believe that He is the 
Messiah, and expect great temporal benefits 
from their discipleship. Jesus warns them 
that, instead of this, they must expect persecu- 
tion and even death (v. 27), and that those 
who cannot make a complete sacrifice of 
earthly affections (v. 26), and ambition (v. 33), 
had better turn back while there is yet time. 

26,27. SeeonMtlO. 3 ?. 38 . 26. Hate] 'This 
does not imply the feeling of hatred, but a 
readiness to act as if one hated. The nearest 
and dearest must be forsaken, and opposed, 
and offended, if need be, to follow Christ.' 

28-33. None of the details of these two 
parables or similes are significant. The parables 
simply enforce the one idea that it is folly 
to undertake a serious business (here, becoming 
a disciple of Christ), without counting the cost. 

33. Forsaketh not all] Only the Apostles 
(and the Seventy) were required to do this in 
act, but every disciple is required to do it in 
will, i.e. to subordinate all earthly interests 



757 



14. 34 



ST. LUKE 



15. 11 



and claims to Christ's, when the two are 
incompatible. 

34,35. Salt] i.e. ' discipleship.' In Mt5 13 
(q.v.) it means the pure and unselfish lives of 
Christians. ' The salt which has lost its 
savour ' is here the discipleship which refuses 
to make the sacrifices which Christ demands 
(vv. 26, 27, 33). 

35. The land . . the dunghill] These have no 
special meaning. The sense is that the dis- 
cipleship which makes no sacrifices is valueless 
for any purpose. 

CHAPTER 15 

Parables of the Lost Sheep, of the 
Lost Coin, of the Prodigal Son 
1-7. Parable of the Lost Sheep. See on 
Mtl8 12 - 13 . The first of a series of three 
parables for the encouragement of penitents. 
It shows the love of our Saviour for the out- 
cast, the despised, and the criminal classes 
generally. It rebukes the Pharisees, who 
professed to be shepherds, for their neglect of 
that part of the flock that most needed their 
help, and lastly it indicates that the Pharisees 
are in many respects worse than the sinners 
they despise. The owner of the flock is our 
Lord Himself, the Good Shepherd (JnlO 14 ) ; 
the flock is His Church, embracing men of all 
kinds ; the ninety and nine are those who 
seem to be righteous, like the Pharisees ; the 
one sheep that is lost and is found, is all truly 
penitent sinners. These are represented as 
one sheep not because they are few in number 
compared with the others, but to show Christ's 
love for each individual soul. The seeking 
and laying the lost sheep upon His shoulders, 
are Christ's work of love in pleading with the 
sinner, and finally after due repentance bring- 
ing him back to a state of grace. The friends 
and neighbours who rejoice with Him are 
the angels. { On no image did the early 
Church dwell with more fondness than this, as 
witness the many gems, seals, fragments of 
glass, and other relics which have reached us, 
on which Christ is thus portrayed. It is 
frequent also in bas-reliefs, on sarcophagi, and 
paintings in the catacombs. Sometimes other 
slice]) are at His feet, generally two, looking 
iij) with pleasure at Him and His burden. 
This representation always occupies the place 

of honour, the centre of the vault or tomb ' 

(Trench). The rabbis have a Btory that 
Moses, while tending Jethro's (locks, went 
after a kid (or lamb) which bad gone astray. 

As he thought that it must be weary, ho 
gently raised it and carried it on his shoulders. 
God was pleased and said, 'Since tluui hast 

shown pity in bringing hack a man's beast, 
thou shalt be the shepherd of my flock [srael 
all thy life long.' 

1. Publicans and sinners] see on Mt 5 ''' 9 ". 

71 



7. Which need no repentance] i.e. which 
think they need no repentance, but really need 
it more than the publicans and sinners whom 
they despise. The rabbis divided the just or 
righteous into two classes, (1) the ' perfectly 
just,' or ; men of works,' who had never in all 
their lives committed a single sin, and (2) the 
1 penitents,' who, having once been wicked, had 
repented. The Pharisees considered them- 
selves to belong to the former class, as also, 
perhaps, did the young ruler who said ' All 
these have I kept from my youth' (MklO 20 ). 
How external the Pharisaic standard of right- 
eousness was, may be gathered from the story 
of the ' holy man,' who ' never committed one 
trespass all the days of his life, except this 
one misfortune which befell him, that one day 
he put on his head-phylactery before his arm- 
phylactery.' For 'phylactery,' see on Mt23 5 . 

8-10. The Lost Coin (peculiar to Lk). The 
last parable set forth the work of Christ in 
seeking and reclaiming the lost, this one sets 
forth that of the Church. The woman is the 
Church ; the ten pieces of silver are the human 
souls in her keeping ; the lost piece is a soul 
that has fallen from grace through her negli- 
gence. Eager to atone for her neglect, and 
full of love for her erring member, she lights 
a candle, i.e. vigorously exercises the ministry 
of the Word, and by preaching the gospel and 
by loving pastoral intercourse brings back the 
lost soul to a state of grace. The sweeping of 
the house is the vehemence with which she sets 
about her task, thereby incurring the charge of 
' turning the world upside down ' (Ac 1 7 6 ). 
Having found the lost coin, she calls upon her 
friends and neighbours, i.e. not only her faith- 
ful members, but also the angels, to join in 
her joy. 8. Pieces] Gk. drachma, a coin 
equivalent in value to the Roman denariuk 
(Mtl8 28 ). 9. Friends] lit. female friends and 
neighbours. 

11-32. The Prodigal Son (peculiar to Lk). 
' This parable, like the two preceding, is in- 
tended to show what joy there is in heaven at 
the conversion of sinners, and, therefore, how 
wrong the Pharisees were to murmur, because 
Christ consorted with sinners to convert them 
(Cornelius a Lapide). The father is God ; 
the elder son is just persons, or rather those 
who think themselves and are thought by 
others to be such, here, in particular, the 
Pharisees who l trusted in themselv< s that they 
were righteous, and despised others.' The 
younger son is all penitent sinners, here, in 
particular, the publicans and sinners of vv. 1, 2. 
The portion of goods (v. 12) is the whole of a 
man's faculties and powers, which he ought to 
exercise and enjoy in his father's house, i.e. in 
dependence upon God and in His service, but 
which the prodigal son demands to have under 
his own control, to use according to his own 
.8 



15. 11 



ST. LUKE 



16.6 



will and pleasure. The lack of love and apos- 
tasy of heart shown in this demand is soon 
followed by apostasy of life, for not many days 
after (v. 13), he gathers all together, i.e. de- 
liberately resolves to devote his whole fortune 
and all his powers to the pursuit of pleasure, 
and journeys into a far country, i.e. into the 
world of sin where God is not, or rather where 
He is forgotten, and wastes his substance in 
riotous living, i.e. throws off even the semblance 
of piety and respectability, and ruins not only 
his soul, but his health and fortune in extra- 
vagance and debauchery. Presently there 
arises a mighty famine in the land, i.e. his 
pleasures pall, his friends prove false, his 
animal indulgences fail to satisfy him. In his 
distress he goes and joins himself to a citizen 
of that country, i.e. at first he seeks relief by 
plunging deeper into sin, selling himself to 
Satan to kill regret. But he finds no relief. 
Satan is now his master, and shows his con- 
tempt for him by using him as a drudge and 
a slave. Finding now no pleasure or satisfac- 
tion in his sin, and the hunger of his soul 
remaining still unappeased, he determines to 
return to his father and to say ' Father, I have 
sinned . . Make me as one of thy hired servants,' 
i.e. place me lowest in thy kingdom. His 
father sees him a great way off, and goes to 
meet him, for God meets, nay, almost antici- 
pates, the first efforts of sinners to return. He 
falls on his neck and kisses him, the kiss 
signifying the reconciliation between God and 
man brought about by Christ. The son makes 
his confession of sin, but does not add ' Make 
me as one of thy hired servants,' because he 
now sees that God wishes to restore him to his 
full privileges. Then the father says to his 
servants (the ministers of His Church), Bring 
forth the former robe, and put it on him (i.e. 
restore him to his former privileges as a 
Christian by the ministry of reconciliation), 
and put a ring on his hand (a symbol of rank 
and honour), and shoes on his feet (symbolising 
spiritual freedom, for slaves went barefoot), 
and bring the fatted calf and kill it (signifying 
the joy there is in earth and heaven over a 
repentant sinner, perhaps also the spiritual 
nourishment which the hungry soul will find in 
the ordinances of religion which have been so 
long neglected) ; for this my son was dead (in 
sin) and is alive again (by repentance). And 
they begin to be merry, i.e. to rejoice over the 
penitent, and to treat him with as much honour 
as if he had never sinned. The conclusion of 
the parable graphically traces the character of 
the elder brother, who represents the Pharisees 
and persons of their spirit. He is busied in 
the field (v. 25), i.e. in a round of regular, but 
loveless, religious observances. He shows 
anger and jealousy, and that in spite of the 
affectionate entreaties of his father, who in- 



vites him to the festivities, and shows him 
equal honour and love (v. 28). He shows 
himself, like the Pharisees, quite unconscious 
of his own failings, and arrogantly boasts, ' I 
have never transgressed a commandment of 
thine ' (v. 29) : see on v. 7. He puts the 
worst construction on his brother's past sins, 
perhaps exaggerating them (v. 30), and shows 
himself incapable of forgiveness (v. 30). 

The parable may be suitably applied to 
illustrate t the relations of Jew and Gentile 
(the Jew being the elder, the Gentile the 
younger son), but this is not its primary 
meaning. 

12. Give me the portion] according to 
Jewish law, one-half of what the eldest re- 
ceived (Dt21 1>7 ). He may have had a right 
to demand his property before his father's 
death. ' We have here perhaps a survival of 
that condition of society in which testaments 
" took effect immediately on execution, were 
not secret, and were not revocable," and in 
which it was customary for a father, when his 
powers were failing, to abdicate and surrender 
his property to his sons : cp. Ecclus 33 19-23.' 

15. To a citizen] i.e. Satan, or some com- 
panion more wicked than himself. 16. He 
would fain have filled] i.e. and did so. Husks] 
i.e. the pods of the carob-tree, eaten only by 
the very poorest people. And no man gave 
unto him] food of any kind. 

19. Hired servants] i.e. imperfect Chris- 
tians, who perform their duties to God in the 
spirit of hirelings rather than of sons. 

22. The best robe] or, rather, ' the former 
robe,' i.e. the state of grace in which he was 
before his sin. In its Christian application 
the robe of baptismal innocence, because in 
baptism we ' put on Christ ' as a garment 
(Gal 3 27). 

CHAPTEE 16 

The Unjust Steward. The Eich Man 
and Lazarus 

1-13. Parable of the Unjust Steward (pecu- 
liar to Lk). The details of this somewhat diffi- 
cult parable are probably not significant. It is 
intended to illustrate the proper use of wealth. 
Christians should use it so well here on earth, 
by expending it not selfishly on their own plea- 
sures, but unselfishly for the good of others, 
and for the advancement of God's kingdom, 
that instead of hindering them from reaching 
heaven, it will help them to enter there. 
The prudence (foresight) of the steward is 
commended in this parable, not his dishonesty. 

5-7. Tenants in the East pay their rent in 
kind, not in money. The landlord provides 
them with seed, and they return him at harvest- 
time a certain proportion of the yield. 

6. An hundred measures] lit. ' baths,' the 
' bath ' being a Heb. liquid measure = 9 gallons. 



759 



16.7 



ST. LUKE 



16. 22 



Bill] EY 'bond.' 7. Measures] lit. cors, 
the cor being a Heb. dry measure = 11 bushels. 

8. And the lord] RY 'his lord,' i.e. his 
master. Many readers wrongly imagine that 
Jesus is the speaker here. Because he had 
done wisely] i.e. 'prudently.' The master 
praised not the morality of the transaction, 
but its far-sighted prudence, and it is just this 
that Jesus holds up for imitation. For the 
children (sons) of this world (i.e. worldly 
people) are in their generation (i.e. in dealing 
with other worldly people) wiser (i.e. more 
prudent and far-seeing) than the children of 
light (i.e. than the spiritually enlightened are in 
making provision for their heavenly welfare). 

9. Make to yourselves] i.e. make to your- 
selves friends in heaven by means of a prudent 
use of your wealth (viz. by hospitality, alms- 
deeds, etc.), that when ye fail, i.e. die (or, 
according to the RY, when 'it,' i.e. your 
wealth, ' fail '), the angels may receive you 
into the eternal habitations. Of] RY ' by 
means of.' Friends] i.e. either ' the poor,' 
who by their prayers obtain your admission 
to heaven, or, more probably, ' the angels,' 
who become the friends of those who give 
alms, and at the last carry their souls to 
heaven. The mammon of unrighteousness] 
A common rabbinical expression. It occurs 
in the pre-Christian book of Enoch. It does 
not here mean wealth unrighteously ac- 
quired, but simply ' deceitful wealth.' So we 
speak of ' filthy lucre,' not meaning unjust 
gain, but gain in general : see Mt 6 24 . So 
rightly Calvin : ' By giving this name to 
riches, he intends to render them an object of 
our suspicion, because for the most part they 
involve their possessors in unrighteousness.' 

10. 11. Y. 11 explains v. 10. If you are 
unfaithful in such an unimportant matter as 
money (i.e. if you do not spend your incomes 
to the glory of God), God will not entrust you 
with those spiritual gifts, graces, and virtues 
which are much more important. 12. If you 
do not spend your money rightly, you will 
not inherit the kingdom of heaven. Money is 
here called that which is another's, because 
Christians are to regard it not us their own, 
but as a trust for which they must our day 
give account. That which is your own is the 
joy of heaven, ' the km'_ r <l<>m prepared for you 
from the foundation of the world. 1 13. See 
on Mt f.-' 1 . 

14-18. The Pharisees mock Jesus. His 
reply. The connexion of W. hi. 17, L8 is 
difficult, and it may !><• that they do not pro- 
perly belong here, bnl it is also possible thai 
out- Lord's discourse is abridged, the conned 
ing link- being left out. 14. Covetous] RV 
• lovers of monej * ; sec on Mk 12*®. 

15, 16. Bee on Mt 11 1J1: '. The connexion 
(if such is to he BOOghl ) is this: Before Christ 



began to preach, it was comparatively easy for 
the Pharisees to justify themselves before men, 
but now that the deeper morality of the Gospel 
is widely accepted, men are beginning to find 
out the deficiencies of the Pharisees. 

17, 18. See on Mt5 ls . Here the sense is: 
The Pharisees, however, object to be tried by 
the standard of the Gospel, and demand to be 
tried by the standard of the Law. But even 
according to this (which is still in force in its 
spiritual sense), they are found to be deficient, 
for, while observing it in trivial matters, they 
break it in matters of weight, e.g. (v. 18), 
whereas the Law forbids divorce except for 
adultery, the Pharisees, or most of them, allow 
it for every cause : see on Mt5 32 . 

19-31. The rich man and Lazarus: peculiar 
to Lk, and full of that sympathy with the 
poor which characterises his Gospel. It does 
not, however, as Strauss maintains, assert that 
the mere possession of wealth is wrong, or 
that mere poverty justifies. On the contrary, 
the rich man is condemned, not because 
he was rich, but because he was callous, 
and Lazarus justified, not because he was 
poor, but because he was poor in spirit. The 
callousness of the rich man was due to his 
scepticism. He consumed his wealth in self- 
ish luxury, sparing none of it for the poor, 
because he did not really believe in God or a 
future life. If he had so believed, he would 
have acted differently. The parable may 
perhaps be directed against the Pharisees, who 
were ' lovers of money ' (v. 14) ; but inasmuch 
as their covetousness did not take the form of 
sumptuous living, it seems better to regard it 
as a warning addressed to Christians generally 
against luxury, worldliness, selfishness, and 
unbelief. 

19. Rich man] conveniently called ' Dives ' 
(Lat.). He represents all those who in the 
enjoyment of wealth forget God and the world 
to come, and neglect all acts of charity and 
love. Purple] i.e. a rich material dyed with 
the liquid obtained from the shellfish 'murex,' 
formed the rich man's upper garment, and fine 
linen his under garment, or shirt ; both were 
exceedingly costly. 20. Lazarus] = E/or.ar. 
i.e. ' He who has God for his help.' His 
name expresses his character. From Lazarus 
is derived lassar = leper. Desiring] but not 
obtaining his desire. 21. The dogs] Since the 
dog was in the East an unclean animal, the 
Licking was an aggravation of the poor man's 
misery. 22. By the angels] The rabbis said: 
1 None can enter Paradise hut the just, whose 
souls are carried thither by angels.' 'When 
an Israelite departs to his eternal home, the 
angel in charge of the garden of Eden, who 
receives every circumcised son of Israel, intro- 
dnces him into the garden of Eden.' 'When 
the just depart from the world three com- 



760 



16. 23 



ST. LUKE 



16.31 



panies of angels go before them in peace. The 
first says, u Let him come in peace " ; the second 
says, " Let them rest in their beds" ; the third 
accompanies him.' Abraham's bosom] A Jew- 
ish name, not of heaven, but of the intermedi- 
ate state of bliss, in which the souls of the just 
await the resurrection. E.g. ' Ada bar Ahavah 
sits to-day in Abraham's bosom ' : cp. 4 Mac 13 17 . 
' When we have thus suffered, Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob will receive us.' Other equivalent 
names are ' Paradise,' ' the garden of Eden,' 
and ' under the throne of glory.' 23. In hell] 
RV ' in Hades.' Hades is here used in a wide 
sense for the intermediate state of all souls, 
just and unjust, between death and judgment. 
In this sense both Dives and Lazarus were in 
' Hades,' though the one was comforted and 
the other tormented. This usage of the word 
is quite common. ' Hades, in which the souls 
both of just and unjust are detained ' (Hip- 
polytus). ' In the lower world are both tor- 
ment and refreshment. There a soul is either 
punished or tenderly cherished, as a foretaste 
or rehearsal of the final judgment ' (Tertullian). 
The rich man was not in ' hell ' (Gehenna), be- 
cause no one is sent there until after the Last 
Judgment. 

In torments] Spiritual torment or punish- 
ment must be meant, for Dives was now a 
disembodied spirit. Seeth Abraham] The 
rabbis placed Paradise in sight of the place of 
torment, and were familiar with the idea of 
conversations among the dead : see on v. 26. 
There is a rabbinical story not unlike this 
parable : ' There were two partners in crime 
in this world, one of whom repented before 
his death, but the other did not. After death 
the one was carried away and placed in 
the company of the just ; the other in the 
company of the wicked. The latter saw the 
former, and said, " Woe is me, for there is 
respect of persons in this matter. He and I 
robbed together and murdered together, and 
now he stands in the congregation of the just, 
and I in the congregation of the wicked." 
They answered him, " Thou fool, it was in 
thy power also to have repented, but thou 
didst not." He said to them, " Let me go 
now, and become a penitent." But they said, 
" Thou most foolish of men, dost thou not 
know that this world in which thou art is like 
the sabbath, and the world from which thou 
earnest, like the eve of the sabbath ? If thou 
providest nothing on the sabbath-eve, what 
wilt thou eat on the sabbath ? " And he 
gnashed his teeth and gnawed his own flesh.' 

In his bosom] The figure is not taken from 
reclining at a banquet (Jnl3 23 ), because the 
great banquet would not take place, according 
to Jewish ideas, till the coming of the Mes- 
siah (Mt8 n ), but from children quietly resting 
in their parents' lap or bosom. 



24. Father Abraham] He spoke as a Jew, 
thinking that Abraham had power over the 
fires of Hades, and would help his own 
descendants. The rabbis said, ' The fire of 
Gehenna has no power over the sinners of 
Israel, for Abraham descends and rescues them 
from it.' 25. Thy good things] i.e. thy wealth 
and pleasures. Dives was punished, not for 
his wealth, but for his abuse of it. Lazarus 
was justified, not for his poverty, but for his 
patience and humility. 26. Beside all this] 
better, ' in all these regions of the dead.' A 
great gulf fixed] Somewhat different from the 
representations of the rabbis, who said (see 
Eccl 7 14 ), ' G-od hath set the one against the 
other, i.e. Hell and Paradise. How far are 
they distant ? A hand's breadth. Rabbi Jo- 
chanan saith, A wall is between. But the rabbis 
say, They are so even with one another, 
that you may see out of one into the other ' : 
cp. Revl4 10 . 29. Moses and the prophets] 
These would give them sufficient light and 
guidance. 

30, 31. Our Lord disbelieved the power of 
signs and wonders to produce repentance, and 
here declares that even the sign of His own 
Resurrection will leave many hard hearts 
unmoved. 

The pains of Dives' being those of Hades, 
not of Gehenna, many recent commentators 
regard his release from them as possible, and 
see in his new-born anxiety for the welfare of 
others (v. 27) an indication that his punishment 
is producing its intended purifying effect : see 
on Mt 12 32. 

Additional Note 

The chief interest of this parable to modern 
readers is the light that it throws, or seems to 
throw, upon the state of departed souls between 
death and judgment. As to its significance in 
this respect, expositors are not entirely at one. 
Some regard all its statements on the sub- 
ject as teaching definite doctrines binding on 
Christians, others regard them as only the 
poetic framework of the parable, embodying 
conventional Jewish ideas, and therefore as 
having no significance for Christians. Both 
extremes are to be avoided. On the one hand, 
the parable is plainly intended to inculcate, as 
against the unbelief of worldly and sensual 
men, the doctrine of future rewards and 
punishments beginning immediately after 
death, and to be so far a serious doctrinal 
statement. On the other hand, the thoroughly 
Jewish cast of the phraseology warns us against 
taking its details too literally. The essence of 
the teaching is thus expressed by Luckock : 
' The souls of the departed in the intermediate 
state are possessed of consciousness, memory, 
and sensibility to pain and pleasure ; the life of 
all men, whether good or bad, is continued 



761 



17. 1 



ST. LUKE 



17.26 



without interruption after the separation of 
soul and body ; and retribution commences 
between death and judgment. These con- 
clusions are in direct antagonism to the theory 
that the soul falls asleep when the body dies, 
and will not wake again till the resurrection 
of the dead. ' 

CHAPTER 17 
Occasions of Offence. The Ten Lepers. 
The Second Advent 
i, 2. On causing others to sin. See on 
Mtl8 6 >7. 

2. One of these little ones] An affectionate 
designation of the disciples, especially such as 
were beginners and easily led astray. Per- 
haps the converted publicans and sinners of 
15 1 > 2 are specially meant. 

3, 4. The duty of forgiveness. We are to 
forgive an unlimited number of times, yet we 
may rebuke in love : cp. Lvl9 17 . See on Mt 
1815,21. 3 Trespass against thee] RV * sin.' 

5, 6. On faith and its effects. See on Mt 17 20 
2121. 

5. Increase our faith] Others render, ' Give us 
faith in addition,' i.e. add it to the gifts already 
promised. Whether the ' faith ' mentioned is 
faith in general, or the faith which enables to 
forgive a brother seven times, is not clear. 

6. Sycamine] This word means sometimes 
the ' mulberry tree,' sometimes the ' sycomore.' 

7-10. That works do not justify. ' Our Lord 
having exhorted His disciples to good works, 
now proceeds to rebuke the vainglory which 
so often accompanies them, showing that as a 
master is under no obligation to a slave who 
performs his appointed tasks, so neither is God 
to us. But since God is gracious, He treats 
those who are slaves, as if they were free 
hired labourers, and recompenses their labours 
with a reward, and receives their service which 
is strictly due, as if it were meritorious, and 
gives a requital out of all proportion to the toil. 
Thus the goodness of God is stronger than His 
justice '(Euthymius). 7. Aservant] lit. l aslave.' 

11-19. Ten lepers cleansed (peculiar to Lk). 
For leprosy see on MtB 1 " 4 . The healing of a 
Samaritan, and the stress laid upon his greater 
gratitude, is in keeping with the character of 
this Gentile Q-ospel. 

11. Through the midst of (or. rather, ' be- 
tween') Samaria and Galilee] 'The caravans 
of Galilee took either the Samaritan route or 
the Peraan. Jesus follows neither, but travels 
along 'he boundary between Samaria and (Gali- 
lee. He directed His steps from W. to E. 
towards the Jordan, which Be mnsi cross to 
enter Persea' (Godet). "He seems to have 
crossed the .Ionian at Scythopolis, where bhere 

was a bridge, and to ha\e descended alon<_ r the 

bank of Jordan in Peraea, until He crossed 

again near Jericho ' (Wetstein). 



14. Unto the priests] The Jews probably 
went to Jerusalem, because of the necessary 
sacrifices ; the Samaritan to Mt. Gerizim, unless 
we are to suppose that he became a Jewish 
proselyte. As they went] The healing was 
delayed to test their faith. 19. Thy faith hath 
made thee whole (or, ' saved thee ')] i.e. not 
only has it healed thy body, but also thy soul. 
It was otherwise with the other nine lepers. 
Their ingratitude imperilled their continuance 
in that state of salvation in which their faith 
had placed them. 

20, 21. When and how the Kingdom of God 
appears (peculiar to Lk). The question of 
the Pharisees was probably a mocking one — 
4 When is this Kingdom of God of which thou 
sayest so much, and of which thou claimest 
to be King, visibly to appear ? ' 

20. Cometh not with observation] i.e. can- 
not be observed by the senses, is not manifested 
by outward signs or political changes. 21. Is 
within you] i.e. within your hearts. But 
since Jesus would hardly say that the Kingdom 
of God is within the hearts of the Pharisees, 
the better translation is, ' The Kingdom of 
God is among you,' but ye do not perceive it. 

22-37. On the coming of the Son of man. 
The Pharisees having now withdrawn, Jesus 
proceeds to speak more unreservedly to the 
disciples of the final and glorious coming of 
His Kingdom, which will be heralded by visible 
signs, which yet will be hard to interpret, so 
that in the end the Son of man will appear 
unexpectedly. St. Matthew inserts many of 
these sayings in the great discourse on the end 
of the world, and the fall of Jerusalem (Mt 
24), where they are equally suitable to the 
context. 

22. To see one of the days] i.e. ' In your 
future tribulations and persecutions you will 
desire to see one of the days of bliss and 
glory, which will follow the Second Coming of 
the Son of man. You will desire a glimpse of 
heaven to comfort you in your calamities.' 
Plummer ingeniously translates: ' You will de- 
sire to see the firs/ of the days of the Son of 
man,' i.e. the day of the Second Advent. The 
ord i nary interpretation ,' You will look back w i t h 
regret on the peaceful and happy days of My 
earthly ministry, and long to see even one 
of them again,' does not suit the context. 

And ye shall not see it] not because it 
will not come, but because it will not come 
in those days of your longing for it. 

23. See on Mt24*. See here] is the Son 
of man. etc. 24. 8eeonMt24 27 . In his day] 
Wesicott and Hort (but not RV) omit these 
words. 25. Cp. Mk8 81 . 

26, 27. See on Mt 2487-89. 26. Also in the 
days] i.e. in the days when the Son of man will 
return. We should have expected ' in the day 
of the Son of man,' as in v. 30. 



762 



17. 28 



ST. LUKE 



18.9 



28-30. Peculiar to Lk. See Gnl9. 

31. In Mt24 17 , q.v., these words are advice 
to the Christians of Jerusalem with regard to 
their hasty flight from the city just before its 
fall. Here they refer to Christ's Second 
Coming, and warn Christians, when that day is 
imminent, to be completely detached from 
worldly affairs and worldly interests. The 
language is parabolic, and must be spiritually 
interpreted. 

32. Remember Lot's wife] who was not 
detached from worldly things, but looked 
back with longing towards Sodom, and the 
wealth and luxury which she had left there. 

33. In MtlO 39 16 25 , where the same words 
occur, the reference is to willingness to suffer 
martyrdom. Here the idea is more general : 
' He who sets too much value on his earthly 
life, shall lose his eternal life.' 

34,35. See onMt24 4 Mi. 36. Omitted by 
RV and the best authorities. 

37. See on Mt 24 28 (first interpretation). 

CHAPTER 18 

The Unjust Judge. The Pharisee and 
the Publican. The Rich Ruler 

1-8. The Unjust Judge (peculiar to Lk). 

There is a close connexion with what pre- 
cedes. The mention of the Second Advent 
leads Christ to speak of the need of prayer 
and watchfulness in view of it. The main 
lessons of the parable are : (1) The duty of 
continual prayer ; (2) the certain answer to 
prayer, if it be only persistent enough ; (3) 
the certainty that in the end G-od will main- 
tain the cause of His elect against their ad- 
versaries ; (4) a warning against failure of 
faith in times of seeming abandonment by 
God. 

The moral difficulty that in this parable God 
seems to be compared to an unjust judge, is 
best met by saying that in reality God is not 
so much compared as contrasted with him. 
The argument is, If justice can be obtained 
by persistence even from an unjust judge, 
how much more can it be obtained from 
the Author of all justice. It is true that 
God is said, like the unjust judge, to 
delay justice. But His motive is entirely 
different. His delay is due to love, love of 
the saints, whose faith He designs to purify 
and strengthen by much waiting, and love of 
their adversaries, to whom He gives a space 
for repentance before the day of vengeance 
comes. 

1. Perhaps this is our Lord's own comment 
on the parable. Always to pray] On the other 
hand, the rabbis taught that God must not 
be fatigued by too frequent prayer. Three 
times a day was enough. ' If a man comes to 
address you every hour, you say that he holds 
you cheap : the same is true of God, whom no 



man ought to fatigue by praying every hour.' 
The words are to be taken literally, because 
even purely secular acts, when done to God's 
glory, are acts of devotion. The whole lives 
of the faithful should be, in Origen's words, 
' one great connected prayer.' Faint] i.e. 
become weary. 

2. A judge] Probably a heathen judge, be- 
cause, (1) The local Jewish tribunals consisted 
of three judges, and (2) Jewish judges (at least 
in NT. times) had no such evil reputation. 
They were required to have this sevenfold 
qualification, ' prudence, gentleness, piety, 
hatred of mammon, love of truth, that they 
be beloved, and of good report.' Yet see on 
Mkl240. 

3. Avenge me] better, ' Give me justice 
against my adversary.' Her 'adversary' was 
probably a rich neighbour, who, taking ad- 
vantage of the death of her husband, had stolen 
her land. The offence of violently appropriat- 
ing the property of widows and orphans is 
often alluded to in the OT., and forbidden with 
threats of divine vengeance (Ex 22 22 - 24 , etc.). 

5. Weary me] lit. ' give me a black eye.' 

7. Avenge his own elect] i.e. the members 
of His Church. Christ comforts His disciples 
who are discouraged by the persecutions which 
are even now threatening, by promising that 
God will visit their persecutors (the Jews and 
afterwards the heathen) with condign punish- 
ment. This was literally fulfilled in the 
calamities which overtook the Jews and the 
chief heathen persecutors of the Christians. 

Though he bear long with them] better, 
' though he is slow to act for them,' i.e. though 
His coming seem to be delayed. 

8. Speedily] cp. Rev 22 20 2 Pet 3 8-10. Christ's 
coming, though it may seem to be long delayed, 
will be as speedy as the scheme of God's 
providence, which takes account of the needs 
of the whole world, will permit. It will not 
be delayed an instant longer than is necessary. 

Nevertheless, etc.] The sense is, ' Neverthe- 
less, in spite of the warning and encouragement 
I am giving you, the faith of many will have 
waxed cold at the time of My return.' Christ 
does not mean that the elect will have lost their 
faith altogether, but that on account of the 
trials and disappointments which will precede 
the Second Advent, and also on account of its 
unexpected delay, they will be discouraged. 

Faith] or, rather, ' the faith,' i.e. the un- 
shaken confidence in the certainty of My 
Second Coming, which I hope to find. 

9-14. The Pharisee and the Publican at 
Prayer (peculiar to Lk). This parable is 
apparently addressed not to the Pharisees 
themselves, but to certain of the disciples of 
Jesus who were proud of their spiritual attain- 
ments, and lacking in the virtues of humility 
and penitence. 



763 



18. 10 



ST. LUKE 



19. 11 



io. Into the temple] Probably into the 
second court, ' The Court of the Women,' at 
one of the stated hours of prayer. The 
Temple, like modern Christian churches, was 
used for private as well as public prayer. 

Publican] see on Mt5 46 . n. Stood] i.e. 
placed himself conspicuously in the attitude of 
prayer : see on Mt6 5 . God, I thank thee] 
The words of the Pharisee can hardly be called 
a prayer. He asks for nothing, and feels his 
need of nothing. The Pharisee did, indeed, 
acknowledge that his virtues were derived 
from God, but he took all the merit of them 
to himself, and boasted of them before God 
and man. 

12. Twice in the week] viz. on Mondays 
and Thursdays : see on Mt6 16 " 18 . Of all that 
I possess] RV 'of all that I get.' The 
Pharisee prided himself on his works of 
supererogation, i.e. works done over and above 
what God required : see on 17 7 - 10 . The Law 
commanded only one fast in the whole year 
(viz. Day of Atonement, Lvl6 29 ). The 
Pharisee fasted twice a week. The Law 
tithed only the fruits of the field and the 
increase of cattle. The Pharisee tithed mint 
and cummin (Mt23 23 ), and indeed his whole 
income (cp. Tob 1 7 > 8 ). 

13. Afar off] viz. from the Pharisee, whom, 
in his humility, he thought far more righteous 
than himself. Would not lift up] Since the 
rabbis forbade the eyes to be raised to heaven 
during prayer (see Mt6 5 ), it is necessary to 
suppose that there was some special indication 
of humility in the publican's attitude. Be 
merciful, etc.] lit. ' be propitiated to me the 
sinner.' 'As the Pharisee had singled himself 
out as the one holy in the world, so the pub- 
lican singles himself out as the chief of 
sinners, the man in whom all sins have met — 
a characteristic trait ! for who, when first 
truly convinced of sin, thinks any man's sins 
can equal his own (1 Timl 15 ) ?' (Trench). 

14. Justified] A favourite word of St. Paul's, 
employed in St. Paul's sense, as is natural in 
the Pauline Gospel. ' Justify ' in the NT. 
means always ' to regard as just,' not ' to ren- 
der just,' or 'sanctify.' Rut her than the other] 
This probably means that the publican was 
justified, and that the Pharisee was not ; not 
that the Pharisee was regarded as righteous, 
and the publican afl more than righteous. 

For every one] Mt23" LkH". 

15 17. Jesus and the children (Mt 19 13 Mk 
IO 18 ). See on Mt. 

18-30. The rich young ruler. The reward 
of those who forsake all (Mt 1 9 " ; Mk 10 ><). See 
on Mt. 

31-34. The passion and resurrection pre 
dieted (Mfii) 1 ' Mk IO 82 ). Bee on Mt. 

35-43. The blind man at Jericho (Mt20 w 
Mkln'"). See on Mt. 



CHAPTER 19 

Zacchaeus. The Pounds. Christ's Tri- 
umphal Entry into Jerusalem. He 

cleanses the temple 

i-io. Zacchaeus (peculiar to Lk). The 
narrative shows that our Lord's familiar inter- 
course with publicans and sinners was justified 
by its results. Zacchaeus became a convert, 
surrendered half of his great wealth to the 
poor, and made restitution for his past mis- 
deeds. 

2. The chief] RV ' a chief publican.' 
' There must have been at Jericho one of the 
principal custom-houses, both on account of 
the exportation of the balm which grew in 
that oasis, and which was sold in all countries 
of the world, and on account of the consider- 
able traffic which took place on this road, by 
which lay the route from Peraea to Judaea and 
Egypt. Zacchaeus was at the head of this 
office ' (Godet). It is unlikely that Zacchaeus 
belonged to the highest class of publicani, who 
collected the taxes of whole provinces or 
kingdoms, though occasionally Jews filled 
such an office. Zacchaeus has a Hebrew name, 
and is clearly a Jew : see on Mt5 46 9 9 " 13 . 

3. To see, etc.] RY 'to see who Jesus was, 1 
i.e. to distinguish Him in the dense crowd 
which surrounded Him. 4. A sycomore] not 
the English sycamore, but a tree which re- 
ceives its name from the fact that its fruit is 
like a fig, and its leaves like those of the mul- 
berry : cp. 17 6 and Am7 u . Sycamores are 
not now very common in Palestine. 

5. At thy house] Jericho was a priestly 
city, and according to the Talmud contained 
as many priests as Jerusalem. Specially sig- 
nificant, therefore, was Christ's resolution to 
lodge with a publican. 8. And Zacchaeus 
stood] Probably after the feast, or on the 
next day. The effect of our Lord's conversa- 
tion was the complete conversion of Zacchaeus, 
which immediately showed itself in act. I 
give] viz. at this moment. Up to the time of 
his conversion Zacchaeus had given little in 
charily. He now atones for his past neglect 
by surrendering one-half of his capital. If I 
have taken, etc.] RV ' wrongfully exacted 
ought.' He proposes to examine into his past 
transactions, and if he has wronged any one, 
to make restitution out of the half of his 
capital which he still retains. Fourfold] The 
Law only required this from a detected thief 
(Ex22 ] ). 9. To this house] Because with 
Zacchaeus his family and household servants 
were converted. 

A son of Abraham] both in descent and 
character. This the Pharisees would have 
denied, for they ranked publicans with the 
heathen: see on Mi 5 " ; . 10. Cp. Mtl8 u . 

11-27. Parable of the Pounds (peculiar to 



7C.4 



19. 11 



ST. LUKE 



19. 42 



Lk, but similar to the Parable of the Talents, 
Mt25 14 , q.v.). It differs from that parable, 
(1) in the introduction of the rebellious citi- 
zens, vv. 14, 27 ; (2) in its graduation of the 
rewards and punishments of the next world ; 
(3) in representing future bliss as a state of 
social activity in a perfect community. 

The nobleman (v. 12) is Christ Himself, 
who goes into a far country (heaven), to receive 
for Himself a kingdom (almighty power over 
the universe), and to return (at the Second 
Advent). He calls His ten servants (all the 
members of His Church), and entrusts them 
with a pound each (i.e. all their bodily, mental, 
and spiritual capacities). The citizens who 
hate Him are all the enemies of Christ. They 
are called His citizens, because even the wicked 
are by right His subjects, seeing that He has 
created and redeemed them. On His return 
(to judge the world), He summons the ten 
servants (such Christians as appear to have 
been faithful to their trust), and enquires 
what use they have made of the capacities 
and opportunities entrusted to them. Some 
have made great use, others little, others none 
at all ; and are accordingly recompensed, some 
by being placed over ten cities (a great reward), 
others over five cities (a less reward), others 
by being entirely excluded from all the rewards 
of the future kingdom. The taking of the 
pound from the man who did not use it, signi- 
fies that faculties which are not used, are 
finally lost ; and the giving of the pound to 
him who had ten already, signifies that those 
faculties which are rightly used are capable of 
indefinite increase. The ten cities and the 
five cities indicate the different kinds of em- 
ployment assigned in heaven to persons of 
different spiritual capacity. They also, per- 
haps, indicate different states of blessedness 
assigned to the saved in accordance with their 
behaviour in the previous state of probation 
on earth. In the corresponding parable in Mt 
the teaching is different. There all the faith- 
ful servants show the same diligence, and 
receive the same reward. The slaying of the 
rebellious citizens (v. 27) represents the 
judgment of the wicked at the Last Day. This 
parable, like so many others, assigns to Jesus 
the position of King and Judge of the human 
race. It may, therefore, be fairly used to 
prove His Divinity. 

ii. Because they thought] The multitudes 
thought that Jesus was going to Jerusalem to 
set up the Messianic kingdom at once. Jesus 
therefore explained by a parable that the 
kingdom would not be established till His 
Second Coming, and that even then not all 
the children of Abraham, but only the spiritu- 
ally fit, would be admitted into it. This 
was the chief lesson to the multitudes, who 
expected that all Israelites would share in the 



future glory. To the disciples the lesson was 
that even among the saved there would be 
differences, and that, therefore, those who 
wished a great reward in the future kingdom of 
heaven must labour with all diligence in their 
various vocations on earth. 13. Servants] lit. 
' slaves.' Pounds] lit. mince. The mina was 
the sixtieth part of a talent, i.e. 100 denarii, 
or £4. 

14. We will not, etc.] This v. may have a 
special reference to Christ's rejection by the 
Jews after His Resurrection and Ascension. 
For the historical fact which perhaps suggested 
this incident in the parable, see art. ' Dynasty 
of the Herods ' (Archelaus). 

24, 25. This complete misapprehension of 
Christ's character shows that he had never 
really ' known ' Christ with saving knowledge. 

27. Although this v. describes the final 
punishment of those who reject Christ, it may 
also have reference to the temporal destruction 
of those Jews who rejected Christ at the fall 
of Jerusalem. 

28-40. The triumphal entry into Jerusalem 
(Mt21i Mklli Jnl2i2). See on Mt and Jn. 

37. The descent] There was a magnificent 
view of Jerusalem and the Temple from this 
point, and at the sight of the capital of the new 
kingdom the multitudes broke into a shout of 
triumph. 

38. Peace in heaven] i.e. There is peace for 
man (i.e. favour with God) in heaven. By 
sending the Messiah, God shows that He 
regards His people with favour. The expres- 
sion is peculiar to Lk : cp. 2 14 . 

41-44. Christ weeps over Jerusalem (peculiar 
to Lk). ' The path mounts again ; it climbs 
a rugged ascent ; it reaches a ledge of smooth 
rock, and in an instant the whole city bursts 
into view. As now the dome of the Mosque 
El-Aksa rises like a ghost from the earth 
before the traveller stands on the ledge, so 
then must have risen the Temple-tower ; as 
now the vast enclosure of the Mussulman 
sanctuary, so then must have spread the 
Temple -courts ; as now the grey town on its 
broken hills, so then the magnificent city, with 
its background — long since vanished away — of 
gardens and suburbs on the W. plateau behind. 
Immediately below was the valley of the 
Kedron, here seen in its greatest depth as it 
joins the Valley of Hinnom, and thus giving 
full effect to the great peculiarity of Jerusa- 
lem seen from its E. side — its situation as of a 
city rising out of a deep abyss. It is hardly 
possible to doubt that this rise and turn of 
the road, this rocky ledge, was the exact point 
where the multitude paused again, and " He, 
when He beheld the city, wept over it " ' 
(Stanley). Cp. Mt2337. 

42. If thou hadst known] i.e. O that thou 
hadst known ! This implies previous visits 



765 



19. 43 



ST. LUKE 



!.19 



of Christ to Jerusalem. This thy day] i.e. 
the time of Christ's earthly ministry. 

43. Enemies] i.e. the Romans. A trench] 
lit. ' a palisade.' The Romans actually raised 
a palisade round Jerusalem. The Jews burnt 
it, and the Romans replaced it by a wall. 

44. Thy children] i.e. thy inhabitants. 

The time of thy visitation] i.e. the time of 
Christ's ministry. 

45. 46. Second cleansing of the Temple 
(Mt 21 12 Mk 1 1 is). See on Mt, 

47, 48. Jesus teaches daily. Cp. Mkll 18 . 

48. Were very attentive] RY 'hung upon 
him, listening.' 

CHAPTER 20 

Various Incidents of the Last Week 

1-8. The authority of Jesus challenged 
(Mt 2 1 23 Mk 1 1 27). See on Mt. 

9-18. The wicked husbandmen (Mt21 33 
Mkl2i). SeeonMt. 

1 9-26. The tribute money (Mt 22 " Mk 12 13). 
See on Mt. 

27-40. The Sadducees and the Resurrection 
(Mt 22 23 Mk 1 2 is). See on Mt. 

36. Neither can they die] This is perhaps 
given as a reason why after the Resurrection 
there is no more marriage. 

37. At the bush] RV ' in the place concern- 
ing the Bush ' : cp. Ex 3. 

41-44. Is the Christ David's son ? (Mt22« 
Mkl235). SeeonMt. 

45-47. Jesus denounces the scribes (Mt23 x 
Mkl238). SeeonMt, 

47. Devour widows' houses] see on Mkl2 40 . 

CHAPTER 21 
The Widow's Mite. Prophecy of the 
Fall of Jerusalem and the Second 
Advent 

1-4. The widow's mite (Mk 1 2 4i ). See on Mk. 

5-36. Great prophecy of the Fall of Jerusalem 
and the Second Advent (Mt 24 1 Mk 13 1). See 
on Mt. St, Luke distinguishes these two 
events more clearly than the other evangelists 
(\. 24). Be also describes Jerusalem as being 
' surrounded by armies. 1 This greater definite- 
Qess is held by some to indicate that St. Luke 
wrote after the fall of Jerusalem, and added 
certain interpretative notes to our Lord's 
utterances. lint there is no real reason why 
Christ should not have spoken exactly as St. 
Luke records. Sec on Mt. 

9. Not by and by] i.e. not at once. 13. Tes- 
timony] It shall he an opportunity for you 
to hear witness to Me. 15. Mouth] i.e. 
eloquence. 

18, 19. Peculiar to Lk. 19. By patient 

continuance in ffrell-doing and in suffering 

ye shall possess (i.e. keep safe the inward 

life of) your souls. 24. The times of the 

GentilcsJ i.e. the time of the rejection of 



Israel, and of Gentile predominance both in 
the affairs of the world and in the Kingdom of 
God. The times of the Gentiles will come to 
an end, when Israel is converted (Roll 25 ). 

37, 38. Christ's daily teaching. He lodges 
at the Mount of Olives (Mt21i? MklliQ). 
See on Mt. 

CHAPTER 22 
Treason of Judas. The Last Supper. 
The Agony in the Garden. Arrest 
of Jesus. The Jewish Trial 

1-6. Conspiracy of the chief priests. Treach- 
ery of Judas (Mt 26 1- 5 . 1 4 -™ Mk 14 L 2, 10, 11). See 
on Mt. St. Luke omits the anointing at 
Bethany, because he has already recorded a 
similar incident (T 37 ). 

4. Captains] i.e. the Levitical guard or police 
of the Temple, not the Roman garrison of 
Jerusalem. 

7-13. Preparations for the Last Supper 
(Mt 26 1 < Mk 1 4 12). See on Mt, 

12. Furnished] arrayed for the Passover. 

14-23. Institution of the Lord's Supper. 
Denunciation of the Traitor (Mt 26 20-29 Mkl 41 « -25 
1 Cor 1 1 23). See on Mt. St. Luke's account 
most resembles that in 1 Cor 1 1 28, which is 
only natural, seeing that he was a disciple of 
St. Paul. The most striking peculiarity of 
his account is that he mentions two cups, one 
before and one after the blessing of the bread. 
The latter is without doubt the cup of the 
Holy Communion, or Eucharist, which, as has 
been shown on St. Matthew, corresponded to the 
' Cup of Blessing ' or ' third cup ' of the Pass- 
over Supper. The earlier cup of St. Luke 
may therefore have been the ' second cup ' of 
the Passover, which was drunk after the lamb 
was placed on the table (see on Mt). The 
mention of two cups by St. Luke was early 
felt to be a difficulty, and accordingly a few 
ancient MSS reduce the cups to one, some by 
omitting the former cup, others by omitting 
the latter. The latter omission, which has 
tin support of only one Greek and five 
Latin MSS, has met with some support from 
recent critics. If it be accepted, St. Luke's 
first cup must be that of the Eucharist, and 
in that case he represents the Eucharistic cup 
as consecrated before the bread. 

17. Took the cup] RY ' received a cup.' 

18. I will not drink, etc.] If these words 
are in their true position they seem to show- 
that Jesus did not Himself drink of the cup 
of the Eucharist. Mt and Mk, however, place 
iheni after the blessing of the Eucharistic cup, 
instead of before it. 19. In remembrance 
of me] lit. ' for My memorial.' This command 
for the continual repetition of the ordinance 
is mentioned only by St. Luke and St. Paul. 
The word translated 'remembrance 1 is a rare 
one, and in biblical Greek means always a 



766 



22. 20 



ST. LUKE 



22. 53 



memorial before God, e.g. Lv24 7 : 'Thou 
shalt put pure frankincense upon each row (of 
shewbread), that it may be on the bread for a 
memorial, even an offering made by fire unto 
the Lord.' So also in NT. (Heb 10 3 ). Accord- 
ingly the rite is intended, not so much to remind 
men of the death of Christ, as to remind 
God of it, to plead before God the merits of 
Christ's sacrifice, as the only ground for mercy 
and favour. 20. This cup is the new testament 
(RV ' covenant ') in my blood] The meaning, 
according to ICorlO 16 , seems to be: 'This 
cup conveys to those who with true and lively 
faith partake of it, the benefits of the new 
covenant, which the shedding of my blood 
procures for mankind ' (i.e. remission of sins, 
eternal life, spiritual sustenance, etc.). Mt and 
Mk have, ' This is my blood of the new 
covenant.' There is no reason why our Lord 
should not have used both expressions in 
explaining to His disciples the spiritual effect 
of the rite. 2i. This v. is a strong support 
of the view that Judas received the sacrament, 
but it is not conclusive : see on Mt, and 
Jnl3 3 °. 

24-30. A contention which should be the 
greatest (peculiar to Lk). This contention is 
probably to be placed at the very beginning of 
the supper, before the feet-washing : see on 
Jnl3 1-20 . Our Lord had previously rebuked 
a very similar contention provoked by the 
ambition of the sons of Zebedee : see 
Mt20 25 " 28 , where almost the same words are 
used. 28. Temptations] i.e. trials. 

29, 30. SeeonMtl9 2 '- 30 . 

31-34. Peter's fall foretold (common to 
all the evangelists). See on Mt26 31 " 35 . St. 
Luke agrees with St. John that Jesus made 
the prediction in the supper-room. 

31, 32. These two vv. are peculiar to St. 
Luke. Satan hath desired] i.e. Satan hath 
procured that all of you should be surrendered 
to him to be severely tried, like Job. Sift] 
The violent motion of the sieve corresponds 
to the violent trial that the apostles were to 
experience when Christ was arrested. 

32. For thee] Christ prayed specially for 
Peter, because he was the leader of the 
Apostles, and so much depended on him. His 
primacy was personal, not official, being derived 
from the special faculty of faith from which 
he derived his name, and which, after his fall, 
he conspicuously displayed. 

35-38. Jesus directs His disciples to make 
provision for a time of persecution (peculiar to 
Lk). ' The meaning of our Lord in this much 
controverted passage appears to be to forewarn 
the apostles of the outward dangers which 
will await them henceforward in their mission 
— unlike the time when He sent them forth 
without earthly appliances, they must now 
make use of common resources for sustenance, 



yea and even of the sword itself for defence ' 
(Alford). 

35. When I sent you] see 9 3 , and cp. 10 4 . 

36. He that hath a purse] Although under 
ordinary circumstances those who preach the 
gospel are to live of the gospel and not con- 
cern themselves with worldly affairs, yet under 
exceptional circumstances, e.g. amid hostile 
surroundings, or in a heathen land, or in a 
church extremely poor, ministers of the gospel 
may engage in trade, or in other ways provide 
for their maintenance, as St. Paul did (Ac 18 3 ). 

Scrip] i.e. provision-basket. 

And he that hath no sword] The better 
translation is, 'And he that hath no money and 
no scrip, let him sell his cloak and buy a 
sword.' The meaning is that the danger will 
be so great, that self-defence will be of 
primary importance. The best course for a 
man who has no money, will be to sell his 
cloak to buy a sword to defend himself. 
Sword stands here for all lawful means of 
self-defence. "When St. Paul pleaded before 
Nero, he doubtless employed counsel to defend 
him. This was ' buying a sword ' in the sense 
which Jesus intended. 

37. The things concerning me] i.e. the 
prophecies of My death. End] i.e. fulfilment. 

38. Here are two swords] The disciples 
thought that Jesus advised them to buy swords 
to protect Him from arrest. They pointed 
out, therefore, that they had two already, 
with which they were prepared to defend 
Him. Seeing Himself misunderstood, Jesus 
abruptly closed the conversation with the 
words, It is enough, i.e. ' Enough of this 
trifling ! ' He had intended the disciples to 
' buy swords ' (i.e. take measures) for their 
own safety, not for His. He Himself was 
resolved to die, but He wished their lives to 
be preserved. 

39-46. The Agony in the Garden (Mt26 36 
Mk 1 4 32 ). See on Mt, and on Lk 4 1 3 . 

43, 44. These vv., which contain the ex- 
quisitely human features of the bloody sweat, 
and the appearance of the angel to strengthen 
Jesus, are peculiar to Lk. They exhibit our 
Lord as true man, subject to all the weak- 
nesses and trials of humanity, and requiring 
the same comfort and support in His agony 
as other men. Although omitted by a few 
ancient authorities, these vv. obviously describe 
an authentic incident : cp. Mt4 n . 

44. Drops of blood] Great mental agony 
has been known to produce this phenomenon. 

47-53. Arrest of Jesus (Mt26 4 ? Mkl4 43 
Jnl8 3 ). See on Mt and Jn. 

51. Suffer ye thus far] i.e. Suffer My 
enemies to do even this, viz. arrest Me. 
Make no further resistance. Healed him] 
This healing is peculiar to Lk. 

53. This is your hour] i.e. the hour in 



767 



I 54 



ST. LUKE 



24. 16 



which God permits you to do your wicked 
work, and Satan apparently to triumph. 

54-62. Peter denies Jesus (Mt 26 57 > 58 > 69-75), 
See Mt and references there. All the evan- 
gelists record the incident. 

63-65. Jesus mocked by the high priest's 
servants (Mt 26 67 Mk 1 4 65). See on Mt. 

66-71. The Jewish trial (Mt26 5 9 MkU^: 
cp. Jn 18 19 ). See on Mt and Jn. 

CHAPTER 23 

Trial before Pilate and Herod. The 

Crucifixion and Burial 

1-5. The trial before Pilate begins (Mt27 
i,2,n-i4Mkl5 1 - 5 Jnl828-38) > See on Mt and Jn. 

6-12. Trial before Herod (peculiar to Lk). 
' By sending Jesus to Herod the clever Roman 
gained two ends at once. First, he got rid of 
the business which was imposed on him, and 
then he took the first step towards a recon- 
ciliation with Herod (v. 12). The cause of 
their quarrel had probably been some conflict 
of jurisdiction. In that case, was not the best 
means of soldering up the quarrel to concede to 
him a right of jurisdiction within the very city 
of Jerusalem ? ' (Godet). 

7. Herod's jurisdiction] This extended over 
Galilee and Peraea. 

Was at Jerusalem] i.e. in order to keep the 
Passover. 

13-25. Trial before Pilate resumed. Jesus is 
condemned (Mt27 15 -^Mkl5 6 - 20 JnlS 38 -^^). 
See on Mt and Jn. 

26-32. The procession to the Cross (Mt 
2732 Mk 15 21 > 22 Jnl9!7). See on Mt. The 
beautiful address to the women of Jerusalem 
is peculiar to Lk. These women are not the 
same as the Galilean sympathisers (8 1_3 ), but 
residents in Jerusalem. The warm feeling 
with which all classes of women regarded 
Jesus is especially marked in this ' the Gospel 
of womanhood.' 

28. Weep not for me] You are not wrong 
in weeping for Me, nevertheless something 
is about to befall, for which you will weep 
with far greater reason, the destruction of 
your city and the overthrow of your nation. 

30. Cp. Isa2™ Rev6 16 . 31. If 'they do these 
things, etc.] i.e. ' If the Romans so cruelly 
treat Me whom they know to be innocent, 
how much more severely will they treat your 
children whom they will regard as rebellious 
and guilty?' Or. ' If the inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem arc so guilty now in slaying Me, to what 
further stages of wickedness will they after- 
wards advance ? ' 

33 49. Crucifixion and Death of Jesus (Mt 
27 : ' :; <" Mk 15 s8 " 41 -In P.» ls - ;iT ). Sec on Mt and 
Jn. Peculiar to Lk arc three of the Seven 
Words from the CrOSB, and the incident of the 

Converted Thief. 

34. Father, forgive them, etc.] (peculiar to 



Lk). This, the first Word from the Cross, is 
omitted by a few early authorities, but is 
unquestionably authentic. Jesus here puts 
into practice His own teaching about loving 
enemies and forgiving them. 

39. One of the malefactors] At first both 
malefactors reviled Jesus (Mt27 47 ), then one 
of them, moved by the gentleness and majesty 
of the Sufferer, was ashamed, and rebuked his 
fellow. From shame he passed to penitence 
and faith. 

42. Lord, remember me, etc.] RY ' Jesus, 
remember me when thou comest in thy king- 
dom.' The thief here acknowledges Jesus to 
be the Messiah, a stupendous act of faith under 
the circumstances. ' He was rejected by the 
Jews who saw Him raising the dead. He was 
not rejected by the thief who saw Him hang- 
ing with him on the Cross ' (St. Augustine). 
The thief apparently expected Christ to rise 
again and establish His kingdom. 

43. To-day, etc.] (peculiar to Lk). ' The 
grace granted is more abundant than the 
prayer. For his prayer was that the Lord 
would be mindful of him when He should have 
come into His kingdom. But the Lord said 
unto him, " Verily I say unto thee, To-day 
shalt thou be with me in paradise." "Where 
Christ is there is life, there is the Kingdom ' 
(St. Ambrose). On ' Paradise ' see Lk 1 6 22 > 23 . 
This incident teaches us not to despise even 
deathbed repentances. 

44. In the RV the darkness is said to be 
due to ' the sun's light failing.' 

46. Father, etc.] (peculiar to Lk). This 
'word' is a quotation from Ps31 5 . Spirit] 
i.e. Christ's human spirit. ' Spirit ' and ' soul ' 
are identical in the Gospels. Christ is said to 
have both (Mt26 38 27 50 Jnl2 2 ? 1321 1930). 

50-56. The burial (Mt 27 57-61 Mkl5 42 -47 
Jn 1938-12). See on Mt, Mk and Jn. 

CHAPTER 24 

The Resurrection and the Ascension 
1 -1 1. Two angels appear to the women at 
the sepulchre (Mt 28 1-8 Mkie 1 ^: cp. Jn20 1 . 2 ). 
See on Mt and Jn. 

12. Peter visits the sepulchre. See on Jn 
20 3 " 10 . This v. is wanting in some ancient 
authorities. 

13-35- The journey to Emmaus (Mk 16 12 > 13 ). 
Though alluded to in Mk, this beautiful narra- 
tive is peculiar to Lk. The conjecture of 
Theophylact that one of the two disciples 
was St. Luke still finds supporters, but is 
unlikely. 

13. Emmaus] Josephus speaks of an Em- 
maus 60 furlongs from Jerusalem, the habita- 
tion <>f a colony of Titus's soldiers. This may 
be the modern Kulonieh (lit. 'colony'), 7 m.W. 
of Jerusalem. 

16. Their eyes were holden] Mk gives a 



768 



U. 17 



ST. LUKE 



24 m 



slightly different explanation (' He appeared 
in another form '). St. Luke implies that our 
Lord prevented their recognition of Him by 
an act of will. But apart from this a certain 
change seems to have passed over His body at 
the Resurrection : cp. Jn 21 4 . 17. As ye walk, 
and are sad] RV ' And they stood still, looking 
sad,' but the ' Western ' text is nearly as AV. 

18. Cleopas] a person otherwise unknown. 
The obscurity of the persons concerned is a 
pledge of the authenticity of the narrative. 

Art thou] RY ' Dost thou alone sojourn in 
Jerusalem and not know the things,' etc. 

21. Redeemed Israel] perhaps they were 
only thinking of redemption from Roman rule 
(Ac 1 6 ). Third day] Possibly they remembered 
Christ's prophecy (1 8 33 ). 26. Ought not Christ] 
More exactly, ' Ought not the Messiah ' (in 
consequence of the prophecies) ' to have suf- 
fered these things and to have entered into 
His glory ? ' This passage supports the view 
that Jesus entered into glory not at the 
Ascension, but at the Resurrection. The Gk. 
implies that the entering into glory was 
already past, and the phrase ' His glory ' im- 
plies that the glory was complete. Probably 
our Lord was in heaven during the Forty Days, 
descending to earth for occasional interviews. 

30. H e took bread] RY' the bread.' Although 
so similar to the institution of the Holy Supper, 
this was probably not a celebration of it, but an 
act resembling the blessing and breaking of the 
bread at the feeding of the 5,000, at which 
probably the two disciples had been present. 

31. He vanished] Our Lord's risen body was 
a perfect organ of spirit, and could manifest 
itself in whatever place, or under whatever 
sensible conditions He willed. After disap- 
pearing at Emmaus He seems to have trans- 
ported Himself instantaneously to Jerusalem, 
and there to have appeared to Simon, v. 34 : 
cp. our Lord's mysterious appearance when 
'the doors were shut,' Jn20 19 . 

34. The Lord is risen] Apparently incon- 
sistent with Mkl6 13 , q.v. To Simon] see 
lCorl5 5 . 

36-43. Appearance on Easter Evening (Jn 
20 19-25 : C p. Mk 1 6 14 ). See on Jn. At first sight 
there appears to be no break in the narrative 
till the end of the Gospel, and the Ascension 



(v. 51) seems to take place on he very day of 
the Resurrection. But since it is unlikely that 
so careful an historian as St. Luke would 
contradict himself on so important a point of 
chronology (see Ac 1 3 ), it seems safer to hold 
that the conclusion of St. Luke from v. 44 is 
a summary of the whole events of the 40 
days, and not simply of those of Easter Day. 
It is, however, just possible that v. 51 does 
not describe the Ascension. In this case there 
is no difficulty in assigning the whole of the 
events of this chapter to Easter Day. 

39. And my feet] Probably the feet also 
were pierced. Handle me] A proof of a cor- 
poreal resurrection. Our Lord's body was 
now spiritual, but it was manifested by Him 
on this occasion under sensible conditions to 
show that it was the same body which was cru- 
cified. Flesh and bones] are mentioned as re- 
presenting the solid and tangible framework of 
the body. Blood is not mentioned, but this 
is no proof that our Lord's body did not pos- 
sess it : see 1 Cor 10 16 . 

42. And of an honeycomb] Some ancient 
authorities omit these words. Our Lord ate, 
not as needing food, but to afford a sign. The 
Apostles laid great stress on His eating and 
drinking with them as proof of the reality of 
the Resurrection, AclO 41 : cp. Acl 4 RM. 

44-49. Summary of instructions given during 
the Forty Days. 44. The law . . the prophets 
. . the psalms stand for the three divisions of 
the OT. Canon recognised by the Jews. The 
' Prophets ' include the historical books except 
Chronicles and Ruth. ' Psalms ' stand for ' the 
Writings,' i.e. the third division of the Canon, 
of which it is the principal book. 

47. Among all nations] RY ' unto all the 
nations'; a proof that Jesus contemplated 
a universal Church. 49. The promise] i.e. 
the Holy Spirit, Ac 1 4 : cp. Jn 15 26. 

50-53. The Ascension (Acl? Mkl6 19 ). 
See on Ac. 51. And carried up into heaven] 
A few ancient authorities omit these w^ords. 
If they are omitted, it is possible to regard this 
event, not as the Ascension, but as a miraculous 
disappearance of Jesus at the end of the inter- 
view begun in v. 36. 52. And they wor- 
shipped him] A few ancient authorities omit 
these words. 



49 



ST. JOHN 



INTRODUCTION 



I. General characteristics. Few books have 
exercised so wide an influence as this. Not 
only has it a message for believers, for whose 
edification it was primarily intended, but it 
casts a mysterious spell even over readers 
whose religious standpoint is furthest removed 
from its own. There is nothing like it in 
literature except the three Epistles attributed 
to the same source. The attempt to analyse 
the effect produced by a unique work of genius 
like the present is never successful — the effect 
is the product of the author's personality, 
and personality is unanalysable — but, without 
attempting this, it may be possible to draw 
attention in a helpful way, at the outset, to 
two of its leading characteristics. 

(a) The writer possesses the unusual gift of 
clothing the profoundest ideas in language of 
childlike simplicity. His ideas are far deeper 
than St. Paul's, but are much more simply 
expressed. \Take, for example, his descrip- 
tions of the nature of God : ' God is [a] spirit, 
and they that worship him must worship him 
in spirit and in truth ' ; l He that loveth not, 
knoweth not God, for God is love ' ; or of the 
preexistence and divinity of the Word, ' In 
the beginning was the Word, and the Word 
was with God, and the Word was God ' ; or 
of His oneness with the eternal Father, ' I 
and the Father are one ' ; ' Before Abraham 
was, I AM ' ; or of the Incarnation, ' And the 
Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us 
(and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the 
only begotten of the Father) full of grace and 
truth ' ; or of Christ as the Life, ' I am the 
Resurrection and the Life: he that believeth 
in Mc though he were dead, yet shall he live, 
and whosoever liveth and believeth in Me shall 
never die' ; or of true faith, 'Blessed are they 
that have not seen, and yet have believed.' In 
these and many other passages the peculiar 
union of simplicity and profundity produces 
the effect of sublimity, a characteristic often 
noted by the ancients, who expressed it by 
tin figure of a soaring eagle, which became the 
accepted symbol, even an early as the second 
century, of the Fourth Evangelist. 

(//) The Gospel is not only a history, but an 
allegory. It is the work of a mystic, trained 
in the allegorical method of interpreting the 
Scriptures, and expecting his own work to be 
Interpreted in a like manner. '.John. - says 

Clement of Alexandria (Jin) a. D.), 'having 



observed that the bodily things [i.e. the bare 
historic facts] had been sufficiently set forth 
by the [earlier] Gospels, . . produced a spiritual 
[i.e. an allegorical] Gospel ' (Euseb. ' H. E.' vi. 
14). We must not, however, press the idea 
of allegory too far. We are not to suppose, 
with Origen, that some of the incidents in the 
Gospel are not history at all, but only allegory. 
But we may assume that the author's choice 
of materials is dominated by an allegorical or 
didactic purpose. He sits down to write, not a 
biography, but an interpretation of the life of 
Christ, and since his method is that of alle- 
gory, we are justified in seeking a mystical 
meaning not only in every saying and in every 
incident, but even in minute details which 
at first sight seem trivial. This persistent 
symbolism gives to the Fourth Gospel much 
of its mysterious charm. It produces an 
effect on the mind not unlike that of one 
of Holman Hunt's pictures. Even the un- 
initiated feel that far more is suggested than 
is expressed on the surface. Specially clear 
and striking examples of the author's sym- 
bolism occur in l 51 (the open heavens), 2 111 
(the good wine of the gospel), 2 21 (the temple 
of Christ's body), 3 5 (water and the Spirit), 
3 14 (the uplifted serpent), 4™ (the living 
water), 4 35 (ihe fields white for harvest), 6 31 
(the true manna and the bread from heaven), 
7, 8 (the symbolism of the feast of taber- 
nacles), 9 1 * 8 (the opening of the eyes of the 
man born blind, symbolising Christ as the 
Light of the world), 10 9 . 11 (Christ as the 
Door of the sheep and the Good Shepherd), 
ll 25 (the raising of Lazarus, symbolising Christ 
as the Resurrection and the Life), ll 61 (the 
mystical meaning of the high priest's utter- 
ance), 12 7 (the anointing, symbolising Christ's 
death and burial), 12- 4 (the corn of wheat). 
13 15 (the symbolical feet-washing), 13 3(J ('and 
it was night'), 14<5 (Christ 'the Way'), 15 6 
(the Vine and the branches), 1G 25 (Christ's 
words are 4 in proverbs,' i.e. allegorical), 
1934,35 (the symbolism of the blood and 
water: cp. Un5 6 > 8 ), 19 3G ('a bone of him 
shall not be broken'), 20 5 (the symbolism of 
the grave clothes), 20 17 ('Touch me not,' 
etc.), 21 r,1J (symbolism of the draught of 
fishes and of the meal), 20 18 (the ' girding ' of 
Peter). 

2. Date and Authorship. 

(1) External evidence. That the Gospel, by 



770 



JNTltO. 



ST. JOHN 



INTRO. 



whomsoever written, probably falls within the 
first cent. A.D., appears from the following 
quotations or references to it by early writers. 

St. Ignatius, 110 a.d., reproduces 3 s almost 
verbatim, ' He knoweth whence he cometh 
and whither he goeth.' He speaks of the 
Lord's Supper as Christ's ' flesh ' (not ' body ') 
and blood (cp. c. 6). He calls Christ the 
1 Logos ' (' Word ') of God, the Door of the 
Father, and the Living Water. He calls 
Satan ' the prince of this world.' All these 
phrases are peculiar to St. John. 

St. Polycarp, 110 a.d. (a personal disciple 
of St. John), quotes St. John's First Epistle, 
a work most closely connected with the Gospel, 
and almost certainly by the same hand. 

Basilides, the Gnostic, 120 a.d. 'And this 
is what is meant in the Gospels, " There was 
the true light which lighteth every man coming 
into the world " ' (see 1 9 ). 

' That everything has its own proper seasons 
is sufficiently proved by the words of the 
Saviour, " Mine hour is not yet come " ' 
(see 24). 

Aristides, the Apologist, circ. 130 a.d., uses 
the characteristic expression, ' came down from 
heaven,' in connexion with the Incarnation 
(see 3 13 6 33f -), and calls our Lord's sinless 
human nature ' flesh ' (cp. c. 6). 

Papias, 130 a.d., according to very ancient 
evidence, named John as the author of this 
Gospel. He certainly used the First Epistle 
of John, for which see above. 

Valentinus, 140 a.d., quotes 10 8 , 'All that 
have come before me are thieves and robbers.' 

The Gospel of Peter, 150 a.d., or earlier, 
uses all four Gospels. 

St. Justin Martyr, 150 a.d. ' As many as 
are persuaded and believe that what we teach 
and say is true, are brought by us where there 
is water, and are regenerated in the same 
manner in which we were ourselves regener- 
ated. For in the name of God the Father 
and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour 
Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they 
then receive the washing with water. For 
Christ also said, "Except ye be born again, 
ye shall not enter into the kingdom of 
heaven." Now that it is impossible for those 
who have been once born to enter into their 
mothers' wombs, is manifest to all ' (cp. 3 4 > 5 ). 
He also often speaks of the Word becoming 
flesh in language evidently suggested by the 
Fourth Gospel. 

Tatian, 160 a.d., compiled a harmony of 
the Four Gospels called Diatessaron. 

Theophilus of Antioch, 180 a.d. ' And 
hence the holy writings teach us, and all the 
spirit-bearing men, one of whom, John, says, 
" In the beginning was the Word, and the 
Word was with God," showing that at first 
God was alone, and the Word in Him ' (see 1 1). 



St. Irenaeus, 177 a.d., a disciple of Poly- 
carp, a disciple of John, speaks of this 
Gospel as St. John's again and again, and 
even argues that there can be only four 
Gospels, viz. those that we at present possess. 

The Muratorian Fragment, 200 a.d. ' The 
author of the Fourth Gospel is John, one of 
the disciples.' 

Clement of Alexandria, 200 a.d., Tertul- 
lian, 200 a.d., and Origen, 220 a.d., speak of 
the apostolic authorship as undoubted. 

Eusebius, the Church historian, 330 a.d., 
classes it without hesitation among the ' un- 
disputed ' writings. 

So far as is known, its authenticity was 
denied by no one, orthodox or unorthodox, 
in ancient times, except the obscure sect of 
the Alogi. Even these acknowledged its 
antiquity, for they ascribed it to St. John's 
leading opponent at Ephesus, Cerinthus. 

(2) Internal evidence. It is a characteristic 
of writings which are forged, or issued with- 
out fraudulent intent under another name 
(pseudepigraphical), to indicate the supposed 
author prominently and clearly (Eccl 1 1 
Esdrli-4 Tobli Wisd7-9 Barli, so also 
Gospel of Peter, Apostolic Constitutions, 
etc.), and had this been the character of the 
Fourth Gospel, St. John's name would with- 
out question have been unmistakably promi- 
nent. As a matter of fact, the author has so 
carefully concealed his identity, that it requires 
considerable research and reflection to dis- 
cover who he was. A careful reader, however, 
will discern, (1) that he was a Jew. His 
accurate acquaintance with Jewish laws, cus- 
toms, and opinions, is enough to establish 
this (l 21 425 Qui. 740f. 1234 427 715,35 49 749 
722 1828 737 1831). Moreover, the author's 
style and syntax are rather Hebraic than 
Greek, and he occasionally shows knowledge 
of the original Hebrew of the OT. (6 45 13 18 
1937). (2) That he was a Jew of Palestine. 
This is shown by his knowledge of unimportant 
Palestinian localities such as ' Cana of Galilee ' 
(2i.il), 'Bethany beyond Jordan' (128), 
Ephraim ' near the wilderness ' (1 1 54 ), ' iEnon 
near to Salim' (323), Sychar (45). (3) That 
he lived before the destruction of Jerusalem. 
This is clear from his accurate acquaint- 
ance with the topography of Jerusalem, and 
especially of the Temple. He knows, for 
example, the intermittent spring of Bethesda 
with its five porches near the sheep-gate, 
Solomon's porch, the distance from Jerusalem 
to Bethany, Kidron, the pool of Siloam, 
Gethsemane, the treasury, the pavement called 
Gabbatha, Golgotha ' nigh to the city where 
there was a garden.' He is well acquainted 
with the current views about the Messiah among 
the Samaritans and Jews of the period. He 
shows an exact knowledge of the ritual of the 



771 



INTRO. 



ST. JOHN 



INTRO. 



feasts — e.g. Passover, Dedication, Tabernacles, 
and of other religious customs, e.g. ablutions 
before meals, and purifications before the Pass- 
over. He is familiar with the relations between 
the Jews and the Samaritans, with rabbinical 
ideas about being ' born in sins,' with the 
impropriety of a rabbi addressing a woman 
in a public place, with Jewish reluctance to 
enter a Gentile house, or to let dead bodies 
remain unburied on the sabbath, and alto- 
gether invests his narrative with a verisimili- 
tude which can hardly be accounted for except 
on the supposition that he was a contemporary. 
(4) That he was an apostle and an eyewitness. 
That he was an eyewitness is three times 
stated : 1 14 ' we beheld his glory ' ; 19 35 ' and 
he that hath seen hath borne witness, and his 
witness is true, and he knoweth that he saith 
true, that ye also may believe' ; 21 24 (appen- 
dix) ' this is the disciple which beareth witness 
of these things and wrote these things, and we 
know that hie witness is true ' (cp. also 1 Jn 1 1 , 
written by the same author). In 21 20 » 24 the 
writer is expressly identified with the disciple 
whom Jesus loved, the son of Zebedee 
(21 2 ), who was present at the Last Supper 
leaning on Jesus' breast (13 23 ), stood by the 
cross (19 2G ), received into his house the Blessed 
Virgin (19 27 ), ran with Peter to the tomb 
(20 2 ), and was present at the sea of Tiberias 
(21 7 ). He was not James the son of Zebedee, 
for James was martyred 44 a.d. (Ac12 2 ). 
Tradition, therefore, seems to be right in 
asserting that he was John. It is a confirma- 
tion of this view, that the writer shows a 
closer acquaintance with the inner life and 
sentiments of the apostolic circle than any 
other evangelist (see e.g. 2H. 22 4 27 6 86f - 9 2 
H8f. 1216 cns . 13-17 18 2 20i9 f - c. 21). 

3. Difficulties. We can only briefly allude 
to the chief objections which have been 
brought against the Johannine authorship of 
the Fourth Gospel. 

Objection 1. The Synoptic Gospels, which 
mention only one Passover, obviously limit 
in ministry to one year, while the Fourth 
< tospel which mentions three (2 13 6 4 12 1 ), and 
perhaps four (5 1 ), extends it to three or four. 
Reply. The Synoptists nowhere state or even 
liint (not even in Lk4 10 , q.v.) that the ministry 
was confined to a Bingle year. 

Objection 2. The Synoptists confine the 
ministry to Galilee and Perasa, bnt the Fourth 
Gospel Locates a large portion of it in Judroa. 
Reply. Tl>c Synoptic Gospels (for whatever 
reason) are written from an exclusively 
Galilean point of new, bu1 even they hint at 
: , ministry inJndsaa (Mt23« Lkl3« l" RV). 

Olnection 3. The Synoptists date the last 

»ver <>n Thursday evening, bul the Fourth 

Gospel on Friday evening. Reply. The <hs- 

civpancv is perhaps <.nl\ apparent, hut if it is 



real, the account of the Fourth Evangelist is 
the more credible (see on Jnl8 28 ). 

Ohjection 4. The style of the Gospel differs 
in such a marked degree from the style of the 
Revelation, that the same writer cannot have 
written both. Reply. If this is so, the 
Johannine authorship of the Revelation, which 
is a much more disputable book than the 
Gospel, may require to be given up. We may 
suppose, however, that the Revelation was 
written in the reign of Nero, and the Gospel 
a quarter of a century later, in which case the 
difference of style can be sufficiently accounted 
for (see Intro, to Revelation). 

Objection 5. Our Lord's discourses in the 
Fourth Gospel differ altogether in style and 
subject-matter from those in the Synoptics, 
and therefore cannot be authentic. Reply. 
The Fourth Gospel does not profess to repre- 
sent the general tenor and style of Christ's 
teaching. It is a didactic work, intended 
mainly to produce and enhance faith in our 
Lord's Divine Sonship (20 31 ). The author, 
therefore, purposely collects and records 
mainly those sayings of Christ which illustrate 
the Divinity of His Person. 

4. Date and Place of Composition. Accord- 
ing to all ancient authorities, this Gospel was 
written by St. John in his old age at Ephesus, 
i.e. about 90 a.d., or a little earlier. 

5. The Writer's Purpose and Theological 
Position. (1) The main object of the Gospel 
is to produce faith in Jesus as the Messiah 
and the Son of God (20 31 ), and in general 
to promote those views of our Lord's person 
and work, which in the later Church were 
generally designated ' orthodox.' As against 
humanitarian (Ebionite) tendencies, whether 
within or without the Church, the author lays 
the utmost stress upon our Lord's true Deity 
(see especially 1 if- is (WH) 5 20f - 8 5 « 1030 175), 
and concludes his Gospel (for c. 21 is a later 
appendix) with St. Thomas's great confession, 
' My Lord and my God ' (20 28 ). On the other 
hand, as against Docetism, which, while con- 
fessing our Lord's Deity, denied that He was 
truly man. great stress is laid on our Lord's 
true humanity. The Word became ' flesh ' 
(1 14 ). and that flesh could be handled (20 -" • -< ). 
The Incarnate Saviour possessed a true human 
soul (10 11 . 17 12 2 0, and a human spirit (1133 
L3 21 ), and was subject to painful human 
experiences, e.g. He was weary (4 6 ), wept 
(ll 88 ), groaned and was troubled (11 33). 
Further, as against Cerinthus, the Apostle's 
opponent at Ephesus, who taught that Jesus 
was a mere man upon whom the heavenly 
Son of God descended at His baptism, St. 
John emphasises the unity of Christ's person, 
and the unbroken stream of His consciousness 
reaching back beyond the Incarnation into 

(trinity (ll'- 3 13 633,38,41,42,50,51,58 858 175). 



772 



INTRO. 



ST. JOHN 



INTRO. 



(2) Among the leading religious ideas of 
this Gospel, most of which are peculiar to, 
or at least characteristic of, St. John, are 
k eternal life ' regarded as a present as well 
as a future possession ; ' judgment ' as a 
present act effecting a present separation 
between the friends and the enemies of God ; 
' abiding in ' (in a spiritual sense) ' flesh ' in the 
sense of human nature without the connota- 
tion of sinfulness ; eating and drinking 
Christ's ' flesh and blood ' ; the eternal pre- 
destination of events by God (6 37 > 3 9,44 
1Q28, 12 3 9 179 12), which, however, is not 
identical with determinism or fatalism, because 
salvation is offered to all men (4 42 12 32 ) ; 
' living water,' by which the grace of the 
Holy Spirit is typified (4 10 f •) ; the ' new 
birth,' or ' birth from above ' of water and the 
Spirit (3 3 f -) ; ' truth ' in the sense not only of 
veracity and correct belief, but also of that 
holiness which ought to follow from correct 
belief (8^ 16 13 17 W 18 37 ; cp. especially the 
phrase 'to do the truth, 1 3 21 Unl 6 ); 'the 
world ' in the sense of the wicked world, alienated 
from God, and under the dominion of Satan, 
' the prince of this world ' (7 7 8 23 13 i 14 17> 27, 30 
15 18 16 11 17 14 , etc.) ; ' light' and ' darkness ' 
in a moral and spiritual sense (1 5 3 20 8 12 
ll 10 12 35 ' 36 , etc.); 'witness' and 'witnessing' 
to religious truth, affirmed of the Father 
(532,37 818), f the Son (3 11 4 44 8I 4 , etc.), of 
the Holy Ghost (15 26 ), of Moses and the 
prophets (5 46 , etc.), of the Baptist (l 7f - l 32f - 
etc.), of the Apostles (15 2r ), of the words 
and miracles of Jesus (5 36 10 25 ). 

(3) Among the titles of Christ peculiar to 
this Gospel or to the Johannine literature 
are, ' the Word,' or ' Logos ' 1 M 4 (elsewhere 
only in Unl 1 Kevl9 13 ) ; the 'Saviour of 
the world' (4 42 1 Jn4i 4 ) ; the 'Light of 
the world,' or 'of men' (l 4 8 12 9 5 ); the 
' Manna,' or ' Living Bread ' (6 31 f -) ; the ' Door ' 
(107); the 'Good Shepherd' (10 11 ) ; 'the 
Way, the Truth, and the Life '(14 6); 'the 
Resurrection and the Life ' (11 25 ) ; ' the True 
Vine' (15 1 ); 'the Holy One of God' (6^9 
RV). The idea of Christ as the Paschal Lamb 
(19 36 > perhaps also 129,36) j s shared with St. 
Paul (1 Cor 5*), but the application of the OT. 
types of Jacob's ladder (l 51 ) and of the 
brazen serpent (3 14 ) to Christ is peculiar to 
this Gospel. Peculiar also is the combination 
of Christ's Passion, Resurrection, and Ascen- 
sion into one complex conception of which the 
leading characteristic is ' glory ' (13 31 > 32 > etc.). 
The Passion is never contemplated in its 
native horror in and by itself, but always as 
interpreted and glorified by the Resurrection 
and the Ascension. 

The doctrine of the Holy Spirit receives 



far more development in this Gospel than in 
the Synoptics. His personality is clearly 
implied by the masculine pronoun (14 16f -), by 
the personal title ' Advocate ' peculiar to St. 
John (1416, 2 6 1526 16<), and by His func- 
tions (168, is.i 4 ). 

6. Relation to the Synoptists. The author 
omits much of the matter in the Synoptics, 
and in a few cases seems to correct them or 
inferences drawn from them. He represents 
John the Baptist as giving more explicit testi- 
mony to the Messiahship of Jesus, and Jesus 
Himself as less reluctant to publish it. His 
attitude to miracles is also different. He 
records not a single example of the most 
frequent synoptic type of miracle, the casting 
out of devils, nor does he employ the synoptic 
term 'mighty works.' To him Christ's mira- 
cles, of which he records the mystic number 
seven, are ' signs,' or ' works.' They are re- 
corded, not so much for their miraculous 
character, as for the sake of the doctrine or 
spiritual principle which they illustrate. 

7. Relation to the Revelation. The Revela- 
tion may perhaps be by a different author from 
this Gospel, but, in any case, it belongs to 
the same theological school. The following 
are the chief words and ideas common to the 
two books — Christ as the Logos and as the 
Lamb, the Deity of Christ, and the duty of 
worshipping Him with the same worship as 
is due to the Father ; the prominence of 
Satan ; the idea of ' keeping the command- 
ments,' and the emphasis laid on ' witness ' 
and ' truth.' 

8. Analysis of the Gospel (after Arch- 
deacon Watkins). 

(1) The prologue (1 MS). 

(2) Early manifestation of Jesus (119-4 54 ). 

(a) Witness of the Baptist (1 19- 4 0). 

(b) Manifestation to individuals (1 4i -2 u ). 

(c) Manifestation in public (2i 2 -4 54 ). 

(3) The fuller revelation : growth of 

unbelief among the Jews (51-12 50 ). 
(a) Life (5 1-6 71). 
(&) Truth, light, love (71-10 42 ). 
(c) Fuller revelation of life, truth, light, 

love : more hostile unbelief of the 

Jews (111-1250). 

(4) The fuller revelation : growth of faith 

among the disciples (131-17 26 ). 
(a) Love in humiliation (13 1- 34 ). 
(&) Last words of love to the faithful 

(1 3 35_1 6 33). 

(c) Love in the intercessory prayer (17 1" 26 ). 

(5) Climax of unbelief : surrender, and 

crucifixion (181-19 42 ). 

(6) Climax of faith : resurrection and 

proofs (c. 20). 

(7) Appendix (c. 21). 



773 



1. 1 



ST. JOHN 



1.5 



CHAPTER 1 

The Divinity and Incarnation of the 

Word. Witness of John. The First 

Disciples. 

i-i8. Preface, declaring (1) that the Word 
was God, (2) that He was made man, (3) that 
He revealed the Father. 

This sublime preface is intended to com- 
mend ' the truth as it is in Jesus,' both to 
Jewish and Gentile minds. It describes our 
Lord's person and office by a term familiar to 
both, that of the Logos or Word of God. 
' Logos ' has two meanings in Greek : (1) 
reason or intelligence, as it exists inwardly in 
the mind, and (2) reason or intelligence, as it 
is expressed outwardly in speech. Both these 
meanings are to be understood when Christ is 
called ' the Word of God.' He is the inward 
Word of God, because He exists from all eter- 
nity ' in the bosom of the Father,' as much 
one with Him as reason is one with the reason- 
ing mind. Nothing is so close to a man as 
his own thought. It is within him, and is in 
a very real sense himself. So nothing is so 
close to God as His own eternal Word. It is 
within Him, it is one with Him, and it is 
divine like Him (vv. 1, 2, 18). Christ is also 
God's outward Word. He expresses and ex- 
plains and reveals to the world what God is. 
It was He who created the world (v. 3), making 
its order and beauty an outward expression 
of God's hidden nature. In spite of the Fall, 
He remained in the world, revealing to sinful 
man, through reason, through conscience, and 
through prophecy, the nature of the Father. 
He was the True Light that shineth in dark- 
ness, and lighteth every man that cometh into 
the world (v. 4 f .). In the fulness of time He 
revealed God still more perfectly, by becom- 
ing man, and living a perfect and sinless human 
life (v. 14 f.). So perfectly did Christ's won- 
derful life reveal the innermost character of 
God, that though ' no man hath seen God at 
any time' (l 18 ), those who have seen Christ 
may be said in a very real sense to have seen 
the Father also (14 9 ). The human life of 
Christ not only reveals what God is, it also 
helps man to become like God. The incarnate 
Christ is ' full of grace and truth' (1 14 > 16 . 17 ), 
and gives believers the power- to put away 
their sinful nature, and to be born again as 
sons of God(l 12 - 13 ). 

(1) The Hebrew-speaking Jews were fa- 
miliar with the idea that God reveals Himself 
to the world through His Mcmra, or Word, 
which they distinguished from Himself as His 
organ of revelation. The Targams of the OT. 
speak, not of Jehovah, but of the Me mm of 
Jehovah, as being manifested to Abraham, 
Hagar, Isaac, Jacob, and to Mosea it the bush. 
St. John's preface, therefore, proclaimed to 



the Hebrew, ' That Memra of Jehovah, which 
appeared to the patriarchs and prophets, was 
no other than Christ before His Incarnation.' 
(2) The educated Greek-speaking Jews (Hel- 
lenists) were familiar with the writings of the 
Jewish philosopher, Philo of Alexandria (circ. 
15 B.c-50 a.d.). He believed that God does 
not act upon the world directly, but mediately 
through his Logos or Reason. To the Hel- 
lenist, therefore, St. John's Gospel said, 
' That Logos, through which you say God acts 
upon the world and reveals himself in it, is no 
other than Christ.' (3) Educated heathens 
also believed in a divine Logos or Reason, 
diffused through the world, and disposing all 
things in a rational order. First Heraclitus, 
then Plato, and finally the Stoics developed 
this doctrine, until, in the apostolic age, it was 
the explanation of the universe commonly 
accepted by educated persons. To the 
heathen, therefore, St. John's preface said, 
' That divine Logos, which inspired your 
philosophers, so far as they have spoken truly, 
and whose existence is admitted by all educated 
men, has finally manifested Himself in the 
life of Jesus of Nazareth. Read the account 
that follows of His wonderful life and sayings, 
and you will acknowledge that this is true.' 

St. John's doctrine of the Logos differs from 
the Jewish and the heathen doctrine mainly in 
these two points : (1) That the Logos is per- 
sonal, and (2) that He became flesh. 

i. In the beginning] not as in Gnl 1 , 4 in 
the beginning of creation,' but ' in the begin- 
ning of eternity,' i.e. from all eternity : cp. 8 58 
17 5 . Was the Word] i.e. the Word existed. 
1 The Word ' as a title of our Lord is only 
found in the Johannine writings (l 14 Unl 1 
Revl9 13 ). On its meaning, see above. Was 
with God] lit. ' was directed towards God,' the 
attitude of loving and intimate intercourse : 
cp. ' in the bosom of the Father ' (v. 18). Was 
God] i.e. was divine, and is therefore to be 
worshipped with the same worship as is due to 
the Father. Jesus is again called God in 
express terms in v. 18 (RM) 20 ™ Un5 20 
Ro95 Tit2i3 (RV) Ac2028 Hebis 2Petli 
(RV). 3. Made by Him] i.e. ' through ' Him, 
as the Father's agent. That Christ is the 
creator of the universe is stated Col 1 16 » 17 
lCor8 6 Hebl2 110 Rev3 14 , but not in any 
Gospel except this. 

3, 4. The Word is not only the Creator of 
the world, but is also its Life ; i.e. He sustains 
it in existence, supplies life to all living organ- 
isms, and guides all the operations of nature. 
To rational beings like men, He is also their 
Light, or Instructor. He was this even before 
His Incarnation, instructing them through 
reason, through conscience, and through pro- 
phecy. (For another punctuation see RV.) 

5. This instruction by the Word was hindered 



774 



1.6 



ST. JOHN 



1. 16 



by the Fall, which involved the world in moral 
and spiritual darkness. And the darkness com- 
prehended (RY ' apprehended ') it not] i.e. the 
people whose minds were darkened by sin did 
not understand or obey the instructions of the 
Word. Prejudice prevented them. Another 
translation is ' and the darkness overcame it not.' 

6-8. Parenthesis : The mission of Christ's 
forerunner, John the Baptist. Perhaps this 
section is directed against those followers of 
the Baptist who maintained that he was the 
Messiah. The evangelist makes it clear, 
(1) that the Baptist had a true mission from 
God, and (2) that he was not the Light. His 
mission was to bear witness to it, and to 
reflect it. 

9. The preface resumed. The true Light, 
Christ our Lord, existed even before His 
Incarnation, and enlightened every man, 
whether Jew or Gentile, born into the world. 
This important text teaches us that the light 
of revelation shines among all races, and that 
there is some truth, however distorted by error, 
in all religions. The best translation is, ' Already 
the true Light existed, which lighteth every 
man as he cometh into the world.' For other 
translations see the RY. 10. He was in the 
world] viz. before His Incarnation. 11. He 
came, viz. at the Incarnation, unto his own 
(home), viz. the Holy Land ; and his own, i.e. 
the Jews, received, i.e. believed, Him not. 

12. Power] rather, 'the right,' or 'privilege.' 
Those who ' believed on His name,' i.e. accepted 
Him as the divine Son of God, and the Saviour 
of the world, received the privilege of be- 
coming true sons of God. 13. This sonship 
conferred on men depended not on human 
descent from Abraham (blood), nor upon the 
sexual relations of their parents (the will of 
the flesh), nor could it be had for willing or 
wishing it, i.e. human effort (the will of man). 
It was a free and supernatural gift from God, 
inward and spiritual, implanted by the Holy 
Ghost, and dependent for its maintenance on 
union with Christ : see on 3 3 > 5 . 

14. The Word was made (RY ' became ') 
flesh] a plain statement of the wondrous fact 
of the Incarnation, the central mystery of our 
religion. God became man to atone for sin, 
and to make us partakers of the divine nature. 
' Flesh ' in St. John means human nature (body, 
soul, and spirit) without the added idea of 
sinfulness, which attaches to it in St. Paul (see 
especially 6 51 f< ). Our text affirms, therefore, 
that the Redeemer is ' perfect God and perfect 
man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh sub- 
sisting ; equal to the Father, as touching His 
Godhead, and inferior to the Father, as touch- 
ing His manhood. Who although He be God 
and man. yet He is not two, but one Christ.' 

Dwelt among us] lit. ' dwelt in a tabernacle 
among us,' the tabernacle being His body (see 



2 19, and cp. 2 Cor 5 L 4 2 Pet 1 is, 14). The allu- 
sion is to the ' Shekinah,' which the rabbis 
identified with ' the Word of Jehovah.' As 
the ' Shekinah,' or visible glory of God, dwelt 
in the tabernacle of old, so, when Christ was 
born into the world, His divine nature dwelt 
in His body as in a temple. We beheld his 
glory] i.e. not merely the visible glory of the 
Transfiguration and the Ascension, but the 
moral and spiritual splendour of His unique 
life, which revealed the nature of the invisible 
Father. The evangelist here claims to have 
been an eyewitness, as in 19 35 . The only be- 
gotten of (RY 'from') the Father] The glory 
of Christ's life was not a reflected glory, as 
would have been the case had He been a mere 
human saint or prophet, but it was the glory 
of God's only begotten Son, and therefore 
God's own glory, for Christ and His Father 
are one. ' Only begotten ' as a title of Christ 
is peculiar to St. John (1 M 316-18 1 Jn49). It 
indicates that no man or even angel is God's 
son in the sense in which Christ is. A ' son ' 
in the full sense of the word is of the same 
nature as his father, and hence Christ, being 
God's Son, is divine. Full of grace and truth] 
' grace ' is the divine favour and loving-kindness ; 
' truth,' as often in St. John, is not simply 
veracity, but holiness in general (cp. I 17 3 21 
4 23 8 44 ij n 1 6). Christ was full of grace and 
holiness, not that He might keep them to 
Himself, but that He might bestow them 
upon men. 

15. Another parenthesis, introducing fur- 
ther testimony of the Baptist, which the evan- 
gelist indicates as of permanent importance 
(' beareth,' ' crieth,' RY, not bare, cried, AY). 

He that cometh after me] i.e. He who begins 
his work later than myself. Is become (RY) 
before me] viz. in honour. For he was before 
me] i.e. He existed before my birth, and even 
before His own birth, as the eternal Son of 
God. The Baptist learnt that Christ was 
God's Son by a special revelation, and by the 
voice of the Father at Christ's baptism : see 
vv. 32-34. 

16-18. The preface concluded. The 'we' 
of v. 16 shows that these vv. are not words of 
the Baptist, but that they express the spiritual 
experience of Christ's disciples, in whose name 
the evangelist speaks. 16. Of his fulness] 
'Fulness' (pleroma) was a word much used 
(and abused) by the Gnostics against whom 
St. John contended. Here it means, (1) the 
fulness of the divine attributes which dwelt 
in Christ (Ephl23 Col 119 29), and (2) the 
fulness of the human virtues which He dis- 
played. Both these ' fulnesses ' Christ im- 
parts in some measure to true believers, as 
the evangelist testifies from personal expe- 
rience. Grace for grace] i.e. grace succeeding 
grace, one act of love after another, ever 



775 



1. 17 



ST. JOHN 



1.26 



increasing in proportion as we deserve it or 
require it. 17. Moses set before us mere 
commands, without changing our nature, or 
giving us the power to obey them. Jesus 
Christ came to change our nature. He offers 
us ' grace,' whereby we are born again as chil- 
dren of God, and become heirs of everlasting 
life ; also ' truth,' i.e. Christian holiness, which 
becomes possible to those who abide in Christ: 
cp. Ro 5 21 . By Moses . . by Jesus] lit. ' through ' 
Moses, ' through ' Jesus. 

18. God the Father never reveals Himself 
to men directly, but always by and through 
His only-begotten Son. This was the case 
even before the Incarnation. It was God the 
Son who manifested Himself to the patriarchs, 
gave the Law to Moses, inspired the prophets, 
and enlightened the sages of the Gentiles. 
But now by His Incarnation He has revealed 
God more perfectly. So completely does ' the 
Word made flesh ' represent the invisible 
Father, that ' he that hath seen me hath seen 
the Father' (149): cp. 5 3 ? 6^ Ex33 2 0Colli5 
1 Tim 6 16 1 Jn 4 12 > 20 . The only begotten Son] 
Many very ancient authorities read, ' (the) only 
begotten God,' a striking statement of our 
Lord's Deity. In the bosom] i.e. in eternal, 
intimate, loving union with the Father : cp. 
the expression ' in Abraham's bosom ' (Lk 
16 22 ), and Jnl3 23 . This v. explains how it is 
that God is love, not only since the creation, 
when He created objects for His love, but 
from eternity : cp. 17 s *. 

!io_^42 # Preliminary ministry of our Lord. 
All the events recorded by St. John from 1 19 
to 4 l - (the testimony of the Baptist ; the pre- 
liminary call of John, Andrew, Peter, Philip, 
and Nathanael ; the marriage at Cana ; the 
visit to Capernaum ; the first cleansing of the 
Temple ; the interview with Nicodemus ; the 
interview with the Samaritan woman) may be 
regarded as a preliminary ministry, for they 
took place before the Baptist was cast into 
prison (see Mt4 12 ). The ministry proper be- 
gins with the imprisonment of the Baptist, 
upon news of which Jesus withdrew into 
Galilee (Mi I 1 - Jn4«.«). 

19-28. Public testimony of the Baptist to 
Jesus in reply to a deputation from the Sanhe- 
drim The independence and fulness of the 
accounl of the Baptisl in this Gospel renders 
it highly probable thai the evangelisl had once 
been the Baptist's disciple. He knows, for 
example, the exaci places where John bap- 
tised 1 the exaci day and even hour 

when certain things were said (129,85,89). foe 
aporary disputes with the Jews abort 
purifying (•'-): the relations, doI always 
friendly, between the disciples of John and 
those of Chrisl (3 ' > ; the exaci time when 
John was casl into prison (3 ; ). His account 
of the Baptist's testimony agrees with thai of 



the Synoptists, but he adds to it important 
particulars. He mentions, for instance, that 
John actually saw the dove descending upon 
Jesus, and was thus enabled to recognise Him 
(1 32 ), that he applied to Him the titles Lamb 
of God (129,86) and Son of God (134 336), the 
latter clearly in a superhuman sense, for he 
declares His preexistence (l 15 - 30 ), and says 
that to believe in Him is to have eternal 
life (3 36 ). For the historical difficulties, see 
on these passages and on Mt ll 2 . The 
Synoptists record the Baptist's testimony 
before our Lord's baptism, and St. John his 
testimony afterwards, when the descent of the 
Spirit upon Jesus, and the voice of the Father, 
had convinced the Baptist that Jesus was truly 
the Son of God. 

19. The Jews] In this Gospel ' the Jews ' 
has the following special senses : (1) the in- 
habitants of Judaea, (2) members of the 
Sanhedrin (the meaning here), and (3) the 
enemies of Jesus. Sent] One function of the 
Sanhedrin was to judge false prophets, hence 
they now desired to judge the claims of John. 

Priests and Levites] the proper parties to 
enquire into a new religious movement. The 
priests performed the services of the Temple, 
offered the sacrifices, and burnt the incense. 
The Levites waited upon the priests in their 
ministry, and discharged subordinate duties. 

20. Not the Christ] Some already believed 
that he was, Lk3 15 . 21. Elias] i.e. Elijah, 
whose personal return to prepare the way of 
the Messiah was expected by many (Mal4 5 
Mk6 15 ; see especially on Mtl6 14 17 10 ). John 
denied that he was literally Elijah, though his 
coming fulfilled Malachi's prophecy (Mt 1 1 14 
1712 Lkl"). That prophet] RV 'the pro- 
phet,' viz. the prophet mentioned Dtl8 15 , and 
regarded by the deputation not as the Messiah, 
but as one of his forerunners. John, however, 
regarded the prophet of Dtl8 15 as actually 
the Messiah (cp. Ac3 22 ), and therefore denied 
that he was ' that prophet.' 23. The words 
in Isaiah (Isa40 3 ) refer to the preparation for 
the return from Babylon of the exiled Jews : 
the Baptist applies them to himself, as 
descriptive of his work : see on Mt 3 B . 

24. And they] RV 'and they had been sent 
from the Pharisees.' 25. Why baptizest thou ?] 
Baptism was ordinarily administered only to 
proselytes. The meaning of the challenge 
seems, therefore, to be, 'What right hast thou, 
who art neither the Messiah, nor his forerunner 
' that Prophet," to treat Israelites as if they 
were proselytes ? ' It is implied that the 
Messiah, who came to inaugurate an entirely 
new covenant, might possibly be expected to 
baptise even Jews. 26. With water] John's 
baptism was outward, symbolising repentance 
and remission of sin : Christ's was inward, 
conveying the gift of the Spirit, and the power 



776 






1. 28 



ST. JOHN 



% 1 



to lead a new life. 28. Bethabara] lit. ' house 
of passing over,' RV { Bethany,' EM ' Betha- 
barah,' or ' Betharabah ' ; probably the same as 
the Beth-barah of Jg7 24 . A ford on the 
Jordan, NE. of Bethshean, is still called 
'Abarah,' lit. ' passing over.' 

29. The Lamb of God] The reference is 
perhaps not to the Paschal lamb, but to the' 
Suffering Servant of Isa53, who is 'brought as 
a lamb to the slaughter,' and whose death 
atones for sin. Contrast this description of 
the Messiah with the prevalent idea of a con- 
queror who would restore the kingdom to 
Israel. The Jews generally regarded the 
Messiah not as ' the Lamb of God,' but as 'the 
Lion of the tribe of Judah.' The sin of the 
world] The idea of atonement for the sins of 
Israel is found in Isa 53 : the further idea that 
the Messiah will atone for the sins of the 
world, follows naturally from the numerous 
utterances of the OT. prophets which speak of 
the participation of the Gentiles in the Mes- 
sianic kingdom (Ps87, etc.). 

30. See v. 15. 31. I knew him not] But 
in Mt3 14 he seems to know Him, for he says, 
' I have need to be baptized of thee.' The 
discrepancy, however, is only apparent. John 
is looking for the promised sign. Jesus pre- 
sents Himself for Baptism. His majestic ap- 
pearance strikes John with awe. Through 
prophetic insight (or perhaps as the result of 
a personal interview before the Baptism) he 
surmises that He is the true Messiah (' I have 
need,' etc.). The sign that follows makes the 
surmise a certainty. 34. The Son of God] 
The chief difficulty as to the use of this term 
by the Baptist is removed by the statement 
that he first learnt that Jesus was ' the Son of 
God ' at the Baptism. In the OT. it was a 
title of the Davidic king, and of the Messiah 
(2S7 14 Ps 89 2 7, etc.), and did not necessarily 
imply (though see Ps 2, and cp. Ps 110) 
superhuman dignity. 

35-51. Preliminary call of five Apostles, 
Andrew, John, Peter, Philip, and Bartholo- 
mew (peculiar to Jn). This account, so far 
from conflicting with the (later) call described 
Mt4 18 Mkl 15 (cp. LkS 1 ), really removes a 
difficulty, for it shows how the Apostles came 
to obey the final call to follow Jesus so readily. 
After their preliminary call, described here, the 
Apostles loosely attached themselves to Jesus 
as learners, but did not leave their homes and 
occupations. Afterwards when further inter- 
course had strengthened their hope that He 
was really the Messiah, they left all and 
followed Him. 

35. Two] One was Andrew, the other (who 
characteristically suppresses his name) was 
John himself (see v. 40). The Baptist points 
out Jesus, thus suggesting that henceforth 
they should be His disciples. 39. The tenth 



hour] i.e. by Jewish reckoning, about 4 p.m. 
But some think that at Ephesus, where this 
Gospel was written, hours were numbered as 
with us, in which case the time would be 10 a.m. 
(see 46 19 14 ). 42. Jona] RV 'John' ; see Mt 
16 17 . Cephas] At the very first interview our 
Lord reads Peter's character: see on Mtl6 18 . 

43. It would appear that Jesus Himself was 
acquainted with Philip. 45. Nathanael] is 
probably an apostle, and is hence to be iden- 
tified with Bartholomew, whose name also 
appears coupled with Philip's in MtlO 3 . 
' Bartholomew ' means ' son of Tolmai ' : cp. 
Barjona, Barabbas, Bartimseus, Barjesus. The 
son of Joseph] This does not indicate the 
evangelist's own belief, but what was generally 
believed at this time. 46. Nazareth] an ob- 
scure place not even mentioned in OT., which 
indicated Bethlehem as the birthplace of the 
Messiah (Mic5 2 ). 47. No guile] 'guile' or 
deceitfulness was the special failing of Jacob 
(Israel)/ and of Israelites generally. Again 
our Lord discerns the heart of man. 48. I 
saw thee] implies supernatural knowledge. 
Perhaps Jesus alludes to some recent prayer 
or resolution which Nathanael made under the 
figtree. 

49. The Son of God] A title of the Mes- 
siah even in the OT. : see on v. 34. 51. See 
Gn28 12 . As Jacob saw in his dream a 
vision of angels ascending and descending the 
ladder, so the disciples would see in Christ 
the link and connexion between heaven and 
earth. Through Christ the locked-up heavens 
were again to be opened, and communion be- 
tween heaven and earth restored. The title 
' Son of man ' indicates Christ as completely 
partaking of human nature, and realising its 
original ideal : see especially the full note on 
Mt820. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Wedding at Cana. The Temple 

cleansed 
I— 11. The marriage at Cana. This miracle 
is not recorded by the synoptists because it 
occurred before the beginning of the minis- 
try proper. St. John records it, because, 
spiritually interpreted, it forms a suitable 
introduction to our Lord's ministerial work. 
It teaches, (1) the superiority of the Gospel 
to the Law. Christ changes the water of 
Judaism into the good wine of the Gospel. 
This is not a fanciful interpretation, but an 
entirely natural one, if it be granted (as is 
abundantly shown in the Intro.) that the 
ancients were right in regarding this Gospel as 
a ' spiritual ' or allegorical one. (2) Being a 
physical or creative miracle, it manifests Christ 
as the Lord of matter as well as of spirit. 
(3) It sanctifies marriage, and gives Christ's 
approval to innocent mirth and gladness. (4) 



777 



% 1 



ST. JOHN 



It reveals God's goodness and overwhelming 
bounty. In recording it, St. John doubtless 
had in view the Gnostic false teachers, who 
regarded matter as evil, and practised a rigid 
asceticism, rejecting all bodily pleasures, and 
abstaining from flesh and wine, and even from 
marriage. Such teaching was very prevalent 
in Ephesus, where this Gospel was written 
(see lTim4 1 - 6 ), and tradition tells us that St. 
John vehemently opposed it. 

i. The third day] It was a three-days' 
journey from Judssa to Galilee. Cana] now 
Kana-el-Jelil, a village 9 m. NW. of Nazareth, 
called ' of Galilee ' to distinguish it from Cana 
(Kanah) in Asher (Joshl9 28 ). 3. They have 
no wine] The deficiency happened towards the 
close of the festivities, which usually lasted 
s*en or fourteen days (JgU 15 Tob9 19 ). It 
was perhaps caused by the presence of so 
many (five or six) of the disciples of Jesus, 
and hence our Lord had a natural motive for 
working the miracle. 4. Woman] A very 
gentle rebuke, but still a rebuke. Now that 
His ministry has actually begun, not even His 
mother may presume to suggest or control His 
course of action : cp. Mt 12 46 Lk 1 1 27 . ' Wo- 
man,' or, rather, ' Lady,' is in Greek a title of 
respect, used even in addressing queens. 

Mine hour (i.e. for putting forth My 
miraculous power) is not yet come] Yet it 
came a few minutes later, whan the Father, 
by an inward revelation, had manifested His 
will to Jesus. 'Hour,' in the sense of 'ap- 
pointed time, 1 is common in this Gospel 
(730 320 1223,27 131 17 1 ). 6. Purifying] 
Washing the hands before dinner (Lk 1 1 38 ) is 
meant : cp. Mk7 3 , and see the full notes on 
Mt|15i-20. 

Firkins] Gk. nietretes, about 9 gallons. 

9. Ruler] an honoured guest, who presided 
at the entertainment, 10. Well drunk] RV 
' drunk freely.' The expression is proverbial, 
and need not be literally interpreted of the 
present company. 

11. Beginning of miracles] lit. 'signs.' 
Clearly Christ wrought no miracles in His 
childhood, as the Apocryphal Gospels assert. 
St. John calls our Lord's miracles 'signs,' be- 
cause they indicate something beyond them- 
selves. Tiny arc no mere marvels, but reveal 
God's character, Christ's divine nature, and 
the mysteries of the gospel dispensation. All 
the miracles in this Gospel arc also parables: 
B6€ Intro. Manifested] To 'manifest' is to 
display something which before was hidden ; 
here, the glory of His Messiahship, faith in 
which, already began among the disciples (1 "). 

was confirmed by this miracle 

12. Short visit to Capernaum. This nniin 
port an L event seems recorded lor some personal 

reason. Perhaps it was the occasion of the 
first visit of .Jesus to the evangelist's own 



house. Brethren] These are variously regarded 
as sons of Joseph by a former wife, sons of 
Joseph and Mary, and as cousins of Jesus : 
see special note on Mt 12 46 * 50 . 

13-17. First Passover and First Cleansing 
of the Temple. For a full commentary, see 
onMt21 12 . By a striking sign our Lord at 
the very outset of His ministry brought His 
claims before the whole nation. The rulers at 
once took up an attitude of hostility, although 
a few, like Nicodemus, were favourably im- 
pressed. The people, upon the whole, ap- 
proved our Lord's action. Many believed, but 
their faith, based on miracles, was superficial, 
and Jesus would not trust them. The dis- 
ciples were confirmed in their faith by seeing 
Jesus fulfil OT. prophecies. By this act Jesus 
claimed to be, not merely a prophet, but the 
Messiah, as is shown by the expression ' My 
Father's house,' which asserts His right to the 
Messianic title ' the Son of God.' The Jews 
considered that the Temple court in which this 
sign took place (the Court of the Gentiles) was 
profane ; but Jesus by cleansing it showed that 
it was holy, and vindicated for the Gentiles a 
rightful place in the true Temple of God. 

17. The zeal] Cited from Ps 69 9. This Ps. 
is elsewhere quoted as Messianic, Jn 15 25 19 28 
Ac 1 20 Ro 11 9. 10 15 3 ? and is ascribed to David. 
The Psalmist complains that his zeal for God's 
house and for true religion has brought upon 
him bitter persecution and unnumbered calami- 
ties. This was also the case with our Lord. 

18-22. The Jews seek a sign. First pro- 
phecy of the Resurrection. 

19. Destroy this temple (or, rather, ' sanc- 
tuary ')] These words made a deep impression, 
and were quoted against Jesus, in a maliciously 
altered form, at His trial (Mt26 61 ). The 
evangelist understood them (v. 21) to apply to 
the Resurrection, and this interpretation is 
confirmed by the fact that our Lord on other 
occasions also pointed to His Resurrection as 
a sign for His opponents (Mtl2 3 M°, where 
consult the notes). Many critics, however, 
think that our Lord's real meaning was, ' When 
this old dispensation of the Ceremonial Law is 
destroyed, I will quickly raise up in its place 
a new and spiritual religion.' 

20. Three temples have stood on Mt. Moriah : 
(1) Solomon's Temple, (2) Zerubbabel's Tem- 
ple, (3) Herod's Temple. This last, however, 
some regard not as a new Temple, but as 
Zerubbabel's Temple repaired and enlarged. 
Herod the Great began to build it 20 B.C., and 
at this time, apparently, building operations 
had eeased. They were soon resumed, how- 
ever, and the; Temple was finally completed 
by Herod Agrippa, 04 a.d. Reckoning from 
20 i.e. the date of our Lord's cleansing of the 
Temple would be about 26 a.d., but strict 
accuracy is not attainable. 



778 



2.23 



ST. JOHN 



3. 5 



23-25. Many believe on Jesus, but with 
imperfect faith. 

23. In the feast day] RV ' during the feast,' 
which lasted a week. 24. Did not commit 
(RV k trust ') himself unto them] because of 
their carnal conceptions of His person and 
work. They were impressed by His miracles, 
and thought that He would prove a militant 
and victorious Messiah. 

CHAPTER 3 

The New Birth. John's Testimony to 
Jesus 

1-15. Conversation with Nicodemus. The 
ministry at Jerusalem, though disappointing, 
was not fruitless. Christ's miracles and teach- 
ing had made an impression, not only on 
Nicodemus, but as Nicodemus himself says 
(v. 2, cp. 12 42 ), on other members of the 
Sanhedrin. This interview took place by night, 
on account of the timidity of Nicodemus (cp. 
7 50 ), and probably in St. John's house at Je- 
rusalem, the evangelist himself being present. 
Nicodemus may possibly be the Nicodemus, son 
of Gorion, mentioned in the Talmud. 1. A 
ruler] i.e. a member of the Sanhedrin. 

2, 3. Nicodemus had asked no question, but 
Jesus knew what he wished to ask, viz. ' If 
Thou art the Messiah, as some of us are 
inclined to believe, tell us how we must enter 
that Kingdom of God, which Thou hast come 
to establish, and of which Thou hast said so 
much. 1 Our Lord answers that a new birth, 
i.e. a new heart and a new nature, are necessary, 
according to the testimony of the OT. pro- 
phets : ' I will put my Law in their inward parts 
and write it in their hearts' (see Jer31 31f - 
Ezk 37 26 , etc.). As evidence of the ' new birth,' 
our Lord would require humility, humble trust 
in God for salvation through Christ, not a 
vainglorious boasting in descent from Abraham, 
or in the punctilious fulfilment of legal cere- 
monies; also repentance, i.e. sincere abhorrence 
of sin, and not merely of ceremonial defile- 
ment ; and, lastly , love, and that not only of 
one's friends, but also of one's enemies ; not 
only of the righteous, but of publicans and 
sinners ; not only of the Jew, but of the 
Samaritan and the Gentile — a love, moreover, 
manifesting itself not in word only, but in works 
of mercy, such as feeding the hungry, clothing 
the naked, and instructing the ignorant. 

4. How can a man] Nicodemus is unwilling 
to believe that he, an orthodox and pious Jew, 
and withal a ruler and a Pharisee, must. undergo 
so radical a change, before he can enter Christ's 
Kingdom. He therefore affects to misunder- 
stand Christ's words : cp. 6 52 . 

5. Of water and of the Spirit] Our Lord 
again insists that a new birth is necessary, and 
explains that it must be an inward and spiritual 
one. It must not be only of ' water,' i.e. the 



reception of the outward rite of baptism with- 
out proper appreciation of what membership 
of Christ's Kingdom involves, but also of ' the 
Spirit,' i.e. Nicodemus must approach Christ's 
baptism with such sincerity of repentance and 
faith, and such earnest resolution to live up to 
the ideals of the new Kingdom, that in his case 
the outward rite will be accompanied by an 
effusion of the Spirit, that will make his baptism 
a real 'new birth of water and of the Spirit.' 
Baptism is again spoken of as a ' new birth ' 
by St. Paul — ' according to his mercy he saved 
us by (RV ' through ') the washing (RM ' laver,' 
i.e. bath) of regeneration {or 'new birth') and 
renewing of the Holy Ghost ' (Tit 3 5 ). Christ's 
baptism is often distinguished from John's, as 
a baptism of the Spirit (Mt3 n Jnl^s Acl^ 
1 9 4 , etc.). It confers (on those who receive it 
rightly) spiritual graces which could not be 
fully given until Jesus had been glorified 
(7 39 ). We learn from 3 26 that already Jesus 
was admitting disciples into His Kingdom by 
the rite of baptism, and this explains the 
allusion to ' water ' here. 

Jewish and Christian Baptism 

(1) The phrase 'new birth' or 'regeneration' 
here applied by our Lord to Christian baptism 
was not a new one. The rabbis were accus- 
tomed to admit proselytes to Judaism by three 
rites, all of which they regarded as essential — 

(a) baptism (always by complete immersion) 
in the presence of witnesses who answered to 
the Christian ' sponsors ' or ' godparents ' ; 

(b) in the case of males, circumcision ; (c) 
sacrifice. The rabbis frequently spoke of this 
proselyte baptism as a ' regeneration,' i.e. a new 
birth from heathenism, in which the proselytes 
had been under the dominion of Satan, into the 
family of God, in which they enjoyed the privi- 
leges of the covenant of Abraham. Our 
Lord, therefore, might fairly expect Nico- 
demus, a rabbi and a sanhedrist, to understand 
Him when He spoke of His own baptism as a 
new birth from the ceremonies and shadows 
of the Law to the spiritual reality and power 
of the New Dispensation. 

(2) The context of this v., in which much 
more is said about ' spirit ' than about ' water,' 
warns us not to rely unduly upon the saving 
efficacy of baptism regarded as a merely ex- 
ternal ordinance. Baptism is not a charm 
like the purifications of the heathen, nor a 
mere symbol of purity like those of the Jewish 
Law, but a sacrament, i.e. a moral means of 
grace, the full efficacy and effect of which 
depend upon the response in the soul of 
the baptised person to the covenanted grace 
proffered in the ordinance. 

(3) No argument against infant baptism can 
be drawn from the words ' Except a man,' etc. 
The Greek is quite indefinite, ' Except any 



779 



3.6 



ST. JOHN 



3. 24 



one.' In the case of infants the conscious 
response of the soul to the proffered grace of 
the ordinance takes place when the age of 
reason is reached. On infant baptism, see 
on Mt 19 13-15. 

(4) On this passage, together with Mt28 19 
(cp. Mk 16 16 ), is founded the prevailing opinion 
that baptism (' where it may be had ') is in- 
dispensably necessary for admission into the 
Christian covenant. 

6. The nature we inherit from our parents 
is corrupt ; the new nature which comes with 
the new birth is holy and spiritual. 8. As 
none can trace the source or aim of the wind, 
yet all can hear and feel it, so is it with those 
who have experienced the new birth. There 
is something in the inner life not to be ex- 
plained, but which reveals itself in its oper- 
ations, and can be known only by experience. 

io. ' You a teacher in Israel, and this, with- 
out which all religion is a dead thing, not 
known to you ! ' n. We] Probably St. John 
and a few other disciples were present. 

12. Earthly things] i.e. religious facts and 
experiences (e.g. repentance, faith, the new 
birth, etc.), which happen upon this earth, and 
which are, therefore, comparatively easy to 
apprehend. Heavenly things] i.e. the hidden 
and unfathomable counsels of God for human 
salvation, e.g. the Incarnation, and the Atone- 
ment (vv. 13, 14, 15). 13. Ascended] This word 
is not to be taken quite literally. Our Lord 
only means that He had been in heaven before 
His Incarnation, and hence could speak of 
heavenly things (i.e. the Father's most secret 
counsels) from personal experience. Which 
is in heaven] Some important authorities omit 
these words, which, if genuine, affirm that our 
Lord was at the same time on earth and in 
heaven, in a state of humiliation, and in a 
state of glory. 

14. See Nu 21 6 "9. As the children of Israel, 
bitten by the fiery serpents, were cured by 
looking at the brazen serpent, so sinners may 
receive remission of sins and eternal life by 
looking with Faith at Jesus, who was ' lifted 
up ' firsl upon the cross, and afterwards into 
heaven: cp. 8 2S 1282,84. I5 . rv 'that who- 
Boever believeth may in Him have eternal life' 

Eternal life] This expression, though found 
iu the other Gospels (Ml L9 " ; . etc.) and in the 
Pauline Epistles (Eo2 7 , etc.), is specially 
characteristic of St. John. It is thai state of 
blissful communion with Cod. which is enjoyed 
by the believer who is reconciled to God 
through faith in Christ. The NT. generally 
speaks of it as a future possession, mil St. 
John often regards i\ as possessed already 
to some extent in this worhl. ' Eternal,' lit. 
l 83onian,' means nol simply 'endless,' but 
'belonging to the world to come,' and so 
' supernatural,' ' spiritual,' ' heavenly.' 



16-21. are probably words of Jesus, though 
some regard them as reflections of the evangel- 
ist. They state the broad saving truths of 
the gospel in direct opposition to the narrow 
Pharisaism in which Nicodemus had been 
reared. Whereas the Pharisees confined sal- 
vation to a single race, and believed that the 
Messiah would judge the Gentiles with extreme 
severity, our Lord declares that God has sent 
His Son to save the whole world, and not to 
judge or condemn any part of it. ' Whosoever 
will,' may believe and be saved. 

17. Condemn] lit. ' judge ' (RV), but the 
context shows that an unfavourable judgment 
is meant. 18. Is condemned (lit. 'hath been 
judged ') already] God's judgment upon men's 
actions is a present fact ; He judges men here and 
now. The publication of His judgment, how- 
ever, will not take place until the Last Day. 

18. The name] i.e. (practically) the Person. 

19. This is the condemnation (RV ' judg- 
ment ')] i.e. the condemnation is based upon 
this, that the Light is come into the world, 
etc. It is implied that men whose deeds are 
really good, are irresistibly attracted by Christ's 
words and works, so that they become be- 
lievers. 21. To 'do the truth,' means to live 
the Christian life, for Christian truth is more 
than a belief, it is a way of life. The phrase 
is peculiar to St. John : cp. 1 Jn 1 6 . 

22-36. Jesus leaves Jerusalem and baptises in 
the country districts of Judasa, where He prob- 
ably spent most of the time from the Passover, 
27 a.d., to the late harvest (December) of the 
same year : see on 4 35 . His great success 
rouses the jealousy of John's disciples (v. 26), 
but the Baptist, so far from regarding Christ's 
disciples as too many, laments that they are 
too few (v. 32), and again testifies his belief 
in Christ's Messiahship. 22. Baptized] Our Lord 
baptised only through the ministry of His dis- 
ciples (4 2 ). The synoptists represent Christian 
baptism as not ordained till after the Resur- 
rection (Mt 28 w Mk 16 16 ) ; but here it is said to 
have been practised from the beginning of the 
ministry. The two accounts are not really 
inconsistent. What had been Christ's practice 
during His ministry was raised to the dignity 
of a perpetual ordinance after the Resur- 
rect ion. Some regard this preliminary baptism 
of Christ as a mere baptism of repentance like 
John's, hut it is apparently called a birth 'of 
water and the Spirit ' (.'>■''). and consequently 
must have been specifically Christian baptism, 
although doubtless the fulness of the Spirit 
could not he given till after the Ascension 
(T'l. That the Spirit could be given in some 
measure before the Ascension, 20 22 is evi 
dence. 23. JEnon] lit. 'full of springs." i- 
generally located 8 m. S. of Scythopolis, near 
Salim (Saluniias) and the Jordan. 24. This 
v. corrects the impression which the synoptic 



780 



3. 25 



ST. JOHN 



4. 15 



narrative produces, that John was imprisoned 
immediately after our Lord's baptism. As a 
matter of fact, the two ministries overlapped 
by several months, perhaps by a whole year. 

25. The Jews] RY ' a Jew.' Perhaps the 
Jew was a disciple of Jesus, and the dispute 
was about the comparative cleansing power 
of John's baptism and Christ's. 27. ' Do not 
wonder at the success of Jesus. No man can 
usurp what heaven has not granted him.' 

29. By Jewish custom ' the friend of the 
bridegroom ' arranged the marriage contract 
between the bridegroom and the bride, and 
presided at the wedding feast. This John did 
for Jesus, by preparing the Jewish people (the 
bride) to receive our Lord's teaching. 

31-36. Not, as some think, a reflection of 
the evangelist, but a continuation of the testi- 
mony of the Baptist. The Baptist places 
Christ (he that cometh from above) at an in- 
finite elevation above himself (he that is of the 
earth) (v. 31). He declares that Christ came 
down from heaven, and so can testify to what 
He has seen there (v. 32). He alone can give 
the Spirit without measure (v. 34). He is 
God's Son ; to Him all power is committed ; 
and through faith in Him eternal life is 
offered. To disobey Him is to incur God's 
wrath (vv. 35, 36). 

31. Christ's teaching is as superior to John's 
as the heavens are higher than the earth. 

32. No man] a rhetorical overstatement. 
John deplores that the number of Christ's 
followers, though great, is as nothing com- 
pared with what it ought to be. 33. That God 
is true (lit. ' truthful ')] To believe the Messiah 
is to believe God, for the Messiah is God's 
ambassador and interpreter (see the next v.). 

34. For God (RV ' he ') giveth] This may 
either mean ' for Christ giveth not the Spirit 
by measure (to believers),' or, 'for God giveth 
not the Spirit by measure (to Christ).' 

36. Believeth not] RY ' obeyeth not.' 

CHAPTER 4 

The Samaritan "Woman 
1-42. Christ in Samaria. The ministry in 
Samaria is recorded because it is the author's 
design to exhibit Christ as the Saviour, not 
only of Israel, but of the world (4*2). 

The Samaritans were mainly an alien race, 
descended from the colonists planted in the land 
by the Assyrians (2X176,24,26,29 Ezr 4 1. 9 > 10). 
They boasted, however, of being Israelites, and 
with some degree of justification, for there was 
probably a considerable Jewish element in the 
population. Their worship, originally a com- 
promise with heathenism, was now purely 
Jewish. They kept the sabbath, and the 
Jewish feasts, and observed circumcision and 
other traditional ordinances. Of the OT. they 
accepted only the Pentateuch, which they inter- 



preted as commanding the erection of a Temple 
on Mt. Gerizim. That Christ should have 
preached in Samaria is somewhat surprising in 
view of such passages as Mtl5 24 and 10 5 , but 
it must be remembered that He did not enter 
Samaria for this purpose, but simply to reach 
Galilee (v. 3). 

1. The Pharisees had been hostile to John's 
ministry ; they were likely to be more so to the 
more successful ministry of Jesus. Our Lord, 
therefore, left Judaea, the chief centre of 
Pharisaism, to avoid a rupture. 2. Our Lord 
did not baptise, because it was His work to bap- 
tise with the Holy Ghost (1 33 ), and He could not 
do this (fully at least) till after His Ascension 
(see on 3 5 3 22 ). 4. Must needs go through] 
Jesus had just heard that Herod Antipas had 
cast John into prison (Mt 4 12 ). To escape this 
fate, He avoided Perasa, the seat of Herod's 
power, and passed through Samaria. 5. Sychar] 
now 'Askar, near Shechem. Jacob's well still 
retains its name. The parcel of ground, etc.] 
This is a Samaritan tradition, not expressly 
authorised by the OT., but based on a com- 
parison of Gn33i9 with Gn48 2 2. 6. Thus] 
i.e. wearied as He was. For Christ's subjec- 
tion to human infirmity, see also 1135,38 1928. 

The sixth hour] i.e. either noon or 6 p.m. 
The number of events which happened subse- 
quently seems to require the earlier hour, but 
see on l 39 . 

8. The later rabbis declared that to partake 
of Samaritan bread was like eating swine's flesh, 
but in our Lord's time Samaritan food wafe 
accounted clean. 9. The Jews have no deal- 
ings, etc.] Some ancient authorities omit this 
statement, which must be taken to refer only 
to intimate dealings. Our Lord had broken 
down the barrier by asking a favour. He 
wished to encourage her to ask a favour of 
Him, and so to give Him an opportunity of 
leading her to the truth. 10. The gift of God] 
i.e. all the blessings offered to us in Christ, 
especially the gift of eternal life (see vv. 13, 
14). Living water] As Christ does not identify 
Himself with the ' water,' as He does with the 
' bread' in c. 6, the 'water' must be ' the grace 
and truth' of which He is full (1 14 ), and which 
are communicated to believers through the 
Spirit (7 39 ). Both the thirst and the hunger 
of the soul (and these are felt even by such 
outcasts as the Samaritan woman) are satisfied 
by Christ. 11. The woman takes 'living 
water ' literally, as meaning the running water 
of a spring or stream as distinguished from 
the stagnant water of a cistern or well (Gn 26 19 
Lvl4 5 , etc.). 12. In spite of their mainly 
heathen origin, the Samaritans claimed Israel- 
itish descent. 14. Shall never thirst] 'Every 
spiritual desire and aspiration of the soul shall 
be completely satisfied, and for ever, for the 
life which I give is eternal.' 15. These 



781 



4. 16 



ST. JOHN 



4. 44 



mocking words show that the woman was still 
unimpressed. 

1 6. Finding her impervious to gentleness, 
our Lord uses stronger measures. He reveals 
Himself to her as a prophet, and with a pro- 
phet's authority reveals and rebukes her sin : 
cp. 2S12. 1 8. Although this woman had 
apparently been divorced by five husbands for 
unfaithfulness, and was now living in sin, our 
Lord did not deal with her harshly. For 
other examples of His considerate treatment 
of fallen women, see 8 1 " 11 and Lk7 36 - 50 . 

20. The woman is ashamed, and seeks to 
change the conversation. Our Lord kindly 
permits it, knowing that the words He has 
spoken will bear fruit. She asks Him, since 
He is a prophet, to pronounce upon the main 
point in dispute between the Jews and the 
Samaritans. The Samaritans argued from Dt 
27 4 that Gerizim was the one divinely appointed 
place of sacrifice, because there God had com- 
manded an altar to be raised and the Law in- 
scribed. The Samaritan text reads Gerizim 
in this passage instead of Ebal. 

21-24. Speaking as a prophet, our Lord 
draws a sublime picture of the religion of the 
future. All that is transitory, national, local, 
and ceremonial about the religion of Jerusalem 
and Gerizim is to pass away, and God will 
accept for the future only the worship of the 
spirit and the heart. In the meantime, how- 
ever, Jerusalem, not Gerizim, is the true centre 
of worship, there Jehovah has placed His 
name, there the Redeemer is to suffer, and 
there His religion is to be first established. 

22. ' We Jews understand the nature of the 
God we worship : you Samaritans do not. 
We have the Psalmists and Prophets to teach 
us the meaning of spiritual religion : you re- 
ject all but the ceremonial Law of Moses. 
Moreover, you show your ignorance of God by 
setting up an unauthorised worship in a place 
which He has not chosen.' Salvation is of the 
Jews] alluding to the promises to Abraham 
(Gnl2), and to David (2S7"-"." Pss893,* 
1 32 n ), and to the historic fact that the gospel 
was to be preached to all nations ' beginning 
at Jerusalem' (Lk24 47 ). 

23. In spirit] i.e. with true inward reverence, 
as distinguished from mere outward observ- 
ance. In truth] i.e. with true holiness of life. 
' Truth,' in St. John, is not only correct belief, 
but also practical piety : sec on 3°. 

24. God is a Spirit] or, rather, ' God is 
spirit ' (RM). ' Spirit ' is the name, in the NT., 
of the highesl an<l most god-like faculties of 
the soul. Our Lord means, therefore, that 
God is the supreme understanding, knowledge, 
reason, will. love, holiness, etc.. and hence 
must be worshipped with the corresponding 
faculties of the human soul, which is also 
' spirit,' as made in His image. 



25. Messias cometh] An excuse for delay. 
There is no need (says the woman) to trouble 
about a more spiritual worship until that 
distant day when the Messiah comes. 26. The 
Samaritan idea of the Messiah was religious, not 
political, and hence Jesus could here proclaim 
Himself as the Messiah without causing a 
political ferment : contrast His action among 
the Jews (615 i()24 7 e tc). 

Our Lord's teaching about worship in spirit 
and in truth (v. 24), though general in form, 
had special reference to the woman's needs. 
Her religion was an external one of forms and 
ceremonies, and this accounted for her evil 
life. If she could but be taught that religion 
is the attitude of the heart towards God, all 
would be changed. 

27. With the woman] RV ' with a woman.' 
In His high estimate of womanhood Jesus 
rose far above the ideas of His time, and 
taught lessons which are only now being 
learned (see on Mt 1 18-25). The contemporary 
rabbis refused to teach religion to women, 
and would not even speak to a woman in a 
public place. 

34. My meat, etc.] Jesus meant that in 
the joy of seeking to save a sinful soul His 
fatigue and hunger had vanished, and He no 
longer needed the food which the disciples had 
brought. 35. Four months] Harvest began 
in April, so the date would be December, a.d. 
27. The ministry in Jerusalem and Judaea 
(2 1 3 -4 3 ) must accordingly have lasted eight 
months. Lift up] At this moment Jesus sees 
the Samaritans coming through the cornfields. 

They are white already] The literal harvest 
is four months distant, but the spiritual har- 
vest of the souls of these Samaritans is ripe, 
and will be reaped this very day. 

36, 37- Christ had sowed alone in con- 
verting the Samaritan woman, but the Apostles 
would share in reaping the harvest of Samari- 
tan converts (cp. Ac 8). And this was a type 
of the future conversion of the world. Christ 
would sow the seed, but the Apostles would 
reap the harvest. The wages are simply the 
unselfish joy of saving souls. 38. Other men] 
In spite of the plural this means Christ Him- 
self. 42. The Saviour of the world] They 
accepted Him as the world's Saviour, because 
they had experienced His saving power in 
their own case. It is an instance of the argu- 
ment from Christian experience : see 1 29 3 X6 > 17 
633 1247 1 Jn4i4. 

43-54. Beginning of the ministry proper in 
Galilee, December, 27 a.d. Healing of the 
nobleman's son. 

44. Our Lord's own country here is pro- 
bably Judaea, where He was born, and which 
the ancient prophecies indicated as His true 
home. Others suppose that it is Galilee, and 
that He deliberately went there to suffer 



782 



4. 46 



ST. JOHN 



5. 19 



dishonour and rejection. In Mt 13 57 our Lord 
applies the same proverb to Nazareth, where 
He was brought up. 

46-54. This miracle cannot be the same as 
that recorded Mt8 5 Lk7 2 ; the differences 
are too great. We have here a king's officer, 
there a centurion ; here a father and son, there 
a master and servant ; here a Jew (see v. 48), 
there a Gentile ; here a fever, there a palsy ; 
here weak faith which is blamed (v. 48), there 
strong faith which is commended ; here Jesus 
is asked to come, there He is begged not to 
come ; here He does not go, there apparently 
He does ; here the healing words are spoken 
at Cana, there at Capernaum. 

46. Nobleman] The word means ' one of the 
king's officials.' The ' king ' is Herod Antipas, 
who was. strictly speaking, only a tetrarch, but 
was called king by courtesy. 

48. Except ye see signs] Not too much 
must be made of this rebuke. Our Lord was 
trying his faith, as in the case of the Canaan- 
itish woman (Mk 7 27 ). It answered the test, 
and was rewarded by the healing of his son. 
For ' signs and wonders,' see on Mtl2 38f - 

54. Translate, ' This again as a second sign 
did Jesus, after He had come out of Judaea 
into G-alilee.' It thus clearly preceded all the 
Galilean miracles recorded by the synoptists. 

The evangelist probably records this miracle 
to show that the effects of faith may extend 
beyond the person who exercises it ; perhaps 
also to show that our Lord's power to heal 
could be exercised at a distance. 

CHAPTER 5 

Bethesda. Christ and the Sabbath 
1-47. A miracle at the Pool of Bethesda on 
the Sabbath Day, and a controversy arising 
therefrom. This miracle may be regarded as 
a parable illustrating the deadly effects of sin, 
and the power of the Saviour to deal with the 
most hopeless cases. This poor man in his 
youth had shattered his nervous system by a 
life of sensual indulgence (v. 14), and had lain 
for thirty-eight years a hopeless paralytic 
(v. 5). This being an extreme case, the usual 
order of Christ's miracles is reversed. In- 
stead of being wrought as a reward of faith 
(see v. 13), the miracle is wrought to produce 
faith. The man was too much broken down 
in mind and body to believe, until some signal 
mercy had been vouchsafed to him. The 
mercy was vouchsafed, and repentance and 
faith followed (v. 14). 

This visit to Jerusalem took place in March, 
28 A.D., consequently the Galilean ministry 
mentioned 4 54 lasted three or four months. 
Among its most notable incidents were the 
appointment of the Twelve and the Sermon 
on the Mount. Desiring to visit Jerusalem 
without interrupting the Galilean work, our 



Lord sent the apostles on a preaching tour 
through the country (Mk6 7 ), and then went 
up to the capital, either alone, or more prob- 
ably accompanied by St. John, who acted as 
His host. Having stayed there about a week, 
He rejoined the Twelve in Galilee, shortly 
before the Passover, 28 a.d. (MkG 30 : cp. 
Jn64). 

1. A feast] i.e. the Feast of Purim, which 
occurs in March (Adar 14, 15), about a month 
before the Passover. Its origin is doubtful, 
though the Jews commemorated in it the 
triumph over Haman, who proposed to ex- 
terminate the Jews in the Persian empire on 
a particular day (13th Adar, 473 B.C.), chosen 
by lot (jpur, Esth3 7 ). The feast was mainly 
of a convivial and charitable character, but in 
the synagogues the book of Esther was read, 
and the congregation applauded the name of 
Mordecai, and cursed that of Haman. (An 
inferior but strongly supported reading here 
is ' the feast,' which would probably mean the 
Passover. Those who adopt it are compelled 
to add a whole year to Christ's ministry.) 

2. Sheep market] RV ' sheep gate ' : cp. 
NehS 1 12 39 . Bethesda] i.e. ' house of mercy,' 
or, possibly, 'house of the stream,' is perhaps 
the "Virgin's pool, SE. of the Temple, the 
only natural spring in Jerusalem. It is an 
intermittent spring, and when ' the troubling 
of the waters ' occurs, the Jews still bathe in 
it for medicinal purposes. Variant spellings 
are ' Bethzatha ' and ' Bethsaida.' 3, 4. The 
best authorities omit the words waiting for . . 
whatsoever disease he had, which describe 
the troubling of the water by an angel. The 
troubling of the waters was a natural phe- 
nomenon, which popular superstition ascribed 
to supernatural agency. 8. Thy bed] i.e. 
mat. 10. The man's act was not unlawful, 
even from the OT. standpoint. Jerl7 21 and 
Nehl3 19 only forbid the bearing of burdens 
on the sabbath in connexion with labour and 
trade. 15. And told the Jews] doubtless to 
win honour for Jesus as a prophet and worker 
of miracles. 

17. RV ' My Father worketh even unto 
now, and I work.' (1) These words enunciate a 
new ideal of the sabbath. The ' rest ' of God 
after the creation, which the sabbath typifies, 
is not mere inertia, but activity in doing good. 
So man's true sabbath rest is not inactivity, 
but leisure for work of a higher character, e.g. 
the worship of God, and works of mercy. (2) 
The words also imply our Lord's Deity, for 
(a) He claims that God is His Father in a 
unique sense (' My Father,' not ' our Father '), 
and (b) He coordinates His own work with 
God's. 

19-29. An important doctrinal section. Our 
Lord, while' affirming His filial subordination 
to the Father ('the Son can do nothing of 



783 



;. 20 



ST. JOHN 



6. 14 



Himself,' v. 19), and the derivation of His 
own Being from His (v. 26) ; yet declares that 
He exercises the Father's whole power and 
authority (v. 20) ; — the power to quicken 
those dead in sins (v. 25), the power to raise 
men from literal death at the Last Day (v. 28), 
and the power to judge the world (v. 22). He 
accordingly demands ' that all men should 
honour the Son, even as they honour the 
Father.' 

20. Loveth the Son] Hence God is love 
( Un 4 8 ) from eternity. Greater works] some- 
thing greater than miracles, the giving of new 
life to those dead in sins (see vv. 21, 24, 25). 

21. This v. speaks both of spiritual and 
literal death. 24. Heareth] and obeyeth. 

25. The dead] i.e. the spiritually dead. 
They are raised from the death of trespasses 
and sins to a new life by the preaching of the 
gospel. 26. The Father is the fountain of 
life even within the Godhead. From Him 
the Son is begotten, and the Spirit proceeds. 

27. Because he is the Son of man] rather, 
1 because He is man,' lit. ' a son of man.' As 
man He can sympathise with the nature which 
he shares : cp. Heb4 15 . 28. The literal 
resurrection at the last day is meant. 

29. Damnation] i.e. condemnation, lit. 
' judgment.' 

30-36. Our Lord mentions four ' witnesses ' 
through which men may be brought to believe 
in Him : (1) the witness of the Baptist, good, 
but insufficient ; (2) the witness of the Father, 
which Christ's hearers are not willing to re- 
ceive ; (3) the witness of Moses and the 
prophets, which they also reject ; and (4) the 
witness of Christ's own ' works,' the character 
of which is sufficient evidence that the Father 
has sent Him. 

30. As I hear] viz. from the Father. 

31. Christ's witness to Himself could not be 
received according to the principles of Jewish 
law : see 8 13 , and cp. Nu35 30 Dtl7 6 . 

32. Another] i.e. the Father, not the Baptist. 

34. ' I attach little importance to John's tes- 
timony, for he, though a prophet, was but a man. 
Nevertheless, since you attach importance to 
it, I will use it, for I wish, in whatever \\;iv. 
to bring you to believe in Me, and so to be 
saved.' 35. 'John is only a lamp <>r lantern, 
shining feebly by borrowed lighl ; I am I he 
True Light which he feebly reflects. 1 Ye were 
willing] .John's ministry was plainly past. 

36. The works] include the miracles, but 
should not be confined bo them. The gracious 
character, and redemptive purpose of Christ's 
acts, prove thai tiny come From God. 

37. The witness of the Father is gives, (l) 

in the 0T. Scriptures, (2) in the response of 
all that is good in the he;irt of man fco tin- 
teaching of Christ. The divine element in 

man, which the Father planted there, recog- 



nises and welcomes the divine in Christ : cp. 
3 21 . 38. His word] is not here the Scripture, 
but the Divine Voice speaking through the 
conscience and spiritual nature of man. 

39. Search] rather, ' Ye search ' (RV). 

43. If another] ' A false Messiah, adapting 
his views to your carnal ideas, you will receive.' 
Our Lord's words were literally fulfilled a 
century later, when the bulk of the nation 
accepted the claims of the impostor Bar- 
cochba. 46. He wrote of me] in type and 
figure as well as in direct prophecy. 

CHAPTER 6 
The Bread of Life 

6 l -y 2 . Feeding the five thousand. Walking 
upon the sea. Discourse upon the bread of 
life. Defection of many disciples. The 
Apostles stand firm. 

Returning from Jerusalem, our Lord met 
the Apostles somewhere on the W. of the lake 
(perhaps at Capernaum), and heard their 
report of their mission (Lk9 10 ). He then 
spent about a fortnight preaching and healing 
the sick (6 2 ), and afterwards, seeking retire- 
ment, sailed with them to a desert place on the 
NE. coast belonging to a city called Bethsaida 
(Mk6 82 Lk9 10 ; cp. Jn6i). The multitudes 
followed on foot, and Jesus took compassion 
on them and fed them (6 2f -). The time was 
just before the Passover, 28 a.d. (6 4 ), and 
immediately after the death of the Baptist 
(Mtl4 13 ). For a full commentary on this 
miracle, which alone is recorded by all the 
evangelists (Mtl4^ Mk6 35 Lk9 12 ), see on 
Mtl4is. 

1. Tiberias] a Gentile city on the lake, 
built by Herod Antipas during our Lord's 
lifetime, and named after the emperor 
Tiberius. 3. A mountain] RV ' the mountain.' 

4. The passover] the second of the ministry. 
The nearness of the Passover accounts for the 
crowds seen approaching (v. 5). They were 
Galileans going up to Jerusalem to keep the 
Passover. Probably our Lord did not go up 
to Jerusalem for this feast, as there were plots 
against His life (7 1 ). 

10. Make the men] RV ' the people.' 

So the men] i.e. the males. 11. Given 
thanks] The other Gospels say, 'blessed.' 
The usual benediction was/ Blessed art Thou, 
Jehovah our God, King of the world, who 
causes! bread to come forth from the earth.' 

14, 15. This miracle marks a crisis in 
our Lord's ministry. His popularity was at 
its height. The people were convinced that 
lb- was the Messiah. They demanded that 
He should be crowned king of Israel, and 
should lead them against their enemies. By 
rejecting their overtures, and by showing, in 
His subsequent address at Capernaum, that His 
aims were of an entirely different character, 



784 



& 16 



ST. JOHN 



6. 26 



He forfeited His popularity, and never re- 
gained it (see 6 6t} ). 

Although this miracle had been recorded by 
the three synoptists, St. John (contrary to 
his usual practice) relates it again, because 
it forms a suitable introduction to the 
important discourse upon the bread of life 
which follows (vv. 26 f.), and which, in St. 
John's view, is an unfolding of its symbolical 
meaning. ' The miracle illustrates the mode 
of Christ's working in all ages ; both in 
temporal and in spiritual things, the spirit 
that proceeds from Him makes the greatest 
results possible to the smallest means ; that 
which appears, as to quantity, most trifling, 
multiplies itself, by His divine power, so as to 
supply the wants of thousands. The physical 
miracle is for us a type of the spiritual one 
which the power of His words works in the 
life of mankind in all time ' (Neander). 

1 6-2 1. The miracle of walking on the sea 
is recorded also by Mt (14 22 ) and Mk (6 45 ) : 
see on Mt. St. John records it, perhaps 
because of its close connexion with the miracle 
of feeding ; more probably because of the 
mystical signification which he discerns in it, 
for which see on Mt. 

1 8, 19. The disciples were not to cross the 
lake, but to coast along it, and to take Jesus 
on board at an appointed place (see v. 17). 
A violent wind blew them out into the middle 
of the lake, so that Jesus was obliged to walk 
upon the water to reach them. 

22-25. The multitudes which had been fed 
remained on the spot all night. In the morn- 
ing they were surprised to find Jesus gone. 
They knew that He had not embarked with 
the disciples, who had taken away the only 
boat. How then had He departed ? Soon a 
fleet of boats arrived (perhaps to sell pro- 
visions), and they made use of these to cross 
the lake in search of Jesus. 

26-59. Discourse on the Bread of Life. 
As in c. 4 Jesus is the giver of ' living water,' 
so here He is the ' living bread ' or ' manna ' 
of the soul. Such language had been to some 
extent prepared for by OT. references to 
the spiritual feast to which ' Wisdom ' invites 
her children, ' Come eat ye of my bread, and 
drink of the wine which I have mingled' 
(Prov 9 5 , etc.) ; and by the current view that 
the ' manna ' of the OT. is to be spiritually 
interpreted (Philo identifies it with the ' Logos ' 
or ' Word ' of God ; St. Paul calls it ' spiritual 
meat,' 1 Cor 10 3 ; the Psalmist calls it ' angels' 
food,' Ps 78 25 ). There are also OT. references 
to the banquet of the Messiah (Isa25 6 , etc.), 
which are frequently echoed in the NT. 
(Mt8 n 22 2'. 25 10 26 2 9 Lkl4 15 Rev 19 9). 
But such passages do not lead up to, or explain 
our Lord's language about eating His flesh, 
and drinking His blood. The nearest parallel 



to this is the Passover. Our Lord's hearers 
were about to go up to Jerusalem to eat the 
Passover (6 4 ). Some of them, perhaps, 
had heard the Baptist call Him ' the Lamb of 
God that taketh away the sin of the world ' 
(1 29 > 36 ). Our Lord, accordingly, set before them 
His Person as the sacred reality of which the 
Passover lamb was a type. As the blood of 
the Paschal lamb had protected the Israelites 
of old from the sword of the destroying angel, 
so the death of the Lamb of God would give 
spiritual life to the whole world (v. 51). As 
in the Paschal meal the Israelites ate the 
flesh of a literal lamb, so in the feast which 
He came to prepare, they would spiritually 
eat the flesh and drink the blood of the True 
Lamb. By the ' flesh ' of Christ is to be 
understood His human nature (see l 14 ), and 
by His blood, His atoning blood, shed for the 
sins of the world. There is reference, there- 
fore, both to the Incarnation, and to the 
Atonement. The eating and drinking of 
Christ's flesh and blood is spiritual (6 63 ), and 
can only take place through the medium of 
faith (vv. 35, 40, 47). It is not, however, 
identical with faith, but rather is the reward 
of faith. Those who have lively faith in 
Christ as the Son of God and the Redeemer of 
the world, are so incorporated with Him, that 
they dwell in Him and He in them (v. 56) ; 
He is in them a principle of spiritual life 
(v. 57), and of resurrection (v. 54) ; and He 
strengthens and refreshes their souls, so that 
they neither hunger nor thirst (vv. 35, 55), 
until they attain everlasting life (vv. 50, 51, 
54, 58). This vital union between Christ and 
the believer is elsewhere illustrated by the 
parable of the True Vine (15 lf >), and by St. 
Paul's metaphor of the body and the members 
(lCorl2i2f-). 

This discourse is regarded by nearly all 
commentators as intended to prepare the way 
for the institution of the Lord's Supper, by 
explaining the fundamental idea and principle 
of that holy rite, viz. the union of the believer 
with Christ's human nature through faith. 
The Supper was ordained (see on Mt26 26 - 30 ) 
as the ordinary and covenanted means of 
feeding upon Christ — of ' eating his flesh and 
drinking his blood,' i.e. of appropriating 
spiritually and by faith His glorified humanity 
and sharing in the benefits of His passion. 
This, the original apostolic doctrine, which 
guarded both the reality of the reception by 
the believing soul of Christ's true humanity, 
in this ordinance, and also the absolute need 
of a lively faith if this blessed result was to be 
achieved, was endangered in St. John's time 
by two opposite tendencies, that of Gnosticism, 
which, while confessing Christ's Godhead, 
denied His Incarnation and Atonement, and 
that of a false ecclesiasticism, which, while 



50 



785 



6. n 



ST. JOHN 



6.63 



confessing both, imagined that union with the 
Incarnate Redeemer could be attained mechani- 
cally through the sacraments, without a living 
faith. As against the former the evangelist 
emphasises the reality of Christ's ' flesh,' or 
human nature, and of His ' blood ' or atoning 
sacrifice ; and as against the latter the need of 
a living faith, as the only means through 
which Christ's flesh and blood can be savingly 
appropriated, and become the food of the 
soul. The ' flesh ' of Christ, which is received 
by faith, is, of course, His glorified humanity, 
as it now is at the right hand of God, and as 
it is communicated to believers through the 
Spirit (vv. 62, 63). At the institution of the 
Supper, however, our Lord spoke not of His 
' flesh,' but of His ' body,' and for this there 
was a reason. Both words denote Christ's 
human nature, but whereas to eat Christ's 
' flesh ' indicates only the union of the indi- 
vidual believer with his Saviour, to eat Christ's 
1 body ' indicates also his union with other 
believers, a fundamental idea of the sacra- 
ment of love, which was intended to be the 
centre of Christian unity (1 Cor 10 16 > 17 ). 

27. ' Do not earnestly strive to obtain food 
and raiment and luxuries for your bodies, but 
spiritual food for your souls. I am indeed 
the Messiah, but the Messiah's work is not to 
give temporal prosperity as you imagine, but 
everlasting life.' Sealed] ' By this miracle God 
the Father has u sealed " (i.e. publicly pro- 
claimed) Me, not as the giver of temporal 
prosperity, as you carnally suppose, but as the 
giver of immortality.' 28. The works of God] 
i.e. works well-pleasing to God. 29. For the 
plural ' works,' i.e. a multitude of supposed 
meritorious acts, Jesus substitutes one single 
work, faith in Himself. Faith in Jesus is 
called a ' work,' because it is a definite act of 
the will. It is the one work required, because 
it is the solemn dedication of the whole life to 
God, and virtually includes in itself all other 
works, and renders them acceptable. 

30, 31. Jesus having practically (in v. 29) 
claimed to be the Messiah, the people now 
require Him to repeat Moses' miracle of the 
manna. This was regarded as the greatest of 
the OT. miracles, and it was expected that the 
Messiah would repeat it. 

32. Moses' inaiina, though it came from 
heaven, was not heavenly bread, an<l could not 
sustain spiritual life. 33. He which cometh] 
11 V 'that which cometh.' 35. What bread 
;iml water are to the body, that Christ is to 

the soul. Every aspiration after God and 
holiness He ifl able to satisfy. 36. The idea 
is contained in v. 26, but perhaps Christ is 

referring to some anreoorded words. 37. Those 

whom the Father 'gives 1 to Christ, are those 

who actually come. The Father desires the 

salvation of every man, and draws all nan to 



Christ (3 16 12 32 ), but some refuse to come 
(5 40 ). The Father foresees what men will 
come, and, as a result of His foreknowledge, 
' gives ' them to Christ. 

39. Raise it up] Jesus shows that He has 
come to abolish not natural, but spiritual 
death. Believers will die, but their death will 
be followed by a glorious resurrection. Here, 
as usually in the NT., ' resurrection ' means the 
resurrection of the righteous, not also of the 
wicked. 42. The Jews argue that since Jesus 
has a human parentage, He cannot have existed 
before His birth, and so have come down from 
heaven. Joseph] see l 45 . 

44. ' Your murmuring and unbelief are caused 
by your resistance to the " drawing " of the 
Father, who bids you believe on Me. You 
have hardened your heart, and closed your 
ears to His teaching, so that now you cannot 
believe.' 45. A free quotation from Isa 54 13 : 
cp. also Joel 2 28f . 46. Only our Lord is 
' taught of God ' in the fullest sense. 48. 1 1 
am the reality typified by the manna.' 

51. Which I will give] an allusion to our 
Lord's atoning death, as is made evident by 
the mention of His blood in v. 53. The world] 
Salvation is offered to all mankind. 53. Eating 
and drinking Christ's flesh and blood is not the 
same thing as faith, though faith is the means 
of it. It is an actual and vital union with 
Christ's human nature, whereby the believer 
dwells in Christ and Christ in him, and all 
the benefits of Christ's passion are communi- 
cated to him : see above. 55. Meat indeed] 
lit. ' true meat . . true drink,' i.e. true nourish- 
ment for the soul. 57. The life-imparting 
union between the Father and the Son, is a 
figure of the life-imparting union between 
Christ and the believer. 

59. If Tell Hum is the ancient Capernaum, 
its synagogue has been excavated. We can 
still trace its dimensions, observe its fallen 
pillars, and discover over the lintel of its 
entrance the device of a pot of manna orna- 
mented with vine-leaves and bunches of grapes. 

62. ' After My Ascension, when I shall no 
longer possess a natural body, you will under- 
stand that My words about eating My flesh and 
drinking My blood, which now offend you, are 
to be spiritually interpreted.' 63. 'What im- 
parts the power of everlasting life to those 
who feed upon My flesh, is not the flesh as 
such, but the Spirit which pervades it. The 
flesh without the Spirit profits nothing : the 
flesh with the Spirit profits much. In heaven 
I shall be a quickening Spirit, and My body 
will be spiritual. After the Ascension the 
Holy Spirit will make you partakers of My 
flesh, and you will receive it spiritually by 
faith.' The words that I speak (RV 'have 
spoken ')] 'These words of Mine about eating 
and drinking My flesh and blood, about My 



'86 



6.65 



ST. JOHN 



7.27 



Ascension, and about the gift of the Spirit, 
contain the very essence of the gospel. Those 
who believe them and obey them, will be made 
partakers of My Spirit, and of eternal life.' 

65. See vv. 44, 45. 

66-71. Effects of the discourse. Many dis- 
ciples forsake Jesus, but the Twelve stand 
firm, and their faith is strengthened. 

69. That . . Christ, the Son of the living God] 
RV ' the Holy One of God,' which emphasises 
Christ's sinlessness. Not till later does St. 
Peter confess that He is the Son of the living 
God (Mtl6i6). 71. Judas] RY 'Judas, the 
son of Simon Iscariot.' ' Iscariot ' means an 
inhabitant of Kerioth, a town in Judaea. Judas 
was thus the only Judaean apostle. 

CHAPTER 7 
The Feast of Tabernacles 
7 1 -io 21 . Jesus at the Feast of Tabernacles, 

October, 28 a.d. 

After the discourse of c. 6, delivered just 
before Passover 28 a.d., Jesus did not go up to 
Jerusalem (7 x ), but devoted Himself for five 
or six months to active work in various parts 
of Galilee, of which St. John says nothing. 
At the close of this period He visited the 
country of Tyre and Sidon (Mk7 24 ), made a 
tour through Decapolis, where He fed the 
4,000 (MkS 1 ), retired to Caesarea Philippi, 
where St. Peter made his great confession 
(Mk8 27f -), and subsequently, at a place not 
specified, was transfigured. To this period 
belong the gradual falling away of the people, 
the widening of the breach with the Pharisees, 
the deepening of the faith of the apostles, 
who are led to acknowledge Him as the Son of 
God, and the prophecies of Death and Resur- 
rection which followed the Transfiguration. 
When, in October, Jesus went up to Jeru- 
salem to keep the Feast of Tabernacles, His 
Galilean ministry was over, and He knew 
that His death was impending. 

The account of our Lord's teaching at the 
Feast of Tabernacles is remarkably vivid, and 
bears all the marks of historic accuracy (see 
especially the graphic details in 7 n - 15 > 25 " 27 > 
31,32, 40-52, an d j n c# 9). He sets His claims 
before the inhabitants of Jerusalem with great 
urgency, knowing that His time on earth is 
short. His hearers will die in their sins 
unless they believe that He is the Messiah 
(8 24 ). He is more than the Messiah ; He is 
the Son of God. self-existent and eternal 
(8 58), the Living Water (787), the Light of 
the world (8 12 9 5 ), the Good Shepherd who 
lays down His life for His sheep (10 14 > 15 ), 
and the giver of true freedom (8 36 ). He 
works only one miracle, but it is an important 
one, enforcing His claim to be the Light of 
the world (c. 9). 

1. To kill] see5 18 . 



2. Feast of tabernacles] or, ' feast of in- 
gathering,' or, ' of harvest,' held in October, 
marked the completion of the harvest of fruit, 
oil, and wine. For eight days the people lived 
in booths, in memory of the wanderings in the 
wilderness. Numerous sacrifices were offered. 
Among the notable ceremonies were the pro- 
cession to Siloam to fetch water, and its pour- 
ing out at the altar (cp. 7 37 ), the singing of 
the Hallel (Pss 113-118), the daily processions 
round the altar, and the lighting of the four 
great golden candlesticks in the Court of the 
Women (cp. 8 12 ). 

3. Thy disciples] Only a few disciples 
followed Jesus in His Galilean tours. At the 
great Feast of Tabernacles they would be 
gathered together in great numbers. 5. The 
unbelief of the brethren was removed after 
the resurrection by the appearance to James 
(1 Cor 15 7 Acl 14 ). Being unbelievers, they 
were evidently not of the number of the 
Twelve. For an account of them see on Mt 
12 50 . 6. My time] as indicated by God's 
will. Your time] They, having no special 
commission from God, were bound by no 
such considerations as He. Moreover, they 
were in no danger : the world looked upon 
them as its own. 8. I go not up yet] Many 
ancient authorities omit ' yet,' but in any case 
it is to be understood. 

14. Finding that He had a strong party on 
His side, Jesus came forth from His retire- 
ment and taught. 15. Letters] i.e. rabbinical 
learning. Having never learned] i.e. having 
never been the pupil of a recognised rabbi or 
scribe, as Paul was of Gamaliel. 16, 17. 'My 
teaching, like that of the prophets of old, is a 
direct inspiration from God, and not, like that 
of the scribes, a tradition of men. It appeals 
to the heart, not to the head. Not the learned, 
but those who apply themselves earnestly to 
do God's will, will perceive that it comes 
from God. 19. You are not keeping the 
Law. Moses commanded you not to shed 
innocent blood, and yet you seek to slay Me, 
an innocent man.' 20. His opponents hypo- 
critically try to make Him think them inno- 
cent. 

21 f. I did one work (eight months ago 
when I healed the impotent man at the pool 
of Bethesda), and ye are still marvelling 
(because I did it on the sabbath day). ' Moses 
would not have marvelled. Moses recognised 
that works of piety and charity may be done 
on the sabbath day. In fact, he commanded 
circumcision to be performed on the sabbath 
day as on other days, and you obey his com- 
mand. How, then, can you object to My 
miracle of healing ? To heal a man is as much 
a work of piety and charity as to circumcise 
him.' 22. Not because] RY ' not that.' 

27. Jewish ideas as to the Messiah were not 



787 



7.33 



ST. JOHN 



8.6 



very consistent. One view was that His birth- 
place and lineage would be notorious (cp. 
Mt2) ; others held that His manifestation 
would be shrouded in mystery. 

33, 34. A call to decision, and a reproach 
for rejecting their deliverer. 34. Hereafter, 
when misfortunes come upon you, you shall 
seek My help, and shall not find it. 35. The 
dispersed (RV ' the Dispersion ') among the 
Gentiles (RV 'the Greeks')] i.e. the Jews 
living in heathen lands. The Jews, not 
seriously but mockingly, attribute to our 
Lord the design which St. Paul afterwards 
carried out, of abandoning the Holy Land, 
and making the Jewish synagogues through- 
out the Empire centres for diffusing the 
gospel among proselytes and other Gentiles. 

37. The last day] The feast proper closed 
on the seventh day, but the eighth day, which 
is probably here meant, was kept as a sabbath 
with a holy convocation to commemorate the 
entrance into Canaan (Lv23 36 ). If any man 
thirst] Here, as to the woman of Samaria, 
Christ declares Himself the giver of ' the 
living water.' This declaration is connected 
with the ritual of the feast. On every day 
of the feast except the last, a golden pitcher 
of water was fetched (in literal fulfilment of 
Isal2 3 ) from the pool of Siloam by a priest, 
and poured together with wine on the W. side 
of the altar at the time of the morning sacri- 
fice, amid the singing of psalms and hymns. 
This water was held to symbolise the mira- 
culous water which supplied the Israelites in 
the wilderness, and also the outpouring of the 
Spirit promised in the days of the Messiah. 
On the eighth day, when the water was not 
poured out, Jesus came forward declaring 
Himself the giver of the true water which 
that water typified, viz. the Holy Spirit. 

38. The scripture] Our Lord combines the 
sense of several OT. passages, e.g. Isa44 3 
58 n Ezk47 1 . Belly] here, by a Hebraism, 
for a mini's inmost soul : cp. the use of beten 
('belly') in Provl8» 20 2 <>30 22" 2623 Job 
152,35 3218,19. Christ compares Himself with 
the Temple. As the fountain of Siloam poured 
forth its waters from the Temple mountain, 
so a stream of heavenly life issues from the 
Redeemer, and from all who have become 
like Him. We have here B striking expres- 
sion of the power of Christian influence 

39. The Holy Ghost was not yet given] 
Under Christianity, the Holy Spirit, though 
personally distinct from Christ, is still the 

Spirit of Jesus, ue. the Spirit of the Saviour. 
He could not. however, become this until the 
saving work of Chrisl was complete, until Chrisl 
had died for our sins upon the cross, risen 

again for our justification, and ascended into 
heaven to plead the merits of His sacrifice 

with the eternal Father. Hence the Com- 



forter could not be given as the Comforter, 
until Jesus had been glorified : cp. 16 7f - 

40. The Prophet] i.e. the prophet of Dtl8 15 , 
regarded not as the Messiah, but as a fore- 
runner of the Messiah. 42. Bethlehem] St. 
John was not ignorant of the birthplace of 
Jesus. He is here only reporting the words 
of others. 

49. Cursed] RV ' accursed,' viz. because of 
their ignorance. The contempt of the Phari- 
sees for those who have not received a 
rabbinical training is a touch true to life. 

50, 51. Nicodemus has made some advance 
in boldness. He ventures, though timidly, 
to plead for justice for our Lord. He was 
certainly right on the point of law : see 
Ex 231 Dtl 16 1915. 52. The Pharisees were 
wrong not only in their law, but in their 
facts, for Jonah at least was a Galilean. In 
any case the saying would not apply to our 
Lord, who was a Judaean. The narrative, 
interrupted by the interpolation 7 53 -8 n , is 
resumed 8 12 . 

CHAPTER 8 

The Feast of Tabernacles continued. 
Christ the Light of the World 

7 53 -8 n . The woman taken in adultery. All 
modern critics agree that this section is no 
original part of the Fourth Gospel. It is not 
in the author's style ; it breaks the sequence 
of our Lord's discourses, and is omitted by 
most of the ancient authorities. Probably it 
is an authentic apostolic tradition inserted 
here to illustrate the principle of 8 15 . Some 
MSS place it at the end of the Gospel. The 
incident probably took place in Holy Week, 
and is therefore appropriately inserted by 
some MSS after Lk2138. 

3. In adultery] The woman was only 
betrothed, not married, otherwise her punish- 
ment would not have been stoning, but 
strangulation, for so the rabbis interpreted 
Lv 20 10 Dt 22 22 . But inasmuch as among the 
Jews betrothal was almost equivalent to 
marriage (see on Mt 1 18 ), the sin of a betrothed 
woman was regarded as a species of adultery. 

6. Punishment of death for this offence was 
obsolescent, and some think that they wished 
to make Jesus unpopular with the people by 
inducing Him to advocate its revival. More 
probably they wished to embroil Him with 
the Roman authorities, who would not allow 
a death -sentence to be executed without their 
permission. The displeasure of Jesus was 
largely due to the officiousness of the accusers. 
It was not their business to accuse and judge 
the woman, but that of the husband and the 
judges. They had neither a legal nor a moral 
right to interfere. Wrote] Christ was always 
reluctant to interfere in civil disputes : see 
Mt22» Lk 1213-15 j n 1836. Writing on the 



788 



8.7 



ST. JOHN 



8. 37 



ground was a symbolical action well known in 
antiquity, signifying unwillingness to deal with 
the matter in hand. 

7. Without sin] Christ read their hearts, 
and under His searching glance all felt them- 
selves sinners, if not against the letter, yet 
against the spirit of the seventh command- 
ment : cp. Mt5 28 . They could not condemn 
her without condemning themselves. A stone] 
The principal witnesses cast the first stone 
(Dtl77 Ac7 58 ). 9. In the midst] viz. of the 
disciples who alone were left. Augustine 
says strikingly, ' the misera before the Miseri- 
cordia.' II. Neither do I condemn thee] i.e. 
to judicial punishment, such as your accusers 
demand. Our Lord's gentle dealing with the 
woman was due to His desire not to break the 
bruised reed. She had already suffered much, 
and (we may suppose) was bowed down under 
the burden of sin. He perceived that in her 
case a warning to sin no more would suffice : 
cp. Lk7 36 - 50 . 

8i2_ I0 2i. The narrative of the Feast of 
Tabernacles (interrupted by the interpolated 
section 7 52 -8 n ) is resumed. The scene is the 
Temple (8 20 ), the time the last day of the 
feast (737). 

12. The light of the world] The idea of the 
Messiah as ' the Light ' was familiar to the 
Jews (see Lk 1 78 > 79 2 32 ), and was especially 
appropriate at the Feast of Tabernacles, during 
which (or perhaps on the first day only) the 
two colossal golden candlesticks in the Court 
of the Women were lighted. Christ as ' the 
Light of the world ' dissipates the darkness of 
ignorance and sin. The light of life] i.e. My 
guidance which leads to life eternal. 13. See 
on v. 17. 14. ' The law as to witnesses applies 
only to human witnesses. It does not apply 
to Me, who am more than man, seeing that I 
know that I came down from heaven, and 
shall return thither.' 15. 'You judge only by 
outward appearance, and hence cannot discern 
the Divine in Me.' 17. Cp. Dtl76 19 15 . 

17, 18. If the testimony of two men is 
true, how much more true is the testimony of 
two witnesses who are divine ! 18. See on 
536,37 # 20. In the treasury] or, rather, 'by 
the treasury.' The ' treasury ' consisted of 
thirteen brazen trumpet-shaped chests, in 
which were placed the Temple tribute and 
the people's voluntary offerings. They stood 
in the Court of the Women. 

21-30. Another discourse of Jesus, delivered 
probably on the same day (some think a few 
days later). Jesus speaks of His return to 
the Father, which is misunderstood by the 
Jews and explained by Him. He also seeks 
to convince them of sin, and to show them 
their need of a Saviour. 

21. I go my way (by death), and ye shall 
me (vainly in your misfortunes as your 



deliverer), and shall die in your sins (RY 

' sin ') (because you refuse to believe on Me as 
your Saviour) : cp. 7 34 . 22. Will he kill him- 
self ?] and thereby enter Gehenna, the punish- 
ment awarded to suicide? (Jos. 'Wars,' iii. 8, 5). 
In that case we shall certainly not care to 
follow Him ! The mockery is more bitter 
than in 7 35 > q.v. 23. Their earthly hearts are 
without the higher wisdom and divine life of 
those who are born of God. 24. I am he] 
viz. the Messiah, and the Saviour. He alone 
can say, ' Thy sins be forgiven thee.' 

25. Even the same] viz. the Messiah. This 
rendering alone suits the context. Another 
translation is, ' Why do I even speak to you 
at all ? ' 26. ' I have much fault to find with 
you, but I refrain. I am not sent to judge 
you, but to teach you ; and I teach you the 
absolute truth about God, which I learnt from 
Him before I came into the world.' 28. When 
ye have lifted up the Son of man (upon the 
cross), then shall ye know that I am he] (i.e. 
the Messiah), because My death will be fol- 
lowed by My Resurrection, which will be a 
token from God that My words are true. 

31-59. Y. 31 begins another speech, delivered 
on the same day to those Jews who were 
inclined to regard Him as the Messiah. When 
these half -believers find that Jesus demands 
an entire change of heart, a breach with ortho- 
dox Judaism, and faith in Himself as the 
eternal Son of God, their feeling towards Him 
is changed to violent hatred. 

31. Believed on him] RY 'believed him.' 
They had believed His statement (vv. 24-26) 
that He was the Messiah, but they had not 
believed ' on ' Him with religious faith as the 
Light and Life of men. 31, 32. Christ's 
words exasperated these Pharisaic believers, 
because He implied (1) that they would have 
to amend their lives in order to abide in His 
word, whereas they considered their conduct 
perfect ; (2) that they were ignorant of saving 
truth, whereas they regarded themselves in 
complete possession of it ; (3) that they were 
not spiritually free, because superstitiously 
attached to the letter of the imperfect Mosaic 
Law. 33. They pretend to think that Jesus 
is alluding to their political bondage to the 
Romans. They indignantly deny the imputa- 
tion of bondage. They declare themselves 
the superiors of their oppressors. 35. A 
slave, unlike a son, formed no part of the 
family. He could be sold or expelled at will. 
So these Jews, slaves of sin and of the letter 
of the Law, were no true members of the 
Messiah's kingdom, and would be expelled 
from it. The Son] RY ' the son.' 

37. Their desire to kill Christ, the pro- 
mised seed of Abraham, proved that they 
were not children of Abraham, but of 
Satan. Hath no place] RY ' hath not free 



789 



8. 41 



ST. JOHN 



9.14 



course.' They had received Christ's word 
for a moment, and then contemptuously re- 
jected it. 41. Fornication] i.e. impure or 
superstitious worship, as often in the OT. 
The Jews claim to be the true spiritual, as 
well as the natural, descendants of Abraham. 
Inheriting his covenant and faith, they have 
' one Father, even God.' 43. They misunder- 
stood his expressions (speech), because the 
subject-matter of His discourse (word) was 
altogether above them. He was speaking of 
spiritual things which are spiritually dis- 
cerned. 44. He was a murderer from the 
beginning - ] viz. of the human race, when he 
sought to destroy our first parents, and abode 
(RY 'stood') not in the truth, i.e. in that 
state of innocence in which he was created. 
This is the only certain allusion in the Gos- 
pels to the fall of Satan (Lk 10 18 is doubtful). 

46. Christ argues from His sinlessness to 
His veracity. Since His enemies can find no 
fault with His life, they ought to believe His 
words. Christ's sinlessness is affirmed not 
only by Himself, but by His most intimate 
disciples: cp. 6 61 1 Pet 2 22 Un3 5 . 48. To 
Jesus' declaration that His hearers are ' not 
of God,' i.e. not true Israelites, they retort 
that He Himself is ' a Samaritan,' i.e. a heretic. 

Hast a devil] They cannot deny Christ's mira- 
cles or the power of Christ's words, so they 
ascribe them to diabolical agency : cp. Mt 12 24 . 

49. Christ's works cannot proceed from the 
devil, because they are designed to honour, 
not Satan, nor Himself, but God. 

50. And (RV ' but ') I seek not mine own 
glory : there is one (i.e. God) that seeketh it 
for Me, and judgeth those who withhold it 
from Me, and so dishonour Me. 

51. By dishonouring Jesus the Jews have 
incurred the judgment of the Father (v. 50), 
i. e. the penalty of eternal death. But this judg- 
ment is not irrevocable. If even now they 
will obey Christ's word, they may escape 
eternal death. 52. The Jews understand our 
Lord to speak of natural death, and so to 
claim to be immortal, and the giver of im- 
mortality. Such a claim, implying superiority 
to all the prophets of the OT., seems to them 
the effect of frenzy or diabolical possession. 

53, 54. ' The Son ' (says Westcott) ' makes 
Himself to be nothing. He is and declares 
Himself to be that which the Father, so to 
speak, makes Mini.' 56. ' I an, greater than 
your Father Abraham, for Abraham looked 
forward with exultation to the manifestation 
of one greater than himself, one in whom all 
the nations (,1' the earth should be blessed.' 

He saw U] either in prophetic vision, or, as 
some think, from Paradise. 57. The Jews 
understand, or pretend to understand, our 
Lord to mean that He wns alive in the time 
of Abraham ! 58. Before Abraham, etc.] lit. 



; Before Abraham was born, I AM.' Christ 
seems here to declare Himself to be the 
Jehovah, or I AM of the OT., the eternal, 
self -existent Creator : cp. Ex3 14 . 59. Going- 
through the midst of them, and so passed by] 
RV omits these words. 

CHAPTER 9 
The Man born Blind 
1 -1 2. The healing of the man born blind. 
This miracle occurred on the same day as the 
events of the last c, i.e. probably on the last 
day of the Feast of Tabernacles. It is intended 
to illustrate the truth that Christ is i the Light 
of the world ' (8 12 9 5 ). Christ proves His 
power to open the eyes of the soul by opening 
the eyes of the body. The miracle, being 
wrought on the sabbath day, intensified the 
hostility of the rulers, which had already been 
violently inflamed by the discourses of c. 8 : 
see 8 59. 

2. The disciples thought that possibly the 
man had sinned, either in a previous state of 
existence (in accordance with the doctrine of 
the transmigration of souls), or more probably 
as an infant before birth. To the Jews who 
attributed intelligence to unborn children 
(Gn 25 22 " 26 Lk 1 «) this last was a natural idea. 

3. As in LklS 1 ' 5 , Jesus rebukes the hasty 
inference, common among the Jews (see e.g. 
Job4 7 ), that misfortunes are always the di- 
rect result of sin. As a matter of fact diseases 
often come as part of the present order of 
nature, and not as special judgments : cp. 
Lkl3 4 . A great moral difficulty is involved 
in such a state of things, but Jesus does not 
discuss it. 

4. Jesus saw that His death was impending, 
and that His time for doing works of mercy 
was short. 6. In two other miracles (Mk7 33 
and 8 23 ) Jesus heals by a gradual process, and 
uses visible means. In this case the applica- 
tion of saliva and clay to the man's eyes 
was an aid to faith (saliva being a recognised 
remedy for eye-diseases), and his being sent 
to bathe in the water was a test of faith 
as it was in the case of Naaman (2K5 10 ). 

7. Siloam] The evangelist regards this 
pool of healing water as a type of Christ, 
who is ' sent' by the Father to heal the dis- 
eases of the soul. The OT. forms of the word 
are Shiloah, Isa 8 », and Shelah, Neh 3 15 . It is 
now called Birket Silwan. It is fed by an 
underground conduit from the Virgin's Foun- 
tain. 8. Blind] RV 'a beggar.' 

13-34. This whole section illustrates the 
incredible blindness of the Pharisees (vv. 40, 
41), who can see nothing in this unique sign, 
except the technical breach of the sabbath, of 
which they suppose Jesus to have been guilty. 

14. The conduct of Jesus was illegal in two 
ways : ( 1 ) It was forbidden to render medical 



'90 



9.17 



ST. JOHN 



10. 11 



aid on the sabbath, unless there was imminent 
danger of death ; (2) there was a special pro- 
vision against applying saliva to the eyes on 
the sabbath day. 17. He is a prophet] This 
view, if accepted, would remove the difficulty 
about the sabbath day, for it was generally 
supposed that prophets had authority over the 
sabbath law. 22. Put out of the synagogue] 
i.e. excommunicated. 24. Give God the praise] 
RV ' Give glory to God,' a Hebrew idiom for 
1 Confess your error,' Josh 7 19 1 S6 5 lEsdr9 8 . 

34. Born in sins] This gives the clue to 
v. 2. The Pharisees assume that the man had 
been born blind as a punishment for exceptional 
wickedness, which began even before birth. 

Cast him out] i.e. excommunicated him. 

35. "When the door of the synagogue was 
shut, the door of the Kingdom of Heaven was 
opened. The Son of God] Christ so seldom 
uses this title of Himself, that it has been 
corrected in many copies into the more usual 
k the Son of man.' Whichever title was used, 
the man rightly understood Jesus to claim 
superhuman dignity, and accordingly wor- 
shipped Him (v. 38). 

39. For judgment I am come] This does 
not contradict 3 17 , for the ' judgment ' meant 
here is not the judicial act of rewarding and 
punishing, which Christ will exercise at the 
Last Day, but the present separation of man- 
kind into two opposite camps, which is the 
inevitable result of His manifestation in the 
flesh. That they which see not (but are con- 
scious of their ignorance) might see : and that 
they which see (or, rather, think they see) 
might be made blind: cp. Mtl3 1117 . 40. Are 
we blind also ? ] Christ's Pharisaic disciples 
rightly perceive that His words are directed 
against them. 41. If the Pharisees were 
simply ignorant, but confessed their ignorance 
and were willing to learn, they would not be 
guilty. What makes them so guilty is that, 
though ignorant, they esteem themselves wise, 
and refuse to learn the way of life. They are 
still seeking the righteousness of the Law, 
rather than the righteousness of God. 

CHAPTER 10 
The Good Shepherd. The Feast of the 
Dedication 
1-18. Allegories of the Fold and of the 
Good Shepherd. This c. continues Christ's 
discourse to His Pharisaic disciples begun at 
9 39 . His words take the form of an allegory 
which is intended partly to rebuke the Phari- 
sees, partly to comfort the blind man, and 
partly to instruct the Church as to the duties 
of Christian pastors. The blind man, unjustly 
expelled from the fold of Judaism by false 
shepherds (the Pharisees), finds refuge in the 
flock of the True Shepherd, i.e. in the Christian 
Church, the mild discipline of which is con- 



trasted with the cruel severity of the syna- 
gogue. The allegory is based entirely on 
OT. figures: see Ps23 Ezk34 Jer23!- 4 Zech 

1 14-17. 

I. The thieves and robbers mentioned here 
are primarily the Pharisees who have unjustly 
excommunicated the blind man, and second- 
arily and prophetically false pastors in the 
Christian Church. Christ is the rightful 
owner of the flock, and those who would 
exercise the office of shepherd must ' enter by 
the door,' i.e. receive their authority from 
Him, and exercise it in His spirit. This the 
Pharisees have not done. 2. To understand 
the imagery, it must be remembered that 
Eastern folds are large open enclosures into 
which several flocks are driven at the approach 
of night. There is only one door, which a 
single shepherd guards, while the others go 
home to rest. In the morning the shepherds 
return, are recognised by the doorkeeper, call 
their flocks round them, and lead them forth 
to pasture. 3. By name] A beautiful picture 
of pastoral converse. The true pastor knows 
every member of his congregation individually. 

4. Goeth before them] The false pastor, 
loving popularity, follows his flock. The true 
pastor leads them. He leads them, (1) by his 
teaching. He gives his people not what they 
want, but what they ought to want ; (2) by 
his good example, his holy life being an en- 
sample to the flock (IPeto 3 ). 

7. I am the door of the sheep] i.e. ' I alone 
can endue pastors and teachers with spiritual 
authority over the flock of God.' In v. 9 
Christ calls Himself ' the door ' in a wider 
sense. 8. ' All who have taught Israel from 
the cessation of prophecy to My own coming 
have been false and unauthorised teachers.' 
Our Lord is alluding, of course, not to the 
OT. prophets, but to the scribes who had 
dominated the religious life of Israel for 400 
years, but whose teaching had nevertheless 
been rejected by many spiritually-minded men, 
e.g. by the author of the book of Jonah, who 
earnestly protested against it, and by many of 
the later Psalmists, whose writings breathe a 
spirit the very opposite of that of the scribes 
and Pharisees. 9. I am the door] 'Through 
faith in Me both shepherds and sheep enter 
into the Kingdom of God, and find all their 
spiritual needs supplied.' Pasture] i.e. the 
means of grace. 

11. The good shepherd] The Gk. signifies 
the Perfect or Ideal Shepherd. This beautiful 
figure is often found in the OT. applied to 
Jehovah (Pss23, 80 Isa40 n ) ; only in Ezekiel 
does it become a title of the Messiah (Ezk 34 23 
37 24). Giveth (R V « layeth down ') his life for 
the sheep] Another distinct prophecy of His 
death. Eastern shepherds are always armed, 
and are sometimes killed in defending their 



791 



10. 12 



ST. JOHN 



11. 1 



flocks against the wolves, leopards, and pan- 
thers, which infest the wilderness (G-n 31 39 IS 
1 7 34 ). The expression ' layeth down his life ' 
is peculiar to St. John (see 13 37 ). 12. Seeth 
the wolf coming . . and fleeth] The wolf 
(Satan) may come in various ways, as an open 
persecution, as a popular heresy, as a tendency 
to lax morality. The hireling shepherd is the 
cowardly compromiser who gives way to, in- 
stead of resisting, the evil tendencies of his 
age. 14, 15. RV ' I know mine own, and 
mine own know me, even as the Father 
knoweth me, and I know the Father.' 16. The 
Gentiles also are God's children. The gospel 
is for them also, and Jew and Gentile shall 
form one Church under one shepherd (Christ). 
One fold] RY ' one flock.' 

17. As usual in this Gospel, the death and 
resurrection of Christ are united in one idea. 

18. Christ's death is the result, neither of a 
compulsory decree of the Father, nor of the 
power of the Evil One, but of a voluntary 
impulse springing from Christ's love for lost 
mankind. 

22-39. Jesus at the Feast of the Dedication. 
As there is no statement that Jesus went up 
to Jerusalem, it is fair to infer that Jesus 
spent the two months between the Feast of 
Tabernacles and that of the Dedication in or 
near Jerusalem. Less probable is the view 
that these months were spent in Galilee, 
Samaria, and Persea, and that the mission of 
the Seventy, and many other incidents re- 
corded in Lk9 51 -19 27 , belong to this period. 

22. The Feast of the Dedication (lit. ' the 
Renewal ') was instituted by Judas Maccabasus, 
1G4 B.C., to commemorate the purification of 
the Temple, which had been profaned by the 
idolatrous king Antiochus Epiphanes. It was 
held on the 25th of Kislev (about the middle 
of December), and on account of the brilliant 
illuminations was also called ' the Lights.' 

23. Porch] i.e. portico, or, cloister. This 
portico was on the E. side of the Temple 
buildings, and, according to Josephus, was a 
portion of Solomon's Temple, which had been 
left Btanding by Nebuchadnezzar. 

25. I told you] viz. in those discourses in 
which [claimed to be the Son of GkxJ ("i ,7!7 
714*9 s '--•-''•'). and the Good Shepherd (in'-'*). 
These wire Messianic titles. 26. As I said 
unto you] Bee 10 lf . 28. .\<> power of the 
world or of Satan can pluck believers out of 
Christ's hand ; only their own unfaithfulness 
to grace received can do this. 29. The Father 

is superior to all hostile powers and therefore 
believers can never he lost through the power 
of the enemy. There is another reading, 
' That which the Father hath given unto me is 
greater than all' (so BM). This means that 
believers, through grace, are roperior to all 
their enemies, and can never he lost except 



through their own fault. 30. I and my Father 
(RV k the Father ') are one] lit. ' one thing,' i.e. 
one essence or substance. The Greek indi- 
cates that the Father and the Son are two 
Persons but one God. 

31. Again] see 8 59 . 

34-36. If the fallible and sinful judges of 
Israel were rightly called ' gods,' much more 
may I, who am one with the Father and free 
from sin, claim the title of ' the Son of God.' 

34. Your law] i.e. the OT., which you 
acknowledge. ' The Law ' not infrequently 
stands for the whole OT. : see 1234 1525 
lCorl4 21 . The quotation here is from Ps 
82 6 . Gods] Judges, as God's representatives, 
are several times called ' gods ' in the OT. 
(Ex 21 6 22 7,8,28 . cp . a i so IS 2813). 35. The 
word of God ' came ' to the judges when He 
appointed them to their office. 36. Sanctified] 
consecrated to the office of Messiah and Re- 
deemer of the world. 38. The Father is 
in me] A commentary upon v. 30. Human 
personality differs from divine personality. 
Human persons exclude one another. The 
Divine Persons mutually contain, pervade, and 
include one another. They are absolutely 
one in knowledge, sympathy, will, and act. 

40-42. The Peraean ministry. These vv. cover 
a period of about three months, which is gene- 
rally spoken of as the Peraean ministry (see 
MU9 1 Mk 10 \ and cp.Lk9 51 ). Its chief inci- 
dents were the mission of the Seventy (Lk 10 J ), 
the question of divorce (Mtl9 3 ), the blessing 
of little children (Mk 10 13 ), the question of the 
rich young ruler (MklO 17 ), and Christ's mes- 
sage to Herod Antipas (Lkl3 31 ). The whole 
section, Lk9 51 -18 34 , appears to belong to this 
period, but many of the incidents are not 
chronologically arranged. 

40. The place was Bethany beyond Jordan, 
1 28 . 41. The remark that John did no miracle 
shows that there was little inclination at this 
period to invest popular teachers with mira- 
culous powers. 42. Although John was dead, 
his influence was still strong in this district, 
and the people werg ready to believe that He 
to whom John had borne witness was the true 
Messiah. 

CHAPTER 11 
Christ the Resurrection and tiie Life 
1-44. The raising of Lazarus. The last and 
greatest of the seven 'signs' recorded in 
this Gospel is related with such photographic 
minuteness of detail, that it is clear that the 
evangelist was present. Three points about it 
are specially noteworthy : (1) that it was a 
physical miracle, which no ingenuity can reduce 
to a case of faith-healing ; (2) that it was 
definitely worked to produce faith in Christ 
(v. 42) ; (3) that more than any other miracle 
1: was performed under test conditions ; — the 



792 



11. 1 



ST. JOHN 



11.31 



object of it was really dead (v. 39), and hostile 
witnesses were present (v. 42). Its spiritual 
meaning is given in v. 25, ' I am the resur- 
rection, and the life.' The raising of Lazarus 
to corporeal life is to the evangelist a token 
and pledge that the worker of it can raise the 
dead soul to spiritual life, and endue it with a 
blessed immortality. The publicity and noto- 
riety of this miracle explain the warm welcome 
which Jesus received from the inhabitants of 
Jerusalem at His triumphal entry on Palm 
Sunda3 r . The synoptists mention the welcome 
(Mt21 8-11 ||), but say nothing of its cause. 
Various reasons are alleged for the omission of 
this miracle by the synoptists. Some say that 
when they wrote, Lazarus and his family were 
still alive, and did not desire to be made the 
objects of public curiosity. More probably it 
was omitted as belonging to the Judaean min- 
istry, which (for whatever reason) the synop- 
tists did not undertake to record. 

I. Lazarus] i.e. Eleazar, ' God is my help,' 
a man of good social position, probably a son 
or near relative of Simon the Leper (Mt 
26 6 ) ; not to be identified with the beggar 
Lazarus of the parable. Bethany] a village 
at the Mount of Olives, a little less than 2 m. 
from Jerusalem, now called El 'Azeriyeh, ' the 
place of Lazarus.' Mary . . Martha] St. John 
supposes that they are known to his readers 
from St. Luke's narrative (LklO 38 ). The cir- 
cumstances of the family, and the characters 
of the sisters in the two Gospels are quite in 
agreement. 2. St. John assumes that the fact 
of the anointing is already known in a general 
way from the synoptists (see Mt26 6 Mk 14 3 , 
and cp. Lk 7 36 ), but since their narratives are 
somewhat obscure and confusing, he intends 
to give later on (12 * f -) a more accurate account. 

3. Lovest] The love which Christ bore to 
the whole human race did not prevent Him 
from forming special friendships. 4. Not unto 
death] i.e. not unto permanent death. But for 
the glory of God, etc.] Lazarus was allowed to 
die that God might be glorified by his resur- 
rection. So the blind man was born blind 
that God might be glorified by his eyes being 
miraculously opened (9 3 ). 

6. Two days] Our Lord waited two days, 
(1) that the death of Lazarus might be an 
indisputable fact : cp. v. 39 ; (2) that there 
might be time for a competent number of 
witnesses to assemble : cp. v. 42. There is a 
seeming want of tenderness to the sisters in 
allowing Lazarus to die, and then making 
them wait four days for the miracle ; but 
wider interests than those of a single family 
were involved. Moreover, the delay was the 
means of testing and strengthening the sisters' 
faith: cp. vv, 22, 27, 32. 9, 10. Our Lord's 
allegorical answer means, ' The allotted time 
of My ministry is not yet finished, therefore I 



shall be safe in Judaea, and so will you. But 
when My allotted time has elapsed, then I shall 
be in danger of death, and you also.' 9. The 
light] i.e. the sun. 11. Sleepeth] because 
Lazarus was soon to be awakened as from 
sleep : cp. Mk5 39 . 15. A secondary object of 
the miracle was the strengthening of the dis- 
ciples' faith. 

16. Didymus] i.e. ' twin,' is the correct 
translation of the Aramaic ' Thomas.' Per- 
haps he was twin brother of Matthew with 
whom he is coupled (Mt 10 3 Mk3 18 Lk^is). He 
here figures as the pessimist of the apostolic 
circle ; in c. 20 as the sceptic. Yet his love 
and devotion to our Lord are undoubted. Die] 
because of the danger in Judaea. 

17. The grave] RY ' the tomb.' In Pales- 
tine burial took place on the day of death. 
The possession of a private tomb by the family 
of Lazarus is an indication of wealth. The 
poor were buried in cemeteries (2 K 23 6 ). 

19. Yisits of condolence were paid with 
great ceremony for seven days after a death. 

20. Sat still] BY ' still sat.' Sitting was 
the attitude of grief. ' After the body is carried 
out of the house, all chairs and couches are 
reversed, and the mourners sit on the ground on 
a low stool.' 22. Even now] marvellous faith 
under the circumstances. She believes that 
Jesus can raise Lazarus, but dare not express 
the hope that He will. 

24. A belief in a future resurrection was 
at this period professed by all pious Jews, and 
was not peculiar to the Pharisees. The ex- 
pression ' the Last Day ' is peculiar to St. John. 

25. I am the resurrection, and the life] These 
solemn words, which are used most appro- 
priately in the Burial Service, not only refer 
to the raising of Lazarus to a natural life, but 
indicate that Christ is also the author of 
the resurrection to eternal life. He that be- 
lieveth] The words apply primarily to Lazarus. 
Lazarus was a believer in Christ. Lazarus was 
dead. And because Lazarus was a believer, 
he was about to be raised from the dead. His 
resurrection was a token and pledge of the 
resurrection of all believers. 26. Shall never 
die] because death to Christians is not really 
death. Death did not break the living union 
between the soul of Lazarus and His Redeemer, 
nor will it break that of other believers. ' The 
souls of the righteous are in the hand of God ; 
there shall no torment touch them.' 27. The 
Son of God] When used, as here, as a popular 
title of the Messiah, this expression implies a 
special nearness to God, but not necessarily 
actual divinity. Which should come] R Y ' even 
he that cometh.' ' He that cometh ' was a 
common title of the Messiah : cp. 6 14 Mtll 3 . 

31. For three days the mourners used to 
visit the grave, believing that the soul hovered 
round, fain to re-enter and reanimate its fleshly 



793 



11. 33 



ST. JOHN 



11. 54 



tenement. On the fourth day, it was thought, 
the soul departed and decomposition began. 

33. He groaned] i.e. He sorrowed in sym- 
pathy with the mourners. But EM ' He was 
moved with indignation,' i.e. at the havoc 
wrought by death in thus cutting off a young 
life. Our Lord regarded not only sin, but also 
disease and death, as part of that kingdom 
of Satan which He came to destroy. Their 
dominion over the human race filled Him with 
acute distress. In the spirit] i.e. in His human 
spirit. The Gospels assign to Jesus, as per- 
fect man, both ' soul ' and ' spirit.' And was 
troubled] The EM more correctly renders ' and 
troubled Himself.' Christ was not subject to 
human emotions, as we are, against His will. 
Out of sympathy with mankind He conde- 
scended to feel them. 

35. Jesus wept] An exquisitely human touch, 
showing that the evangelist, with all his in- 
sistence upon Christ's divinity, has a firm 
grasp of His true humanity. Contrast with 
the sympathetic tears of Jesus the Stoic ideal 
of indifference to human emotion. In Jesus 
the strength of a man was united to the tender- 
ness of a woman. Men may learn from this 
that there is nothing unmanly in tears. Some 
think that Jesus wept because He was about to 
summon back a soul from the felicity of Para- 
dise to the strife and sorrow of this mortal state. 

37. Could not this man] Probably a hostile 
criticism, imputing to Jesus lack of love or 
lack of power. 38. A stone lay upon it] which 
implies that it was an underground vault, or, 
' a stone lay against it ' (RY), which implies 
that it was a cavern hewn in the side of a hill. 
The tomb now called that of Lazarus ' is a deep 
vault like a cellar, excavated in the limestone 
rock in the middle of the village, to which 
there is a descent by 26 steps.' 39. Martha 
thinks that Jesus wishes to take a last look at 
His friend, and she seeks to dissuade Him, 
fearing that, putrefaction having already begun, 
the corpse will present a fearful spectacle. 
The apparent failure, for the moment, of her 
half-formed faith is true to life. 

41, 42. This prayer of Jesus is remarkable, 
for, (1) He thanks God beforehand for the 
in i rude, as if it had already been performed ; 
(2) contrary to His usual practice, He offers 
the miracle as a proof of His divine mission, 
and that to unbelievers. 41. Hast heard me] 
B V 'heardesi me,' viz. four days ago in Peroa, 
wlicii I prayed that Lazarus might be raised to 
life. 42. I said /'/] \i/,. that Thou didst bear 
My prayer that Lazarus might be raised. 

44. Came forth] doubtless with difficulty, 
his legl being bound together by grave- 

clothes. Senoe the command "Loose him.' 
It is possible, however, that the legs of Lazarus 

were Swathed separately alter the Egyptian 

manner. 45, 46. Tin < ; i<.. interpreted strictly, 



means that all the Jews who were present 
believed, and that some of them went, appar- 
ently in good faith, to the Pharisees, hoping 
to convince them. Perhaps they expected 
that such a miracle would receive favourable 
consideration from those who were the special 
champions of the doctrine of the Eesurrection. 
They certainly reported the miracle as a fact : 
see v. 47. 

47-53. A meeting of the Sanhedrin against 
Jesus. As in the synoptics, the chief priests, 
i.e. the Sadducees, take a more prominent 
part than the Pharisees in compassing the 
death of Jesus. Similarly in the Acts it is 
mainly the Sadducees who are hostile to the 
infant Church. The hostility of the Sadducees 
was due not so much to dislike of the doctrine 
of the Resurrection, as to selfish and political 
motives : see v. 48. 

47. What do we?] i.e. Why are we doing 
nothing ? 48. The Romans shall come] They 
feared that Jesus would be proclaimed king by 
the people, and that the Romans would there- 
upon inflict summary judgment upon the 
nation. Our place and nation] i.e. our posi- 
tion in the State, and the very existence of 
the nation. Others understand ' our place ' to 
be Jerusalem (cp. 2Mac3 ls - 30 ), or the Temple 
(cp. Ac 6 14 2 Mac 5 19). 49. Caiaphas] In full 
Joseph C, a Sadducee. See on Mt26 3 . That 
same year] i.e. high priest in that memorable 
year in which Jesus was crucified. The ex- 
pression does not imply that the high-priest- 
hood was an annual office. Ye know nothing] 
see 18 14 . Caiaphas speaks somewhat con- 
temptuously of the Pharisees — ' You Pharisees 
have no policy to offer. We Sadducees have 
a very definite one. Jesus must die, in our 
interests, and yours, and In the interests of 
the national existence.' 51, 52. Of old the 
high priest had declared the divine will by 
Urim and Thummim (Ex28 30 , etc.). The 
prophetic power, long withdrawn, is restored 
for a moment, just as the Levitical priesthood 
was about to be abolished by the one offering of 
Christ upon the cross. Die for (i.e. on behalf 
of) that nation] The high priest unwittingly 
proclaimed Jesus as the true paschal lamb, 
whose blood would atone for the sins of the 
world. By sacrificing Jesus he brought about 
a blessing of which he never dreamed (the 
remission of sins), and compassed for the nation 
the very evil which he sought to avert (the loss 
of national existence). 52. In (RV 'into') 
one] i.e. into one Church. The children of God^ 
i.e. the Gentiles. Scattered abroad] The 
unity of the human race has been destroyed 
by sin. Tin; death of Christ, by abolishing 
sin, reestablishes its unity. 

54-57. Retirement to Ephraim. Attitude 
of the multitudes at Jerusalem. Suppressed 
excitement. 



794 



11.54 



ST. JOHN 



12.24 



54. To avoid the snares of His enemies, and 
to secure a short season of undisturbed com- 
munion with His disciples, Jesus retires to 
Ephraim, perhaps Ephrain or Ephron (2Ch 
13 19 ), or Ophrah (1 S 13 17 ). 55. To purify them- 
selves] No man could eat the Passover while 
ceremonially unclean (see 18 2s Nu9 10 2Ch 
30 17 ), hence the Passover pilgrims assembled 
in Jerusalem some time beforehand to purify 
themselves by ablutions, shaving the head, and 
sacrifice. In some cases the process lasted a 
week. 57. Jesus was still too popular to be 
taken publicly. 

CHAPTER 12 

The Triumphal Entry. Close op the 
Public Ministry 

1— II. Supper at Bethany (see on Mt26 6 
and Mkl4 3 , which record the same incident). 
The event in Lk7 36f - is different. The 
supper was at the house of Simon the 
leper, a near relation, perhaps the father, of 
Lazarus and the sisters. St. John alone men- 
tions the name of the woman who anointed 
Jesus, the quantity of the unguent (1 litre = 
12 oz.), and the author of the mean speech, 
' Why was not this ointment sold for three 
hundred pence, and given to the poor ?' He 
also states that the supper was held six days 
(not two days, as St. Mark) before the Pass- 
over. Mary probably anointed Jesus in grati- 
tude for the restoration of her brother Lazarus 
to life. 

1. Six days] Since the Passover, according 
to this Gospel, took place on Friday, Jesus 
apparently arrived on Saturday (the sabbath), 
and the supper must have taken place the 
same evening. 5. Three hundred pence (de- 
narii)] about £9. 6. The bag (or, box)] The 
apostles had one purse, because they realised 
that those who have spiritual things in com- 
mon, ought (ideally, at least) to have temporal 
things in common also. But though commun- 
ism is the ultimate Christian ideal, and has 
always been regarded as such (see Ac2 M ), it 
does not, therefore, follow that it is practic- 
able or good in the existing state of the world. 

Bare] RY 'took away,' i.e. stole. 

7. Let her alone: against the day of my 
burying hath she kept this] i.e. She has done 
quite right not to sell the ointment. She has 
kept it for to-day, making to-day as it were 
My burial day, by performing the prophetic 
1 act of anointing and embalming My body. 
But a better reading is, ' Suifer her to keep it 
against the day of My burying ' ; i.e. She has 
only used a portion of the ointment in anoint- 
ing My feet. Do not insist on her giving the 
rest to the poor. Rather let her keep it for 
anointing My body for burial after the death 
1 which I perceive to be impending. 9. Much 
people] RY 'the common people.' They 



came] doubtless into the house to watch the 
banquet. In the East a feast is a public cere- 
mony, and there is a continual succession of 
sightseers. II. Went away] i.e. apostatised. 

12-19. The triumphal entry (see on Mt21 1 
Mk 1 1 1 Lk 1 9 29 .) The purpose of our Lord's 
public entry was to testify to the nation and 
to mankind that He was actually the Messiah 
promised by the OT. prophets, and the person 
by whom the kingdom of God was to be estab- 
lished. St. John writes briefly, supplementing 
the synoptic account, a knowledge of which 
he assumes. The sjoioptists seem to regard 
the entry as a purely Galilean demonstration, 
and give no explanation of our Lord's favour- 
able reception in Jerusalem. St. John repre- 
sents the procession as consisting not only of 
Galileans (v. 12), but also of inhabitants of 
Jerusalem, who had seen Lazarus raised from 
the dead, and whose testimony to the truth of 
the miracle caused the extraordinary sensation 
in Jerusalem (vv. 17, 18). 

12. The next day] This is now generally 
called Palm Sunday. Much people] evidently 
Galileans. 13. Palm trees] Among the He- 
brews, as among the Greeks, palms were 
carried as symbols of victory and rejoicing 
(1 Mac 13 51 Rev 7 9 ). 16. Observe the author's 
intimate knowledge of the sentiments of the 
disciples. 

20-22. Jesus and the Greeks. A dominant 
idea of this Gospel is universalism. Christ 
dies for all men, Gentiles as well as Jews, and 
is, therefore, the Saviour of the world (4 22 
1 Jn4 14 ). Appropriately, therefore, the evan- 
gelist notices that the last public utterance of 
Jesus was on the Gentile question. St. John 
sees in the request of these Greeks for an 
interview (which we are to presume was 
granted) a foreshadowing of the calling of 
the Gentiles. 

20. Greeks] i.e. Gentiles, probably from 
Galilee or Decapolis, where there was a large 
Gentile population. Their presence at the 
feast shows that they sympathised — as so 
many devout Gentiles did — with the mono- 
theistic faith of Israel. 

23-26. Last public discourse of Jesus. The 
voice from heaven. The time is probably 
Wednesday afternoon, the place the Temple : 
cp. Mt21 23 . Jesus resigns Himself to death, 
comforting Himself by contemplating its glo- 
rious issues. 

23. The humble request of these Greeks 
for an interview brings vividly before Christ's 
mind His approaching death, through which 
alone salvation can be offered to the Gentiles. 

Should be glorified] viz. by death, which in 
the case of Jesus was not a humiliation, but a 
triumph over the powers of evil. 24. As a 
grain of corn must rot in the ground before it 
can bring forth fruit, so must the Son of man 



795 



12. 25 



ST. JOHN 



12.40 



die and be buried before the harvest of the 
world can ripen and be reaped. The divine 
life, so long as Jesus remained on earth in the 
body of His humiliation, was confined to Him- 
self. But when by His death and resurrection 
the earthly shell was cast off, the way was open 
for the diffusion of the divine life among all 
mankind. Our Lord's mysterious words would 
probably be understood by the Greeks, who, 
if they had been initiated in the mysteries of 
Eleusis, had seen the immortality of the soul 
represented under the figure of a grain of 
wheat buried in the earth that it might germ- 
inate and spring up into new life. 

25, 26. Our Lord's followers also, if their 
labours for the conversion of the world are to 
be fruitful, must, like Him, ' love not their 
lives unto death.' Only by self-denial, self- 
sacrifice, self-mortification, and, if need be, 
by a martyr's death, can the faith be spread, 
and life given to a dying world. They are 
to expect no reward in this world, but in the 
world to come they shall have eternal life, and 
their heavenly Father will delight to honour 
them. 26. Where I am] i.e. where I am soon 
to be, viz. in heaven. 

27. Deeply pathetic are these words, and 
deeply comforting to all who feel their load 
of sorrow too heavy for them to bear. Even 
Jesus could not face His hour of agony with- 
out a struggle. The horror of His approach- 
ing death filled Him with anguish. His soul 
was troubled. For a moment He almost 
prayed to be spared the bitter cup. Then 
His purpose victoriously reasserted itself. It 
was to die that He came into the world, and 
by dying willingly He will glorify His Father. 
The intensely human struggle described here 
exactly corresponds to the agony in the garden 
recorded by the synoptists (Mt26 39 ||), and is 
evidence that St. John, no less than they, 
realised our Lord's true humanity, and its 
subjection to human conditions. Father, save 
me from this hour] or, perhaps better, • Shall I 
Bay, Father, Bave me from this hour?' For 
this cause] i.e. to die. 

28. Father, glorify thy name] viz. by accept- 
ing My willing sacrifice upon the Cross. A 
voice] The voices from heaven in the NT. are 
objective in the Benee that all present hear 
tlicni and are startled by them, but only those 
for whom they are intended understand their 

meaning. Thus at the Baptism the heavenly 

voice whs understood by Christ and the Baptist, 
at the Transfiguration by Christ and the chosen 
three, here i>\ Ghrisl and the apostles, perhaps 

by Christ alone. Similarly at St. Paul's con- 
version only St. Paul himself distinguished the 
words spoken from heaven, though all heard 
the voice. I have both glorified W] viz. by ac- 
cepting the offering of Thy life's work, crowned 
as it is by Thy willing submission to Buffer 



death upon the cross, and will glorify it again 
by raising Thee from the dead, and placing 
The© in glory at My right hand. 

31. Now (i.e. within a few days) is the 
judgment (or, a judgment) of this world] i.e. of 
the persons in it. Christ's death followed by 
His Resurrection is a ' judgment,' because it is 
a deliberate challenge to mankind to accept 
Him as the Divine Redeemer of the world 
Henceforth men must take sides for and against 
Christ, To accept Him is to accept eternal 
life : to reject Him is to be self-condemned. 

Now shall the prince of this world (i.e. Satan) 
be cast out] i.e. deposed by the power of 
Christ's Death and Resurrection from his 
usurped dominion over the human race. ' The 
prince of the world ' (i.e. of the Gentile world) 
was a recognised rabbinical title of Satan. 

32. And I, if I be lifted up (viz. upon the 
cross) . . will (after My Resurrection and Ascen- 
sion) draw all men unto me (RV 'myself')] 
St. John regards the crucifixion of Jesus as a 
symbol. His elevation upon the cross is an 
emblem of His being set up as the ensign 
(Isall 10 ) around which the nations are to 
rally. The attractive power of the cross lies 
largely in the fact that sorrow and suffering 
are universal, and that the sympathy for which 
all suffering souls crave is only to be found in 
the love of the Crucified. All meii] The offer 
of salvation is made to all. 34. The people 
understand Christ's allusion to His death, and 
find this difficult to reconcile with ' the Law,' 
i.e. the OT. (see 10 34 ), which teaches that the 
reign of the Messiah will be eternal (Pss45 6 
1 1 4 Isa 9 6, T Dan 7 14 ). Can, therefore, Jesus 
be the Messiah ? Has He even claimed to be 
He ? He has only (v. 23) claimed to be the 
Son of man. Is this Son of man, whom He 
claims to be, the Messiah or not ? They press 
for an answer. 

35> 36. Jesus gives no direct answer, though 
He implies that He is the Messiah by calling 
Himself the Light : see 8 12 . Avoiding all 
controversy, He bids them believe on Him, 
while they have Him with them, and warns 
them of their danger if they do not. 

36. Children (RV 'sons') of light] i.e. 
enlightened persons. The phrase occurs Lk 
16*Eph58 1 Th 55. Did hide himself] lit. 'was 
hidden.' This was Christ's final retirement 
from His public ministry, and corresponds with 
Ml 24 1 , where Christ leaves the Temple for the 
List time. He went, probably, to Bethany 
(Mr2P"). 

37-43. Cause of the unbelief of the Jews. 
At first they could believe, but refused. By 
and by they became incapable of it. In this 
too common experience St. John sees the 
judgment of God : cp. Ro9-ll. 

38. Lord, who, etc.] quoted exactly from 
LXX of IsaoS 1 . 40. He hath blinded, etc.] 
96 



12. 41 



ST. JOHN 



13.20 



A very free quotation from Isa 6 10 . 41. These 
things said Esaias (Isaiah)] Strictly speaking, 
God said them to Isaiah about Isaiah's own 
contemporaries, but St. John sees in the pas- 
sage a typical prophecy of the unbelief of the 
Jews in the time of Christ. When he saw his 
glory] i.e. Christ's glory. The words were 
spoken at Isaiah's call when he ' saw the 
Lord ' (whom the evangelist identifies with 
Christ) ' upon a throne high and - lifted up ' 
(Isa6 5 ). 43. They loved to be honoured by 
men, more than to be honoured by God. 

44-50. Judgment of Jesus upon their un- 
belief. He refuses to condemn them formally 
(v. 47), because His First Coming was not to 
judge, but to save. Yet He adds that in the 
Last Day they will be self -condemned. His 
words, which they rejected, will rise up against 
them in judgment. These vv. are neither a 
public address, which Jesus came out of his 
retirement to deliver, nor a private exhortation 
to the Greeks, but rather a collection of striking 
sayings of Jesus on the subject of faith and un- 
belief, appropriately inserted by the evangelist 
in this place. 

45. Cp. 149. 46. Cp. 812 9M9, etc. 

47. And believe not] RY ' and keep them 
not.' I judge him not] cp. 5 45 8 15 > 26 . I came 
not] cp. 3 17 . 48. In the last day Jesus will 
but ratify the verdict of their own consciences. 

50. ' The gospel message which the Father 
has committed to Me conveys to those who 
accept and obey it eternal life.' 

CHAPTER 13 

The Last Supper 
1-17. The Supper and the Feet- washing. 

This supper is identified by almost all modern 
authorities with the Last Supper, which took 
place on Thursday night at Jerusalem (Mt 26 20 
Mk 14 17 Lk 22 14 ). Writing to supplement the 
synoptists, St. John omits practically all that 
they have recorded, and this accounts for his 
omission of the institution of the Holy Com- 
munion. The points peculiar to St. John are 
the feet-washing, the incident of the sop, the 
details about the beloved disciple, and the 
wonderful discourses, of which the synoptists 
give no hint. 

1. Before the feast] St. John corrects the 
impression, which many have derived from the 
synoptic narratives, that the Last 'Supper was 
the actual Jewish Passover. It was, in fact, a 
Christian Passover, held the day before the 
Jewish feast (18 28 ), and probably not con- 
formed in all respects to the Jewish ritual. 
There is, for example, no mention of a 
lamb, though it is possible that there may 
have been one. Unto the end] or, 'to the 
uttermost.' 

2. Supper being ended] or, ' during supper ' 
(RY). But inasmuch as feet-washing took 



place at the beginning of a meal, much is to 
be said for the rendering, ' supper having been 
served.' The devil] Judas had so often yielded 
to Satan's evil suggestions that now he made 
no resistance. Heart stands here as often for 
the soul, or inner man. 

4. Riseth] The disciples had been disputing 
(Lk 22 24 ) which of them should be accounted 
greatest, and, as we gather from Christ's 
rebuke (Lk22 27 ), not one of them would serve 
at supper, for fear of being thought inferior 
to the others. Jesus, therefore, after waiting 
a little for one of them to offer, rose Himself. 
Not content with writing at table, which might 
upon occasion be done by a person of good po- 
sition (12 2 ), He washed their feet, the function 
of a slave. Feet- washing took place before a 
banquet, and was occasionally omitted, though 
its absence might be remarked (Lk7 44 ). St. 
John's account supplements St. Luke's by 
recording the symbolical act by which our Lord 
enforced His words, ' I am among you as he 
thatserveth' (Lk22 27 ). 

8. If I wash thee not] Besides the literal, 
the evangelist sees in these words a symbolical 
meaning : ' Unless I wash thee from thy sins, 
thou hast no part with Me ' : see v. 10. 10. He 
that is washed (i.e. has bathed his whole body) 
needeth not save to wash his feet] This is a 
parable of things spiritual. The complete 
bathing or immersion stands for the full and 
complete forgiveness which Christ offers to 
His disciples in Holy Baptism, and which 
cannot be repeated : the washing of the feet 
symbolises the daily forgiveness of sins com- 
mitted after Baptism by repentance and prayer. 

Not all] The apostles had repented of their 
pride and ambition, and had received forgive- 
ness from our Lord (15 3 ), except Judas, who 
could not be forgiven, because he cherished 
his sin. 

1 2. Set down] rather, ' reclined at table ' : 
see v. 23. 14-17. Our Lord now draws from 
the incident the more obvious lessons of humil- 
ity and willing service to others, as in St. Luke 
(Lk 2 2 24-30). j 4. This precept was obeyed liter- 
ally by many ancient Churches on Maundy 
Thursday, and still is by the Roman and 
Eastern Churches. 

18-30. Jesus indicates the Traitor. 

18. I do not call you all happy (blessed), 
for I know that among you is a traitor. But 
My choice even of the traitor is in accordance 
with the prophecy of Scripture. The scripture] 
The quotation is a free one from Ps 41 9 . The 
speaker is David, but since David is a type of 
Christ, the words are treated as a typical pro- 
phecy of Christ's betrayal. 19. That I am he] 
i.e. the Messiah ; or, 'that I AM' (see 8 58 ). 

20. Lest the knowledge that there is a 
traitor among them should weaken their con- 
fidence in one another, and in their divine call 



797 



13. 21 



ST. JOHN 



14. 2 



to the apostolate, Jesus hastens to assure them 
that they will receive the fullest divine powers 
from Himself and His Father for the work of 
the ministry. 

21-30. Cp. the parallel accounts in Mt26 21 
Mkl4 18 Lk22 21 . St. John's main point is 
that the designation of the traitor was private, 
not public. It was made in a whisper to St. 
John only, and even to him the name was not 
mentioned. St. John's account is altogether 
probable. Had Jesus denounced the traitor 
clearly and openly, Judas would never have 
left the room alive. 

23. Leaning on (RV ' reclining in ') Jesus' 
bosom] The guests lay on their left sides, on 
separate but adjacent couches, each supporting 
his head upon his left hand, with his left elbow 
resting upon a cushion. The first place of 
honour (behind Jesus) was probably occupied 
by St. Peter ; the second place of honour (in 
front of Jesus) was occupied by St. John. St. 
John, therefore, could easily lean back on 
Jesus' bosom. 26. Answered] evidently in a 
whisper, so that St. Peter could not hear. A 
sop] RV the sop.' The sop handed to another 
was a pledge of good will, like our old custom 
of taking wine with a person. At the Passover 
the sop consisted of three things wrapped 
together, the flesh of the paschal lamb, a piece 
of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs. 27. The 
sop was the last appeal of divine love to Judas. 
He rejected it, and straightway at that moment 
the devil obtained full possession of his soul. 

30. Went immediately out] St. John repre- 
sents Judas as departing before the institution 
of the Holy Communion (see v. 34). The 
synoptists (or, at least, St. Luke) seem to 
represent him as remaining and communicating. 
St. John's account is altogether more probable. 

Night] The word has tragic emphasis. It 
was night literally, a time appropriate for 
deeds of darkness ; also it was night spiritually 
in the soul of Judas, in which the light of 
God's Spirit had been for ever quenched. 

I3 31 -i7 26 . The Last Discourses of Jesus to 
His disciples. "We come now to what is 
perhaps the most precious part of the whole 
evangelical history, those wonderful dis- 
courses, delivered by our Lord in the upper 
room just after the institution of the Lord's 
Supper. St. John alone records them. Like 
b < "iisecrated priest, fche evangelist conducts 
us into the Holy of Holies, revealing the 
in in-. st thoughts, desires, and aspirations of 
our divine Redeemer. 

31-35. The Lord's Supper (Holy Com 
mil 11 ion ) and the New Commandment of Love. 
Believed of the traitor's presence, our Lord 
institutes the rite of Holy Communion, 
which is to bake the place of the Passover, 
and proceed- to explain us significance as ;i 
pledge and bond of love among the disciples 



(vv. 34, 35), and afterwards as a means of 
union and communion with Himself (15 lf >). 

31. Now is the Son of man glorified] viz. 
by death. His death was already virtually 
accomplished, when the traitor went forth to 
arrange for His arrest. 32. God shall also 
glorify him] viz. by raising Him from the 
dead, and exalting Him to His right hand 
in heaven. In himself] i.e. in the Father's 
peculiar glory, which the Son of God resigned 
at His Incarnation : cp. 17 5 Phil 2 s- 11 . 

33. Little children] This touching designa- 
tion is almost, if not altogether, peculiar to St. 
John (1 Jn 2 1» 12, 28 3 7, 18 4 4 5 21). i n extreme 
old age, when too feeble to preach, he used to 
be carried into Church, and simply to say to 
the people, ' Little children, love one another.' 

Ye shall seek me] ' You will be left here on 
earth for a time ; but, unlike the Jews, you 
will seek Me and will find Me, for if you 
love one another, I will answer your prayers, 
and reveal Myself to you.' Ye cannot come] 
not at once, but hereafter, for 'I go to pre- 
pare a place for you' (14 2 ). 34. A new 
commandment] Love is the fulfilling of the 
Law. The old commandment to love one 
another (Lvl9 18 ), which our Lord regarded 
as the essential feature of the Law, is now 
reenacted in a higher sense, and grounded on 
a new motive, viz. the Love of Christ for all 
mankind, as shown in His Atoning Death. 
The feast which commemorates this death is 
to be the great bond of love and union among 
Christians. 

36-38. Peter's denial foretold] Parallel with 
Lk22 31 " 34 , and similar in character to Mt26 31 
Mkl427, q.v. 

36. Thou shalt follow] a prophecy not only 
of Peter's martyrdom, but, as the event 
showed, of the manner of his martyrdom 
(crucifixion) : see 21 18 » 19 . 

CHAPTER 14 
The Comforter 

1 -3 1. The mansions in heaven. The mission 
of the Comforter. This great discourse, which 
is not easily susceptible of formal subdivision, 
deals with five main subjects : (1) the heavenly 
mansions ; (2) Christ as the "Way to the 
Father ; (3) the mutual indwelling of the 
Father in the Son, and of the Son in the 
Father ; (4) the efficacy of prayer through 
Christ ; (5) the mission of the Comforter. 

Some scholars think that a displacement has 
occurred in the farewell discourses, and par- 
ticularly that this c, which seems to conclude 
Christ's words to His disciples, originally 
stood between chjs. 1G and 17. 

1. 'Be not disquieted at My departure (see 
13 36 ). Have faith that I have the power to 
fulfil the promises that I now make to you.' 

2. My Father's house] i.e. heaven. Many 



798 



n. s 



ST. JOHN 



14.23 



mansions] EM 'abiding-places.' There are 
various degrees of glory in heaven, and various 
employments, suitable to the desert and 
capacity of each (Lkl9 16 ' 26 , etc.). The word 
used, which sometimes denotes a place of 
refreshment for travellers, is thought by West- 
cott to suggest that heaven is a state of con- 
tinual progress, but this is unlikely. 3. I will 
come again] viz. at the end of the world. 

4. 'You know whither I go, viz. to My 
Father in heaven ; and you know how you 
also may follow Me, viz. by believing in Me.' 
But the RV has simply, ' And whither I go, 
ye know the way.' 

5. Thomas] For the character of Thomas 
see ll 16 20 25 . Thomas expected an imme- 
diate manifestation of the Messianic kingdom 
on earth, and this prevented him from under- 
standing Jesus. 6, 7. ' The Kingdom which I 
have come to reveal is not an earthly one ; 
the mansions of which I have spoken are in 
heaven, not on earth. To share in My King- 
dom, is to share that state of exalted and 
blissful communion with the Father, which is not 
possible on earth. I depart to heaven, to enter 
into that state of bliss ; and you may follow 
and enjoy it too, if you will have faith in Me 
as the one mediator between God and man 
(the Way), the one teacher authorised to 
reveal the things of God (the Truth), and the 
one author of spiritual as of natural life (the 
Life).' 6. No man] It is important to remem- 
ber that pious heathen, who have never heard 
of Christ, may and do find acceptance with 
God, through Him, whom, if they had known, 
they would have accepted as their Redeemer 
(Ro2 14 - 16 ). 7. Have seen him] not in His 
absolute nature, which is invisible (1 18 ), but 
in His character, which is revealed in My 
Person : see 6 46 , and v. 9 below. 

8. Philip desired to see the eternal invisible 
Father as a distinct being beside the Son. 
He wished for a visible Theophany : cp. Ex 
24io. 10. SeeonlO 38 . 11. Cp. 1038 1524. 

12. Greater worhs] The Apostles' work was 
more effectual than that of Christ Himself, 
because they were inspired by the Spirit of 
the Risen and Ascended Lord. Not till Christ 
had departed to the Father could the Spirit 
be fully given. 13. Not only is Christian 
prayer to be offered in the name of (i.e. in- 
voking the mediation of) the Son, but even 
answers to prayer are given through the Son, 
that the same honour may be accorded to the 
Son as to the Father. Whatsoever] cp. 15 16 
1623,24, The limitations to be understood are 
that the petitioner must ask in faith (Mt21 22 ), 

j be in charity with his neighbours (Mt6 14 ), 
and habitually keep God's commandments 

1 (Un3 22 ). 14. Here, according to the reading 
of the RV, Christ teaches the disciples to pray 
directly to Himself, as well as to the Father 



in His Name. Examples of prayer to Christ 
are Ac 7^9 14 > 21 ICorl 2 . 

16. Another Comforter] RM 'Advocate,' or, 
' Helper.' Attractive, and suitable to the 
context, as the rendering ' Comforter ' is, there 
can be little doubt that the true meaning of 
the Gk. Paracletos is ' Advocate.' The Holy 
Spirit is represented as Christ's Representative 
on earth, carrying on His work, and inspiring 
and strengthening His disciples to fulfil their 
vocation. As Christ's ' Advocate ' he pleads 
Christ's cause in the hearts of the disciples, 
and appeals also to the better conscience of 
' the world,' convicting the world of sin, of 
righteousness, and of judgment (16 8 ). He 
inspires believers with the spirit of prayer, 
and, when they pray, ' Himself maketh inter- 
cession for us with groanings which cannot be 
uttered ' (Ro 8 26 . 2 ?). To His guidance the dis- 
ciples are to resign themselves with implicit 
confidence, for He is the Spirit of Truth. He 
guides, not so much as an external authority, 
as an inward light shining in the heart — an 
interior monitor regulating the secret springs 
of character. In His coming, Christ also 
returns to earth, to dwell in the hearts of 
believers by faith ; but yet He must not be 
altogether identified with Christ, for He is 
' another ' Comforter. The functions of the 
Comforter sufficiently attest His divinity. 

17. Spirit of truth] He inspires what is 
good and true in conduct, and reveals what is 
good and true in doctrine. The world, etc.] 
The experience of the Spirit is inward and 
spiritual : this the world cannot grasp. Dwelleth 
with you] viz. externally, by His presence 
in the Church. And shall be in you] as an 
inward principle, sanctifying, inspiring, guiding, 
and filling you with peace and joy. 18. Com- 
fortless] lit. 'orphans.' I will come to you] 
invisibly and spiritually in the coming of 
the Spirit. 19. But ye see me] i.e. shall see 
Me, literally during the forty days, spiritually 
after Pentecost, when you shall enjoy com- 
munion with Me so deep and satisfying, that 
it will be better than sight. Because I live] 
' because I live ' for evermore, ' and ye shall 
live ' (RM) spiritually in Me. 20. At that 
day (i.e. after Pentecost) ye shall know by 
spiritual experience that I am in my Father, 
and ye in me] So close is the spiritual union 
between Christ and believers, that He com- 
pares it with the mutual indwelling of the 
Father and the Son. 

22. Judas] called Thaddasus or Lebbseus 
(MtlO 3 ), is not the same as Jude the Lord's 
brother. He thought that Jesus was about to 
establish an earthly kingdom, and therefore 
to manifest Himself to the world. 23. Jesus, 
by adding that the Father also will come to 
believers, shows more clearly that it is a 
spiritual manifestation of which He is speaking, 



799 



14. 26 



ST. JOHN 



15. 1 



and that only to those who love Jesus, can the 
manifestation be made. We will come] 
Where the Son is, there of necessity is the 
Father also, as well as the Spirit, for the 
Three are One, being different forms of the 
subsistence and manifestation of the same 
Divine Being. This passage illustrates the 
doctrine that the Persons of the Holy Trinity 
are inseparable, and contain one another. The 
technical word is perichoresis (G-k.), or ' circu- 
mincessio' 1 (circuminsessio), Lat. See on 10 3S . 

26. In my name] i.e. as My full Represent- 
ative, endowed with all My powers, and with 
a mission to promote My cause in the world. 

He (masculine, to show the Spirit's person- 
ality) shall teach you all things] i.e. all saving 
truth, which it is necessary for you and your 
successors to know. Those who would confine 
the Christian religion to the words of Christ 
recorded in the Gospels, are here reproved. 

Bring all things] The Spirit would awaken 
the words of Christ which lay like slumbering 
germs in the minds of the disciples, and cause 
them to germinate and bear fruit after many 
days. Of this process St. John's Gospel itself 
is the most striking example. 

27. Peace] more exactly defined as ' My 
Peace,' is the peace of reconciliation with God 
through the Death of Christ. Not as the 
world giveth] This peace is not mere earthly 
joy and prosperity : it is a removal of all 
elements of discord from the soul. 28. And 
come again] i.e. in the coming of the Spirit. 

For my Father is greater than I] ' Rejoice 
that I go to My Father, for it is good both for 
Me and for you. He will exalt Me to supreme 
authority over the universe, enable Me to dis- 
pense the Holy Spirit, and cause My work to 
prosper in your hands.' When Christ said 
1 My Father is greater than I,' He was probably 
thinking of the humiliation of His earthly life, 
and of His created human nature (' equal to 
the Father as touching His Godhead, and 
inferior to the Father as touching His man- 
hood ') ; yet there is a sense in which even the 
eternal Son, as being begotten, is inferior to 
the Father. 

30. Hereafter, etc.] rather, ' No longer will 
I speak much with you,' because time will not 
allow it. The prince] i.e. Satan, who, through 
the powers that be. works his will on Jesus: 
cp. 12 31 . Hath nothing in me] i.e. hath no 
power over the Sinless One. 31. But I go 
forth to meet My death that the world may 
know, etc. Arise, let us go hence] On account 
of these words, Borne plausibly (but without 
sutlicifiit authority), wish to place fchia <•. after 
c 1»'>. The discourses which follow (chs. 15, 
16, 17) were delivered cither (1) standing a1 

the table before departing, or (2) in the 
Temple, or (3) in some retired place in Jeru- 
salem, or (4) on the way to the Mount of 



Olives. The last view seems to be the most 
plausible. 

CHAPTER 15 

The True Vine. The Witness of the 

Comforter and of the Apostles 

1-17. The allegory of the True Vine and 

its interpretation. The metaphor of 'the 

vine' was suggested by 'the fruit of the vine' 

which had just been consecrated in the Holy 

Supper (Mt 26 29 ), and the allegory was intended 
to illustrate the main idea underlying that 
holy rite, viz. union with Christ. It sets forth 

Christ as the sole source of spiritual life, and 
of Christian sanctity. As long as the spiritual 
union between Christ and the believer, which 
(ideally and normally, at any rate) begins with 
Baptism, is maintained by faith love and 
prayer, the believer's soul is nourished by 
constant supplies of grace, just as truly as 
the branches of a vine are nourished by the 
sap that flows into them from the stem. 
Nourished b}' the life of Christ, the believer's 
soul is cleansed, sanctified, and made fruitful 
in all good works. Neglect of prayer, the 
holy sacraments and the other means of grace 
is punished by interruption of this union, and, 
finally, by its complete severance, resulting in 
spiritual death, and inability to perform works 
acceptable to God. 

1. The true vine] i.e. the ideally perfect 
vine. ' The vine was the symbol of Israel, not 
in their national but in their church capacity ' 
(Edersheim): cp. Ps80 8 IsaS 1 Jer2 2 i HoslO 1 . 
It was also a symbol of the Messiah (Delitzsch). 
Accordingly Christ here affirms, (1) that He is 
the true Messiah ; (2) that His Church is the 
true Israel of God, and His followers the 
true Israelites (cp. ICorlO 18 Gal 6™ lPet2 9 
Rev 2 9 39, etc.) ; but, above all, (3) that He is 
the one fountain of spiritual life, supplying 
all needful grace to believers. The figure of the 
vine and the branches corresponds to that of the 
body and the members, used first by Christ at 
the institution of the Holy Supper (Mt 26 26 ) 
and often afterwards by St. Paul, to express the 
mysterious, but real and vital union which sub- 
sists between Christ and individual believers, 
and between Christ and His Church (Rol2 5 
1 Cor 1 ^ 12 12-81 Eph 1 ** 3 g 4 4-ie 5 30 Col 1 18 ' 24 
2 18 o 1 ')- As the vine sends sap into every 
branch, causing the grapes to grow and ripen, 
so Christ communicates spiritual life and grace 
to every soul that is effectively ' in Him,' caus- 
ing it to bring forth k the fruits of the Spirit' 
(Gal5 22 ), to be 'fruitful in every good work' 
(Col 1 10 ), and — greatest gift of all — to be l par- 
taker of the divine nature ' (2Petl 4 ). Union 
with Christ is normally begun in Baptism 
(1 Cor 1 2 18 ( ; ;l l 3 -'" Ro 68, etc.), and maintained 
by constant faith (Eph 3 17 ), obedience (Jn 14 23 
Eev3»), love (Un4 12 ), Holy Communion 



800 



15. 2 



ST. JOHN 



16. 4 



(Jn6 56 ICorlO 16 ). The husbandman] cp. 
Mkl2i Lkl36. 

2. Every branch] refers primarily to in- 
dividual Christians ; yet what is said applies 
also to Churches (Rev 2 5 3 16 ). Taketh away] 
yet not finally till the Last Judgment. Purg- 
eth] RY 'cleanseth,' or, still better, 'pruneth.' 
The reference is (1) to the discipline of 
sorrow, disappointment, temptation, and trial, 
by which the saints are perfected (Hebl2 6 
Rev3 19 ; cp. Heb5 s ) ; (2) to the cutting off 
of the superfluities, ambitions, luxuries, and 
worldly pleasures and lusts, which hinder the 
Christian life (Gal 5 24 6 i* Jas 1 21), 3. Through 
the word] The ' word ' is the whole training 
of the Twelve, including the admonitions and 
severe rebukes with which He strove to correct 
their faults, and make them 'clean,' i.e. 
' pruned,' and in a fruit bearing state. 4. ' See 
that ye abide in Me by diligently using the 
means of grace, and I will abide in you.' 

6. As a branch] i.e. as a useless branch. 

Men (RY ' they ') gather them] The angels 
gather the useless branches (i.e. persons who 
are not in Christ), and cast them into the fire 
(of future punishment in Hades or Gehenna), 
and they are burned (punished). 

11, 12. The Saviour now resolves His 
commands into perfect self -forgetting love. 

11. My joy] i.e. the joy which I have in 
loving the Father, and being loved by Him 
(v. 10). This joy Christ imparts to the dis- 
ciples, thereby fulfilling (i.e. perfecting) their 
imperfect joy : cp. 16 24 17 13 1 Jnl 4 2 Jnl 12 . 

12. See 13 34 . 13. Lay down] see 10 n, 
and cp. Un3 16 . The Saviour regards the 
offering up of life, and that for friends, as the 
highest expression of love, and expects the 
disciples to prove themselves capable of similar 
self-sacrifice. 15. All things] This apparently 
contradicts 16 12 (cp. 14 26 ), but only apparently. 
Christ's teaching during His ministry was 
complete in the sense that it set forth all the 
principles of Christianity. Yet there was re- 
quired the subsequent illumination of the 
Spirit, (1) to interpret the deeper meaning of 
those principles, and (2) to apply them prac- 
tically to the needs of the Church. 16. Or- 
dained] RY ' appointed.' Bring forth fruit] 
This mainly refers to the conversion of the 
world, which was the fruit of the spiritual 
labours of the Apostles. Should remain] 
Their work has lasted nearly 2,000 years, and 
the vitality of Christian missionary work is 
still unimpaired. Whatsoever] see on 14 13 . ' 

In my name] ' in accordance with My spirit 
and character. 17. I command you to abide 
in Me, that by so doing you may have the 
power to love one another.' 

18-25. The world's hatred] cp. the similar 
predictions, Mt 10 16 ' 28 249 Lk 21 12,16 ; C p. also 
1 Pet 4 12, is. 



18. Cp. 1 Jn 3 13 . The world is mankind re- 
garded as alienated from God. 20. The word] 
see Mt 10 24 . The reference is not to Jn 13 i«. 

25. Their law] i.e. their Scriptures (see 
10 34 ). The passage alluded to is Ps69 4 : cp. 
Ps 35 U. David is the person hated, but David's 
case is typical of Christ's. 

26, 27. The Witness of the Holy Spirit and 
of the Apostles to Christ. 

26. The Comforter] see on 14 16 . Whom I 
will send] According to 14 17 > 26 , it is the Father 
who sends the Spirit; now it is Christ Himself, 
showing clearly that ' what things soever the 
Father doeth, these also doeth the Son like- 
wise ' (5 19). Cp. Lk2449Ac2 33 , and see on 
16 7 . Which proceedeth from the Father] The 
Eastern Church uses this text to prove the 
eternal procession of the Holy G-host from the 
Father alone, but the preposition used shows 
that not the eternal origin, but the temporal 
mission of the Comforter is meant. He (the 
masculine pronoun emphasises the Spirit's 
personality : cp. 14 26 ) shall testify of me] 
by His whole working in the Church from 
Pentecost onward : see on 16 8 . 

CHAPTER 16 

The Resurrection and Ascension of 
Christ will prove the Disciples' 
comfort in time of persecution 
1-6. The Persecution of the Apostles pre- 
dicted. This section repeats many of the 
ideas of the previous c. (see 15i 8 " 24 ). The 
reason of the anticipated persecution is ' be- 
cause they (the persecutors) have not known 
the Father nor Me' (v. 3) ; i.e. because they 
have mistaken the character of the service 
which the Father requires of them. They 
think that He requires strict observance of the 
Ceremonial Law ; what He really requires is 
worship in spirit and in truth, according to My 
teaching. 

1. Offended] i.e. that your faith should not 
be shaken (RY ' made to stumble '). 2. Out 
of the synagogues] i.e. excommunicate you : 
see 9 22 > 3 * 1242, and cp. MtlOi?. Doeth God 
service] more precisely, ' offereth sacrifice to 
G-od.' There was a Jewish saying, ' Every 
one that sheddeth the blood of the wicked, is 
as he that offereth a sacrifice.' 4. The time] 
RY ' their hour,' i.e. the hour of your enemies' 
apparent triumph. Ye may remember] The 
Apostles' persecutions would be easier to bear, 
if it was clearly understood that they were fore- 
ordained by God and foretold by Christ : cp. 
13 19 14 29. 1 sa id no t U nto you at (RY ' from ') 
the beginning] Some intimations of the coming 
persecutions had been given in the earlier 
charge to the Twelve (MtlOi 6 ), but only now 
does our Lord bring the matter prominently 
forward. Because I was with you] While 
Christ was with the Apostles, they were in no 



51 



801 



10. 5 



ST. JOHN 



16.26 



danger of persecution, and therefore there 
was no need to speak to them about it. But 
since persecution was to begin after His death, 
and His death was now impending, it was 
necessary for Him to begin to speak to them 
about it. 5. None of you asketh me] The 
Apostles were so much disturbed by the thought 
of Christ's imminent death, and their own 
approaching persecutions, that they had no 
heart to enquire about the glorious abode to 
which Christ was going, and to which they 
also would one day go. 

7-15. The work of the Comforter in the 
world and in the Church. 

7. It was better for them that Christ's 
personal presence should be withdrawn, in 
order that His spiritual presence might be 
nearer to them than ever, or, rather, might 
for the first time truly begin. This would be 
effected by the coming of the Holy Ghost, when 
He who was now ' with ' them, would be ever 
'in' them. If I go not away] The glorifi- 
cation of Christ's humanity through the in- 
dwelling Spirit was not complete till the Resur- 
rection and Ascension, hence not till after the 
Ascension could the Spirit of the glorified 
Christ be given. Comforter] see on 14 16 . 

8. Reprove] RY ' convict.' The Gk. word, 
which also occurs 3 20 8 9 (AY) 8 46 , means to 
prove a person in the wrong, hence to convict. 
The Holy Ghost will ' convince ' or ' convict ' 
the world, by placing before it the claims of 
Christ with a force and clearness that cannot 
be evaded. The result will be twofold. Some 
will be ' convicted by their own consciences ' 
(8 9 ), or 'pricked to the heart' (Ac 2 37), and 
so repent and believe (Ac2 36 ). Others will 
be hardened in their sin and unbelief (Ro 1 1 8 ), 
and be ' convicted ' of wilful blindness in the 
sight of God and good men. 

9-1 1. The Holy Ghost, through the apos- 
tolic preaching, and through the new power 
of holiness manifested in the lives of believers, 
will convince mankind, (1) of their sin and 
folly in rejecting Christ ; (2) that Christ is a 
sincere and righteous teacher, and not, as they 
had thought, an impostor, as will be clearly 
demonstrated when the Father has raised Him 
from the dead and set Him at His right hand 
in heaven ; (3) that the unspiritual system of 
religion which they have hitherto professed, 
and which has led them to reject Christ, is of 
the devil and not of God, that God Himself 
has condemned it, and that therefore they 
must condemn it too. 

This passage is an extremely difficult one, 
and various other interpretationsof it are given. 

11. Judgment] i.e. condemnation. The 
prince] i.e. Satan: see 1231 1430. TheResur- 
rection is the proof that Satan and the world 
(i.e. the opponents of Jesus) are condemned 
by God. 



12, 13. This promise of divine guidance to 
the Apostles as teachers, justifies us in accept- 
ing their writings as specially inspired. The 
promise, however, is not exclusively to them, 
for in all time (and not least in our own) the 
Holy Spirit is guiding the Church into all 
truth. 13. Into all truth] RY ' all the truth,' 
i.e. all that is necessary to the salvation of 
souls and to the well-being of the Church. 
It should be noticed that the Church's appre- 
hension of truth is regarded as progressive. 

Things to come] Here the prediction of 
events is regarded as one of the functions of 
true prophecy. 

14, 15. One of the leading Trinitarian 
passages in the NT. In it (1) the three 
Persons are clearly distinguished ; (2) their 
relative subordination is clearly taught, the 
Father giving His all to the Son, and the Son 
communicating His all to the Spirit ; (3) their 
equality of nature is distinctly affirmed, for 
the Son receives from the Father ' all things 
whatsoever the Father hath ' (see RY), i.e. 
His whole nature and attributes, and communi- 
cates them to the Spirit. 14. The Spirit 
would glorify Christ, by progressively revealing 
the full sense of what Christ had taught them. 

16-24. The Apostles' Sorrow turned into 
Joy. 

16. Ye shall see me] (1) with bodily sight 
during the forty days ; (2) with spiritual 
vision after Pentecost (see on 14 18 > 19 ). 20. But 
the world shall rejoice] ' My enemies will re- 
joice at My death, and the apparent failure of 
My designs.' 22. I will see .you again] The 
reference is both to the Resurrection and to 
the coming of the Spirit. 23. In that day] 
i.e. the time beginning at Pentecost. Ye shall 
ask me nothing] RM is preferable, ' Ye shall 
ask me no question,' i.e. about the true mean- 
ing of My words, for all will then be clear to 
you. He will give it you] RY adds ' in my 
name,' i.e. for My sake. 24. Hitherto . . name] 
because prayer in the name of Christ pre- 
supposes His glorification. 

25-33. Last Words. Temporary defeat in 
the present will be followed by final victory. 

25. In proverbs] RM ' in parables.' Yery 
many of our Lord's discourses were dark and 
enigmatical to the Apostles, until the coming 
of the Holy Spirit furnished the key to their 
meaning. Mere words can only hint at, not 
fully express, the things of God. It requires 
the inward teaching of the Holy Spirit to 
bring home to the soul God's message of sal- 
vation. The time] i.e. the dispensation of the 
Spirit beginning at Pentecost. 26. Isaynot.. 
that I will pray the Father for you] 'After 
Pentecost you will have direct access to the 
Father. You will ask directly for what you 
need in My name, and no longer will it be 
needful for you, as it is at present, first to 



802 



16.30 
ome tc 



ST. JOHN 



17. 12 



ome to Me, and to ask Me to bring your 
needs before the Father.' This text does not 
deny Christ's heavenly intercession (Ro8 34 
Heb 7 25 Un 2 i), but only such a view of it 
as would make it a barrier between the Father 
and the prayers of His children. 

30. Needest not that any man should ask 
thee] Thou didst answer our questions before 
we asked them, for Thou didst know what 
questions were in our minds. 

30, 31. Jesus shows that He can read 
the thoughts of their hearts in a deeper sense 
than they imagined. He knows precisely 
what their faith is worth, and prophesies their 
immediate desertion of Him. In Mt26 31 = 
Mkl4 27 this prophecy is said to have been 
delivered at the Mount of Olives, or at least 
on the way thither. This favours the view 
that the discourses vv. 15-17 were delivered on 
the way to the Mount of Olives. 

32. To his own] i.e. to his own house ; see 
in i 6 32 1927 Lkl828 Ac216. Yet I am not 
alone] Only for a few awful moments upon 
the cross (Mt27 46 ) was our Lord's conscious 
communion with His Father interrupted. 

33. I have overcome the world] See the sub- 
lime vision in the Revelation, where Christ goes 
forth 'conquering and to conquer' (Rev6 2 ). 
The victory of Christ over the world, and the 
victory of believers through that victory, are 
favourite themes of the fourth evangelist 
(see Un 213^ 44 54 R ev 2 7, 11, 17,26 35,12,21 
1211 15 2 171^217). 

CHAPTER 17 

Christ's High-priestly Prayer 
1-26. Christ's Great Intercession for Him- 
self, for the Apostles, and for the World. This 
prayer is often, and suitably called Christ's 
' High-priestly prayer,' because in it He 
solemnly consecrates Himself to be priest and 
victim in the approaching sacrifice. The veil 
is drawn back for a moment from the inner 
sanctuary of His mind, and we are enabled to 
contemplate with awe and reverence the nature 
of that close communion which He habitually 
maintained with His heavenly Father. 

Christ prays (1) for Himself (vv. 1-5), that 
as He has glorified the Father by His life on 
earth, so He may also glorify Him by His 
death, and after death may receive again that 
glory which for our sakes He resigned at His 
Incarnation. (2) For the Apostles (vv. 6-19), 
that they may be kept from sin, and from 
unfaithfulness in the midst of a wicked and 
hostile world, that they may be perfectly 
united in affection and will, and that they may 
be consecrated, even as He is consecrated, for 
the solemn mission which they are to under - 
i, take. (3) For the world (vv. 20-26), that it 
|| may be converted (v. 21), for believers that 
they may have perfect union and communion. 



visible and invisible, with one another, in virtue 
of their union with the one God through the 
one Christ ; and that finally all may attain to 
everlasting salvation, and see Christ enthroned 
in that glory which He had with the Father 
before the world was. 

1 . The hour] viz. of My glorification through 
death. Glorify thy Son] Christ asks the Father 
to glorify Him by accepting the sacrifice of 
His death, and by raising Him from the 
dead. When this is done, the Son will glorify 
the Father by converting th e world. 2 . Power] 
RY ' authority.' At the Incarnation the 
Father gave the Son authority to die for the 
sins of the whole world, and to proclaim the 
Father's gracious offer of salvation to all 
mankind. As many as thou hast given him] 
RY ' whatsoever thou hast given him.' Those 
whom the Father ' gives ' to Christ, are those 
who freely accept the offer of salvation which 
is freely made to all. 3. Eternal life consists 
in a knowledge of God, and of Jesus as the 
Messiah sent from God, i.e. as a preexistent, 
divine being. ' Knowledge ' here is not in- 
tellectual knowledge, but knowledge based on 
the religious experience of the devout Chris- 
tian soul. 4. Our Lord's sinlessness and 
moral perfection are implied. 5. The memory 
of Jesus extends beyond His birth, and beyond 
the creation of the world, back to eternity, 
when He was ' in the form of God,' and 
' equal to God ' (Phil 2 6) ; C p. v. 24. With thine 
own self] i.e. at Thy side. 

6. Thy name] i.e. Thy nature. The men] 
i.e. the Apostles. Kept thy word] an expression 
especially characteristic of St. John's Gospel, 
lstEp.,andRev. (Jn8 5 i 1423 lJ n 25, etc.). 

9. I pray not for the world] rather, ' I am 
not now praying for the world.' Jesus prays 
for the world in vv. 20-26, especially in v. 21, and 
enjoins others to do so, MtS^etc. That 
Christ prays for the world is proved by the 
entire nature of His work, the object of which 
is the salvation of the world (Jn4 42 > etc.). 

10. All mine, etc.] RY ' all things that are 
mine are thine, and thine are mine.' All the 
attributes which belong to the Son belong to 
the Father ; and all the attributes which 
belong to the Father (omniscience, omnipo- 
tence, etc.) belong to the Son. 11. Keep 
through thine own name] RY ' keep 
them in thy name which thou hast given 
me,' i.e. keep them in a state of grace 
defended by that almighty power, which, by 
Thy gift, I share with Thee. God's ' name ' 
here is practically His divine nature and omni- 
potence. One] How close must be that 
union and fellowship, which is compared with 
the unity of Persons in the Godhead itself ! 

12. The son of perdition] i.e. him who is 
destined to perdition, viz. Judas Iscariot. In 
2 Th2 3 the expression is used of Antichrist. 



803 



17. 13 



ST. JOHN 



18. 13 



The phrase is a Hebraism: cp. Mt23 15 » 'a 
son of Gehenna.' The scripture] in accord- 
ance with 13 18 , isPs419. 

13. My joy] i.e. the joy which I derive 
from loving communion with the Father, as 
in 15 11 : see Unl 4 . 14. Thy word] i.e. 
Thy whole revelation of Thyself as disclosed 
in My life. Hath hated them] i.e. will hate 
them, the past tense expressing the certainty 
of the hatred, already so clearly foretold, 16 2 . 

15. I pray not, etc.] Because, if the Apostles 
were taken out of the world, they would not 
be able to convert it. From the evil] more 
correctly rendered by the RV, ' from the evil 
one.' St. John habitually conceives of evil 
as personal : see Un3 10 > 12 5 18 > 19 . 

17. Sanctify them (RM 'consecrate them') 
through thy truth (RV ' in the truth ')] Con- 
secrate them to their apostolic office, endowing 
them also with divine illumination and wisdom 
for their work : cp. Ex28 41 . Our Lord also 
was ' consecrated ' for His work when He entered 
the world : see 10 36 . 18. ' As Thou didst not 
send Me into the world without first consecrat- 
ing Me (see 10 36 ), so now I consecrate My 
Apostles before sending them forth.' 19. ' Now 
once more I consecrate Myself, not this time 
as a mere teacher, but as priest and victim in 
the approaching sacrifice. The blood of the 
new covenant, which My death will initiate 
and ratify, will consecrate My Apostles to their 
office and work.' For ' sanctify ' in the sense 
of offering a victim in sacrifice, see Exl3 2 
Dt 15 19 : cp. 2 S 8 11. Through the truth] R Y 
1 in truth,' i.e. truly. 

21. That they all may be one] A leading 
passage on the unity of the Church. The 
centre of unity is not on earth but in heaven. 
Christians are 'one,' because they are spiritually 
united to the Father and the Son, whose divine 
life and blessed union they share through the 
faith that gives eternal life (3 16 , etc.), and 
through believing participation in the sacra- 
ments (35 6 5( 5 1 Cor 10 16 - 17 1218). i n this, its 
deepest sense, the unity of the Church cannot 
be broken by outward divisions. But inward 
unity ought also to show itself in visible out- 
ward unity, 'that the world may know that 
Thou hast sent Me.' Hence every Christian is 
bound to pray and work for the reunion of 
Christendom. 22. The glory] i.e. according to 
the context, mainly the glory of unity and 
love. 23. That the world may know] The 
whole world will be converted when the Church 
of Ghrisl presents the spectacle of perfect 
Love and visible unity. Divisions hinder the 
work of Christ, unity advances it. 26. Thy 
name] i.e. Thy nature. 

CHAPTER 18 
Christ before Ann is, Caiaphas, and Pilate 

1 -1 4. Christ's arrest and trial before Annas 



(cp. Mt 26 30 = Mk 1 4 26 = Lk 22 3 9). The nar- 
rative is now parallel with the synoptic account, 
with which, though obviously independent, 
it closely agrees. Our Lord's agony in the 
garden is omitted as well known, but it is 
alluded to (v. 11), and the evangelist else- 
where uses language quite as definite as that 
of the synoptists in speaking of His agony of 
mind at the prospect of death (12 27 13 21 ). In 
this Gospel, as in the others, the sufferer, though 
divine, is ' a man of sorrows, and acquainted 
with grief.' 

I. The brook Cedron] RY ' Kidron,' a deep, 
precipitous ravine to the E. of Jerusalem, 
dividing it from the Mount of Olives, and now 
called the Yalley of Jehoshaphat. Both Jews 
and Moslems hold that the Last Judgment will 
take place there (see Joel3 2 > 12 ). It is men- 
tioned several times in the OT. (2S15 23 IK 
2 3 ? Jer31 40 , etc.), but in the NT. only here. 
' Brook ' should be ' valley ' or ' ravine,' lit. ' win- 
ter-torrent' (RM). A garden] i.e. Gethsemane : 
see on Mt26 36 . 2. Ofttimes resorted] cp. Lk 
22 39 . A statement like this must rest on 
apostolic testimony. 3. A band of men] RV 
' the band of soldiers,' viz. the Roman garrison 
which was always stationed in the fortress An- 
tonia, near the Temple. A ' band ' or ' cohort' 
numbered about 600 men. And officers] These 
were either officers of the Sanhedrin, or the 
band of Levitical police who kept order in the 
Temple. 6. Fell to the ground] To show that 
He could not be arrested against His will 
(see 10 18 ), Jesus, before giving Himself up, 
showed His preternatural power ; or perhaps 
the falling was an effect of superstitious fear. 
9. That the saying might be fulfilled] see 17 2 . 
St. John here gives the sense, not the exact 
words. 

Have I lost none] The original saying re- 
ferred to spiritual loss ; and, perhaps, the mean- 
ing is not different here. Jesus desired the 
Apostles to escape, lest, if they were arrested, 
they might be tempted to apostasy, which 
would involve the loss of their souls. 

10. Simon Peter] Peter's and Malchus's 
names are mentioned only by St. John. Right 
ear] This detail, a mark of intimate know- 
ledge, is also in Lk, who further mentions 
that our Lord healed the servant's ear. 

II. The cup] This is proof that St. John knew 
of the agony in the garden : see Mt 26 30 Mk 1 4 3t5 
Lk22 4 -. 12. The band] i.e. the Roman co- 
hort. The captain] i.e. the military tribune 
(Ck. ckiliarch), was the officer in chief com- 
mand of the Roman garrison : see Ac21 31 . 
His presence in person marks the importance 
and probable danger of the arrest. 13. To 
Annas first] i.e. before He was taken to 
Caiaphas. This, though not mentioned in the 
other Gospels, is intrinsically probable. The 
authority of Annas was so great that it over- 



804 



18. 14 



ST. JOHN 



18. 30 



shadowed that of the actual high priest Caia- 
phas. He is mentioned before Caiaphas, 
Lk3 2 Ac4 6 . He absolutely controlled the 
Sanhedrin, which at this period, according to 
the Talmud, transferred its place of meeting 
from ' the Hall of Hewn Stones ' in the 
Temple to the head-quarters of his party, ' the 
Bazaars of the sons of Annas.' He was high 
priest from 7 to 14 A.D., and even after his 
deposition by the Romans, retained the 
office in his family, no less than five of his 
sons being appointed high priests. For his 
character see on Mt21 12 . Father in law] 
This fact, in itself probable, is known only 
from St. John. 14. Caiaphas] see 1149-52 

15-18. St. John introduces St. Peter into 
the Palace. First denial. For the interest- 
ing but unimportant variations of the four 
accounts of St. Peter's denials, see on Mt 26 58 
Mkl4^Lk2254. 

15. Another disciple] clearly the same as 
the unnamed disciple of 13 23 , who is the 
apostle John. Known unto the high priest] 
a fact by no means improbable, considering 
the comparativelv good position occupied by St. 
John's family (Mk 1 20 ; see on 19 2 ?). The high 
priest is Annas : see on v. 19. The palace] 
RY ' the court,' i.e. the inner quadrangle : 
see on Mt26 3 > 58 . Of the high priest] viz. 
Annas. Probably Annas and his son-in-law 
lived in the same large building. 18. Coals] 
i.e. charcoal. 

19-24. Preliminary examination before An- 
nas (peculiar to this Gospel). The object of 
Annas' s examination, which was irregular and 
informal, was obviously to induce Jesus to 
incriminate Himself in view of the approach- 
ing trial, the available evidence against Him 
being weak (Mt26 59 ). It is passed over by 
the synoptists, because it achieved no result ; 
but the narrative of St. Luke allows ample 
time for it before the formal trial (Lk 22 54-65). 

19. The high priest] i.e. Annas : see v. 24. 

20, 21. Annas tried to entrap Jesus into the 
admission that He had founded a secret society. 
Jesus repudiated the suggestion, and refused 
to be drawn into making any statements likely 
to incriminate His disciples (cp. v. 8). 

22. Struck Jesus] This is corroborated by Lk 
22 63 , which agrees chronologically with St. 
John. 

24. Now Annas had sent him] The correct 
translation is, 'Annas, therefore, sent Him 
bound unto Caiaphas.' Our Lord was led 
out into the courtyard, and there, as he 
passed by on His way to the apartments of 
Caiaphas, which probably lay on the other 
side of the quadrangular court, ' He turned and 
looked upon Peter' (Lk22 61 ). The subsequent 
trial before Caiaphas is omitted, as being 
well known. 

25-27. St. Peter's second and third denials. 



26. The knowledge that the servant was a 
kinsman of Malchus bears out the statement 
(v. 15) that 'the disciple' was known to the 
high priest. 27. Crew] This fixes the time 
as about 3 a.m. 

28-32. Jesus is led to Pilate (Mt27 1 Mk 
15-1 Lk23 1 ). See especially on St. Matthew. 
The pathos of this tragic spectacle of the 
rulers of the chosen people leading their 
promised Messiah to a Gentile ruler to be 
put to death, and thereby forfeiting their 
place in the Kingdom of God and their na- 
tional existence, is by no evangelist so touch- 
ingly portrayed as by St. John. Yet even 
this great sin did not frustrate the divine 
purpose, but rather was the means of effect- 
ing it (1149-53). While St. John's account 
of the civil trial is by far the fullest and 
the most informing, he omits several im- 
portant incidents ; the dream of Pilate's wife 
(Mt), the washing of Pilate's hands (Mt), the 
trial before Herod (Lk), and the prophetic cry 
of the people, ' His blood be on us and on our 
children' (Mt). 

28. The hall of judgment] RY ' the palace,' 
lit. ' the praetorium,' here indicates the official 
residence of Pilate, which was either the 
castle of Antonia or a palace built by Herod 
on the W. hill of Jerusalem : see Mt27 27 . 
Pilate's judgment-seat was in the open air, 
but he more than once entered the building 
to confer with Jesus privately (Jn 18 33 19 9 ). 

That they might not be defiled (RY)] A 
Gentile house would not have been purged 
from the presence of leaven in prospect of 
the Passover, and therefore by entering it they 
would have defiled themselves. St. John, who 
had already eaten the Passover with Jesus, 
was apparently not so scrupulous : he entered, 
and hence was able to report the conversations 
between our Lord and Pilate (vv. 33-38 
c. 19 9- 11 ). 

But . . might eat the passover] It is obvious 
that St. John places the Jewish Passover, not 
on Thursday evening, as the synoptists seem 
to do, but on Friday evening, and regards the 
Last Supper on Thursday night as an antici- 
pated Passover — a Passover eaten before the 
legal date, because Jesus knew that He was to 
suffer on the morrow. Some critics, however, 
following the prima facie meaning of the 
synoptists, date the Jewish Passover on Thurs- 
day evening, and understand the expression 
here (' but might eat the Passover ') to refer 
not to the Passover proper, but to the ' chagi- 
gah,' a sacrifice offered on the morning after 
the paschal meal : see on Mt 26 17 . 

30. According to Lk 23 2 , they accused Him 
of sedition, of withholding tribute from Caesar, 
and of assuming the royal title. The charge 
of blasphemy, on which the Sanhedrin con- 
demned Him, would have no weight with 



805 



18. 31 



ST. JOHN 



19. 14 



Pilate. 31. It is not lawful, etc.] This appar- 
ently conflicts with Jn8 5 > 59 Aco 33 7" 2127. 
It would seem, (1) that the Sanhedrin could 
sentence to death, (2) but could not execute 
the sentence without permission, and (3) that 
the governor sometimes permitted them to 
exceed their powers. The Talmud says that 
the power of life and death was lost 40 years 
before the destruction of Jerusalem. 

32. Jesus had prophesied not only His 
death, but His crucifixion, and this could only 
be fulfilled by His being delivered to the 
Romans, for the Jewish penalty for blasphemy 
was stoning (8 59 10 31 Ac7 5 . 9 ). 

33-38*. Within the Praetorium. Pilate and 
Christ. With the exception of Pilate's first 
question, all is peculiar to St. John. With 
Roman directness Pilate goes straight to the 
point : Has Jesus any political designs ? His 
words, ' Am I a Jew ? ' show his contempt 
for the Jews, and his question, ' What is 
truth ? ' echoes the flippant (but perhaps only 
superficial) scepticism of polite circles in Rome. 

37. Thou sayest that I am a king] RM 
1 Thou sayest it, because I am a king.' Pro- 
bably the words are a surprised question : 
1 Dost thou, a heathen, say that I am a king ! ' 
Pilate was impressed with our Lord's per- 
sonality, and was willing to confess that there 
was something kingly about Him. To this 
end] The only kingdom which Christ claims 
for Himself is absolute empire over k the 
Truth' (146, e tc). Every one, etc.] All who 
are earnestly doing their duty according to 
the light vouchsafed to them, are ready to 
receive Christ's G-ospel, when it is presented 
to them. 38. What is truth ?] Rome was 
infested with a horde of Greek sophists and 
juggling Oriental theosophists, who all claimed 
a monopoly of ' the truth,' and hence Pilate 
had learned to scoff at all mention of the 
search for it. 

38 b -40. Outside the Praetorium. Barabbas 
is preferred to Jesus (see Mt27 15 - 26 Mklo 6-15 
Lk 23 18-25 ). All is in essential agreement 
with the synoptists. 

CHAPTER 19 
The Crucifixion. The Burial 

1-3. Inside the Praetorium. Scourging; and 
mockery by the soldiers ( M t 27 -" ; Mk 1 5 l6 ). It 
illicit be supposed from Mi and Mk that the 
scourging was only tin- ordinary preliminary 
to a Etonian execution, but Lk2.'J 1,; suggests 

that it was an act of mercy to Jesus int. ml, -.1 
t<> s.ive His life. This the Fourth G-ospel 
fully confirms, showing how Pilate tried bo 
work upon the compassion <>f the multitude. 
The present narrative elucidates, without in 
any way contradicting, the synoptic account. 

4-7. Outside the Praetorium. * Behold the 
man.' ' Crucify Him.' 



5. Behold the man !] Lat. Ecce homo. The 
words are gently and sympathetically spoken, 
and are intended to move compassion : ' This 
meek and suffering form cannot be the usurper 
of a throne.' 6. Take ye him] Pilate attempts 
to put the responsibility of shedding innocent 
blood upon the Jews. 7. We have a law] 
This confirms the evidence of the synoptists 
that Jesus was condemned by the Sanhedrin, 
not simply for claiming to be the Messiah, but 
for claiming to be divine, and so blaspheming 
God (Mt26« Mkl462 Lk2269). 

7-1 1. Inside the Praetorium. Jesus refuses 
to satisfy Pilate's curiosity as to His origin. 

8. The more afraid] viz. of allowing Jesus 
to be unjustly executed. In spite of super- 
ficial scepticism (19 38 ), Pilate was super- 
stitious, and thought that Jesus might be some 
demigod or hero, some son of Jupiter, appear- 
ing in human form : cp. Acl4 n . 9. Whence 
art thou ?] Art thou a man or a demigod ? 

11. Caiaphas was more guilty than Pilate. 
Pilate had lawful authority over Jesus, which, 
as ordained by Cod, was acquiesced in by 
Jesus Himself. Caiaphas had no such authority, 
for Caiaphas was only high priest, and Jesus 
was the Messiah. Again, Pilate was only 
Caiaphas's tool ; he knew not the issues at stake 
in the rejection and condemnation of Jesus, 
but Caiaphas did know, or ought to have known. 

From above] i.e. from God (cp. R0 13 1 ), 
though some think that it means from the high 
priest Caiaphas. He that delivered me] i.e. 
not Judas, but Caiaphas. 

12-16. Outside the Praetorium. Pilate yields 
to the clamour. 

12. Thou art not Caesar's (i.e. Tiberius's) 
friend] The Jews now appeal to Pilate's selfish 
fears. They threaten to accuse him of dis- 
loyalty to the emperor, a charge which the 
cruel and suspicious Tiberius was only too 
willing to receive. St. John alone brings out 
the leading motive which induced Pilate to 
yield. 13. Sat down] or. possibly, 'caused 
Jesus to sit down.' The Pavement] In front 
of a Roman judgment seat there was usually, 
at this period, a mosaic or tesselated pavement. 

Hebrew] i.e. Aramaic. Gabbatha] 'Gab- 
bath or Gabbetha means a rounded height ' 
(Edersheim). 

14. St. John sees prophet ie significance in 
Pilate's words, ' Behold your king,' and there- 
fore times them precisely. Pilate, the repre- 
sentative of the Gentile world, sees in Jesus, 
whom Israel rejects, the true king of Israel. 
The Passover is mentioned, because, in the 
evangelist's view, Jesus is the true Paschal 
Iamb. 

The preparation] i.e. the day before the 
Passover, extending from sunset on Thursday 
to sunset on Friday. Those, however, who 
think that the Passover took place on Thursday, 



806 



19. 16 



ST. JOHN 



19. 28 



translate, ' And it was the Friday in Passover 
week,' a possible, but improbable rendering : 
see 1828. 

About the sixth hour] i.e. about noon. St. 
Mark says ' the third hour,' i.e. 9 a.m. (Mk 15 * 25 ). 
There is a discrepancy here of about 3 hours, 
which cannot be satisfactorily accounted for. 
However, Eastern ideas of time are vague, and 
if the actual time of crucifixion lay midway 
between 9 and 12, the discrepancy is not a very 
large one, and may possibly be explained by 
the complete absorption of the disciples in the 
dramatic incidents of our Lord's trial and 
execution, which rendered them unobservant 
of the flight of time. The discrepancy is not 
satisfactorily explained, by supposing (as some 
do) that St. John counts his hours from mid- 
night, for this would throw back the crucifixion 
to 6 a.m., still leaving a three-hours' discrepancy. 

1 6. Unto them] viz. to the chief priests, so 
that the crucifixion might appear their act, 
rather than Pilate's, who was heartily ashamed 
of it. 

17-22. Jesus is crucified (cp. Mt27 31 Mk'15 20 
Lk23 26 ). St. John, who is in thorough agree- 
ment with the synoptists, omits the incident 
of Simon of Cyrene (Mt, Mk, Lk), and the 
first ' word ' on the cross (Lk), but adds the 
characteristic interview between the chief 
priests and Pilate. 

19. Title] According to Roman custom an 
inferior officer bore before the condemned a 
block of white wood upon which was engraved 
the crime for which he suffered. The chief 
priests regarded Pilate's title as intended to 
insult the Jews by insinuating that the fitting 
ruler for such a nation was a condemned 
criminal. 20. Was nigh] a local detail, pecu- 
liar to this G-ospel. Hebrew, and Greek, and 
Latin] It was written in three languages, so 
that it could be read by every one, including 
foreigners. The evangelist records the fact 
as symbolising the universality of the gospel. 

22. What I have written] A touch true to 
life. Pilate, though morally a coward, was 
obstinate — ' by nature obstinate and stubborn ' : 
1 at once self-willed, and implacable ' (Philo). 

23, 24. The Parting of the Garments (Mt 27 35 
Mklo 24 Lk23 34 ). St. John alone sees in this 
incident a fulfilment of Scripture, and this 
accounts for his minute description of it. The 
dress of a Jew consisted of, (1) the head-dress, 
(2) the shoes, (3) the outer garment, (4) the 
girdle, (5) the inner garment. There were 
four soldiers (cp. Acl2 4 ), who each took one 
part. There remained the seamless inner gar- 
ment. For this they cast lots, fulfilling Ps 22 18 , 
a Davidic psalm, from which the fourth ' Word ' 
on the cross was taken. St. John quotes it 
from the LXX version. The garments of 
criminals were a perquisite of the executioners. 

25-27. Jesus and His mother. This beauti- 



ful episode is peculiar to St. John. Its grace 
and naturalness, and withal its reticence, speak 
powerfully for its truth. It took place before 
the darkness, which St. John does not record. 
25. His mother, etc.] According to the AV 
and RV, only three women are named, but 
most modern critics hold that four are in- 
tended. Translate, therefore, ' His mother, 
and His mother's sister ' (i.e. Salome, the 
mother of the evangelist) ; ' and Mary the 
daughter of Clopas, and Mary of Magdala ' : 
see further on Mt 27 56 . The wife of Cleophas 
(RY ' Clopas ')] A more probable rendering 
is, 'the daughter of Clopas.' Nothing is known 
of this Clopas, who (for reasons which cannot 
be fully given here, but which are accepted 
by most recent critics) is not to be identified 
with the Alphaeus of MtlO 3 , or with the 
Cleopas of Lk24 18 . Clopas is a contraction of 
Cleopatros. For the view, now generally aban- 
doned, that ' Mary of Clopas ' was the mother 
of our Lord's ' brethren,' see the detached 
note on Mtl2 46 - 50 . 26. Woman, behold, etc.] 
Although bearing the sins of the whole world, 
Jesus was not forgetful of human ties, and 
solemnly commended his mother to the care 
of the beloved disciple, St. John. St. John 
was comparatively wealthy, and was, moreover, 
the Yirgin's nephew, so that the arrangement 
was in every way suitable. She was not com- 
mended to our Lord's ' brethren,' probably 
because they were not her own children, 
and were not believers : see on Mt 1 2 46 - 50 . 
It is clear that St. Joseph was by this time 
dead. Unto his own home] This implies that 
St. John had a separate establishment at Jeru- 
salem. This would help to explain his ac- 
quaintance with Annas (18 15 ), and his special 
information about our Lord's ministry at 
Jerusalem. When our Lord visited Jerusalem, 
St. John was probably His host. 

28-30. Death of Jesus (Mt27 45 "55||). The 
sayings ' I thirst ' and ' It is finished ' are 
peculiar to St. John. The former explains, 
what the synoptics do not, why ' one of them 
ran and took a sponge, and filled it with 
vinegar,' etc. (Mt27 48 Mkl5 35 ). 

28. That the scripture, etc.] i.e. Ps69 21 : cp. 
Ps22 15 . Although Jesus mainly based His 
Messianic claim on His fulfilment of the OT. 
Scriptures in their widest and most general 
sense (Lk24 2 ? AclO 43 ), yet He attached some 
importance (though less than the disciples did) 
to their literal and detailed fulfilment. I 
thirst] the fifth 'Word.' These words of 
human anguish, attesting Christ's true human- 
ity, are significantly absent from the Docetic 
'G-ospel of Peter,' which says that on the 
cross He felt no pain. A vessel] The Roman 
soldiers often drank a sour wine, or vinegar, 
called posca. Ulpian says, ' Our soldiers are 
wont to drink wine and vinegar, one day wine, 



«07 



19. 30 



ST. JOHN 



20. 8 



another day vinegar.' Hyssop] i.e. the reed 
mentioned by the synoptists. But Post (in 
HDB.) takes it to be a plant like pepper- 
mint, added to the wine to make it quench 
thirst better. 30. It is finished] (the sixth 
word). All My earthly work, including the 
world's redemption, is finished. The three 
synoptists mention Christ's loud cry, but 
only St. John mentions what He said. St. 
Luke alone adds the seventh word, which im- 
mediately followed. Gave up] The death was 
voluntary — ' No man taketh it from me, but I 
lay it down of myself ' (10 1S ). 

31-37. The sign of the pierced side. A sec- 
tion peculiar to St. John, and claiming ex- 
pressly to be the testimony of an eyewitness. 
The knowledge of Jewish and Roman custom 
displayed in it speaks for its historical truth. 

31. The preparation] i.e. the day before 
the sabbath (Friday). The sabbath began 
at sunset on Friday : see on v. 14. That the 
bodies] An accurate account of the Jewish 
practice, as opposed to that of the Romans, 
who left corpses to rot on their crosses. The 
letter of the Law (Dt21 22 ) required the re- 
moval of the bodies in all cases before night ; 
much more was it necessary in this case for 
the bodies to be removed, seeing that the mor- 
row was a sabbath and a high festival. An 
high day] It was at once the sabbath and the 
first day of unleavened bread. That their legs] 
A specially Roman practice. The criminal's 
legs were broken with heavy mallets to 
accelerate death. 

34. Pierced his side] This was done to make 
sure of His death, and was a common practice 
at executions. The act was providentially or- 
dered, that it might be made evident that the 
Resurrection was a resuscitation after a real 
death, not a mere recovery from a death-like 
stupor. Blood and water] No satisfactory 
medical explanation of this phenomenon has 
been given, though it has been suggested that 
the death of Christ was due to rupture of the 
heart consequent upon acute mental suffer- 
ings, and that thereupon the cavities of the 
heart became filled with a watery serum, 
which flowed out when Christ's side was 
pierced. The evangelist himself seems to 
have regarded the strange phenomenon as a 
miracle; he certainly saw in it a dec]) mystical 
significance, for which Bee 00 I Jn5 6 . 35. The 
eyewitness claims t<> • "• the actual author of 
the Gospel, in spite of the third person: Bee 
21 s *. 36. A bone of him ] In the evangelist's 
view, Christ's Legs were not broken, thai it 
mighl 1)'- thereby made evidenl that He was 
the true paschal lamb. The Jews were ape 
cially forbidden to break the bones of the 
Paschal Lamb: see Exl2*«. 37- They shall 
look] St. Jolm quotes directly from the Seb. 
of Zechl2 10 , which the: LXX has mistrans 



lated. We have here a point of contact with 
Rev 1 7. 

38-42. The burial (see Mt2757 Mkl5 42 Lk 
23 50 ). All is in agreement with the synoptists, 
but there are three additional particulars : (1) 
That Nicodemus assisted Joseph of Arimathaea; 

(2) that the tomb was in a garden close by ; 

(3) that the body was embalmed after the 
Jewish manner with 100 lb. weight of spices. 
These details imply special knowledge. 

39. Myrrh and aloes] The myrrh and the aloe 
wood were reduced to powder, and inserted 
between the bandages, which were wound 
fold upon fold round the body. The enor- 
mous quantity (about 75 lb. avoirdupois) of 
spices, though surprising, is credible as the 
offering of two wealthy men. According to 
Jewish and general Eastern custom, the neck 
and face of the corpse were doubtless left 
bare : see on 20 8 . 42. The Jews' preparation] 
see on v. 14. 

CHAPTER 20 
The Resurrection 

i-io. The Resurrection. Visits of Mary 
Magdalene, and of Peter and John to the tomb 
of Jesus. (For the Resurrection appearances 
see on the synoptics, especially on St. Matthew; 
for the visit of Mary Magdalene see Mt 28 J 
MklG 1 Lk24M0 ; for that of St. Peter see Lk 
24 12 .) This section, peculiar to the Fourth 
Gospel, is marked by specially vivid features. 
The race to the tomb in which John, the 
younger man, outruns Peter; the impetuous 
nature of Peter, who enters first ; the more 
reflective character of John, who reads the 
meaning of the sign of the graveclothes and 
believes first ; the details of the scene inside 
the sepulchre; the state of mind of the dis- 
ciples, who had not yet learnt to expect a 
resurrection ; — all these, as if caught on the 
plate of a photographic camera, the memory of 
the aged Apostle faithfully retained. Here is 
either absolute truth, or artistic realism of a 
kind unexampled in ancient literature. 

2. We know not] Observe the plural, which 
corroborates the synoptic representation that 
other women, besides Mary Magdalene, visited 
the tomb (Mt28* MklG 1 Lk24i). For the 
details see on Mt. 

8. And he saw and believed] Why did John 
believe? Probably because the bod)' of Jestlf 
hid miraculously passed through the thick 
folds of the graveclothes, leaving them un- 
moved and untouched, just as, on the evening 
of the same day, the risen Lord appeared in 
the midst of the disciples, when the doors 
were shut. It was clear from the position of 
the clothes, which had not been unwound, that 
no human hands had removed the Lord's 
body, and further, since His body had passed 
unimpeded through solid matter, that it was 



808 



20. 11 



ST. JOHN 



20. 23 



now a spiritual and glorious body, not bound 
by the laws of terrestrial matter. Jesus had 
risen, therefore, not to an earthly but to a 
heavenly life. 

1 1-18. The appearance to Mary Magdalene. 
This is different from that of Mt28 9 , but 
identical with that of Mkl69. 

12. Two angels] as in Lk. Mt and Mk 
mention only one. St. John notices their 
exact attitude and position. 15. -Supposing 
him to be the gardener] Many did not recog- 
nise our Lord at first, because His appearance 
had undergone a certain change (Mt 28 17 Mk 
16 12 Lk24iM 7 Jn21 4 ). 16. Rabboni] Eder- 
sheim regards this as the G-alilean form of 
» Eabbi.' 

17. Touch me not, etc.] T have not come 
to renew the old intimacy, but am on the point 
of returning home to My Father. When I am 
enthroned in heaven, you shall touch Me once 
more, not however with the physical touch of 
your hands, but with the spiritual touch of a 
living faith.' I ascend] viz. after forty days. 
But many recent writers maintain that our 
Lord ascended immediately after the Resurrec- 
tion, that He was in heaven during the forty 
days of earthly manifestation, and that the 
event called ' the Ascension ' (Ac 1 9 ) was only 
His final farewell to the disciples, not His 
entry into glory. My Father, and your 
Father] Observe that Jesus never says ' Our 
Father,' or ' Our God,' as if He stood in the 
same relation to God as other men. The 
Lord's prayer is no exception, for it is a prayer 
of the disciples, not of Jesus Himself. 

19-23. Jesus appears in the evening to the 
disciples: see Lk24 36 (Mkl6 14 ). According 
to St. Mark, Jesus appeared ' to the eleven as 
they sat at meat.' St. John is more precise, 
noting the absence of Thomas. St. Luke 
says that Jesus appeared 'to the eleven and 
them that were with them.' By this time our 
Lord had appeared, not only to Mary Magda- 
lene and the women, but also to the two 
disciples walking to Emmaus, and to Peter. 
19. The doors were shut] A clear indication 
that our Lord's body had become a spiritual 
body, and was no longer subject to the ordinary 
laws of matter, or the conditions of space : 
cp. v. 26 Lk 24 31, 36 an a Lk24^i RM. Yet 
there is no suggestion of an unreal or phantom 
(Docetic) body, for He offers it to be handled 
(Lk24 39 Jn20 27 ) ; and even eats before them 
(Lk 24 4 2 Ac 1 4 (RM) 1 41 ). It is to be presumed 
that Jesus closed the interview by mysteriously 
vanishing. Peace] The usual Jewish greeting, 
but how full of meaning now that the Cross 
had made peace between man and God ! 

21. Sent. . send] The Gk. words are different: 
cp. 17 18 . 

22. Breathed on them] The word for ' breath ' 
and ' spirit ' is the same in Gk. By this action 



our Lord showed how closely the Holy Spirit 
is connected with His person, being in fact 
' the spirit of Jesus.' The Church has never 
ventured to imitate this action, but has sub- 
stituted in ordination the laying-on of hands. 

Receive ye the Holy Ghost] i.e. for the pur- 
pose of consecration to the ministerial office. 
The Spirit was undoubtedly given at this time, 
and yet, we must suppose, not in its full power 
till Pentecost: see 7 39 16 7 . 23. Whosesoever 
sins ye remit] This includes all the means by 
which, through the ministry of the Word, 
souls are reconciled to God ; e.g. baptism, the 
preaching of repentance, and moral discipline, 
as well as absolution (see on Mtl8 18 ). 

As others were present besides the Apostles 
(Lk 24 33 ), it has been suggested that the minis- 
terial powers here mentioned were conferred 
not upon the Apostles only, but upon the whole 
Church. St. John, however, who alone men- 
tions the communication of ministerial powers, 
mentions the Apostles only as receiving them. 
It is possible indeed that our Lord's commis- 
sion to baptise and teach, etc., was given to 
the corporate body of believers (see Mt 28 i6-20) } 
but it was clearly intended to be normally 
exercised through an authorised ministry. 

Christians of different communions and 
schools of thought are not entirely at one as 
to the precise meaning of this verse, and their 
explanations of it differ very considerably, at 
least in detail. A full account of the numerous 
interpretations cannot be given here. It must 
suffice to indicate very briefly, for the informa- 
tion of the reader, the two main views which 
are taken of the nature of the power to ' remit ' 
and 'retain' sins, which the risen Lord here 
communicates to His Apostles, and through 
them to His Church. (1) Many believers see 
in it nothing but the power to exercise ecclesi- 
astical discipline. They regard sins as ' retained,' 
when a notorious offender is excommunicated, 
i.e. deprived for a time of the sacraments and 
other ministrations of the Church, and ' re- 
mitted,' when, as a penitent, he is restored 
once more to full communion. On this view, 
the forgiveness which the Church is empowered 
to bestow, is only a human forgiveness, — the 
forgiveness of the injured and justly offended 
Christian brotherhood. (2) Other believers 
hold that something more is intended. Im- 
pressed with the mysterious solemnity of the 
words themselves, of their occasion, and of 
the symbolical act which accompanied them, 
remembering also that our Lord more than 
once promised that the discipline of the earthly 
Church, when rightly exercised, should be 
ratified in heaven (Mtl6 19 18 18 : cp. lCor5 5 
2 Cor 2 10 ), they believe the meaning to be that 
God Himself (normally and usually) ratifies in 
heaven the remitting and retaining of sins by 
the earthly Church, though He still, of course, 



809 



20. 25 



ST. JOHN 



21. 5 



retains in His own hands the power to remedy 
all injustice, and to grant pardon (where peni- 
tence is deep and real), even beyond the 
covenanted channel. 

"When the important and far-reaching quali- 
fications with which the second view is now 
generally held are duly considered, it will 
probably appear to many readers that the two 
views are not so much f iindamentally opposed, 
as expressive of two different aspects of truth. 
At any rate there is at present a strong tend- 
ency among theologians representing the two 
points of view to come to a better under- 
standing by frank mutual explanations. 

25, 26. The doubts of Thomas. Thomas in 
a sense represents the spirit of our age. He 
will be satisfied with nothing less than the 
evidence of the senses. 

25. The print of the nails] It is clear that 
Thomas had witnessed the crucifixion. 

26-29. Second appearance to the Apostles. 
Climax of the Gospel in the Confession of 
Thomas. 

26. After eight days] i.e. on the next Sunday, 
both Sundays being counted in. Here we have 
the beginning of the observance of the Lord's 
Day, as the weekly memorial of the Resurrec- 
tion. The other NT. references are Ac20 7 
1 Cor 16 2 Rev lio. Within] viz. in the same 
upper room in Jerusalem ; not, as some think. 
in Galilee. Thomas with them] His presence 
shows a willingness to be convinced. The 
doors being shut] see on v. 19. 27. Probably 
Thomas did not avail himself of our Lord's 
invitation. 28. My Lord and my God] The 
climax of the gospel. The unbelief of Thomas 
passes into faith in Christ's true Deity. Ob- 
serve that Jesus accepts and approves the con- 
fession of Thomas. 29. It is better to be con- 
vinced by moral and spiritual evidence than by 
the evidence of the senses. 

30, 31. Conclusion of the Gospel. 

30. Many other signs] probably refers to 
signs done after the Resurrection. Those 
done before the Resurrection were done in the 
presence of the people. 31. The author's pur- 
pose in writing is to produce faith in Jesus as 
the Messiah, an'l as the Son of God, i.e. as 
divine: see v. 28. Life] i.e. eternal life. 

Through his name] i.e. through union with 
Him as the incarnate Son of God. His ' name' 
is His nature as the God .Man. 

Here the Gospel originally closed. 

CHAPTER 21 

S I I' 1-1. I'. M 1. N I A i: V 

1-25. Appendix. The Gospel is brought to 
a definite dote, its oontente are reviewed, ami 
its purpose stated in 20 3 "- 31 . The presenl 0. 
is therefore probably an appendix added at a 

later time, but (since all MSB and versions 
contain it) before the Gospel had been exten- 



sively copied, or had passed into general 
circulation. There is good reason for suppos- 
ing that it is by the same author as the Gospel. 
For (1) the style is identical. For example, 
there is a fondness for the same connecting 
particles, and for sentences beginning abruptly 
without any conjunction at all. The favourite 
Johannine words are used, such as k manifest,' 
' glorify,' ' witness,' k love,' ' disciples ' (in the 
sense of ' apostles '). Everywhere too is dis- 
played that peculiar and inimitable simplicity 
which characterises the Johannine writings 
generally. (2) There are also important corre- 
spondences with the narrative of the Fourth 
Gospel. The Sea of Tiberias and Cana of 
Galilee are mentioned only in that Gospel and 
in this appendix. Didymus and Xathanael, as 
actual characters and under these names, 
appear only in St. John. Common to this Gospel 
and this appendix, and to them only, is the 
mention of ' the disciple whom Jesus loved/ 
and of his leaning upon the Master's breast 
at supper, and the insistence upon the truth of 
his testimony: cp. 19 35 . Characteristic also 
is the peculiar expression k signifying by what 
manner of death he should glorify God ' : cp. 
12 33 18 32. The only really doubtful vv. are the 
last two (vv. 24, 25), which may possibly have 
been added by the Ephesian elders, who first 
put the Gospel in circulation after the death 
of the Apostle, and who wished to testify to 
its genuineness and trustworthiness. The 
main object of the appendix is to correct a 
popular belief that the beloved disciple would 
not die before our Lord's Second Advent 
(v. 23). 

1- 1 4. Manifestation of the risen Lord to 
seven disciples at the Sea of Tiberias. The 
Fourth Gospel confirms the synoptic tradition 
that there were appearances in Galilee as well 
as in Judaea. The date of this appearance 
cannot be fixed. 

1. Shewed (RV ' manifested ') himself] see 
on 2 11 . 2. Of Cana] A later writer would 
not have been likely to possess this additional 
information. The sons of Zebedee] i.e. James 
(called ' the Great '), and St. John the Evan- 
gelist. Two others] The 'Gospel of Peter' 
seems to identify them with Andrew and Levi 
(Matthew). 3. I go a fishing] The period of 
waiting had doubtless tried the Apostles 
severely, and it was more as a distraction, than 
as a means of livelihood that St. Peter returned 
to his nets. That night] At night it is easy 
to catch fish, because then they cannot see the 
nets. In daylight it is much more difficult. 
The successful draught (v. 6) was made in 
daylight, and is therefore probably to be 
regarded as miraculous. 4. Knew not] A 
certain change had passed over our Lord's 
body: see on 20* 5 . 5. Children] cp. 13 33 . 
From our Lord, St. John learnt to call his 



810 



21.7 



ST. JOHN 



21. 20 



own converts by this affectionate title : see on 
13 33 . The exact word is in Un2 13 > 18 , a 
similar one in 13 33 , Un2M2,28 37,18 44 521. 

7. That disciple] As at the visit to the 
tomb, so here, the beloved disciple is the first 
to draw the true inference. This undesigned 
coincidence speaks for genuineness. 8. As it 
were two hundred cubits] i.e. 300 ft. 

9. Coals] i.e. charcoal. Fish] or a fish. 

Bread] or a loaf. 

How Jesus prepared this meal is a mystery, 
but why He did so is plain. He wished, after 
the Resurrection, as well as before it, to set 
Himself forth as the bread of life, or the 
spiritual food of mankind, and He did so, as 
in c. 6, by a symbolical act. There is 
probably a reference to the Holy Commu- 
nion, as was perceived already in the 2nd 
cent. The recently discovered inscription 
on the tomb of Abercius, bishop of Hierapolis 
in Phrygia in the reign of Marcus Aurelius 
(161-180 a.d.), contains the words, 'Every- 
where faith led the way, and set before me 
for food the fish from the fountain, mighty 
and stainless, which a pure virgin grasped, and 
gave this to friends to eat always, having 
good wine, and giving the mixed cup with 
bread.' Here the fish is Christ, the fountain 
baptism, the pure virgin the Church (see 
Lightf oot, ' Apost. Fathers,' pt. 2, vol. 1, p. 480). 
In the catacombs at Rome also, in the 
cemetery of St. Lucina, is a fresco repre- 
senting a fish (i.e. Christ) bearing upon its 
back a basket full of sacramental bread. 

Yet was not the net broken] The earlier 
draught of fishes with the breaking net 
symbolised the Church on earth, imperfect in 
its organisation and methods, and allowing 
many souls to escape from its meshes. This 
draught, in which the net is unbroken and 
every fish is brought safe to shore, symbolises 
the Church triumphant in heaven, freed at 
last from all earthly imperfections, and 
embracing in its membership all genuine 
servants of God whose salvation is now for 
ever assured. 

14. The third time] i.e. the third appearance 
to any considerable number of Apostles col- 
lectively. The appearances, private or semi- 
private, to Mary Magdalene, the women, the 
two disciples, Peter, and James, are not 
reckoned. The appearances on the mountain 
in Galilee, and to the five hundred, had 
apparently not yet taken place. 

This being a ' spiritual ' Gospel, the allegorical 
interpretation of this incident is to be firmly 
maintained. So interpreted, it constitutes a 
renewed call by the risen Lord to the Apostles 
to become ' fishers of men,' and a renewed pro- 
mise to be with them in their work. The 
) details also, the unbroken net, the fish and the 
bread, probably even the number of the fishes, 



81 



are to be mystically interpreted, but the mean- 
ing of the last is uncertain. The other chief 
Johannine book, the Apocalypse, abounds in 
the mysticism of numbers. 

15-17. Restoration of St. Peter to his 
apostolic office. By his threefold denial Peter 
had forfeited his position among the apostles. 
Hence, before restoring him, Jesus required 
from him a threefold confession of love. 
Quite baseless is the papal interpretation that 
St. Peter is here endowed with supreme eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction over the other apostles. 
All that is done is to restore him to his old 
position. 

15. Simon, soji of Jonas] RY ' son of John ' : 
see l 42 . Observe that in this, as in the other 
Gospels, our Lord does not call him Peter. 
Lk.22 34 is the only exception. Lovest thou 
me (agapas) more than these?] i.e. more than 
these thy brethren love Me ? Once (Mt26 33 
Jnl3 3>r ) Peter had boasted of a love and con- 
stancy greater than that of others. Now he 
is more humble. In his reply he will not say 
that he loves Jesus ' more than these.' He 
will not even say that he loves Jesus at all in 
the full sense of Christian love (agapan, agape). 
All he will say is that he loves Jesus with the 
warmth of personal affection (philein, philia). 
Twice Jesus asks him, ' Lovest thou Me ? ' 
(agapan). The third time He adopts Peter's 
own word, phileln. Feed my lambs] lit. 'give 
food to them,' i.e. by the ministry of the Word 
and Sacraments. The ' lambs ' here are prob- 
ably neither Christian children nor recent 
converts, but, like the 'sheep' in vv. 16, 17, 
Christians in general, the name being one of 
affection : cp. 1 Pet 5 2 > 3 . 16. Feed (R Y ' tend ') 
my sheep] Here the Gk. word indicates author- 
ity, so that the meaning is, Exercise discipline 
and authority over the flock : so Ac 20 28 1 Pet 
5 2 Rev2 2 ? 7 1 *, and often in OT. 17. Thou 
knowest] or, rather, ' perceivest ' (RM). 

18-20. Prophecy of Peter's Martyrdom. 

18. Thou shalt stretch forth thy hands (upon 
the arms of the cross), and another (i.e. the 
executioner) shall gird thee (viz. with the loin- 
cloth, the only garment allowed to criminals 
at their execution) and carry thee whither 
thou wouldest not (viz. to execution). St. John 
here assumes the manner of St. Peter's death 
to be known to his readers. According to the 
probably true tradition, St. Peter and St. Paul 
were martyred at Rome about 68 a.d., the 
former being crucified, the latter beheaded. 

19. Follow me] i.e. by dying the death of 
crucifixion. ' Follow ' here is metaphorical. 

20-23. The misunderstood saying about the 
beloved disciple. 

20. Following] viz. in a literal sense. Our 
Lord, during His conversation with Peter, had 
walked to a little distance from the others. 
Peter, happening to turn round, sees John f ol- 

1 



21. 21 



ST. JOHN 



21. 25 



lowing. 2i. Whatshall this man do f] i.e. Shall 
he also die a glorious martyr's death ? Seeing 
that our Lord rebukes the question, there was 
probably in it some latent jealousy, or, at 
least, presumption. 22. Tarry] i.e. remain 
alive. Till I come] The reference is not to 
the destruction of Jerusalem, but to the Last 
Judgment: cp. 14 3 . 23. Should not die] In 
spite of this appendix, the opinion still per- 
sisted. One story was that he was translated 
like Elijah, another that he still breathed in 
his grave, a fable which even St. Augustine 
was inclined to believe. 

24, 25. Conclusion. Y. 24 is full of St. 



John's own phrases and mannerisms, and, 
therefore, in spite of the plural ' we know,' is 
probably by the Apostle himself. Nor is there 
any absolutely cogent reason for rejecting 
v. 25. which is absent from only one ancient MS. 
We know] The apostle associates himself 
with the members of the Ephesian Church, 
who knew him well, and were convinced of 
his truthfulness. Some, however, think that 
the ' we ' are the Ephesian elders, who pub- 
lished the Gospel, and thus declared it au- 
thentic. 25. The author apologises for the 
incompleteness and fragmentary character of 
his work. 



Additional Note. John at Ephesus 



According to the generally received tradition, 
which dates from at least the former half of 
the second century, the Apostle John, the son 
of Zebedee, after the martyrdom of St. Paul, 
67 a.d., or more probably after the fall of 
Jerusalem, 70 a.d., migrated from Jerusalem 
to Ephesus, and there ruled the Churches of 
Asia Minor for more than a quarter of a 
century, and finally died a natural death in the 
reign of Trajan (about 100 a.d.), having first 
composed and published the Fourth Gospel, 
and the First Epistle of John, perhaps also the 
Second and Third Epistles and the Kevelation. 
As the trustworthiness of this tradition has 
lately been challenged, it will be convenient 
to place before the reader a summary of the 
early evidence. 

St. Justin Martyr (150 a.d.) attributes the 
Revelation to the Apostle John, and since 
that book is in the form of a pastoral letter to 
4 the seven churches which are in Asia' (l 4 ), 
Justin must have believed in the Asiatic 
sojourn of the Apostle. 

St. Irenaeus, who wrote in Gaul 177 A.D., 
but whose youth was spent in Asia, where he 
had been a hearer of St. Polycarp, a personal 
disciple of St. John, says : 

'Thus all the elders testify, who were con- 
versant in Asia with .John the disciple of the 
Lord. And he remained among them up to 
the times of Trajan' (98-1 17 a.i>). 

' Afterwards John, the disciple of the Lord, 
who also had Leaned upon His breast, himself 
published a Gospel dining his residence at 
Ephesns in Asia." 

'While I was \,t a boy, I Baw thee ( Florinus) 
in Lower Asia with Polycarp. I can even de- 
scribe the place where the blessed Polycarp 

Used bo sit and discourse, and how he would 
speak of his familiar intercourse with John, 
and with the real of those who had seen the 
Lord.' 

Polycrates (who as bishop of Ephesus had 



special opportunities for knowing the truth) 
in a letter written to Victor, bishop of Rome, 
about 193 a.d. , speaks of ' John who was both 
a witness and a teacher, who reclined upon 
the bosom of the Lord, and, being a priest, 
wore the sacerdotal plate. He fell asleep at 
Ephesus.' 

Tertullian, 200 a.d., and Clement of Alex- 
andria, 200 a.d., give similar evidence. 

There are two main difficulties, which are 
held by some to throw a considerable doubt 
upon the truth of this tradition. (1) The ninth- 
century Chronicle of Georgius Hamartolos says. 
' Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, declares in the 
second book of the Oracles of the Lord that 
John was put to death by the Jews.' Of 
course if Papias (130 a.d.) did say this, and if 
the execution of John took place in Palestine, 
the Ephesian ministry of the Apostle is ex- 
cluded. But it is significant that the earlier 
ecclesiastical writers, most of whom, like 
Irenaeus and Eusebius, were diligent students 
of Papias, seem to know nothing of this sup- 
posed Palestinian martyrdom of John, and, on 
the contrary, represent him as surviving all the 
other Apostles, and dying a natural death in ex- 
treme old age at Ephesus. Probably Georgius 
has misinterpreted some obscure statement of 
Papias, whose style is always slovenly, and 
often ambiguous. (2) Among the personal 
disciples of Jesus, according to Papias, were 
two Johns, John the Apostle and John the 
Presbyter (or Elder). It is suggested by some 
that the .John who settled at Ephesus and was 
the instructor of Polycarp, was not the Apostle 
hut the Presbyter. This view does not Been 
very probable. We are not told that the Pres- 
byter had any connexion with Asia, and it 
hardly seems credible that Irenaeus, who was 
a hearer of Polycarp, can have so completely 
misunderstood his .Master's references to John, 
as to suppose that he meant the Apostle when 
he really meant the Presbyter. 



812 



THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Plan and Purpose. (1) Acts- represents 
the exact religious standpoint of St. Paul. 
Its theme, the expansion of Christianity from 
a Jewish sect into a world-wide religion, is in 
fact St. Paul's own ideal, in pursuit of which 
he broke every hindering tie, and strained every 
faculty of mind and body for upwards of thirty 
years. The keynote of the book is struck at 
once in 1 8 , ' Ye shall be witnesses unto Me 
both in Jerusalem and in Samaria, and unto 
the uttermost part of the earth.' These words, 
uttered by the risen Lord, fell at the time upon 
dull and inattentive ears. At first the Twelve 
realised only their mission to the house of 
Israel. It required a special revelation to pro- 
cure the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch, and 
a thrice-repeated vision to induce the reluctant 
Peter to baptise Cornelius. Even when these 
important steps had been taken, the Twelve 
showed such hesitation to undertake aggres- 
sive work among the Gentiles, that the Lord 
of the Church raised up a thirteenth apostle 
to champion Gentile rights, and to inaugurate 
a more liberal policy. This ' chosen vessel,' 
converted by a special miracle, and endowed 
with an authority independent of the Twelve, 
broke through the old prejudices which still 
hampered the original disciples, founded flour- 
ishing Gentile Churches, in which the Law 
was no longer observed, in the most important 
eastern provinces of the Empire, and, at the 
date when the book closes (about 61 a.d.), 
was proclaiming the gospel in the great western 
capital itself. 

The book is thus a defence of Gentile 
Christianity, and of its great originator and 
advocate, St. Paul, of whom the author was a 
companion and enthusiastic admirer. What 
Boswell was to Johnson, that this unnamed 
writer was to St. Paul. Just as Johnson owes 
the affectionate regard of posterity in no small 
measure to the labours of his faithful and ad- 
miring biographer Boswell, so St. Paul owes 
his place of esteem in the minds of subsequent 
generations as the ideal Christian hero and 
missionary very largely to the author of Acts. 
The Pauline Epistles may teach us more of the 
Apostle's inner life, but it is Acts which gives 
us those outward facts which make him live 
before us as an actual character on the scene 
of history. 

(2) But the writer of Acts has still a fur- 
ther purpose. He recognises in a manner 



quite remarkable for so thoroughgoing a sup- 
porter of St. Paul, the immense value and 
importance of the work of St. Peter and the 
earlier Apostles. It is probable that when he 
wrote (about 61 a.d.), there still lingered in 
Gentile Churches some suspicion of the opinions 
and methods of the Twelve, and in the Judaic 
Churches of Palestine some dislike and distrust 
of the Apostle of the Gentiles. This the 
writer deliberately determined to remove. He 
therefore divided his book into two distinct 
sections, chs. 1-12, in which the chief hero is 
St. Peter, and chs. 13-28 in which the chief 
hero is St. Paul. He intended his Gentile 
readers by a perusal of chs. 1-12 to be brought 
to understand and to admire St. Peter, and his 
Jewish Christian readers by a perusal of the 
rest of the book to be brought to understand 
St. Paul. True to his purpose of acting as a 
peacemaker, he places both his heroes in the 
most attractive possible light, passes lightly 
over the past differences and misunderstand- 
ings (e.g. he omits the serious dispute between 
Peter and Paul at Antioch, Gal2 llf -, alto- 
gether), and dwells far more upon the points of 
agreement than upon the points of difference 
between two great Christian parties. 

(3) There are reasons for thinking that the 
author intended his work to be also a kind 
of apology for Christianity addressed to the 
heathen world. Without going to the length 
of supposing, as some do, that it was intended 
to be produced and read at St. Paul's trial as a 
formal vindication of the Apostle and his re- 
ligion against the misrepresentations of his 
accusers, we may still discern in almost every 
chapter a desire to influence favourably Gen- 
tile readers, especially those belonging to 
the cultured and official classes. The author 
is well equipped for his task. He writes as 
an educated man to educated men. He opens 
his book with a short preface and dedication 
in the approved classical manner. He writes 
in a style which, if not the purest Attic 
Greek, is still graceful, easy, refined, and for- 
cible. It is not only superior to any other 
Greek in the NT., but it compares favourably 
with that of many of the best profane authors 
of the age, and is far superior to the Greek 
of the early patristic writers, such as St. 
Clement of Rome, the author of the so-called 
Second Epistle of Clement, the author of the 
Epistle to Diognetus, and even to that of such 



813 



INTRO. 



THE ACTS 



INTRO. 



professional scholars as Aristides and St. 
Justin Martyr. An educated pagan, happening 
to peruse Acts, could not fail to recognise 
that some at least of the despised Galileans 
were persons of culture and refinement. Our 
author is in close sympathy with the best side 
of heathen life and religion, recognising that 
even the worshippers of the false gods of pagan 
Greece and Rome were feeling after the true 
God if haply they might find Him, and that 
He had not left Himself entirely without wit- 
ness even in the gross darkness of degrading 
superstition (1 4 15 17 27 ; cp.Rol 20 ). He attempts 
to conciliate the official and power-holding 
classes, in whose hands was the actual admin- 
istration of the Empire, by representing St. 
Paul as a peaceable and law-abiding subject, 
proud of his Roman citizenship, and, so far 
from cherishing disloyal designs against the 
Imperial Government, continually and success- 
fully appealing to its aid against the hostile 
machinations of the turbulent Jews (18 14 
1931-41 2132 22 29 23 29 24 26 25 16 - 20 > 25 - 2 ? 26 32 
273,43 28 "> 10 > 16 > 30). 

2. Value of the Book. To modern readers 
the chief value of Acts is that it is the only 
authentic record which we possess of the first 
thirty-five years of the history of the Christian 
Church. With the exception of a few meagre 
hints in St. Paul's Epistles, Acts is absolutely 
our only first-century authority for the 
momentous events which followed the Resur- 
rection and Ascension of our Lord. Even 
from the purely secular point of view, the 
process by which an obscure Jewish sect ex- 
panded into a world-wide Church, is a subject 
full of interest ; but for Christians, who 
believe that the process was part of God's 
gracious purpose for the salvation and re- 
generation of the world, the subject possesses 
an interest and attractiveness altogether 
unique. 

3. Trustworthiness and Historical Character 
of the Narrative. Modern scholars apply tests 
of great stringency to ancient historical 
writings which profess to embody the evidence 
of eyewitnesses or contemporaries. Every 
statement made in such writings which can 
possibly In' tested, is scrutinised and com- 
pared with the statements of other ancient 
writings of undoubted authority, also with the 
now very voluminous and valuable evidence 
of inscriptions, monuments, and coins. If the 
writer's statements which can be tested are 
found n|)on the whole to be accurate and 
reliable, credit is :ds<> given to his statements 
which cannot he bested and his work is pro- 
Bounoed to be a valuable authority for the 
events therein recorded. If. however, his 
statements winch can be bested are found to 
be frequently false or inaccurate, his work is 
pronounced unauthentic and unreliable. 



These tests have been applied with great 
and increasing rigour during the last half 
century to the remains of Christian antiquity, 
especially to those of a narrative character, 
like Acts. Tried by these tests, the various 
apocryphal Acts, e.g. the Acts of Andrew, the 
Acts of John, the Acts of Paul, the Acts of 
Peter, the Acts of Thomas, the Acts of Paul 
and Thecla, and the Preaching of Peter, have 
been demonstrated to be forgeries. But the 
canonical Acts of the Apostles has emerged 
from the ordeal with its reputation established. 
The book is full of geographical and political 
notices which admit of definite proof or dis- 
proof, and in practically every case (the state- 
ment about Theudas, 5 36 , is a possible excep- 
tion) the author has been proved to be right. 
Thus he knows that Cyprus was at this time 
governed by a proconsul (AV ' deputy '), 
whose name is correctly given as Sergius Paulus 
(see 13 7 ) ; that Philippi was a Roman colony, 
having magistrates called ' praetors ' (AV 
1 magistrates '), attended by ' lictors ' (AY 
1 sergeants ') (16 20 > 35 ) ; that the magistrates of 
Thessalonica were called ' politarchs ' (AV 
'rulers') (17 6 ) ; that the ruler of Malta was 
called 4 primus ' (A V ' chief man ' ) (28 7 ) ; that 
there were officers of the province of Asia 
called ' Asiarchs ' (AV ' the chief of Asia ') 
(19 31 ), with whose functions he is also familiar ; 
that at Athens questions of religion were 
under the supervision of the ' Areopagus ' 
(17 !9) ; that Derbe and Lystra, but not 
Iconium, were cities of Lycaonia (14 6 ) ; that 
Ephesus was ' neocoros ' (AV ' a worshipper,' 
RV ' temple-keeper ') to the temple of Artemis, 
and that political power was exercised by the 
' demos ' (' people ') meeting in ' the lawful 
assembly,' presided over by an influential 
officer called the ' secretary ' (AY k town clerk ') ; 
that the inhabitants of Ephesus were addicted 
to magic (19 13f ), etc. He thoroughly under- 
stands the Jewish Sanhedrin, its functions and 
its parties ; the position of the chief priests, of 
the Temple guard, of the Roman garrison in 
the fortress Antonia, and of the Herodian 
princes at Jerusalem. He is, moreover, fami- 
liar with Roman law, the procedure of Roman 
tribunals, and the rights and privileges of 
Roman citizens, e.g. freedom from binding and 
scourging, and the right of appealing to the 
Emperor. He seems also to be correct 
(though further evidence is desirable) in his 
allusions to the Italic and Augustan 'cohorts' 
(AY hands') at Cassarea (10 1 27 1 ), and to 
the imperial troops called ' frumentarii,' whose 
head-quarters were on the Crelian Hill at 
Rome. He is well acquainted with navigation, 
and his account of the voyage to Rome has 
been shown to be true in every detail by pro- 
fessional navigators who have sailed over the 
course with the express purpose of investi- 



814 



INTRO. 



THE ACTS 



INTRO. 



gating its accuracy. We may add that the 
author's allusion to the popular belief at 
Lystra that Zeus and Hermes (Jupiter and 
Mercurius) were accustomed to visit the earth 
in human form, and his descriptions of the 
temple and priest of ' Zeus propolis ' and of 
the attempted sacrifice to the Apostles, are 
thoroughly true to life, and have every ap- 
pearance of historical truth (14 8 ). 

The natural inference from these facts is 
that either the author himself was a contem- 
porary and an eyewitness, or that his book is 
based upon and closely follows the evidence 
of contemporaries and eyewitnesses. 

4. Authorship. (1) Internal evidence. The 
book is anonymous, but from internal evidence 
it is possible to gain much information about, 
and perhaps to identify, the author. 

Certain'sections (16 ^-17 20 5 ' 15 211-18 271- 
28 16 ; also, in the D text, 1 1 28 ) are written 
in the first person plural, and are hence called 
' the we-sections.' From them we learn that 
the author was a native of Antioch, and one 
of the earliest converts in that place (ll 28 D 
text) ; also that he became a companion of 
St. Paul during the Second Missionary 
Journey. Joining the Apostle at Troas (16 10 ), 
he accompanied him to Philippi, where he was 
left behind, seemingly in pastoral charge of 
the newly-established Church (17 x ). There 
he remained some years, probably engaged 
in evangelising the district, until St. Paul 
revisited Philippi on his Third Missionary 
Journey. He then accompanied the Apostle 
to Caesarea, and Jerusalem (20 6 21 1-1 8 ), and 
finally to Rome (c. 27). 

Who was this companion ? He cannot have 
been Silas (Silvanus), who was present at the 
Council of Jerusalem (15 22 ), and would there- 
fore have used the first person in describing 
it ; nor Timothy, who is spoken of in the 
third person (17 14 ) ; nor Titus, who was a 
companion of the Apostle before the we- 
sections begin (Gal2 3 ), and therefore, had 
he been the author, would have begun the 
we-sections earlier. There remains Luke, 
who, in harmony with the indications of Acts, 
appears as a companion of St. Paul only in the 
later Epistles (Col 414 Philemon v. 24 2 Tim 
4 ii), and who was certainly, as Acts indicates, 
with St, Paul at Rome (Col 4 " Philemon v. 24). 
In Col 4 14 , Luke is called the ' beloved physi- 
cian,' and this again suits the author of Acts, 
who has an unusual (probably a professional) 
knowledge of medicine, and shows consider- 
able acquaintance with the technical terms of 
the Greek medical writers (for instances see 
37 9 is 1223 1311 288, etc.). Internal evidence, 
therefore, points with certainty to a com- 
panion of St. Paul, and with considerable pro- 
bability to St. Luke, as the author. 

(2) External evidence. The internal evidence 



is decisively confirmed by the external. Thus (a) 
the author of Acts is certainly also the author 
of the Third Gospel. The common dedica- 
tion to Theophilus, the reference to a ' former 
treatise ' of a scope and character exactly 
answering to the Gospel, the absolute identity 
of style spirit and Pauline standpoint, and, 
we may add, the common exhibition of un- 
usual medical knowledge, point decisively to 
common authorship, and since the Gospel is 
ascribed by very ancient tradition to St. Luke, 
Acts must also be his. (&) Acts was received 
by all ancient authorities as the unquestioned 
work of Luke, the companion of Paul. Ter- 
tullian, Clement of Alexandria, and the Mura- 
torian fragment (circ. 200 a.d.) all ascribe it 
to Luke. A little earlier Irenaeus (177 a.d.) 
transcribes long passages from it into his 
work, ' Against Heresies.' There are also 
practically certain references to it in the works 
of Clement of Rome (95 a.d.), Polycarp (110 
a.d.), and in the Epistle of the Churches of 
Gaul (177 a.d.). This strong combination of 
internal and external evidence raises the 
Lucan authorship to a practical certainty. 

The suggestion of certain critics that only 
the ' we-sections ' are the work of a companion 
of St. Paul, and that the rest of the book is 
by another and much later writer, cannot be 
taken very seriously. A uniform and easily 
recognisable style pervades the whole book, 
so that if any of it is by a companion of St. 
Paul, the whole is. 

It is probably unnecessary to say much about 
the theory of F. C. Baur and the Tubingen 
school that Acts is an unauthentic romance of 
the middle of the second century. Recent 
research has tended so strongly to confirm the 
antiquity and credibility of Acts, that the 
theory in question has been generally aban- 
doned even in the circle in which it originated. 

5. Date. The most natural date to assign 
to Acts is towards the close of the first Roman 
imprisonment (circ. 61 a.d.). It is hard to 
believe that if St. Paul's trial had actually 
taken place when the book was written, the 
author would have failed to mention the 
result. 

So early a date, however, involves some 
difficulties. It throws back the date of 
St. Luke's Gospel to 60, perhaps to 56 or 57, 
and St. Mark's (which St. Luke used) still 
further. To many critics these dates seem 
altogether too early. Holding as they do, 
that St. Luke's Gospel contains indications 
(see on Lk21) that it was not composed till 
after the fall of Jerusalem, 70 a.d., they date 
the Gospel shortly after 70, and Acts towards 
the close of the decade 70-80. We may fairly 
leave the question open, with a preference for 
the former view. 

6. The Text. The codex Bezae (D) and 



815 



INTRO. 



THE ACTS 



INTRO. 



certain other authorities, generally called k west- 
ern,' exhibit a text so different from that either 
of the RV or the AV, that it may almost be said 
to constitute a different edition of the book. 
The chief ' western ' variations are at 8 37 

1127,28 1210 143,5,6 152 1526 lg35 199,14,25,28 

20 15 21 1> 6 , where the notes should be con- 
sulted. The Bezan variations give additional 
particulars, which in nearly all cases seem to 
be authentic. We attribute them, therefore, 
if not to St. Luke himself, at any rate to some 
well-informed writer of the apostolic or sub- 
apostolic age. 

7. Sources. For the early history of the 
Church of Jerusalem, there was available the 
testimony of St. Mark, who was certainly 
with St. Luke at Eome (CoUiM*) ; also the 
testimony of Philip, with whom St. Luke 
stayed ' many days ' at Caesarea (21 10 ). During 
the long waiting at Caesarea, St. Luke doubt- 
less visited Jerusalem, and obtained additional 
information from James, John, Peter, and 
others. His knowledge of St. Paul's career 
was of course obtained from St. Paul himself, 
and from his own experiences as his com- 
panion. 

8. Theology of Acts. The extremely primi- 
tive and simple character of the theology of 
Acts is a strong proof of the authenticity of 
the record. The great dogmatic Epistles of 
St. Paul had already appeared when Acts was 
written, but hardly the faintest trace of their 
characteristic expressions occurs in the author's 
narrative. 

(1) Christology. The Apostles insist that 
Jesus is the expected Messiah. His Messiah- 
ship is proved partly from prophecy and partly 
from the fact of the Resurrection. In general 
it is declared that ' to Him give all the prophets 
witness ' ; and again, ' yea, and all the prophets 
from Samuel, and them that followed after as 
many as have spoken, they also told of these 
days.' In particular Moses (Dtl8 15 ) is quoted 
as to our Lord's prophetic office, and Joel (2 - s ) 
as to the outpouring of the Spirit in the age of 
the Messiah. But most of the quotations are 
from the Psalms. Ps 1 (> 10 is quoted both by 
St. Peter and St. Paul as a proof of the 
Resurrection ; and Ps'2" by Si. Paul in the 
same sense (see Ac 13 88 ). P8132 11 is quoted 
to prove the Davidic descent of the Messiah. 
and Psllo 1 to illustrate the Ascension. Ps 
1 18— (• the stone which the builders rejected ' ) 
is also applied to .Jesus as in the Gospels. But 
the greal proof of the Messiahship of Jesus 
is the crowning miracle of His Elesnrrec 
tioii. which is appealed toon every occasion 
with the greatest confidence. In the house 
of Cornelius Peter claims to have eaten and 
drunk with Jesus after He rose from the 
dead 1 10* 1 ). On the day of Pentecost Peter 
says, ' This Jesus did God raise up, whereof 

81 



we all are witnesses' (2 32 ), and in general the 
history declares, ' with great power gave the 
Apostles their witness to the Resurrection of 
the Lord Jesus ' (4 33 ). 

But faith in our Lord's Messiahship was 
intended by the Apostles to lead on (as it had 
in their own case) to faith in our Lord's Di- 
vinity. The indications that Jesus was already 
regarded as a Divine Person are neither few 
nor insignificant. Such titles as ' the prince 
of life,' ' Lord of all,' l Judge of quick and 
dead,' and ' Saviour,' are only really applicable 
to one who is divine. More significant still is 
the practice of prayer to Christ. The dying 
Stephen invoked not God, but Jesus, to for- 
give his murderers and to receive his spirit 
(7 59 RY). The Christians even received 
their name from their practice of praying 
to Jesus (9 14 9 21 22 1(5 ). In that age, among 
a people trained to regard God as the only 
lawful object of religious devotion, and to 
guard His unique prerogatives with the ut- 
most jealousy, prayer to Jesus clearly implied 
that He was within the Godhead. Another 
significant indication of what was believed 
about Jesus within the Church is contained 
in the confidential address of St. Paul to the 
elders of Ephesus (20 2S ). There, according to 
the best reading (see RV), St. Paul said to 
the elders, ' Feed the Church of God, which He 
purchased with His own blood,' thus expressly 
assigning the divine name to Jesus. It is 
somewhat remarkable that the title ' the Son 
(huios) of God,' so common in the Gospels and 
Epistles, never occurs in the early speeches in 
Acts. Its place is taken by another word, 
pah (3!3, 26 425,27,30^ w hich the AY also trans- 
lates ' Son,' but the RY ' servant.' Both trans- 
lations are supported by good modern authori- 
ties. The Gospel title, ' Son of God' (huios), 
occurs only in the (probably genuine) confes- 
sion of the eunuch (8 37 ), and in the preaching 
of St. Paul (9 ^ ia 33 ). 

Characteristic of Acts is the stress laid upon 
the continue I activity of the Ascended Lord, 
who is regarded as still carrying on from 
heaven the work which He began on earth. 

(2) The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Mnch 
prominence is given to the activity of the 
Holy Spirit, who is regarded mainly as the 
Spirit of the Ascended Christ. Although 
Me is .i 'gift' of Christ to believers (2 ] 
His will and personality are strongly marked 
(830,88 1019 LI 12 [32 166,7 20 ™ 21" 28 26 ), 
;rs also is His Divinity (5 8f -). The doctrines 
of the personality and divinity of the Spirit, 
however, are not as yet thrown into definite 
theological language. 

(3) Universalism. The writer strongly sym- 
pathises with St. Paul's view that the obliga- 
tion of the ( Seremonial Law had been abrogated 
by Christ, and that Gentiles ought to be 



INTRO. 



THE ACTS 



1. 1 



admitted to the Church without being circum- 
cised. At the same time, he is perfectly fair 
to St. Paul's opponents, and never uses bitter 
language against them. The tone of his book 
is generous and conciliatory. He does full 
justice to St. Peter and St. James and the 
other apostles of the circumcision : see § 1. 

(4) Petrine and Pauline Theology. It is 
a proof of the accuracy of the writer that 
the speeches of Peter and Paul reflect the 
characteristic ideas of the speakers ; but yet 
so naturally and unobtrusively that it is 
obvious that the writer has not copied their 
Epistles. The speeches of St. Peter have 
many points of contact with 1 Peter (see 
on 2 14 ), and those of St. Paul have recognis- 
able, though by no means close, coincidences 
with the Pauline Epistles. 

9. Contents, Chronology, and connexion 
with the Epistles. 

I. The Church in Jerusalem, IMS 3 . 
29-35 a.d. 

The Ascension, Pentecost. First conflicts 
with the Sanhedrin. Stephen's speech and 
martyrdom. 

II. The Church in Judaea and Samaria, 
84-1118. 35, 36a.d. 

Philip in Samaria. Conversion of Saul 
(probably 35 or 36 a.d., though some place it 
as early as 30 a.d., shortly after the Ascen- 
sion). Baptism of Cornelius, and important 
discussion thereupon. 

in. The Church of the World, ll 18 - 
28 3i. 35-61 a.d. 

(1) The Church in Antioch, 1119-13 3 . 35- 
47 A.D. 

Mission of Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem. 
Persecution by Herod Agrippa I (44 a.d.). 
Barnabas and Saul sent forth from Antioch. 

(2) First Missionary Journey of Paul and 
Barnabas, 13 4-15 35 . 47 a.d. 

Cyprus, Pisidia, Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, 
Derbe. Return to Syrian Antioch. 

Possible date for the Epistle to the Gala- 
tians, beginning of 49 a.d. 



Council of Jerusalem, Pentecost, 49(?) a.d. 

(3) Second Missionary Journey of Paul, 

1536-1822. 49-52 A.D. 

G-alatia revisited, Europe, Philippi, Thessa- 
lonica, Bercea, Athens. 

Corinth, 18 1 ' 18 . 1 and 2 Thessalonians writ- 
ten from Corinth, 50-52 a.d. 

Possible date of St. Matthew's Hebrew 
'Logia' or Gospel, about 45-50 a.d. 

Visit to Jerusalem, and return to Syrian 
Antioch. 

(4) Third Missionary Journey of Paul, 
18 23_2i 16. Aug. 52 a.d. to Pentecost, 56 a.d. 

Galatia revisited, Apollos at Ephesus, Paul 
at Ephesus, 19 ^ l (53-55 a.d.). 

1 Corinthians written early in 55 a.d. 
Paul in Macedonia and Greece (Corinth), 

20 1- 6 (55, 56 a.d.). 

2 Corinthians and (according to usual view) 
Galatians, written from Macedonia, and Ro- 
mans from Corinth. 

Possible date of St. Mark's Gospel. 
Troas, 20 *- 12 . Voyage to Jerusalem, 20 13 - 
2116. 

(5) Paul in Jerusalem and Caesarea, 21 W- 
2816. 

Pentecost, 56-59 a.d. 

Paul's arrest. Caesarea. Paul before Felix, 
Festus, Agrippa. Possible date for St. Luke's 
Gospel, 57, 58 a.d. Voyage to Rome. 

(6) Paul in Rome, 2817-31. From 59 a.d. 
Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, 

Ephesians, and Philemon. 

Probable date of Acts, 61 a.d. 



St. Paul's trial before Nero, and acquittal, 
61 A.D. 

Labours in Spain, Crete, Asia Minor, Mace- 
donia, Achasa. Epistles to Titus and 1 Timo- 
thy written, 65 (?) a.d. 

Second imprisonment at Rome. The Se- 
cond Epistle to Timothy written, 67 a.d. 

Second trial, condemnation and martyrdom 
of St. Paul (probably of St. Peter also), 67 a.d. 

[Some authorities place the martyrdom of 
SS. Peter and Paul earlier, in 64 a.d.] 



PART 1 



The Establishment and Progress of the Church at Jerusalem (Chs. 1-8 3 ) 



The Acts of the Apostles] A more adequate 
title would be ' The Acts of Peter and Paul,' 
the Acts of Peter extending from c. 1 to c. 12, 
and the Acts of Paul from c. 13 to c. 28. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Ascension. Election of Matthias 
1-5. St. Luke's Introduction. He recapitu- 
lates the general contents of his Gospel, adding, 
however, this additional information, (1) that 
the appearances of the risen Lord were numer- 
ous, and (2) that forty days elapsed between 



the Resurrection and the Ascension. If we 
possessed St. Luke's Gospel only, we might 
possibly conclude that the risen Lord appeared 
only three times, and that He ascended on the 
very day of His Resurrection. 

1. The former treatise] i.e. St. Luke's Gos- 
pel : see Intro. Theophilus] see on Lk 1 3. 

Began] The Gospel records the work that 
Jesus began to do. Acts records its accom- 
plishment. The chief agent in this book is the 
Ascended Christ Himself, operating through 
His Spirit, and performing works which were 



52 



817 



1. 2 



THE ACTS 



1. 11 



not possible while He was still in the flesh 
(Jnl4i2). 2 . Through the Holy Ghost] St. 
Luke represents all the actions of Christ's 
ministry as performed by the power of the 
Holy Spirit, which He received at His Baptism 
to consecrate Him to His office of Messiah : 
see 10 38 . Commandments] viz. to preach 
repentance and remission of sins to all nations 
beginning at Jerusalem, and to tarry in the 
city until they should be endued with power 
from on high (Lk 24 47 f.). 

3. Many infallible proofs] RV omits ' in- 
fallible,' but the Gk. implies that they were 
reliable and convincing. The ' many ' is im- 
portant, for St. Luke records only four appear- 
ances, all in Judaea : see art. ' The Resurrec- 
tion.' 

Forty days] i.e. at intervals during forty 
days. The kingdom of God] Sometimes ' the 
Kingdom of God ' denotes the inward and 
spiritual aspects of Christianity, sometimes 
Christianity as organised into a visible Kingdom 
or Church. Both meanings are here blended. 
The departing Lord doubtless wished to give 
the Apostles spiritual instructions to prepare 
them to receive the Holy Spirit, and also 
special directions for the future government of 
His Church : see intro. to Mt, § 6 (5), and pre- 
fatory remarks to Mt 5. 4. And, being as- 
sembled] rather, ' and while sitting at meat 
with them' : see RM and cp, Mkl6 14 . The 
fact of the risen Lord's eating is attested also 
by Lk24 42 , where Jesus eats 'before' the 
disciples ; and the sitting at table by AclO 41 . 
The promise of the Father] i.e. the promised 
gift of the Holy Ghost which was to be be- 
stowed at Pentecost : see Lk24 49 . 

5. Baptized with the Holy Ghost] There can 
be little doubt that the Apostles had already 
received baptism, not only from John, but also 
from Jesus Himself : see Jn3 22 > 2 6 4M. But 
Christian Baptism was not yet, in the full 
sense, a Baptism ' with the Holy Ghost and 
with fire,' because, Jesus being not yet glori- 
fied, the Holy Ghost could not yet be fully 
given (Jn739). 

6-1 1. The Ascension. Belief in the Ascen- 
sion of Jesus follows necessarily from belief 
in His Resurrection. If Jesus rose from the 
dead not with a natural, but with a spiritual 
body (and this is undoubtedly the doctrine of 
Holy Scripture), then it was impossible for 
Him to remain permanently on earth. The 
translation of His body to that sphere of 
existence to which it now properly belonged, 
was both natural and necessary. The Ascen- 
sion is only described in detail in the present 
passage. The allusion to it in Lk21 '. though 
probable, is not certain, and thai in Mkir>>" is 

not by the writer of the Second (lospel. The 
paucity of allusions to the Ascension in the 
NT. is probably due to the fact that it was 

8 



not accompanied by any change in the con- 
dition of Jesus. It was on the first day of 
His Resurrection, not on the fortieth, that 
Jesus was glorified and invested with all 
authority in heaven and on earth (Mt28 18 ) ; 
hence the event of Ac 1 9 was regarded by the 
Apostles as of secondary importance. In the 
Ascension, as in the Resurrection, Christ is 
the firstfruits of the human race, opening the 
Kingdom of heaven to all believers. He is 
also, as ascended, the high priest and intercessor 
of humanity, pleading on man's behalf, before 
the eternal Father, His "completed sacrifice 
(Heb7,8). 

6. They therefore] These words imply that 
at the common meal which the risen Lord 
shared with His Apostles (v. 4), He made an 
appointment with them to meet Him on the 
day of His Ascension. The Galilean meeting 
described by St. Matthew (28 16f -), and men- 
tioned by St. Mark, was also by appointment. 
Restore . . the kingdom] i.e. make the Jewish 
nation independent of Rome, and dominant, 
politically and religiously, over all the nations 
of the earth. This was the current Messianic 
expectation of the Jews, and the fact that the 
author represents the Apostles as still enter- 
taining it, is a mark of the historical truth of 
his narrative. It needed the Pentecostal out- 
pouring of the Holy Spirit to teach the Apostles 
that the Christ's Kingdom is not of this world. 
The answer of Jesus implies that He will 
restore the Kingdom to Israel ; not, however, 
to ' Israel after the flesh,' as the Apostles 
imagined, but to ' the Israel of God,' i.e. to 
Christian believers of every nation, by making 
Christianity the dominant religion throughout 
the world. 

7. It is not for you] The Apostles were to be 
not so much prophets of the future, as witnesses 
of the past. Hath put in his own power] see 
on Mkl3 32 . There is another possible trans- 
lation of these words : ' which the Father 
appointed by His own power.' 8. Samaria, 
etc.] Jesus here revokes the temporary limita- 
tion of the mission of the Apostles to the Jews 
(Mtl0 5 > 6 ). This passage is one of the many 
proofs that Jesus intended to found a universal 
religion. 

9. A cloud received him] The visible and 
corporal Ascension does not necessarily imply 
that heaven is a place situated above the 
clouds. The object of the Ascension was not 
to indicate where or what heaven is, but to 
assure the Apostles by an unmistakable sign 
that Jesus had entered it. It is possible that 
heaven is not, strictly speaking, a place, but a 
condition. 10. Two men] certainly angels, 
as in Lk^4 4 . 

11. Why stand] It is fruitless to gaze. Go 
rather and labour, that when He comes again 
in judgment He may approve your work. In 
18 



1.12 



THE ACTS 



like manner] i.e. in glory, and in His human 
nature : cp. ' this Jesus ' above. 
12-14. The waiting Church. 

12. Olivet] lit. ' the olive-orchard ' ; called 
usually The Mount of Olives. This, the scene 
of Christ's agony and betrayal, is now made 
the scene of His triumph. A sabbath day's 
journey] i.e. 2,000 cubits, or 6 furlongs. 

13. Anupperroom] RY 'the upper chamber,' 
probably that in which the Last Supper had been 
eaten ; not, as some have argued from Lk24 53 , 
a chamber in the Temple. It may have been 
in the house of Mary the mother of Mark : 
see 12 12 . Peter, etc.] see on Mtl0 2f - The 
brother of James] RV correctly, ' the son of 
James.' 

14. With one accord] Unanimity and com- 
mon action distinguish the Christian community 
in Acts. This characteristic expression (Gk. 
homothumadon) occurs again 2 46 4 24 5 12 7 57 
8 6 1220 1525 1812 1929 5 an d nowhere else in 
the NT. except in Rol5 6 . In prayer] add 
(from Lk24 53 ) 'and praise.' The women] 
viz. those which had accompanied Jesus in 
Galilee, and ministered to Him of their sub- 
stance. Among them probably were Mary of 
Magdala, Joanna, and Susanna (Lk8 2 > 3 ) ; Mary 
the mother of James and Joses, and Salome 
the wife of Zebedee (Mkl5 40 ) ; possibly 
Martha and Mary of Bethany ; and almost 
certainly Mary the mother of Mark (12 12 ), 
who, perhaps, was hostess. Mary the mother 
of Jesus] The last mention of the Blessed 
Virgin in the sacred history. Of her subse- 
quent life nothing certain is known. His 
brethren] see on Mt 12 46-50. 

15-26. The election of Matthias. As the 
Church was about to be established on a 
durable and permanent basis, it was necessary 
that the twelve foundations on which it was to 
rest (Eph2 20 Rev 21 14 ) should be made com- 
plete. Matthias, therefore, was chosen to fill 
the place of the traitor Judas ; the twelfth 
Patriarch of the new Israel of God. 

15. Peter] Peter, having been restored by 
Jesus to the office forfeited by his triple 
apostasy (Jn21 15f «), resumes his old rank as 
leader of the Apostles. This leadership was 
probably personal, not official : see on Mtl6 18 . 

16. Must needs] RY 'It was needful that 
the scripture should be fulfilled.' Just as 
the scandal and stumbling-block of the death 
of Jesus was diminished by the discovery that 
it was foretold in the OT., and was part of the 
determinate counsel of God (Lk 24 2 M6 Ac2 23 
3 17 » 18 , etc.), so the scandal of the fall of an 
Apostle was relieved by the discovery that 
David had foretold it in the Psalms : cp. Jn 
13 is Mt 26 24 . Peter quotes Pss 69 25 and 109 8 . 
David really spoke of his own enemies, per- 
haps (in Psl09) of Ahithophel, but Peter 
regards the words as a typical prophecy of the 



treachery of Judas. 1 7. Part] R V ' his portion ' 
(lit. ' lot,' Gk. hleros). In Patristic Greek the 
word designates the clergy. 

18, 19. These vv. are, of course, a note by 
St. Luke, not a part of St. Peter's speech. 
For the historical difficulties see on Mt 27 3 ' 10 . 

20. Bishopric] RY ' office ' (Pss 69 25 109 8 ). 

21, 22. St. Peter names two qualifications 
of an Apostle, (1) to have followed Jesus from 
the day of His Baptism by John to the day of 
His Ascension ; (2) to have been a witness of 
His Resurrection. The former of St. Peter's 
requirements excludes St. Paul, who had some 
difficulty on this account in establishing his 
claim to be an Apostle. 23. The Apostles 
might doubtless have added Matthias to their 
number on their own authority, but instead of 
doing so they consulted the brethren, thus 
introducing a popular element into the polity 
of the Church : see on 6 3 ' 6 . Two] The 
disciples (probably because the Holy Spirit 
had not yet been received) did not venture to 
make a final choice, but left the decision to 
God. Joseph called Barsabas] RY 'Barsab- 
bas,' i.e. Joseph, son of Sabba, is probably 
brother of the Judas Barsabbas mentioned in 
15 22 . His surname 'Justus' is Roman, and 
was assumed in accordance with a not un- 
common practice of the Jews at this time : cp. 
'Marcus' (12 1 2 ), 'Niger' (13 1 ), ' Paulus ' 
(13 9 ). According to Papias, this Joseph drank 
a draught of poison without receiving injury. 

Matthias] lit. 'gift of Jehovah.' This 
apostle is not again mentioned in the NT. 

24. They prayed] This, the first recorded 
Christian prayer, is probably addressed to 
Jesus Himself. For, (1) prayer to Jesus was 
no exceptional thing, but a usual practice of 
the Apostolic Church (see 9 14 ) ; and (2) it was 
appropriate that He who had chosen eleven of 
the apostles should be invoked to choose the 
twelfth. 25. His own place] St. Peter speaks 
with merciful reserve, but probably means 
Hell (' Gehenna '). The same euphemism is 
found in rabbinical writings. 26. Gave forth 
their lots] R Y ' gave lots for them ' ; RM ' gave 
lots unto them.' The two names were probably 
written on tablets, and shaken in a vessel until 
one of them dropped out. The use of the sacred 
lot (Urini) was common from the age of Moses 
to that of David, but afterwards it fell into dis- 
use. This solitary example of its revival, oc- 
curring, as it did, before the descent of the Holy 
Spirit, is not to be regarded as a precedent. 

CHAPTER 2 
The Day of Pentecost 
1-13. Pentecost. On this day the risen 
Lord fulfilled His promise to send another 
Comforter (or Advocate) ' that He may abide 
with you for ever ; even the Spirit of Truth, 
whom the world cannot receive ; for it be- 



819 



THE ACTS 



2.4 



holdeth Him not, neither knoweth Him ; but 
ye know Him ; for He abideth with you, and 
shall be in you' (Jnl4 17 ). Primarily, Pente- 
cost is to be regarded as the Consecration of 
the Church for its work of evangelising the 
world. The fiery tongues which lighted upon 
the Apostles symbolised the gift of ' boldness 
with fervent zeal constantly to preach the 
gospel unto all nations ; whereby we have 
been brought out of darkness and error unto 
the clear light and true knowledge of Thee, 
and of Thy Son Jesus Christ.' To assist in 
the work of evangelising the world, the gift of 
prophecy (i.e. of inspired preaching) was given, 
nor was this gift confined to the Apostles, for 
' I will pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh ; 
and your sons and your daughters shall pro- 
phesy, and your young men shall see visions, 
and your old men shall dream dreams.' The 
books of the NT. remain to testify that this 
gift of prophecy was a real one. We must 
also believe (although St. Luke does not 
allude to the fact) that on the day of Pentecost 
the Holy Spirit was given as a principle of 
inward spiritual life. The Lord Jesus had 
definitely promised this at the Last Supper. 
He said that the Holy Spirit would come to 
dwell with them and within them for ever, 
and that He Himself would return with the 
coming of the Spirit to dwell in their hearts 
by faith. This Spirit was to be their Advocate 
with the Father, to teach them all things, 
to bring to their remembrance all things 
that Jesus had told them, and to guide 
them into all the truth. The Spirit was also 
to have a mission to those without. Through 
the earnest utterances of believers, He would 
' convict the world of sin, and of righteous- 
ness, and of judgment,' and a beginning of 
this process was seen, when the hearers of 
St. Peter's first sermon ' were pricked in their 
heart, and said unto Peter and the rest of the 
Apostles, Brethren, what shall we do ? ' 

At Pentecost a new spirit entered the 
world, and began to transform it. That spirit 
is still at work, and the most sceptical cannot 
deny its presence or its power. Men may 
attempt to account for it by natural causes, 
but it is there, and history teaches us that it 
comes to us from Jesus of Nazareth, who, as 
Dr. Lecky says, ' has not only been the highest 
pattern of virtue, but the highest incentive 
to its practice, and has exerted so deep an 
influence that it may be truly said that the 
simple record of three short years of active 
life has done more to regenerate and to soften 
mankind, than all the disquisitions of philo- 
sophers, and than all the exhortations of 
moralists.' 

i. Pentecost] so called because it was the 
fiftieth day from the first day of the Passover. 
It was also called ' the Feast of Weeks,' because 



it occurred a week of weeks (i.e. seven weeks) 
after the Passover. It marked the completion 
of the corn harvest, and according to the later 
Jews it commemorated the giving of the Law 
on Sinai. The characteristic ritual of this 
feast was the offering and waving of two 
leavened loaves of wheaten flour, together with 
a sin offering, burnt offerings, and peace 
offerings (Lv23 15 - 20 ). Appropriately, there- 
fore, on this day the gospel harvest began ; 
and the old Law of ordinances was superseded 
by the new Law of love. 

2. A sound] The miraculous accompaniments 
of the outpouring of the Spirit were intended 
partly to strengthen the faith of the Apostles 
in the reality of the gift, and partly to arrest 
the attention of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. 

3. Cloven tongues] RY 'tongues parting 
asunder, like as of fire.' St. Luke means that 
the tongues or flames of fire appeared first in 
one mass over the assembled Church, and then 
divided, one flame or tongue settling upon the 
head of each disciple. The mighty wind sym- 
bolised the power and energy of the Spirit, 
and the tongues of fire the fervour with which 
the disciples were empowered to proclaim the 
gospel. 

4. To speak with other tongues] We should 
not gather from the references to the gift 
of tongues in St. Paul (1 Cor 12-14) and in 
the appendix to St. Mark (16 17 ), that the 
gift in question was the power of speaking 
foreign languages. Nor do foreign languages 
appear to have been spoken when Cornelius 
and his companions spoke with tongues and 
magnified God (AclO 46 ), nor when the twelve 
men at Ephesus, upon whom St. Paul had laid 
hands, ' spake with tongues and prophesied ' 
(19 6 ). Many, therefore, are of opinion — 
especially since St. Peter compares the case 
of Cornelius and his companions with the 
event at Pentecost (ll 15 ) — that in this pas- 
sage also the speaking with tongues is not 
to be understood as a speaking in foreign 
languages, but as some kind of ecstatic utter- 
ance of praise, not fully under the control 
of the speaker. This view is plausible, but 
difficult to reconcile with the prima facie 
meaning of the present passage. In v. 6 it 
is said that the multitude were confounded, 
1 because that every man heard them speak 
in his own language.' Again in v. 7 the 
multitude ask, 4 Behold, are not all these 
which speak Galilaeans ? And how hear we 
every man in our own tongue, wherein we 
were born ? ' (see also v. 1 1). The meaning 
surely must be that the disciples either spoke, 
or that they seemed to their hearers to speak, 
foreign languages. This being so, we are con- 
strained to believe, either that St. Luke has 
misunderstood the nature of the event, or 
that this Pentecostal miracle was of a higher 



820 



% 5 



THE ACTS 



2. 38 



and more extraordinary character than the 
later ' speaking with tongues.' Among modern 
parallels the most suggestive is the case of 
St. Vincent Ferrer, who, when preaching in 
Spanish, is said to have been understood by 
English, Flemish, French, and Italian hearers 
(see further on 1 Cor 12-14). We may see in 
this event, which seemed to obliterate the 
barriers of nationality and language, a reversal 
of the separation and confusion of tongues 
(Gull). 

5. Were dwelling] i.e. were dwelling per- 
manently. Their love of Jerusalem and the 
Temple had attracted them from all lands to 
take up their abode in the Holy City. 6. The 
multitude] comprising not only these ' dwellers ' 
in Jerusalem, but those who had come to keep 
the feast. Pentecost was one of the three 
festivals at which every Israelite was expected 
to appear before the Lord. 

9. Parthians, and Medes, and Elamites] are 
nations beyond the empire and influence of 
Rome. Here were settled the Ten Tribes of 
the first captivity (2K17 6 ). Mesopotamia] 
The chief Jewish centre here was Babylon, 
which, ever since the captivity of Judah, was 
famed for its rabbinical schools, and was for 
that reason regarded as part of the Holy Land. 

Judaea] Judaea, as distinguished from Galilee, 
to which the Apostles belonged. Cappadocia 
. . Pamphylia] Jews were scattered throughout 
Asia Minor as far as Pontus, and even crossed 
the Euxine to the Crimea. They enjoyed 
everywhere full civic rights. 

10. Egypt] According to Philo there were 
a million Jews in Egypt. They formed a 
large part of the population of Alexandria, 
where Judaism allied itself with the Platonic 
philosophy, and attempted to appropriate the 
best elements of Hellenic culture. Cyrene] 
A Greek city in N. Africa, founded 631 B.C. 
A quarter of its great population consisted 
of Jews, who possessed full rights of citizen- 
ship. See Mt 27 32 Ac 6 9 1 1 20 13 1. 

Strangers of Rome] RV ' sojourners from 
Rome.' They probably possessed the Roman 
citizenship, like St. Paul. Jewish prisoners 
were brought to Rome by Pompey, but they 
soon regained their freedom, and settled, with 
full civic rights, in a district beyond the Tiber. 
In 19 a.d. they were banished, but, after the 
fall of Sejanus, were allowed to return. 

14-41. St. Peter's sermon and its effects. 
Peter's sermon falls into four divisions : 

(1) vv. 14-21. Explanation of the pheno- 
menon of speaking with tongues as a manifest- 
ation of the outpouring of the Spirit foretold 
by the prophet Joel, Jl 2 28. (2) vv. 22-28. St. 
Peter shows that the outpouring of the Spirit 
is connected with the life and work of Jesus 
of Nazareth, whom, after His crucifixion by 
lawless men, God raised from the dead, accord- 



ing to the prophecy of David in the Psalms 
(Ps 16 3-11). (3) vv. 29-36. St. Peter proves 
that Psl6 8 - n refers to the Resurrection not of 
David but of Jesus, and adds the personal 
testimony of the Apostles that Jesus had 
really been raised. He then affirms the 
Ascension of Jesus, and declares that it is He 
who has sent down from heaven the gift of 
the Holy Spirit. From the Ascension which 
he illustrates by PsllOi, he further concludes 
that Jesus is the Messianic King so long 
expected by the Jews. (4) vv. 37-40. St. 
Peter concludes with a practical exhortation 
to his hearers to repent and be baptised, that 
they and their children may receive the gift of 
the Holy Ghost. 

The genuineness of this speech is vouched 
for by the simplicity of its theology, and by 
its resemblances to 1 Peter (e.g. ' foreknow- 
ledge,' 1 Pet 12; 'to call upon' (God), 1" ; 
'rejoicing,' 1 6 > 8 4 i3 ; 'the right hand of God,' 
3 22 ; 'exalt,' 5 6 ; 'the house' (= Israel), 2 5 
417, etc.). 

15. But the third hour] On festival days 
the Jews tasted nothing until the morning 
synagogue service, held at the third hour 
(9 a.m.), was finished. 

16. Joel] see Joel 2 2 8-32 # T ne on iy impor- 
tant variation is that Peter changes Joel's 
' afterward ' into the more definite ' in the last 
days.' The ' last days ' are the Christian dis- 
pensation. 19. Wonders in heaven, etc.] A 
metaphorical description of the calamities 
which will happen on earth before Christ's 
Second Coming, which St. Peter probably re- 
garded as near : cp. Mt 24 29 . 20. That great 
and notable day] i.e. either the destruction of 
Jerusalem, or Christ's Second Advent. 23. By 
wicked hands] lit. ' by the hand of lawless 
men ' (i.e. the Romans). 24. The pains of 
death] lit. ' the birth-pangs of death.' Death 
being personified as a woman in travail, and 
receiving relief when the dead are ' born again ' 
by resurrection. But it is more probable that 
St. Peter really spoke of the ' snares ' of death, 
the word for 'snare' (hebel) and that for 
'birth-pang' (hebel) being practically iden- 
tical. 25. SeePsl6 8f . 26. Rest in hope] lit. 
' pitch its tent upon hope.' 27. Hell] i.e. 
Hades, the abode of disembodied spirits wait- 
ing for the resurrection (Heb. Sheol). A 
proof text of the reality of Christ's descent 
into ' hell ' (i.e. Hades). 33. By the right 
hand] or, ' to the right hand.' The promise of] 
i.e. the promised Holy Ghost. 

37. Were pricked in their heart] (1) because 
they had crucified Jesus ; (2) because they 
had not acknowledged Him as the Messiah, 
and had thus deprived themselves of the hope 
of salvation. 38. In the name of Jesus Christ] 
see on Mt28 i9 . The remission of sins] one of 
the principal benefits of Holy Baptism, when 



821 



% 42 



THE ACTS 



3.6 



the ordinance is rightly received (22 16 ; cp. 
1043,47 1338 HeblO 22 ; alsolCor6 n Eph 
525,26). The gift of the Holy Ghost] It is to 
be inferred from S 1 ^ 19 6, cp. Heb6 2 , that 
the Holy Ghost was given by the laying 
on of the Apostles' hands. 

42-47. The life and worship of the first 
converts. The converts were still earnest 
Jews, attending the services in the Temple 
daily (v. 46), but they already formed a Church 
within a Church : for (1) they continued sted- 
fastly in the Apostles' doctrine (v. 42), i.e. they 
no longer regarded the chief priests, scribes, 
and Pharisees as their accredited teachers, but 
rather the Apostles. Thus the breach with 
Judaism had already begun in principle. (2) 
They continued stedfastly in the Apostles' 
fellowship. (3) They continued stedfastly in 
the breaking of bread, i.e. in celebrating the 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper, or Holy 
Communion. At first the Lord's Supper was 
celebrated daily (v. 46), but afterwards every 
Lord's Day at least (20 7 ). (4) They con- 
tinued stedfastly in the prayers, i.e. in the 
prayers offered at the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper, and at the other services of the 
Church (so the RY). The AV, however, 
translates ' in prayers,' which would include 
private prayers also. 

42. In prayers] lit. ' in the prayers,' i.e. the 
public prayers of the Church. These would 
probably be partly liturgical, after the example 
of the Temple and the Synagogue (cp. the 
liturgical addition to the Lord's Prayer, Mt 
6 13 AY), and partly extempore. Extempore 
prayer was allowed to be offered at the cele- 
bration of the Lord's Supper by the Christian 
prophets (see the ' Didache '), and was appar- 
ently still in use in the age of Justin Martyr 
(150 A.D.), but shortly after this the public 
prayers of the Church became exclusively 
liturgical. 

44. Were together] probably they had com- 
mon meals. Had all things common] This 
arrangement was not exactly what we call 
communism, for, (1) the sale of property was 
voluntary, the result of a spontaneous out- 
flowing of Christian love (5 4 ); and (2) even 
when property had been sold, the money 
usually remained in the hands of the vendor, 
to be distributed to the poorer saints from 
time to time ' as every man had need ' (v. 45). 
The cases of Barnabas and of Ananias and 
Sapphira, who not only sold property, but even 
laid the money at the Apostles' feet, were ex- 
ceptional, and because exceptional are specially 
noted by the evangelist. 46. Breaking bread 
from house to house] RV l breaking bread at 
home,' probably in the 'upper room' where 
the Sacrament had been instituted, and the 
Holy Ghost had descended. The reference is 
probably to the Lord's Supper, and not to an 



ordinary meal ; but it must be remembered 
that at this period the Lord's Supper was 
usually celebrated at the close of a sacred 
meal, called the agape or love-feast : see 
below. 47. And the Lord] RY 'And the 
Lord added to them' (RM 'together') 'day 
by day those that were being saved,' i.e. con- 
scious of sin and seeking salvation. 

The Love-Feast 
It is clear from v. 46, and 1 Cor 11 20 f-, that 
Holy Communion was at first celebrated in 
connexion with a common meal called agape, 
i.e. ' love-feast,' or ' feast of charity ' (Jude 
v. 12). Our Lord had instituted the Sacrament 
at the close of a sacred banquet, and the Apos- 
tolic Church at first naturally followed His 
example. The feast was an afternoon or 
evening meal, at which rich and poor met 
together in the church, the food and drink 
being provided mainly by the rich. Prayers 
and benedictions, similar to those of the Jews, 
were said over each dish or course, and ' the 
kiss of charity' (lPet5 14 ) probably concluded 
the meal. Then hands were washed, and there 
followed prayer and sacred psalmody under 
the leadership of a prophet or other minister. 
' The breaking of bread,' or Holy Communion, 
seems to have followed (not preceded) the 
agape (1 Cor 11 21 » 25 ), and the agape and the 
Holy Communion were regarded as forming 
one service, called ' the Lord's Supper ' (1 Cor 
ll 20 ). The abuses to which this arrangement 
gave rise (see 1 Cor 11), led, somewhat late in 
the apostolic age, to the gradual separation of 
the two rites. Already in the time of Pliny (115 
A.D.) the Holy Communion was celebrated in 
the morning, and the agape in the evening ; 
and Justin Martyr (150 a.d.), in describing 
the Holy Communion, makes no allusion to 
the agape, which was by that time an entirely 
separate ordinance. 

CHAPTER 3 
The Lame Man Healed 
1-26. Healing of the lame man. Speech of 
Peter. St. Luke here singles out from the 
multitude of l wonders and signs done by the 
Apostles ' (2 43 ), the one which led to the first 
persecution. 

1. The ninth hour] The hours of prayer 
were the third (2 15 ), when the morning sacri- 
fice was offered ; the sixth (noon) ; and the 
ninth, the time of the evening sacrifice. 

2. Beautiful] This gate was of Corinthian 
brass. It faced the E., and its proper name 
was the Gate of Nicanor. ' Its height was 
fifty cubits, and its doors were forty cubits, 
and it was adorned in a more costly manner, 
having much richer and thicker plates of silver 
and gold than the others' (Josephus). 6. In the 
name] i.e. by the power of Jesus Christ. It is 



822 



3. 11 



THE ACTS 



4. 5 



significant that, whereas Jesus worked miracles 
in His own name, the Apostles only did so in 
dependence on Him. n. Solomon's] see on 
JnlO 23 , and cp. Ac5 12 . 

12-26. Peter's Speech. Peter affirms that 
the miracle has been performed through faith 
in Jesus, who, though crucified, was truly the 
Messiah, as was shown by His Resurrection. 
The Apostle takes a lenient view of the con- 
duct of the Jews in the crucifixion of Jesus, . 
attributing it to ignorance ; and he calls them 
to repentance, stating that the gospel must first 
be preached to them, before it is carried to 
the rest of mankind. 

13. Hath glorified] viz. by raising Him from 
the dead, seating Him at His right hand, and 
enduing Him with almighty power, of which 
the miracle upon the lame man is a proof. 

His Son] or, ' Child.' But many recent 
authorities render, ' His Servant,' supposing 
that Jesus is here identified with the ' Servant 
of Jehovah' in Isa 40-66. 14. The Holy One 
and the Just] a strong affirmation of the sin- 
lessness of Jesus : cp. Jn 6 69 (R V), ' We have 
believed and know that thou art the Holy One 
of God.' 15. The Prince of life] i.e. the 
Author of eternal life : cp. Jn3 16 ll 25 . The 
word translated ' Prince ' occurs again, 5 31 , 'a 
Prince and a Saviour ' ; Heb 2 10 , ' the Captain 
of their salvation ' ; v Heb 1 2 2 , ' the Author of 
our faith.' The divinity of Jesus is implied 
in the fact that He is the author of life : cp. 
Jnl* 1125 lj n l2. I( 5. His name] virtually 
His Power. 18. Should suffer] see especially 
Ps22 Isa 50 6 and 53 5 Dan9 2 6. Our Lord 
Himself found intimations of His sufferings 
in the OT., Lk24 2 6 Jnl3 18 , etc. 

19. When the times of refreshing - ] RV 'that 
so there may come seasons of refreshing from 
the presence of the Lord, and that he may 
send the Christ who hath been appointed 
for you, even Jesus.' The idea that the Second 
Coming of Christ may be hastened or retarded 
by the conduct of the chosen people or of the 
Church, is also expressed in 2 Pet 3 12 (RM). 
The Jews believed that just before the coming 
of the Messiah Israel would be involved in 
terrible sufferings, and that from these the 
Messiah would relieve them, thus bringing 
' seasons of refreshing from the presence of 
the Lord.' 

21. Whom the heaven must receive] i.e. 
retain. This rendering is better than the 
alternative one, ' who must hold the heaven 
in possession.' Restitution of all things] In 
Mtl7 n a restitution of all things by Elijah is 
mentioned, in preparation for the first coming 
of Christ. The restitution here spoken of is 
the restoration of the whole universe to its 
original and intended perfection, which will 
take place when Christ comes again. It is the 
same as ' the regeneration ' of creation spoken 



of by Christ, Mtl9 28 ; as 'the new heavens 
and new earth ' of 2 Pet 3 13 Rev 21 l ; and as 
' the redemption ' of the body and of the phy- 
sical creation of Ro8 18-23 . Since the world 
began] The first such prophecy is Gn 3 15 , im- 
mediately after the Fall ; and St. Peter not 
unfairly assumes that all the prophets, even 
those whose utterances have not been trans- 
mitted to us, looked forward to the coming of 
a Redeemer, and the final restoration of all 
things. 22. Moses] see Dtl8 15 " 19 : and cp. 
7 37 . In Dt the prophet is to be understood 
collectively of the line of great prophets which 
began with Samuel. But it received its chief 
fulfilment in Jesus Christ ; and to Him alone 
do the words ' like unto me,' and ' every soul 
which will not hear that prophet shall be de- 
stroyed,' strictly apply. 25. Unto Abraham] 
see Gnl2 3 1818 2218 26* 28!4Gal3 8 . 26. Unto 
you first] and afterwards to the Gentiles (Lk 
24 47 Acl 8 ). St. Peter, as these words show, 
already contemplated the conversion of the 
Gentiles. Son] or ' Servant ' : see v. 13. 

CHAPTER 4 
Arrest of Peter and John 

1-22. Arrest of Peter and John. Peter's 
speech before the Sanhedrin. The proceed- 
ings of the Apostles displeased the authorities, 
(1) because they taught the people (v. 2) 
without having received the education and 
ordination of rabbis (cp. v. 13) ; (2) because 
they preached the Resurrection, a doctrine 
particularly distasteful to the Sadducees, the 
dominant party among the influential mem- 
bers of the priesthood ; (3) because they 
feared that the people would become in- 
flamed with enthusiasm, and that this would 
lead to collisions with the Romans. It is a 
mark of historic truth that the chief opposi- 
tion to the Apostles is here assigned to the 
Sadducees, who denied the Resurrection. The 
Pharisees, who affirmed it, were comparatively 
friendly (5 34 23 6 ), and not a few of them 
became Christians (15 5 ). 

1. As they spake] Clearly John also 
addressed the people. The captain of the 
temple] a priest next in dignity to the high 
priest, having under him a body of priests and 
Levites, who maintained order in the Temple. 

The Sadducees] Most of the chief priests 
belonged to this party. They denied the oral 
traditions of the elders, the existence of angels 
and spirits, predestination and fate, the immor- 
tality of the soul, and the resurrection of the 
body : see Mt3? 16 lf - 22 23 Ac5 17 23 6f . 

5. Their rulers] A full and important 
meeting of the Sanhedrin was summoned. 
' Rulers ' = chief priest ; ' scribes ' = rabbis or 
' lawyers,' professional teachers of the Law. 
Most of the scribes were Pharisees. ' Elders ' 
= such members of the Sanhedrin as were 



823 



4. 6 



THE ACTS 



5.4 



neither chief priests nor scribes. 6. Annas 
the high priest] see on Jnl8 13 . John] An 
unknown person. But D reads ' Jonathan.' 
This is probably correct, for Jonathan was 
son of Annas, and succeeded Caiaphas. 

Alexander] is unknown. 

8. Filled with the Holy Ghost] in fulfilment 
of the promise Lk 1 2 n . 1 1 . This is the stone] 
In Ps 1 18 22 the stone is Israel, which the heathen 
builders of the world's great empires reject 
and despise, but which nevertheless is destined 
to play the chief part in the world's history. 
In the NT. the stone is interpreted as the 
Messiah, and the builders as the rulers of 
the Jews: see Mt21*2; cp. also Eph2i9" 22 
lPet2 4 " 8 . 12. Neither is there salvation in 
any other] Though salvation is offered to 
men through Jesus, and Jesus alone, it does 
not follow that those who are ignorant of His 
name are lost. God can save, through Christ, 
those who have never heard the gospel, if they 
respond to the degree of grace and enlighten- 
ment vouchsafed to them. 13. Unlearned 
and ignorant men] This rendering gives a false 
impression. What is meant is that the Apostles 
had not received the training of rabbis, and 
were consequently unskilled in rabbinical 
traditions, and had no authority to teach. 
' Ignorant ' should be translated ' private 
persons,' or, 'laymen.' 

23-31. Prayer of the Apostles on their 
release. 24. With one accord] The prayer 
was probably led by St. Peter, the others 
repeating the words after him. 25. Who by 
the mouth] RV ' who by the Holy Ghost, by 
the mouth of our father David, didst say,' etc. 

Why did the heathen rage ? etc.] verbatim 
from PS2 1 (LXX). This Ps. is directly Mes- 
sianic, though it may have been suggested 
by the historical circumstances of some actual 
Davidic king, e.g. Solomon. The people] 
RV ' the peoples,' i.e. the Jews, regarded 
either as consisting of twelve tribes, or as 
dispersed in different nations. Vain things] 
vain, because, though the enemies of Jesus 
seemed to triumph at His Crucifixion, God 
raised Him from the dead, and placed Him at 
His right hand in heaven. 27. Child] or, 
'servant': see on 3 13 . Were gathered to- 
gether] add • in this city ' (RV). 

28. Thy counsel] There is a theological 
difficulty here. God is said to have fore- 
ordained fche iniquitous proceedings of the 
scribes and Pharisees who condemned Jesus. 
The explanation is thai God is said to fore- 
ordain what lie foresees and permits. God 
permitted the death of Jesus, intending by it 

to redeem llie world, and to destroy the works 

of fche devil : cp. 2» 3 18 . 29. That with all 
boldness they may speak thy word] rather, 
' thai with all boldness we may speak thy 
word.' 



30. By stretching] RV ' while thou stretchest 
forth thy hand to heal.' 

31. The place was shaken, etc.] The 
physical phenomena of Pentecost (see 2 3 ) 
were partly reproduced. They spake the 
word] They continued their public preaching 
to the people, and their private exhortations to 
the disciples, in spite of the opposition of the 
Jewish authorities. 

32 — C. 5 16 . The communism of the Church 
of Jerusalem. Barnabas, Ananias, and Sap- 
phira. 

32. Neither said any ofth em] This expression 
shows that the Church of Jerusalem recognised 
the principle of private property. A disciple's 
property really was his own, but he did not 
say that it was his own ; he treated it as if 
it were common property. The Anabaptist 
principle that private property is unlawful, 
finds no real support in the Acts. The 
communism was voluntary. 33. With great 
power] The expression suggests that the 
preaching was supported by miracles. 

36. Joses] RV ' Joseph.' Barnabas] lit. 
'the Son of Prophecy.' We learn from 13 1 
that he was a prophet ; and he probably gained 
his name ' Barnabas ' from some specially 
comforting or consoling prophecy which he 
delivered to the Church of Jerusalem, soon 
after his conversion. A Levite] By the 
Mosaic Law Levites were forbidden to hold 
land in Palestine, but the regulation had been 
long in abeyance. Cyprus] from the time of 
Alexander the Great many Jews had settled 
in this fertile island. It is likely that Barnabas 
had been educated at the neighbouring uni- 
versity of Tarsus, and had there made the 
acquaintance of St. Paul : cp. 9 27 . 

CHAPTER 5 

The Apostles again Imprisoned 
1 -1 6. The sin of Ananias and Sapphira was 
not keeping back part of the price, which they 
had a perfect right to do (v. 4), but pretending 
that the money which they offered to the 
Apostles was the whole price of the possession 
sold, which was not the case. Their motive 
was vanity and ambition. They wished to 
have a greater reputation for liberality than 
they were entitled to. 

1 . Ananias] i.e. ' Jehovah hath been gracious.' 
Sapphira] If the word is Greek it means 
'sapphire*; if Aramaic, ' beautiful.' 3. The 
death of Ananias and Sapphira is to be regarded 
as an act of God, not of Peter, like the blind- 
ing of Elymas (13°). Peter acts, not on his 
own authority, but under the direct inspiration 
of the Holy Ghost, who informs him of the 
secret sin, and authorises him to execute the 
divine vengeance. Similarly St. Paul is inspired 
to pronounce sentence against Elymas. 4. Was 
it not thine own ?] Clear proof that the apo- 



824 



5.6 



THE ACTS 



6.5 



stolic communism was voluntary. Unto God] 
Ananias had lied unto men, but the sin against 
man was so insignificant, compared with the sin 
against God, that St. Peter rhetorically calls it 
no sin at all. 6. Wound him up] others ren- 
der, ' composed his limbs.' 

The truth of the narrative of Ananias 
and Sapphira is guaranteed by its painful 
character. No historian would have gone out 
of his way to invent it. The punishment of 
death seems severe, but it must be remembered 
that our Lord's most severe denunciations 
were against hypocrisy. To brand religious 
hypocrisy for all time as infamous, seems to 
be the object of this miracle. It is not 
necessary to suppose that Ananias and Sap- 
phira were eternally lost. After this terrible 
punishment, they may have been forgiven. 

12. In Solomon's porch] see3 n . Solomon's 
portico was practically abandoned to the 
Christians, who made it their place of daily 
assembly, the Apostles teaching and working 
miracles there. 13. Of the rest] i.e. of the 
non- Christians. 15. The shadow] With this 
should be compared the faith of the Corinth- 
ians in the efficacy of the cloths that had 
touched St. Paul's body (19 12 ). Something 
of superstition probably mingled with this 
faith, but true faith predominated, and God 
accepted it. 

17-42. Second imprisonment of Peter and 
John. Speech of Gamaliel. 

17. The Sadducees] see on Mt3 7 Ac-4 1 . 
20. Words of this life] i.e. the new life 
in God which the Death, Resurrection and 
Ascension of our Lord had made possible 
for man. 28. To bring this man's blood upon 
us] viz. by causing the people to rise up and 
avenge the murder of Jesus by slaying us. 
29-32. Peter's speech is practically an epitome 
of previous speeches ; see 4 19 3 13 > 15 2 33 > 36 3 15 
326 2 4. 33. Were cut] lit. 'were sawn 
asunder.' Took counsel] RV ' were minded.' 
34. Gamaliel] St. Paul's teacher (22 3 ), grand- 
son of Hillel and son of Rabbi Simeon, 
was by far the most influential rabbi of 
the time. He was the first of the seven 
teachers who received the title Rabban 
(higher than Rab or Rabbi). Gamaliel's 
moderation on this occasion is to be ex- 
plained, (1) by his hostility to the Sad- 
ducees, whom he would not allow to win a 
decisive triumph over a sect which had much 
in common with the Pharisees ; (2) by the 
favourable impression which the Apostles' 
preaching and miracles had made upon him. 
He was not a convert, but thought that some- 
thing was to be said for the new teaching. 
Subsequent developments, particularly the 
preaching of Stephen, probably alienated him, 
as it did the other Pharisees. 36. Theudas] 
The mention of this name is the greatest 



historical difficulty in the Acts. Gamaliel's 
speech was delivered 36 a.d. or earlier, but 
the insurrection of Theudas, according to 
Josephus, did not take place till some 10 
years later (about 46 a.d.) : see ' Antiq.' xx. 
5, 1. Perhaps St. Luke alludes to an early 
Theudas, of whom we know nothing. 

37. Judas of Galilee] raised an important 
rebellion in the days of the taxing, or ' enrol- 
ment ' by Quirinius (6, 7 a.d.). 

40. Beaten them] Probably with 'forty 
stripes save one,' a penalty inflicted upon 
St. Paul five times (2 Cor 11 24). They were 
punished for disobedience : see 4 18 . 

42. In every house] RY ' at home,' i.e. in 
the private Christian assemblies, held in ' the 
upper room ' or elsewhere. 

CHAPTER 6 

Stephen and the Seven 

1-7. The Hebrew-speaking Jews, who were 
in a majority in the Church of Jerusalem, were 
inclined to despise and neglect the minority 
who spoke Greek. In particular, the Greek- 
speaking widows received less food than their 
Hebrew-speaking sisters. This led to com- 
plaints, and the impartiality of the Apostles 
was called in question. The Apostles, finding 
the distribution of charity too great a burden 
for them, summoned a meeting of the 
Church, and called upon the brethren to elect 
seven men to undertake this business. The 
office to which they were appointed was in 
later times called the diaconate (Phil 1 1 1 Tim 
3 8 > 12 ) ; but the name had not yet come into 
use, and St. Luke consequently avoids it. 

1. Grecians] i.e. Hellenists, or Greek-speak- 
ing Jews. Hebrews] i.e. Hebrew-speaking 
Jews. Hebrew was spoken mainly m Jeru- 
salem and Judaea. Ministration] i.e. dis- 
tribution of food (v. 2). 2. It is not reason] 
rather, ' It does not please us.' Serve tables] 
i.e. attend to the distribution of food. Others 
think that the tables of bankers are meant, and 
that the Apostles complain that they cannot 
keep the accounts, or manage the finances of 
so large a community. 3. Full of the Holy 
Ghost] All Church work requires to be per- 
formed in the power of the Spirit, and not 
least the management of charity and finance. 

Wisdom] i.e. the practical discernment and 
tact so necessary in the distribution of 
charity. 

5. The names are all Greek, which suggests 
that some at least of them were Greek-speak- 
ing Jews. That all were Hellenists is not 
probable. Greek names were quite common 
even among the Hebrews (cp. Nicodemus, 
Philip, and Andrew). One, Nicolas, was a 
proselyte, i.e. doubtless a full circumcised pro- 
selyte. Of two only, Stephen and Philip, 
have we any further account. The appoint- 



825 



6.6 



THE ACTS 



7.1 



ment of the Seven marks the first stage in the 
growth of liberal ideas within the Church. 

The differences between the Hellenistic 
(Grecian) Jews and the Hebrews are note- 
worthy. The Hellenists used the Gk. OT. 
(Septuagint) ; were educated more or less in 
the Greek manner; studied (though to a 
limited extent) Greek literature and philo- 
sophy, and adopted a more liberal attitude 
towards the Gentile world than the Hebrews. 
The typical representative of Hellenism is 
Philo, who makes Moses and the prophets 
speak the language of philosophy. Josephus 
also (in spite of his knowledge of Hebrew) 
has pronounced Hellenistic tendencies. 

6. The essential element in ordination is 
prayer, and the laying on of hands by the 
chief ministers of the Church. The laying 
on of hands in making appointments is 
ancient. Thus ' Joshua was full of the spirit 
of wisdom because Moses had laid his hands 
upon him ' (Nu 27 18-23 Dt349). 

8-15. The preaching, miracles, and arrest 
of Stephen. 

The reason why the preaching of Stephen 
gave so much greater offence than that of the 
Twelve probably was that he saw that the 
coming of Christ virtually abrogated the Cere- 
monial Law, and that its abandonment was 
only a question of time. He thus anticipated 
St. Paul, perhaps even went beyond him at least 
in theory (see on v. 14). But as his speech 
gives no clear indications of such views, not 
even in 7 48 , some suppose that he attacked the 
authority, not of the Law of Moses itself, but 
only of those traditional additions to it which 
the scribes held to be of equal or greater 
authority. Stephen was probably a Hellenist, 
and his opponents in the synagogues (v. 9) 
were also Hellenists. 

8. Of faith] RV ' of grace.' 

9. There are said to have been no less than 
480 synagogues in Jerusalem, and the Cyre- 
nians and Alexandrians, at any rate, would 
have been sufficiently numerous to have syna- 
gogues of their own. Libertines] lit. k freed- 
men.' These were descendants of those Jews 
who, having been carried by the Romans, par- 
ticularly by Pompey, to Rome as prisoners of 
war, had afterwards been emancipated from 
slavery. Cyrenians] A fourth part of the in- 
habitants of Cyrene, the capital of Upper 
Libya, consisted of Jews. Alexandrians] At 
Alexandria (founded by Alexander the Great, 
332 B.C.) two of the five parts into which the 
city was divided were inhabited by Jews, who 
were ruled over by a Jewish officer called an 
alabarch. At Alexandria the OT. had been 
translated into Greek. Here flourished a Jew- 
ish-Greek philosophy of which Philo is the 
chief exponent. Apolloa was an Alexandrian 
(18 24 ). Tradition makes St. Mark the first 



bishop of Alexandria. Cilicia] To this syna- 
gogue St. Paul probably belonged. Asia] The 
Roman province, not the continent. It em- 
braced Lydia, Mysia, Caria, part of Phrygia. 
Its three chief towns were Ephesus, Smyrna, 
and Pergamos. 

11. Suborned men] The success of these 
tactics against Jesus encouraged them to repeat 
them. 13. This holy place] i.e. the Temple. 

14. Destroy this place, etc.] What St. 
Stephen had probably said was that the Law 
would pass away as having been fulfilled in 
Christ, and that if the Jews persistently re- 
fused to acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah, 
their city and Temple would be destroyed, as 
Jesus had prophesied (Mt 24, etc.). Although 
the charge was malicious and false, there was 
some truth in it. Stephen's teaching was 
clearly more advanced and liberal than that of 
the Twelve. 15. The face of an angel] This 
description is probably due to St. Paul, who 
was doubtless present : cp. 7 58 . 

CHAPTER 7 
Defence and Martyrdom of Stephen 
1-53. Speech of Stephen. There is every 
reason to believe that this speech was really 
delivered by St. Stephen, and not composed 
by St. Luke ; for, (1) the speech does not (in 
any direct manner) answer the charges alleged 
(6 14 ), as a speech composed by the historian 
himself would have done ; (2) there are several 
erroneous references to the OT. (not all due to 
the use of LXX), natural enough in a speech 
delivered impromptu, but not natural in a 
speech composed deliberately. St. Paul who 
heard the speech probably reported it to St. 
Luke. 

The exact point of the speech, and how it is 
intended to be an answer to the charges (6 14 ), 
is disputed. It would appear, however, that 
the great length at which the history of the 
Jews is related, is intended to show that 
Stephen was not a blasphemer of God but as 
firm a believer in the OT. as his accusers. He 
gives a particular account of Moses (vv. 20-44), 
and declares his firm belief in the divine au- 
thority of the Law delivered by him (' the 
lively oracles,' v. 38). He points out, however, 
that Moses himself predicted the coming of a 
prophet greater than himself, and that to hear 
this prophet (whom he identifies with Jesus, 
v. 52) is commanded by the Law itself. Stephen, 
therefore, who obeys this command of Moses 
to hear Jesus, is keeping the Law, while his 
adversaries, who disobey this command, are 
breaking the Law (v. 53). The prophets also 
predicted the coming of Jesus, and Stephen, 
who follows Jesus, obeys the prophets, while 
his adversaries are rebels against them, as 
their fathers were (vv. 51, 52). The speech 
contains no reply to the charge of predicting 



821) 



7.2 



THE ACTS 



7.39 



the destruction of the Temple. If the speech 
had been allowed to be finished, it is probable 
that it would have closed with a solemn warn- 
ing that unless his adversaries accepted Jesus 
as the Messiah, in accordance with the teaching 
of Moses and the prophets, their city and 
Temple would be destroyed. The Apology of 
Stephen may be compared with the Apology 
of Socrates. Both were delivered, not with 
the object of gaining an acquittal, but of testi- 
fying openly to the truth, and of denouncing 
the blindness and injustice of the judges. 

2. Men, etc.] RY ' Brethren and fathers ' ; 
i.e. Israelites, and Sanhedrists. In Mesopo- 
tamia] Genesis says nothing of an appearance 
in Mesopotamia, but such an appearance is 
implied, Josh242,3 Neh9? (cp. Gnl5?), and 
affirmed by Philo. 3. See Gnl2i, which is 
mistranslated by the AY, to harmonise with this 
passage. 4. Charran] i.e. Haran, or Carrhse, an 
ancient city of N. Mesopotamia. Here Crassus, 
the Roman general, was disastrously defeated 
by the Parthians 53 B.C. See Gnll3i 124,5. 

When his father was dead] According to 
Genesis (see Gn 11 26, 32 12^ Terah lived 60 
years after his son's migration into Canaan. 
Stephen's statement is not a mere blunder, 
but a divergent tradition, found also in Philo, 
and apparently intended to shield the patriarch 
from the charge of unfilial conduct, in thus 
abandoning his aged father. 5. See Gnl2 7 
1315, etc. 

6. See Gnl5 13 > 16 . Four hundred years] so 
Gnl5 13 ; more precisely 430 years, Exl2 40 . 
But there was another tradition which made 
the 430 years of Exl2 40 refer to the sojourn 
of the patriarchs in Palestine and Egypt. This 
is found in some MSS of the LXX (Ex 12*0) ; 
in Josephus, and in Gal3 17 . 7. In this place] 
in Canaan, not Sinai, as is the case in Ex3 12 . 

8. Circumcision] Gn 1 7 9 f . 9. See Gn 37 * f . 

Envy] Stephen sees in Joseph a type of Jesus, 
and in the envy of his brethren, a type of the 
envy of the chief priests and scribes which 
caused the death of Jesus. 

14. Threescore and fifteen souls] Stephen 
follows LXX of Gn 46 27 Ex 1 5. ■ The Hebrew 
makes the number seventy. 16. There are 
two errors in this v. : (1) Jacob was not buried 
at Sychem (Shechem), but at Hebron, in the 
cave of Machpelah (Gn 50 13 ). (2) It was not 
Abraham, but Jacob, who bought a sepulchre 
at Shechem, from the sons of Emmor (Hamor), 
Gn33 19 Josh 24 32. Either St. Stephen is fol- 
lowing a divergent tradition, or, as is more 
1 probable, the errors are due to a lapse of 
memory natural enough under the disturbing 
circumstances of the speech. The father of 
Sychem] The true rendering is the ' son ' of 
Sychem, which would be another discrepancy 
with Gn33 19 . But the RY adopts another 
reading, ' in Sychem (Shechem).' 



18. Knew not Joseph] i.e. knew not the 
history of Joseph and of his great services to 
his adopted country. 19. So that] rather, 
1 that they might cast out their babes,' etc. 

20. Was exceeding fair] lit. 'fair unto God,' 
i.e. fair even in the eyes of God: cp. GnlO 9 , 
' a mighty hunter before Jehovah.' 

22. Learned] i.e. taught. Undoubtedly true, 
though not mentioned in the OT. ' The wis- 
dom of the Egyptians ' consisted of natural 
science, magic, astronomy, medicine, and 
mathematics, and was mainly in the hands of 
the priesthood. Mighty in words] not incon- 
sistent with Ex 4 10 , for Moses' eloquence was 
acquired subsequently. 23. Forty years old] 
His age is derived from tradition. 

30. Forty years] Another tradition. The 
rabbis said, 'Moses lived in Pharaoh's palace 
40 years, in Midian 40 years, and ministered 
to Israel 40 years.' An angel] in Ex3 2 'the 
angel of Jehovah,' who is afterwards identified 
with Jehovah Himself. 34. I will send] rather, 
' let me send.' 35. A ruler and a deliverer] lit. 
' a ruler and redeemer.' Moses' ' redemption ' 
of the people from the bondage of Egypt was 
a type of Christ's greater redemption of them 
from the bondage of sin and Satan. 

37. A prophet] The importance of Moses, 
according to Stephen, is that he is the type 
and forerunner of a greater than himself, 
whose coming he foretold : see Dt 18 15 > 18 ; and 
cp. Ac 3 22 . Christ is the second and greater 
Moses, and, like him, a redeemer (v. 35), law- 
giver (v. 38), and prophet (v. 37). Loyalty to 
Moses, therefore, necessarily implies loyalty 
to Christ. 

38. In the church] i.e. in the congregation 
or assembly of all Israel at Mt. Sinai when 
the Law was given and the Covenant made 
and ratified. On this occasion Moses again 
typified Christ by acting as Mediator. He was 
with God (or God's angel) on Mt. Sinai holding 
converse with Him: he was also with the 
people below holding converse with them, and 
thus being intimately associated with both, made 
a covenant between them. With the angel] 
The idea that Moses did not receive the Law 
directly from God, but from an angel or angels, 
is contrary to the OT., but was current among 
the Jews at this period: see Jos. 'Ant.' 15. 5,3, 
' We have learnt the most holy part of our Law 
by angels.' The Fathers identify the angel 
who spoke to Moses with the Logos, or 
second person of the Holy Trinity. Lively 
oracles] An oracle is an inspired utterance, 
hence the term is suitably applied to the 
Scriptures. The oracles are lively, or living, be- 
cause they have the power of God in them, and 
the promises which they contain are effectual. 

39. Israel's rebellion against Moses is a type 
of their later rebellion against Jesus. Egypt] 
i.e. the Egyptian way of life, especially Egyp- 



827 



7. 42 



THE ACTS 



7.59 



tian idolatry (bull-worship). In Egypt Apis was 
worshipped at Memphis, and Mnevis at Helio- 
polis under the form of a bull : see EX32 1 . 

42. The book of the prophets] The twelve 
minor prophets formed one roll or book. O 
ye house, etc.] freely quoted from LXX 
of Amos 5 25 ' 26 . Stephen, following LXX, 
supposes that the worship of Moloch and of 
the stars took place in the wilderness. This is 
not expressly mentioned in the Pentateuch, 
but it is not improbable, for the worship of 
Moloch is forbidden Lvl8' 21 , etc. Have ye 
offered ?] The answer is k No.' In appearance 
sacrifices had been offered to God, but inas- 
much as they were offered by worshippers 
polluted by idolatry, they were no true sacri- 
fices. 

43. Ye took up] viz. to carry in a religious 
procession, or, to carry from one halting-place 
to another. The tabernacle of Moloch] a pro- 
fane imitation of the tabernacle of Jehovah. 
Moloch (Molech, or Milcom) was an idol of 
the Ammonites to whom children were offered. 
His image is said to have been hollow, heated 
from below, with the head of an ox, and out- 
stretched arms in which children were laid, 
their cries of agony being stifled by the beat- 
ing of drums. The Heb., however, should 
probably be translated not l the tabernacle of 
Moloch ' (LXX and AY), but l Siccuth, your 
king ' (another false god). The star of your 
god Remphan] i.e. his star-emblem. The Heb. 
has Chain (not Remphan), i.e. the planet 
Saturn. Beyond Babylon] Amos says, ' beyond 
Damascus.' Stephen has adapted the prophecy 
(according to the rabbinical fashion) to later 
events. 

44. Stephen's reference to the movable 
tabernacle in the wilderness is probably in- 
tended to show that the worship of God is 
not necessarily confined to one place (Jerusa- 
lem), and that for adequate cause (e.g. the 
persistent rejection of Christ by the Jews) 
the privilege of Jerusalem may be taken away. 

The tabernacle of witness] Thus LXX 
translates the phrase, which really means ' the 
tent of meeting,' i.e. the tent where God met 
His worshippers. But the phrase is neverthe- 
less an apt one, for the tent contained the 
ark, which was a witness of the covenant, and 
the two tables on which the fundamental law 
of the covenant (the Decalogue) was written. 

The fashion] Bee E2 25 '" 26« Heb8 5 . 

45. RV ' Which als<» our fathers, in their 
turn, bronghl in with Joshua when they en- 
tered on the possession <»f the nations." etc. 
Note Jesus =- ■.Joshua.' as in Heb4 8 . 

48. Stephen's words do not indicate that the 
building of Solomon's Temple was a mistake. 
but they do indicate th.it God's worship is not 
necessarily tied '<» One place, and that the 
divine choice of Jerusalem as a place of wor- 



ship is not irreversible. Solomon himself 
recognised this truth, 1 K 8 27 . 49, 50. See Isa 
66I.2. 

5 I -53- Stephen, not careful of life, and 
willing to be a martyr, now denounces his 
judges. 52. Have slain] referring especially 
to Isaiah and Jeremiah, who both, according 
to tradition, suffered martyrdom. The Just 
One] i.e. Jesus : see 3 14 . 53. By the dis- 
position of angels] RV 'as it was ordained 
by angels ' ; RM k as the ordinance of angels.' 
The precise meaning is uncertain, but some 
kind of mediation of angels in the giving of 
the Law is probably meant : see Gal 3 19 Heb 2 2 . 

54-C. 8 3 . Martyrdom of Stephen. Saul's 
persecution of the Church. 

54. Were cut] lit. ' were sawn asunder ' : 
see 5 33 . 55. Standing] Jesus rises from the 
throne on which He is represented as eternally 
sitting (Mt26 64 Mkl6 19 , etc.) to succour the 
martyr in his extremity, and to welcome his soul 
into bliss. 56. The Son of man] Here only is 
this title applied to Jesus by any one except 
Himself. It indicates that Stephen saw Him 
in human form: see on MtS 20 . 57. Stopped 
their ears] because they regarded his words as 
blasphemous. 

58. Out of the city] see IK 2113 Lv24i*-i<5. 

And stoned him] ' After a man has been con- 
demned to be stoned, they bring him good 
strong wine, and give him to drink, that he 
may not feel too great horror of a violent 
death. Then come the witnesses, and bind his 
hands and feet, and lead him to the place of 
stoning. Then the witnesses take a great 
stone, large enough to cause death, and lay it 
upon his heart all together, lest one should 
act before another, according to Dt 17 7 , " The 
hand of the witnesses shall be first against 
him " : then all the Israelites can overwhelm 
him with stones ' (Talmud). The execution 
of Stephen was tumultuous and illegal, for, 
(1) there was no formal sentence pronounced 
by the court, (2) the Roman authorities were 
not consulted about the death sentence : see 
Jnl83i. 

Saul] A young Jew of Tarsus in Cilicia, 
born a Roman citizen, a tent-maker by trade, 
of well-to-do parents, trained at Jerusalem in 
the rabbinical school of Gamaliel the Pharisee, 
and accustomed to speak Hebrew (21 3i)f> 
etc.). His other name, Paul, first occurs 13 9 . 

59. Calling upon God] RV ' calling upon 
the Lord ' (i.e. Jesus). Receive my spirit] A 
direct prayer to Jesus, and, therefore, a proof 
that tlie doctrine of the divinity of Jesus was 
already established in the Church. It is not 
a prayer to a mere saintly intercessor ('Jesus, 
pray for me '), but a direct prayer offered in 
the firm belief that Jesus can really grant 
what is asked, viz. the salvation of the soul. 
Prayer to Jesus was universal in the Christian 



828 



7.60 



THE ACTS 



8. 36 



Church (9 14 , etc.). 6o. Like his Master, 
Stephen dies praying for his enemies : cp. 
Lk 23 34 . 
C. 8. I. At that time] RV ' on that day.' 



Except the apostles] The apostles still 
wished to achieve the conversion of Jerusalem. 
Besides, as leaders of the flock, they disdained 
flight. 



PART 2 



The Extension of the Church to 
The Christians, scattered by persecution, 
preach everywhere through Judsea and Sa- 
maria. The places specially mentioned are 
Samaria, Azotus, Caesarea, Lydda, the Sharon 
ralley, and Joppa. 

CHAPTER 8 

Philip in Samaria. Simon Magus 
The graphic details of the ministry of Philip 
which follow, were doubtless obtained from 
Philip himself. St. Luke stayed at his house 
at Caesarea, and made the acquaintance of his 
four virgin daughters, prophetesses (21 8 ). 
During St. Paul's three years' imprisonment 
at Caesarea, St. Luke doubtless had much 
intercourse with Philip, with whose liberal 
views he was in sympathy. The historical 
character of the following narratives stands 
upon a firm basis. In later years Philip 
migrated with his daughters to Tralles, in 
Asia Minor, of which he became the first 
bishop. Philip the Deacon and Evangelist 
is confused by some early writers with Philip 
the Apostle, who in his later years migrated 
to Hierapolis, and who also had daughters. 

5. Philip] The deacon and evangelist, not 
the Apostle (see vv. 1 and 14). The city of 
Samaria] doubtless the capital, called (like the 
district) Samaria, and also (since the time of 
Herod the Great) Sebaste, in honour of 
Augustus (Sebastos). 7. Unclean spirits] 
Whether the NT. demoniacs were really pos- 
sessed, or were insane persons whose delusion 
took the form of a belief that they were pos- 
sessed, is an open question. In either case 
the miracles of healing performed on them 
are remarkable (see on Mt 4 24 » 25 ). 

9. Simon] Justin Martyr (150 a.d.), himself 
a Samaritan, says that Simon belonged to the 
Samaritan village of Gitto. He is regarded as 
the father of heresy, and is the reputed author 
of a Gnostic work called ' The Great Revela- 
tion,' of which fragments remain. Bewitched] 
' astounded' (also v. 11). 10. The great power 
of God] R V ' that power of God which is 
called Great,' i.e. the chief emanation from 
the Deity, and so entitled to divine worship. 
According to Justin, he went even further, 
claiming to be the first or supreme God. 

13. Believed] i.e. believed in the genuineness 
of Philip's miracles, but did not believe in God 
with a spiritual and saving faith. Simon as 
a sorcerer and conjurer was an excellent judge 
of alleged miracles. 



Judaea and Samaria (Chs. 8 4 -l 1 18 ) 

14. By sending Peter and John the apostles 
formally sanctioned the reception of the 
Samaritans into the Church. The Samaritans, 
though observing the Law, were almost en- 
tirely heathen in origin, so that the incident 
marks an important step towards admitting 
pure Gentiles. 

15-17. This is the fullest account of the 
apostolic laying on of hands after baptism, 
which is more briefly described, 19 6 , and al- 
luded to, Heb 6 2 . In later times the ordinance 
was administered by bishops, and was called 
Confirmation, the Seal, and the Chrism. The 
author of Hebrews speaks of it as one of the 
first principles of the doctrine of Christ 
(Heb 6 2). 

18. Saw] It is probable that many upon 
whom the Apostles laid hands received miracu- 
lous gifts. That Simon, who made his living 
by working lying wonders, should have desired 
the power of working genuine ones, was 
natural enough. 

26-40. Philip and the Ethiopian eunuch. 
The eunuch, though a believer in the God of 
Israel, was a Gentile. Luke the universalist 
delights to record his admission into that wider 
communion in which all races and all conditions 
stand on an equality. This is the first example 
of a Gentile baptism. That it did not lead to 
the same disputes as the baptism of Cornelius, 
is due to the fact that it was private. 

26. Toward the south] or, about mid-day. 
Gaza] The town is called desert, or deserted, 

because it had been destroyed, 96 B.C. 

27. Candace] The Ethiopian kingdom of 
Meroe lay to the S. of Egypt, and was governed 
by queens, whose dynastic title was ' Candace.' 

32. See IsaSS 7 ' 8 (LXX). Isaiah is speak- 
ing of the suffering Servant of Jehovah, whom 
the Apostolic Church rightly identified with 
Jesus the Messiah. 33. In his humiliation 
his judgment was taken away] i.e. in the 
humiliation of His Passion, justice was denied 
Him by the Sanhedrin and by Pilate. And 
who shall declare his generation?] i.e. and 
what language is adequate to describe the 
wickedness of His contemporaries who unjustly 
crucified Him ? For his life is taken from 
the earth] This refers not to the Ascension 
of Jesus (as some have thought), but to His 
violent death. 

36. Baptized] ' Preaching Jesus ' had 
clearly included instruction upon the nature 
and necessity of the Christian sacraments. 



829 



8.37 



THE ACTS 



9.18 



37. which the RY omits, is a very early 
and trustworthy marginal addition, which was 
ultimately incorporated into the text. The 
simplicity of the baptismal confession is a 
proof of its genuineness. 1 Pet 3 21 alludes to 
the baptismal profession of faith. 38. The 
eunuch was probably baptised by immersion, 
the usual practice of the early Church, though 
not held to be absolutely essential. 

39. Caught away Philip] Probably the Holy 
Spirit prompted Philip to depart abruptly 
for Azotus (Ashdod). Rejoicing] According to 
Eusebius, the eunuch, on his arrival home, 
evangelised his countrymen. In his conversion 
was fulfilled Ps68 31 , 'Princes shall come out 
of Egypt ; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her 
hands unto G-od.' 40. Was found at Azotus] 
Azotus or Ashdod was one of the five Philis- 
tine cities, whose inhabitants were enemies of 
the Jews after the captivity (Neh4 7 ). It was 
distant over 20 m. (northwards) from Gaza. 

All the cities] These would include Jamnia, 
Joppa and Lydda. Caesarea] see on 10 1 . 

CHAPTER 9 

Saul becomes a Christian 
1-30. The Conversion of Saul is to regarded 
as a miraculous event. The way for it may 
have been prepared by Stephen's speech, by 
the spectacle of the constancy of the Christian 
martyrs, and by Saul's own consciousness of 
the imperfections of the Law (Ro 7 7 -8 n ). Yet 
there is no indication that he was anything 
but a violent enemy of Christianity until the 
moment of his conversion. His own language 
on this point is quite clear (1 Cor 15 9 Gal 1 12 ' 16 
lTiml 13 ). St. Paul always maintained that 
the appearance of the risen Christ to him 
which brought about his conversion, was as 
objective and real as the appearances to the 
other Apostles. He regarded it as the turn- 
ing-point of his life, and the beginning of 
his new vocation. He claimed to be an 
Apostle of equal rank and authority with the. 
other Apostles (2 Cor ll 5 Gal 2 8, etc.), (1) be- 
cause Christ had appeared to him as to the 
others (lCorl5 8 9 1 ), and (2) because Christ 
had appointed him an Apostle just as He had 
appointed the others (Ac 22 21, etc.). For 
confirmation of the truth of this he appealed 
to ' the signs of an apostle ' (miracles, conver- 
sions, etc.) which accompanied his ministry 
(2 Cor 12 12). 

Saul's conversion at once gave Christianity 
B higher social status. He was an educated 
man, of good family, B rabbi, and (probably) a 
member of the Sanhedrim It could no longer 
be objected to the teachers of the new faith 
that they were all ignorant and unlettered 
men. 

The conversion of Saul is a turning-point 
in the history of Christianity. By conversion 



he became not merely a Christian, but an en- 
lightened Christian. He perceived that the 
ceremonial Law was no longer binding, and 
his perception of this fact enabled him to 
preach Christianity as a universal religion. 
The Twelve already held this view in prin- 
ciple, but to Saul belongs the credit of acting 
upon it with energy, and of carrying it out to 
its logical results. 

1. The high priest] The Romans allowed 
the Sanhedrin to exercise civil and criminal 
jurisdiction (except in capital cases) over the 
whole Jewish community, even outside Pales- 
tine. 2. Synagogues] clearly the Christians 
had not yet separated from the Jewish syna- 
gogues. This way] ; Way,' thus used abso- 
lutely for Christianity, is peculiar to Acts : see 

lgl7 1825,26 199,23 22 4 24*4,22. 

3. A light] according to 1 Cor9!, Paul saw, 
within the light, Jesus Himself, in His risen 
and glorified body. 

5. It is hard for thee to kick against the 
pricks] These words, which the RY omits as 
an interpolation from 26 14 , mean that the role 
of a persecutor is impossible to Paul. Paul is 
really in the position of a plough-ox. Jesus is 
his driver, and holds the goad. Paul can no 
more resist Jesus than the plough-ox can resist 
his driver. There is probably no allusion to 
stings of conscience, as some have supposed. 

6. According to 26 16 , Jesus also told Paul 
that his mission would be to preach to the 
Gentiles. 7. Stood speechless] According to 
26 u , they fell to the earth. Hearing a voice] 
RY ' hearing the voice.' Yet in 22 9 Paul says, 
' they heard not the voice of him that spake to 
me.' The latter account, being Paul's own, is 
to be preferred. Those who wish to harmonise 
the two accounts translate here 'hearing the 
sound ' (RM). But it is not necessary to har- 
monise. The variations in unimportant details 
only accentuate the general harmony. 

8. Saw no man] RY ' saw nothing.' 

9. Saul fasted to show his penitence. 

10. Ananias] probably the head of the 
Christian body at Damascus. Late tradition 
makes him one of the Seven, consecrated bishop 
of Damascus by Peter and Andrew, and a 
martyr. 15. A chosen vessel] i.e. a chosen 
instrument : cp. 1 3 2 Gal 1 15 , etc. The Gentiles 
cp. 2221 26 17 Rois H13 Gal 2 7, 8. And the 
children of Israel] Though Paul's mission was 
mainly to the Gentiles, it was his custom to 
preach the gospel first to the Jews : see 13 14 , 
etc. 16. I will shew him] see 20 23 21 " 2 Cor 
1 1 23. 18. And was baptized] It is added (22 16 ) 
that St. Paul received at his baptism the remis- 
sion of his former sins. 

The three accounts of St. Paul's conversion 
(chs. 9, 22, 26) present some not very important 
variations. Thus, St. Paul alone fell to the 
earth (c. 9), but in c. 26 all fell to the earth. 



830 



9. 19 



THE ACTS 



10.9 



The men heard a voice (c. 9), but in c. 22 
they heard not the voice. These men ' saw 
no man ' (c. 9), but in c. 22 they ' saw indeed 
the light.' In c. 26 it is the Lord who declares 
that St. Paul is to be ' a minister and witness ' 
to the Gentiles ; in c. 9 and c. 22 it is Ananias. 
In c. 26 no allusion is made to the Apostle 
becoming blind, or to Ananias, but it is noted 
that the Lord spoke in Hebrew. 

19. Certain days] St. Luke makes no men- 
tion of the Arabian sojourn of St. Paul, which, 
according to Gal 1 17 , took place immediately 
after the conversion. Either St. Luke did not 
know of it, or thought it unimportant for his 
purpose. By ' Arabia ' is probably meant the 
territory of the Nabataeans, which in the period 
of their greatest prosperity extended from the 
Euphrates to the Red Sea. To this race be- 
longed king Aretas, whose ethnarch in Damascus 
endeavoured to arrest St. Paul (2 Cor ll 32 ). 

20. Christ] RV l Jesus.' The Son of God] 
Whatever may be the meaning of this term in 
the Synoptic Gospels, in the Pauline theology 
it undoubtedly means a preexistent divine 
being, consubstantial with the Father, and His 
agent in the Creation and Redemption of the 
world. 23. After many days] according to 
Gal 1 18 , after ' three years.' The Jews] These 
must have persuaded the governor of king 
Aretas to persecute Paul : see 2Corll 32 . 

25. The disciples] RV ' his disciples.' 26. It 
is strange that after this arduous work at 
Damascus the Church of Jerusalem should 
still doubt the fact of Paul's conversion. 

27. To the apostles] according to Gall, 
Paul stayed in Jerusalem fifteen days, and of 
the Apostles saw only Peter and James the 
Lord's brother. 29. Grecians] i.e. Greek- 
speaking Jews. 30. The reason why Paul 
was willing to leave Jerusalem is given in 22 18 
(a vision of Jesus in the Temple). 

31. Extension of the Church in Judaea, 
Galilee, and Samaria. 

The churches] RY ' the Church.' The local 
churches formed one organic whole. 

32-43. Activity of Peter at Lydda and 
Joppa. 

32. Throughout all quarters] or, ' throughout 
all the saints.' Lydda] in the plain of Sharon, 
about 10 m. SE. of Joppa, on the way to 
Jerusalem. 

33. ^Eneas] the name is different from that 
of the hero of Virgil's poem (iEneas). 

34. The Apostle healed ; in the name of 
Jesus.' Jesus healed in His own name, as 
being Himself the author of the cure. 

35. Saron] or, Sharon, is a very fruitful 
plain extending along the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean from Joppa to Carmel (1 Ch27 29 Song 
2 1 , etc.). 36. Joppa] now Jaffa, the port of 
Jerusalem, and the only seaport ever possessed 
by the Jews. Dorcas] i.e. ' gazelle.' 



CHAPTER 10 

Peter and the Gentiles 

1-48. Conversion of Cornelius. The bap- 
tism of Cornelius was an event of far-reaching 
importance, and is, therefore, described by St. 
Luke in great detail. If it was not the first 
actual baptism of a Gentile (see 8 38 ), it was, 
at any rate, the first such baptism which was 
publicly acknowledged. The historical char- 
acter of the incident has been called in question 
because St. Peter in Galatians is represented 
as opposing St. Paul on the Gentile question 
(Gal2 llf -). But, (1) Galatians represents 
Peter as in complete agreement with Paul on 
all essential points (Gal 2 6 » 12 ) ; and (2) the 
Jewish prejudices of Peter are fully recog- 
nised in the narrative in Acts. Indeed, it 
required a thrice -repeated vision to remove 
them (10 9f -). 

1. Caesarea] built by Herod the Great on 
the site of an insignificant town called Strato's 
Tower, and renamed Caesarea Augusta in 
honour of his patron Augustus. There was a 
theatre, an amphitheatre, a royal palace, and 
a temple containing images of Augustus and 
of Rome. The majority of the inhabitants 
were Greek, but Jews enjoyed equal rights. 
At this time Caesarea was the capital of the 
Roman province, and the residence of the 
governor. 

Cornelius, a centurion] A legion consisted 
of about 6,000 men, and was divided into ten 
cohorts, each commanded by a tribune (or 
chiliarch, see 21 31 ). A cohort was divided 
into six centuries, each commanded by a cen- 
turion. Centurions were men who had risen 
from the ranks, and were therefore, as a rule, 
men of capacity and good character : cp. Lk7 5 . 

The Italian band] rather, ' cohort.' In the 
smaller provinces legions were not stationed, 
and therefore St. Luke is doubtless right in 
saying that there was only a cohort of Roman 
soldiers at Caesarea. The men were recruited 
in Italy, and were probably Roman citizens. 

2. One that feared God] i.e. a believer in 
the one true God, but not a circumcised 
proselyte. The baptism of Cornelius would 
not have been an innovation if he had been 
circumcised : see 6 5 . Cornelius was diligent 
in the three recognised religious duties of 
prayer, fasting (v. 30), and almsdeeds ; he kept 
the Jewish hours of prayer (v. 3). 

3. Ninth hour] i.e. 3 p.m. 4. A memorial] 
Acts of genuine piety cause God to remember 
us for good. Cornelius, by using well the 
grace already vouchsafed him, was thought 
worthy to receive greater grace. 8. To Joppa] 
A distance of about 40 m. 

9. The sixth hour] see on 3 1 . The flat 
housetop of Oriental houses is used for prayer, 
meditation, recreation, and sleeping (2 K 23 12 



831 



10. 10 



THE ACTS 



11. 19 



Neh 8 16 1 S9 25, 26 (RY) 2 S 1 1 K io. Trance] 
Trance, ecstasy, or waking vision, is only one 
of the modes of divine revelation, and that by 
no means the most frequent or most important. 
For examples see Isa6 Dan 7, 8, 9 21 2 Cor 12 2 
Rev 1 10 . Visions play a somewhat important 
part in the history of Acts (9™ 169 18 9 2217 : 
cp. 2723 2 i7 ). 16. Thrice] the vision was 
repeated to confirm and establish the lesson 
taught by it (Gn 4 132). 

The question of the distinction of meats 
was important, because, so long as it was 
observed, the Church (like the Jews) was 
cut off from all real social intercourse with 
Gentiles, who placed ' unclean ' food on their 
tables. A special revelation was accordingly 
made to the chief of the Apostles announcing 
that the distinction of meats was abrogated, 
and that henceforth Jew and Gentile were to- 
associate and eat together, on terms of equality 
(v. 28). Jesus had already laid down this 
principle (Mk7 19 RV), but St. Peter had not 
understood it. 

28. An unlawful thing] cp. Jn4 9 18 28 Ac 
113 Gal 2 12. 14. 30. Four days, etc.] RY 
' Four days ago, until this hour, I was keeping 
the ninth hour of prayer in my house.' The 
reference to fasting, omitted by the RV, has 
considerable ancient attestation. 

36-38. The construction is confused, reflect- 
ing St. Peter's deep emotion. Adopting the 
reading of the EM, we may freely translate 
thus : ' He sent the word unto the children 
of Israel, preaching peace (for all mankind) 
through Jesus Christ (He is Lord of all men). 
Ye know the things that were done throughout 
the whole of Judaea, beginning from Galilee, 
after the baptism which John preached, (even 
the deeds of) Jesus of Nazareth, how God 
anointed Him with the Holy Ghost and with 
power, who went about doing good,' etc. 

41. Eat and drink] see on l 4 . 42. Quick] 
i.e. living : see 2 Tim4i 1 Pet 4 5 ; cp. Rol4 9 . 

43. All the prophets] cp. 3 24 26 22. 44. As 
a rule, the Holy Spirit was given after baptism, 



with the laying on of the Apostles' hands (2 38 
8I 7 19 6 ). In this particular case the Holy 
Spirit was given before baptism, as a miraculous 
assurance that the Gentiles were not to be 
excluded from the gift of the Holy Spirit, 
but were to be baptised. 46. Speak with 
tongues] see on 2 4 . 47. Water] the water, 
viz. of Baptism. 48. In the name of the 
Lord] RY ' in the name of Jesus Christ ' : see 
on Mt 28 19. 

CHAPTER 11 

The first Gentile Church 
1-18. The baptism of Cornelius discussed 
and approved at Jerusalem. Those Christians 
who maintained the need of observing the 
Ceremonial Law did not attack the baptism 
itself because, although they disliked it, our 
Lord's command to baptise all nations was too 
definite to be questioned. They attacked, 
therefore, St. Peter's undoubted breach of 
Jewish law and custom : ' Thou wentest in to 
men uncircumcised, and didst eat with them ' 
(v. 3). What they apparently desired was, 
that if Gentiles were baptised at all, they should 
be regarded as an inferior class, and not allowed 
to eat at the same table with their Jewish 
superiors : cp. Gal2 i2f . Peter did not discuss 
the general principle, but defended himself 
on the ground that he had received a special 
revelation authorising, and indeed command- 
ing, him to act as he did in this particular case. 
2. They that were of the circumcision] This 
may either mean the whole Church of Jerusalem 
in contrast with Cornelius and his friends, or the 
Judaising party in that Church which, perhaps, 
already existed, as it certainly did some years 
later (151.5). 

18. The Church of Jerusalem unanimously 
endorsed Peter's action, doubtless because the 
case was an exceptional one, and was not likely 
to become a precedent. When St. Paul made 
a practice of doing what St. Peter had only 
done as a rare exception, the controversy was 
revived (c. 15). 



PART 3 

The Church in Antioch, 35-47 a.d. (Chs. 1119-13 3 ) 



19-26. Extension of the Church to Antioch. 
Admission of Gentile members. Antioch in 
N. Syria ranked next to Alexandria, as the 
third city in the Roman empire. It was beau- 
tifully situated on the Orontes, about 15 m. 
from the sea. [ts port was Seleucia. The bulk 

of the population was Syrian by race, but the 
language and culture were Greek. There were 
also numerous .lews, who had gathered round 

their synagogues a remarkable number of 
proselytes. Antioch was the capital of the 
province of Syria, and the seat of the Roman 
governor, so that here Christianity came into 



contact for the first time with Greek and 
Roman civilisation. Antioch remained a great 
Christian centre : among its honoured names 
were Ignatius and Chrysostom : its school of 
theology and exegesis was famous, and its 
hi shop was one of the four patriarchs. Here 
Christianity was first preached on any large 
scale to Gentiles (seeonv.20). It is probable. 
however, that most of them were, like Cornelius, 
in some way attached to the synagogue. St. 
Paul seems to have been the first to appeal to 
Gentiles pure and simple : see 14 27 . 

19. The narrative goes back to 8 1 , to trace 



832 



11. 20 



THE ACTS 



11. 30 



the chain of causation which led to the founda- 
tion of the first great Gentile Church. Chris- 
tianity, it will be seen, spread along the great 
trade routes both by land and sea. Phenice] 
i.e. Phoenicia. 20. Men of Cyprus and Cyrene] 
these would be Hellenists (Greek-speaking 
Jews), and therefore presumably more liberal 
in their views than Hebrews. To these un- 
named Cyprians and Cyrenians belongs the 
credit of first preaching systematically to 
Gentiles. Spake unto the Grecians] i.e. to 
the Greek-speaking Jews. So the AY. But 
the context plainly requires ' spake unto the 
Greeks ' (i.e. unto the Gentiles), and this reading 
is adopted by the RV. 

22. The Church of Jerusalem on hearing 
the news acted with commendable self-restraint. 
They did not hastily condemn the new de- 
parture, little as they liked it, but sent a trust- 
worthy person, Barnabas, to examine into the 
circumstances upon the spot, and to report. 

23. Barnabas, after carefully observing the 
results of the policy, approved it (was glad), 
and exhorted them all (i.e. both Jews and 
Gentiles) to persevere in their profession of 
faith, and to form one united Church. Barna- 
bas thus anticipated Paul in sanctioning the 
principle of Gentile equality, which involved 
eating with Gentiles (Gal2 12 ), and it was 
because Paul was likely to be in sympathy with 
such a policy, that Barnabas summoned him to 
Antioch. 

26. Christians] The giving of this name 
marked the recognition of the fact that ' the 
Way ' was something more than a new Jewish 
sect. The inclusion of numerous Gentiles 
within the Church, and that without their be- 
coming Jews, and the preaching of Jesus as 
one whose authority was superior to that of 
Moses, gave complete justification to those who 
saw in Christianity a new religion. The form 
of the word is Latin', so that it may have 
originated in the Latin-speaking court of the 
Roman governor. At any rate, the name was 
not invented by the Jews, who did not admit 
that Jesus was ' the Christ ' (Messiah). In 
64 a.d. Tacitus mentions that the name was in 
use among the common people at Rome. In 
the 2nd cent, a corrupted form, ' Chrestians,' 
lit. ' the good people,' was sometimes used. 

27-30. The Church of Antioch succours the 
Church of Jerusalem in time of famine. 

27. Friendly relations clearly prevailed be- 
tween Jerusalem and Antioch, the former 
Church sending accredited prophets and 
teachers to Antioch to assist in the work of 
evangelisation. Prophets] The gift of pro- 
phecy specially distinguished the apostolic from 
the subapostolic and later ages. It was widely 
diffused, being exercised by private Christians, 
and even by women in the Church assemblies 
(lCorl4 1 ). Generally it took the form of 



inspired exhortation or instruction, but was 
sometimes predictive. The official prophets, 
who were recognised as possessing the gift to 
the fullest extent (e.g. Agabus, Barnabas, 
Symeon called Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, 
Manaen, Judas, and Silas, see 13 1 15 32 21 10) 
ranked next to the Apostles, and were regarded 
with them as the foundation upon which the 
Church was built (Eph 2 20 ). The chief product 
of Christian prophecy is the inspired NT. 

Unto Antioch] The Bezan text here adds : 
' And there was much gladness. And when we 
were gathered together, one of them named 
Agabus spake [and signified, etc. ] . ' This read- 
ing, which seems trustworthy, confirms the 
tradition that St. Luke belonged to Antioch, 
and was one of the early converts there. 

28. Agabus] see 21 10 . Great dearth 
throughout all the world] There was a severe 
famine in the fourth year of Claudius, 45 a.d., 
which affected both Judsea and Greece. To 
this St. Luke probably refers. Claudius] 
reigned from 41-54 a.d. The prophecy of 
Agabus was perhaps delivered in 44 a.d. 

30. The elders] lit. 'presbyters.' These 
officers are here mentioned for the first time. 
All the Apostolic Churches were governed by 
presbyters (14 23 ), or, as they were sometimes 
called at first, bishops (20 28 : cp. Phill*). 
The presbyters ranked next to the apostles 
and above the deacons. On them devolved 
(under the apostles) the government and pas- 
toral care of the Church. They visited and 
anointed the sick, and entertained strangers 
(see Jas5 14 ). The more learned of them 
laboured in the word and teaching, and such 
were held worthy of double honour (1 Tim5 18 ). 
They did not exercise what is now called 
episcopal authority. This was reserved to the 
apostles and apostolic men. They were essen- 
tially local officers. There were several in 
one Church, and they formed one body or 
' college ' (the presbytery, 1 Tim 4 14 ). Govern- 
ment by presbyters was adopted by the Church 
from the Synagogue. Jewish synagogues 
were governed by a body of presbyters at the 
head of whom was an officer called ' the ruler 
of the synagogue.' Many think that in Chris- 
tian Churches also the leading presbyter had 
from the first a special position, similar to that 
of St. James at Jerusalem, and that towards 
the close of the apostolic age the title ' bishop,' 
at first applied to all presbyters indiscrimin- 
ately, began to be restricted to him (see Intro, 
to Pastoral Epistles, notes on 1 Tim 3 2 Tit 1 7 
and art. ' Church in Apostolic Age '). 

The usual view is that this visit of St. Paul 
to Jerusalem is nowhere else alluded to, being 
passed over in silence in the Epistle to the 
Galatians. But the writer's own view is that 
this visit is that mentioned G-a^ 1 " 10 . See 
on c. 15. 



53 



833 



12. 1 



THE ACTS 



13. 3 



CHAPTER 12 

Imprisonment of Peter. Death of 
Herod 

1-19. Persecution of the Church at Jeru- 
salem by Herod. Martyrdom of James the 
son of Zebedee. Peter's imprisonment and 
miraculous release. The Church was per- 
secuted (1) by the Sadducees and chief priests, 
4 l 5 17 ; (2) afterwards by the Pharisees, 6 n f - ; 
and now (3) by the king of the Jews. Not till 
later was persecution to come from the Romans. 

1. About that time] viz. when relief was 
sent to the Church of Jerusalem (11 29 > 30 ). 
The death of Herod (v. 23) fixes the date as 
44 a.d. Herod the king] i.e. Herod Agrippa I, 
son of Aristobulus (Herod the Great's son) 
and Bernice ; born 10 B.C. See art. ' The 
Dynasty of the Herods.' 

2. James] i.e. James the Great, son of 
Zebedee. 4. Four quaternions] four parties 
of four soldiers each, relieving one another at 
intervals. Easter] i.e. the Passover. 5. With- 
out ceasing] RY ' earnestly.' 7. The prison] 
RY 'the cell.' 10. The second ward] i.e the 
second guard of soldiers. And they went out] 
D adds, ' and went down the seven steps ' 
(probably an authentic detail). 

12. Mary] This Mary, mother of Mark, and 
aunt of Barnabas, was a widow of consider- 
able wealth, as her style of living testifies. 
Her house had a gateway into the courtyard 
(not a ' door,' as AY), which was kept by a 
portress. There was room within for the 
Church to worship (12 12 ). Many suppose 
that her house was the scene of the Last 
Supper, and of the descent of the Holy Ghost. 

John . . Mark] the evangelist: see Intro, to 
Mk. 

13, 14. The gate] i.e. the gateway or vesti- 
bule. 15. His angel] They thought that 
Peter's guardian angel had assumed his voice 
and appearance: see on Mtl8 10 . 17. Unto 
James, and to the brethren] The meeting 
in Mary's house was clearly an unofficial one. 
Observe that Peter recognises James (i.e. the 
Lord's brother) as the head of the local Church 
of Jerusalem. 

20-24. Death of Herod Agrippa I, 44 a.d. 
Jose phus's account of Herod's death, which 
is quite independent, confirms St. Luke's (see 
'Ant.' 19.8). 

20. Tyre and Sidon obtained their corn 
;uid provisions from Palestine. Hence when 
a dispute arose (perhaps over some commer- 



cial or tariff question), Herod forbade the 
exportation of corn to Tyre and Sidon. 
Famine prices prevailed, and the cities were 
obliged to come to terms. They ' persuaded ' 
Blastus (AY ' made him their friend '), prob- 
ably by a bribe, and desired 'peace,' i.e. a 
cessation of the tariff war. 

23. The angel] RY ' an angel.' This is, of 
course, the Christian interpretation of the 
incident. No angelic appearance is to be 
assumed. 24. So signal a judgment upon a 
persecutor was an indication of the righteous- 
ness of the Christian cause. It is a remark- 
able fact that most of the early persecutors 
perished miserably. 

C. I2 25 -I3 3 . Separation of Barnabas and 
Saul for missionary work, 47 a.d. 

25. Returned from Jerusalem] the best read- 
ing is 'returned to Jerusalem,' i.e. to fetch 
Mark to Antioch. 

CHAPTER 13 

St. Paul as a Missionary 
1. Prophets] see on ll 27 . Simeon that 
was called Niger] Niger was a Roman 
cognomen. Lucius of Cyrene] doubtless one 
of those Cyrenians who first preached at 
Antioch (ll 20 ). Manaen] the OT. form is 
' Menahem.' Which had been brought up 
with Herod the tetrarch] Two meanings are 
possible. Either, (1) Menahem's mother had 
been Herod's wet-nurse ; or (2) Menahem had 
been brought up with Herod as his foster- 
brother. The tetrarch (Herod Antipas) was 
the son of Herod the Great, by Malthace, 
and received (after his father's death) Galilee 
and Peraea. In 39 a.d. he was banished to 
Gaul, where he died. 2. As they ministered to 
the Lord] i.e. celebrated divine worship. From 
the Gk. word used is derived our word 'liturgy.' 
And fasted] see on Mt 6 16 . The Holy Ghost 
said] an expression vividly suggesting the per- 
sonality of the Holy Ghost, and His office as 
the Guide of the Church. Acts is so full of 
such expressions ( 1 » 8 29, 89 1 1 12 134 1 q 6), 
that it has even been called ' the Gospel of the 
Holy Ghost.' In this case the Holy Ghost 
probably spoke by one of the prophets. Sep- 
arate me Barnabas and Saul] Some regard this 
incident as the ordination of Paul and. Barna- 
bas ; others as their solemn setting apart for 
missionary work. Henceforth they are called 
'apostles' by St. Luke (14 4 .* 4 ). 3. This was 
the apostolic custom to fast at ordinations : 
see 14' 23 . 



PART 4 
The Church of the Wobld, 47-61 a.d. (Chs. l3*-288i) 

*3*-l5 M . First Missionary Journey and the title of Apostle, (1) by the success of his 
Council of Jerusalem. During this journey labours, 13 4U 14 V 21 : (2) by signs and wonders, 
St. Paul conclusively established his right to 13 n 14 8 » 10 ; and (3) by the foundation and 

834 



13. 4 



THE ACTS 



18. SS 



organisation of churches, 14 23 . It will be 
noticed that St. Paul takes the lead, and soon 
becomes a more prominent figure than Bar- 
nabas. Although upon a mission to the 
Gentiles, St. Paul always addresses the Jews 
first (1346). 

C. 13. 4-13. Cyprus. This island was fa- 
miliar ground to Barnabas (4 36 ). It contained 
a large Jewish population, to which the apos- 
tles mainly confined their attention (v. 5). The 
principal town was Salamis, but the seat of 
government was Paphos (see v. 6). Cyprus 
was at this time a senatorial province, and the 
governor is therefore correctly described as 
proconsul (v. 7). The principal exports of 
Cyprus were copper and timber. The deity 
chiefly worshipped was Aphrodite (Venus). 
Paphos, the centre of her worship, had an evil 
reputation for laxity of morals. 

5. Their minister] Possibly for the admin- 
istration of baptism, which St. Paul usually per- 
formed by deputy (1 Cor l 14 " 17 ). 6. A. . sorcerer] 
lit. 'a magus.' Here in a bad sense: see on 
Mt2 x . 7. Deputy] Gk. anthupatos, i.e. ' pro- 
consul,' the correct title of the governor of a 
senatorial province. Sergius Paulus] a mem- 
ber of the ancient patrician gens of the Sergii. 
An inscription has been discovered in Cyprus, 
which speaks of the proconsulship of this 
Paulus. 8. Elymas] The name is Arabic, mean- 
ing ' the wise,' an equivalent of the Gk. magus. 

9. Paul] Saul, as a Roman citizen, had the 
well-known Roman name Paul. It is here 
introduced, because the apostle, for the first 
time, comes into intimate contact with the 
Roman world. The name Saul in Gk. has the 
ridiculous sense of ' waddling.' Observe that 
from this point Paul becomes a more pro- 
minent figure than Barnabas. Filled with the 
Holy Ghost] This miracle of wrath was justi- 
fied by a special revelation. 

13. John departing from them] Mark may 
have objected to the conversion of so many 
Gentiles. Others suggest personal resentment 
against St. Paul, whose reputation was now 
eclipsing that of St. Barnabas, Mark's cousin. 
Failure of courage or of perseverance is also 
possible. 

14-52. Antioch of Pisidia. St. Paul's Ser- 
mon in the Synagogue. 

The cities which the apostles now proceeded 
to evangelise (Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, 
Lystra, and Derbe) were situated in the south- 
ern part of the Roman province of Galatia, 
and it is now very generally supposed that the 
Epistle to the Galatians was addressed to the 
churches in these cities. If so, we can use 
that Epistle to illustrate this narrative. The 
other view that the Galatian Churches were 
situated in N. Galatia is less probable, because 
no missionary journey in N. Galatia is men- 
tioned in Acts. 



14. Perga] An important city, the capital 
of Pamphylia. Antioch in Pisidia] rather, 
' Pisidian Antioch.' This Antioch was really 
in Phrygia, but from its position was called 
' Antiochia ad Pisidiam,' ' Antioch bordering 
on Pisidia.' It was the centre of military and 
civil administration for S. Galatia, and com- 
manded the great high-road from Syria to 
Ephesus and the West. We gather from Gal 
4 13 that St. Paul preached in Galatia on account 
of an illness which overtook him on his travels. 
Prof. Ramsay supposes that having caught 
malarial fever at the low-lying Perga, he de- 
termined to try the effect of the mountain air 
of Antioch. The Synagogue] The sabbath ser- 
vice of the synagogue consisted then as now of, 
(1) the recitation of the Shema (i.e. of Dt6 4 " 9 
11 13-21 Nu 15 37-41) ; (2) fixed prayers and bene- 
dictions ; (3) a lesson from the Law ; (4) a 
lesson from the Prophets, intended to illus- 
trate the law ; (5) a sermon or instruction. 
The ruler of the synagogue (at Antioch there 
appears to have been more than one) decided 
who was to read or preach. 

16-41. St. Paul's sermon falls into three 
parts: (1) the historical introduction (vv. 16- 
25) ; (2) the preaching of salvation through 
the Incarnation, the Death and the Resurrec- 
tion of Jesus, who is God's Son, to whom the 
prophets bore witness (vv. 26-37) ; (3) the 
practical application and appeal (vv. 38-41). 
The introduction reminds us of Stephen's 
apology, but whereas Stephen laid the main 
stress upon Moses, St. Paul lays it upon 
David. The description of our Lord's rejec- 
tion by the rulers, and of His death and 
resurrection reminds us strongly of St. Peter's 
earlier speeches at Jerusalem, but St. Paul 
adds the further claim that Jesus is God's Son 
(v. 33). The Pauline doctrine of justification 
by faith, and not by the works of the Law, 
finds expression in v. 39 : cp. Gal2 16 3 2f -, etc., 
which show that this doctrine was actually 
preached to the Galatians. 

18. Suffered he their manners] Both here 
and in Dtl 31 the true reading probably is 
' bare he them as a nursing father.' 

19. By lot] RV 'for an inheritance.' 

20. Judges about the space of four hundred 
and fifty years] This period for the judges 
(more precisely 443 years) is also adopted by 
Josephus, but is inconsistent with 1K6 1 . 
Another reading, adopted by the RV, makes 
the period of 450 years extend from the death 
of Joshua to the reign of David. 22. See 
Ps89 20 IS 1314. 24. His coming] i.e. His 
entry upon the Messianic office (to be dated 
from His Baptism). 26. To you] RV 'to 
us.' 

33. In the second psalm] There is another 
reading 'in the first psalm,' which may be 
correct, as there is evidence that the first two 



835 



13. 34 



THE ACTS 



14.8 



psalms were sometimes counted as one. In 
the passage referred to (Ps 2 7 ) the Messiah is 
declared to be begotten as the Son of God 
on the day when Jehovah scatters His enemies 
before Him. So at the Resurrection, when 
the enemies of Jesus were confounded, He was 
' declared to be the Son of God with power,' 
and made ' the first begotten of the dead ' 
(Col 1 is Kev 1 5). 

34. I will give you the sure mercies of 
David] RV ' I will give you the holy and sure 
blessings of David.' See Isa55 3 . But how 
does this text prove the Resurrection of Jesus, 
and His unending life ? Because unless 
Jesus had risen to unending life and power, 
the Messianic promises made to David could 
never have been fulfilled. 35. See Psl6 10 , 
and cp. St. Peter's use of the passage, 2 31 . 

40. In the prophets] The particular prophecy 
quoted is Hab 1 5 . Habakkuk had threatened 
the Jews with destruction by the Chaldaeans 
(Babylonians). The passage, as applied by 
St. Paul, looks forward to the destruction 
of Jerusalem by the Romans. 

42. RV 'And as they went out, they be- 
sought,' etc. The request for another sermon 
(according to the RY) was general and not 
confined to the Gentiles. 45. What irritated 
the Jews was not the substance of the gospel 
message, but the fact that it was proclaimed 
to the heathen as well as to themselves. 

46. Lo, we turn to the Gentiles] This momen- 
tous decision to appeal to the Gentiles directly, 
and not through the instrumentality of the 
Synagogue, required courage in the face of 
current prejudice. See further 18 6 28 28 . 

47. Seelsa426 49 6 Lk232. 48. As many as 
were ordained to eternal life believed] This 
expresses the Pauline and Apostolic doctrine 
of predestination, according to which God 
desires the salvation of all men (ITim 2 4 4 10 , 
etc.), but inasmuch as He foresees that some 
(in the exercise of their free will) will actually 
repent and believe, while others will refuse to 
do so, He ordains the former to eternal life, 
and the latter to eternal death (Ro 8 28 - 30 > etc.). 

50. Devout and honourable women] i.e. 
proselytes to Judaism, and (probably) wives 
to the chief men of the city. Coasts] i.e. 
borders. 51. Shook off the dust] see MtlO 14 
Mk6 '• Lk9 fi , and cp. 18«. Iconium] a Phry- 
gian city of considerable importance situated 
in a most beautiful and fertile plain 80 m. SE. 
of Antioch. It is now called Konia. 

52. In Bpite of t lie (apparently) successful 
persecution, and the departure of the apostles, 
the new oonverti stood (inn. and were filled 
with joy and with the Holy Ghost : cp.2 46 4 31 . 

CHAPTER 14 
First Missionary Journey (continued) 
1-7. Paul and Barnabas at Iconium. The 



gospel meets with great success among both 
Jews and Gentiles in this populous city, and 
miracles are wrought in confirmation of the 
faith. 

2. The first persecution at Iconium, which 
probably took the form of arraigning the 
apostles before the magistrates, failed. Ac- 
cordingly the second persecution (v. 5) took 
the form of a popular tumult. V. 2 reads 
thus in D, ' But the rulers of the synagogue 
of the Jews raised a persecution against the 
righteous (i.e. the Christians), and exasperated 
the souls of the heathen against the brethren, 
but the Lord quickly gave peace.' 

3. For the importance of miracles as a sign 
of apostleship, see 2 Cor 1 2 12 Ro 1 5 18 . 4. The 
apostles] The name is here first given to Paul 
and Barnabas: see on 13 2 - 3 . 6. Lystra and 
Derbe, cities of Lycaonia] Lystra (like An- 
tioch) was a Roman colony, founded by 
Augustus, 6 B.C. Its official language was 
Latin. It lay 18 m. SSW. of Iconium. Derbe 
lay about 30 m. SE. of Lystra. Lystra and 
Derbe are correctly described as Lycaonian 
cities, in distinction from Antioch, which was 
Phrygian. 

The curious second-century romance, ' The 
Acts of Paul and Thecla,' gives many 
additional particulars of St. Paul's pro- 
ceedings at Iconium, some of which, perhaps, 
are authentic. Thecla, who belonged to 
one of the chief families of Iconium, over- 
heard from a window the preaching of the 
apostle. She was at that time engaged to a 
young man named Thamyris, but on hearing 
St. Paul's words she became so enamoured of 
virginity that she broke off her engagement. 
For this interference with family life, and for 
impiety, St. Paul was scourged and expelled 
from the city, and Thecla was condemned to 
be burnt alive. A fall of rain extinguished 
the fire, and she escaped and followed Paul to 
Antioch. Here again she was persecuted, but 
was rescued by Tryphaena, a lady of great 
influence. The presbyter who composed this 
romance (though it was probably founded on 
fact) was deposed from his office. 

8-20. Lystra. Here was a typical heathen 
population, but little affected by Judaism, as 
there was no synagogue. The people were 
grossly superstitious, and easily led into any 
kind of extravagance. Though Latin was the 
official language, the common people spoke 
their own uncouth Lycaonian dialect (v. 11), 
which was unintelligible to the apostles. 
While at Lystra the apostles probably lodged 
with the parents of Timothy : see on 16 l . 

8. A cripple] Probably this man had learnt 
from the Jews the worship of the true God 
(D says that he was 'in the fear of God'), and 
consequently he had received some preparation 
for the gospel message. The circumstances 



836 



14.11 



THE ACTS 



15. 



and effect of this miracle are like those of the 
miracle worked by Peter and John, 3 1 . 

ii. In the speech of Lycaonia] This ex- 
plains why the apostles did not protest against 
the proposals at the time. They appear to 
have gone home in entire ignorance of the 
construction which the people had placed 
upon the miracle. The gods are come down] 
The less educated or more credulous heathen 
at this time still believed that the gods were 
in the habit of visiting the earth in human 
form. It was in the neighbouring country of 
Phrygia that Jupiter and Mercury were said 
to have paid a visit to the virtuous peasants 
Baucis and Philemon, and to have been enter- 
tained by them. Even in Athens, in the age 
of Pisistratus, a visit of Athene (Minerva) in 
human form was believed possible. 12. The 
majestic appearance of Barnabas caused him 
to be identified with the chief god (Zeus) cor- 
responding to the Roman Jupiter. The 
insignificant stature of Paul (2 Cor 10 10 ), and 
his gift of eloquence, suggested his identifi- 
cation with Hermes (the Roman Mercury). 
Hermes was the god of eloquence, and the 
attendant, messenger, and spokesman of Zeus. 

13. Which was before their city] i.e. whose 
temple was before the city. Unto the gates] 
or ' porches.' It is difficult to decide where 
the sacrifice took place, whether at the porch 
of the apostles 1 house, or at the gates of the 
city, or at the gates of the temple. Perhaps 
the first is favoured by the statement (v. 14) 
that they ' sprang out ' among the people. 

14. Rent their clothes] in horror at the 
blasphemy : cp. Mt 26 65 . Ran in] RV ' sprang 
forth.' 15. Of like passions] i.e. of like nature. 

Vanities] i.e. vain gods. 17. Gave us rain] 
RV ' gave you rains.' There was great scarcity 
of water in Lycaonia, owing to a deficient 
rainfall. 19. Persuaded the people] The fickle- 
ness of the Lycaonians is reflected on by more 
than one Greek author, and perhaps St. Paul 
alludes to it in the Epistle to the Galatians (1 6 
3 1 4 15 , etc.). 20. There is no reason to sup- 
pose a miracle here : cp. 20 10 . 

Having at Lystra to deal with pure heathens, 
and not as usual with persons influenced by 
Judaism, St. Paul bases his teaching upon 
Natural Religion. The three main truths of 
Natural Religion according to him are, (1) 
God's Unity, (2) His creative power, and, 
(3) His benevolence. The main difficulty to 
which St. Paul addresses himself is, Why then 
has God permitted the nations to remain so long 
in ignorance? and the answer is that this 
ignorance is only for a time (v. 16) ; and that 
even in the time of ignorance God did not 
leave Himself entirely without witness (v. 17). 
The whole speech should be compared with 
that delivered at Athens, also to a purely 
heathen audience (17 22-31 ). 



21-28. Visit to Derbe, and return journey to 
Antioch of Syria. Derbe, or Claudio-Derbe, 
where the work of the apostles seems to have 
been very successful, was a small Lycaonian 
town on the extreme boundary of the Roman 
province of Galatia. A convert of this city 
named Gaius is mentioned (20 4 ). 

21. To Lystra] thus showing remarkable 
perseverance and courage. 22. Confirming] 
exhorting to steadfastness, so much needed by 
the fickle Galatians. 

23. Elders] lit. ' presbyters.' We have a 
right to infer from this passage that wherever 
the apostles established a church, they estab- 
lished also a definite ministry. Presbyters 
only are mentioned, but it is to be presumed 
that there were also deacons to assist them. 
It is somewhat remarkable that St. Paul's 
Epistles (except the Pastorals) contain no 
allusion to presbyters. Bishops, however, 
probably in the sense of presbyters, are men- 
tioned (Phil 1 1) : see on Ac 1 1 so. 

25. Attalia] the port of Perga. 26. Antioch] 
They had been absent about 18 months. 

27. furnishes the first example of a mission- 
ary meeting. It was a meeting of the whole 
Church, not of a few enthusiasts. 

CHAPTER 15 
The Question of Circumcision 

1-35. The Council of Jerusalem, 49 a.d. 

The usual view is that Ga^ 1 * 10 describes 
the visit of St. Paul to Jerusalem on the 
occasion of this Council. Adopting this, the 
following was the course of events. The 
baptism of Gentiles by St. Paul on his First 
Missionary Journey, without requiring them to 
be circumcised or to keep the Law, was keenly 
criticised at Jerusalem by the Pharisaic party 
within the Church. Some of these mal- 
contents even came to Antioch, teaching that 
1 except ye be circumcised after the manner 
of Moses, ye cannot be saved' (AC15 1 ). 
They falsely professed to have the support of 
Peter and James, and St. Paul indignantly 
refers to them as * false brethren privily 
brought in, who came in privily to spy out 
our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus ' 
(Gal2 4 ). They demanded that Paul and 
Barnabas should go up to Jerusalem, and 
submit the matter to the superior authority of 
the Twelve. At first St. Paul refused to go, 
regarding himself as possessing an independent 
and equal authority. But on receiving a 
special revelation (Gal2 2 ) that the result 
would be favourable to his views, and would 
tend to the furtherance of the gospel, he 
consented to go, taking with him Barnabas, 
and Titus, one of his Gentile converts. Before 
the Council, private conferences were held 
between St. Paul and the heads of the Church 
of Jerusalem, with the object of reaching a 



837 



15. 1 



THE ACTS 



15.20 



settlement. As a step towards this, the 
circumcision of Titus was vehemently de- 
manded by the Judaisers, and apparently 
recommended by the Twelve. As Titus was 
intended to be a fellow-worker of St. Paul, 
and would accordingly be brought into frequent 
close contact with Jews, much was to be said 
for this course. What happened is not quite 
clear. Most think that Titus was not circum- 
cised ; others that St. Paul, receiving an 
assurance that the main question, that of 
Gentile freedom, would be decided in his 
favour, gave way on the minor point, and 
circumcised Titus, not under compulsion, but 
as a spontaneous act of Christian charity 
(compare his conduct in the case of Timothy, 
16 3 ). Before the Conference a complete 
settlement was reached. The Twelve acknow- 
ledged Paul's teaching as orthodox, recognised 
him as the Apostle of the Gentiles, conceded 
his demand that the Gentiles should be free 
from the observance of the Law, and gave 
him the right hand of fellowship. After this 
the result of the Council was a foregone 
conclusion. 

Some scholars take an entirely different 
view of the historical situation. They think 
that the visit to Jerusalem described in 
Gal 2 i-io is not that of Ac 15 at all, but that of 
Ac 11 29, 30. They regard the Epistle to the 
Galatians as written before the Council, during 
the heat of the circumcision controversy, and 
they place Peter's visit to Antioch (Gal2H f -) 
also before the Council. Much can be said in 
favour of this view, and the present writer is 
inclined to favour it. 

i. Certain men] They falsely claimed to 
have been sent by James (see v. 24, Gal 2 l2 ). 

2. Barnabas] St. Luke passes over Peter's 
visit to Antioch, and Barnabas's temporary 
1 dissimulation ' (Gal2i 2 ). 3. The journey to 
Jerusalem partook somewhat of the character 
of a triumphant progress, or demonstration in 
favour of Paul and Barnabas. Outside Jeru- 
salem the Pauline party was clearly in the 
ascendant. 4. Even at Jerusalem the officials 
of the church, and its members as a whole, were 
favourably disposed towards St. Paul. The 
Judaisers were in a minority. 5. Pharisees] 
The only express mention of converted Phari- 
sees. What attracted the Pharisees in Chris- 
tianity was (1) the fulfilment in Christ of the 
Messianic hope which the devout Pharisees 
cherished, ami (2) the doctrine of the Resur- 
rection. 

7-II. The speech of St. Peter endorses the 
opinions of St. Paul in every particular. He 
speaks of the Law as a yoke ' which neither we 
nor our fathers w.-re able to hear' (cp. (Jal.'i 1 . 

where St. Pan! bids the Gtalatians not bo be 
entangled again with the yoke of bondage), 

and emphasises the Pauline doctrine of salva- 



tion by grace and faith, and not by the works 
of the law : cp. Ro 3 24 Gal 2 ^ 3 6 , etc. There 
is nothing incredible in this. It is plain from 
Galatians that Peter and even James were in 
complete agreement in principle with St. Paul 
(Gal2 6f -), and IPet makes it evident that 
St. Peter was much attracted and influenced 
by St. Paul's theology. 

13. James] James, the Lord's brother, 
presided at the Council, doubtless in the 
capacity of chief ruler of the local Church 
of Jerusalem. We should have expected 
Peter to preside. 

14-21. St. James' speech proves him as 
decided an adherent of Gentile liberty as St. 
Peter. He approves St. Peter's conduct in 
baptising Cornelius, and quotes prophecies 
showing that the Messianic Church will 
embrace all nations. The Jews are to con- 
tinue to keep, the Law, but the Gentiles are 
only to be required to abstain from certain 
practices offensive to Jews. 

14. Simeon] RV ' Symeon.' St. James 
uses the ancient Hebrew form of Peter's name, 
instead of the more usual ' Simon.' For his 
name] i.e. ' that his name might be glorified 
in them.' 

16-18. St. James cites from memory, and 
not quite accurately, Am9 n > 12 (LXX), of 
which nevertheless he preserves the true sense. 

16. After this I will return] Amos simply 
has ' In that day,' i.e. in the day of the 
Messiah. The tabernacle of David] i.e. the 
royal family descended from David. David's 
family is compared to a fallen tent, because, 
when Amos wrote, the southern kingdom was 
quite insignificant compared with the northern. 

17, 18. Who doethall these things. Known 
unto God are all his works from the beginning 
of the world] There is nothing in Amos cor- 
responding to these words. RV reads, i who 
maketh these things known from the begin- 
ning of the world.' RM reads, ' who doeth 
these things which were known from the 
beginning of the world.' 

20. St. James mentions four prohibitions : 
(1) pollutions of idols, (2) fornication, (3) eat- 
ing the flesh of strangled animals, (4) eating 
blood. The object of these prohibitions was 
to render social intercourse between Jews and 
Gentiles, and particularly common meals, less 
difficult. Pollutions of idols] No Christian 
would directly worship an idol, but Gentile 
Christiana mitdit easily incur pollution accord- 
ing to .Jewish ideas, (1) by buying flesh in a 
heathen market, (2) by attending a feast in a 
heathen house. In both cases there would be 
a danger of eating tlesh offered in sacrifice to 
idols. Fornication] Most interpret this of 
ordinary fornication, but seeing this was al- 
ready forbidden to all Christians, there is much 
to be said for J. Lightfoot's view, that what 



838 



15. 21 



THE ACTS 



16.7 



is really meant is marriage within the degrees 
forbidden in the book of Leviticus. Such 
marriages, common among the heathen, would 
be most distasteful to the Jews, and would be 
regarded by them as fornication : cp. 1 Cor 5 1 . 

Things strangled] This refers to Lvl7 13 > 14 
Dtl2 16 '* 23 , according to which the blood was 
to be drained out of all animals before they were 
eaten. This prohibition, however, is entirely 
omitted by D and other ancient authorities 
both here and in v. 29. From blood] see Lv3 17 
726 1710 1926 Dt 12 16, 23 1523. D and other 
authorities add here this injunction : ' And 
that they should not do to others what they 
would not have done to themselves.' 

21. Here St. James recognises that Jewish 
Christians are still to attend the synagogue ser- 
vices and to keep the Law. 22. This v. is evi- 
dence that the whole Church, and not merely 
the clergy, were consulted in matters of public 
policy. Judas surnamed Barsabas (Barsabbas)] 
probably the brother of the Joseph Barsabbas 
who was a candidate for the apostolate (1 23 ). 
He was clearly a Hebrew. Silas, on the other 
hand, was probably a Hellenist, as his Latin 
name (' Silas ' = ' Silvanus ') indicates. He 
appears again, 15 40 16 19 17 4 » 10 > 14 18 5 2 Cor 
1 19 , as a companion of St. Paul. Later he was 
an associate of St. Peter (lPet5 12 ). Appa- 
rently he possessed the Roman citizenship 
(16 37 ). 23. The apostles and elders and 
brethren] Recent editors read, ' the apostles 
and presbyters, brethren.' Apparently the 
apostles and presbyters describe themselves 
as ' brethren ' to give the letter a fraternal 
and affectionate character. But the text is 
probably corrupt. 

25. Being assembled with one accord] rather, 
' having come to one accord.' 28. Observe the 
claim to inspiration. 34. This v. is omitted 
as an interpolation by many modern editors. 
It is contained in D, which adds, ' and Judas 
went alone.' 

35. In Antioch] Here should be placed, 
according to the usual view, Peter's visit to 
Antioch, mentioned Gal2 llf . At first Peter 
ate publicly with the Gentiles, but on the 
arrival of ' certain from James,' he ' separ- 
ated himself, fearing them that were of the 
circumcision.' The rest of the Jews, and even 
Barnabas, ' dissembled ' with him. St. Paul 
then publicly rebuked him, and apparently St. 
Peter confessed himself in the wrong. Accord- 
ing to the other view, which the present writer 
favours, Peter's visit to Antioch took place 
before the Council. It is easier to understand 
the refusal to eat with the Gentiles before 
than after the Council. 

St Paul's Second Missionary Journey, 
49, 50 a.d. (Chs.l5 36 -18 22 ) 

Having secured the formal recognition by 



the Twelve of Gentile Christianity, St. Paul 
was free to resume his missionary labours. He 
first revisited the Churches founded on the 
First Journey, and then carried the gospel to 
Europe, preaching at Philippi, Thessalonica, 
Bercea, Athens, and Corinth. He then re- 
turned to the Syrian Antioch, and visited 
Jerusalem. 

i5 3(5 -i6 5 . The Galatian and other Churches 
revisited. 

C. 15. 36-41. St. Paul's grievance against 
Barnabas was that the latter insisted on taking 
with them an unsuitable assistant simply because 
he was a relation. The Church of Antioch seems 
to have sympathised with St. Paul (see v. 40). 
St. Paul was subsequently reconciled with 
Barnabas (1 Cor9 6 ) and also with Mark (2 Tim 
4 11 Col4 10 ). 41. Confirming the churches] 
see 16 5 , and cp. 14 22 . 

CHAPTER 16 
St. Paul in Europe 

1. Timotheus] was probably of Lystra, not 
Derbe. His mother Eunice was perhaps a 
widow, and she, together with his grand- 
mother Lois, educated the lad in the religion 
of Israel, though he was not circumcised (see 
2 Tim 1 5 ). The whole family had been con- 
verted at St. Paul's first visit. 3. See Preface 
to c. 15. 4, 5. Here we have evidence that the 
decrees of the Council were actually promul- 
gated in the Galatian Churches, and that they 
were well received. 

6-40. Journey into Europe, Philippi. 

6. RV ' And they went through the region 
of Phrygia and Galatia, having been forbidden 
of the Holy Ghost to speak the word in Asia.' 
At Lystra (v. 6) they received a divine inti- 
mation that they were not to carry out their 
purpose (probably their main purpose in this 
journey) of preaching in the Roman province 
of Asia. Accordingly they passed through 
that part of the ancient Phrygia which be- 
longed to the Roman province of Galatia, and 
in which were situated Iconium and Antioch, 
which they doubtless revisited. 

Those who, like Lightfoot, hold that the 
churches to which the Epistle to the Galatians 
is addressed, were situated in North Galatia, 
understand ' the region of Phrygia and Galatia ' 
here to mean the district in N. Galatia once 
inhabited by Phrygians, but at this time by 
Gauls. Here they suppose that St. Paul was 
delayed by illness (Gal4 13 ), and seized the 
opportunity of preaching and founding numer- 
ous Celtic or Gallic churches which are nowhere 
mentioned in Acts. 

7. RY ' And when they were come over 
against Mysia, they assayed to go into Bithynia, 
and the Spirit of Jesus suffered them not.' 
Leaving Antioch, St. Paul journeyed north- 
ward through the province of Asia till he 



839 



16.8 



THE ACTS 



16.37 



came to the borders of Mysia (the north- 
western part of the province). He then 
attempted to strike westward into Bithynia, 
but was forbidden by ' the Spirit of Jesus.' 
This remarkable expression, which makes the 
Holy Spirit the Spirit not only of the Father, 
but also of the Son, is an evidence that the 
true divinity of Jesus was firmly held when 
St. Luke wrote. 

8. And they passing by Mysia (i.e. passing 
through it without preaching) came down to 
Troas] Troas, the chief port of Mysia, was 
made a Roman colony by Augustus, and 
received many privileges, because of the 
supposed Trojan origin of the Roman people. 
Similar privileges were given to the neigh- 
bouring city of Ilion. 

g. The man of Macedonia has sometimes 
been supposed to be St. Luke, or even the 
guardian angel of Macedonia (Dan 10 12 ). The 
man was recognised as Macedonian by his 
speech, or by his dress. The introduction of 
Christianity into that continent, where it was 
destined to win its chief triumphs, is fitly 
prepared for by a special revelation. 

io. The we indicates that St. Luke was 
now a member of the party. Whether he 
joined it at Troas, or had accompanied it all 
along is not clear. 

ii. Samothracia] an island half -way between 
Troas and Neapolis. Neapolis] the port of 
Philippi. 

12. Philippi] RY ' Philippi, which is a city 
of Macedonia, the first of the district, a Roman 
colony.' At Philippi, founded by Philip, father 
of Alexander the Great, Octavius and Antony 
had defeated the republican leaders, Brutus 
and Cassius, and the city, in honour of the 
victory, had been made a Roman colony with 
Latin rights. It lay on the great Egnatian 
way which united Italy and Asia, and was of 
great commercial importance. The chief city] 
lit. ' the first.' Some think that the meaning 
is that this was the first city reached by the 
Apostle in Macedonia, or in Europe. 

13. Where prayer was wont to be made] 
RV ' where we supposed there was a place of 
prayer' (Gk. proseuche). Where the Jews 
were too few to build a synagogue, they were 
wont to assemble in open-air places of prayer 
(jproseuchas)) by the seaside, or on a river's 
bank, for convenience of purification. 

14. Lydia] She came from Thyatira in 
Lydia, a district where there were many 
dyers. She was a proselyte to Judaism, and 
a woman of some wealth and position. As 
she is ii< -t mentioned in the Epistle to the 
Philippians, sin was probably then dead, or 
had left the city. Kenan has the strange 
fancy that she was St. Paul's wife. 15. Her 
household] the expression includes servants 
and slaves as well as children. Other examples 



of the baptism of households are 16 33 18 8 
1 Cor li6 : S ee on Mtl9 13 - 15 . 6. To prayer] 
rather, ' to the place of prayer.' 

A spirit of divination] The girl belonged to 
the class of ' clairvoyants ' or ' mediums,' and 
really believed herself to be possessed by a 
spirit. Her recognition of the divine mission 
of St. Paul indicates a considerable degree of 
spiritual discernment. The expulsion of the 
1 spirit ' need not have been a miracle. The 
girl recognised in St. Paul a minister of 
' the supreme God,' supreme, therefore, over 
the spirit which possessed her. Hence the 
command to the spirit to come forth was (in 
her belief) authoritative, and consequently 
effectual. 

18. Being grieved] Although the testimony 
of the girl was true, St. Paul would not receive 
it, because it emanated, as he supposed, from 
an evil spirit. Similarly Jesus would not 
receive the testimony of demons to His Divine 
Sonship and Messiahship (Mk 1 25 , etc.). 

20. Magistrates] At Philippi there were two 
magistrates (duumvirs) corresponding to the 
consuls at Rome. Provincial duumvirs often 
claimed and received the courtesy title of 
prcetors, which is the title by which St. Luke 
calls them here. Jews] Christianity was not 
yet clearly distinguished from Judaism. 
Judaism was a lawful religion for Jews, but 
not for Roman citizens. 22. Paul and Silas 
probably protested that they were Romans, 
but in the tumult their protest passed un- 
heeded. 

27. By Roman custom a gaoler who allowed 
a prisoner to escape suffered the same penalty 
as the prisoner. If the charge was a capital 
one he suffered death. The non-escape of 
the prisoners was due to terror and amaze- 
ment. 30. What must I do to be saved ?] 
The gaoler, to have asked such a question, 
must have been a hearer of Paul and Barnabas, 
and have been impressed by their teaching. 
The strange events of the night and the kind- 
ness shown him by Paul now bring matters 
to a crisis. 35. According to D, the motive 
of St. Paul's release was alarm at the earth- 
quake. The Serjeants] Gk. ' the lictors,' offi- 
cers who attended the magistrates, carrying 
axes and rods, symbols of the power to punish. 

37. Being Romans] i.e. Roman citizens. 
In his speech against Verres Cicero says : ' to 
fetter a Roman citizen is a crime, to scourge 
him a scandal, to slay him parricide.' 

Roman citizenship could be acquired (1) by 
birth, if both parents were Romans ; (2) by 
grant to certain cities or districts ; (3) by grant 
to individuals for political or military services, 
e.g. long service in the army ; (4) by purchase 
(22 28 ). As Tarsus did not come under (2), and 
Paul was born free, his father and mother 
must have been Roman citizens. The chief 



840 



16.39 



THE ACTS 



17. 17 



privileges of citizenship at this time were, (1) 
the right to appeal to the Emperor, (2) free- 
dom from degrading punishments, such as 
bonds, scourging, and crucifixion. 

39. Desired them to depart] representing 
that in the excited state of the city it was 
impossible to protect them. 40. Comforted] 
exhorted. And departed] Silas and Timothy 
accompanied St. Paul, but (since the 'we' is 
now dropped) St. Luke was probably left 
behind to take charge of the Philippian 
Church (see 17 1 ). He seems to have made 
Philippi his headquarters for several years, 
rejoining St. Paul at Troas during the Third 
Missionary Journey (20 5 ). 

CHAPTER 17 

Second Missionary Journey (continued) 

1-15. Thessalonica and Beroea. 

1. Amphipolis] 32 m. W. of Philippi. 

Apollonia] 30 m. W. of Amphipolis. 

Thessalonica] now Saloniki, was the capital 
of the province of Macedonia, and an important 
commercial centre. St. Paul's plan was first 
to evangelise the seats of government and 
the trade centres, knowing that if Christianity 
was once established in these places it would 
spread through the Empire. 3. Christ] RY 
'the Christ, 1 i.e. the Messiah. 4. Devout 
Greeks] Not necessarily proselytes, but per- 
sons who had given up idolatry, attended 
the synagogue services, and worshipped the 
God of the Jews. 5. Lewd fellows] lit. ' cer- 
tain evil men of the idlers in the market- 
place.' Jason] probably identical with the 
Jason of R0I6 21 , and therefore a Jew. 
I His correct name was probably Jesus or 
Joshua. 6. The rulers] The Gk. word used 
here (politarchai, a rare and peculiar one) is 
proved to be correct by an inscription on an 
'arch, which also contains the names Sosipater, 
Gaius, and Secundus. 9. Taken security] The 
immediate departure of Paul and Silas renders 
it probable that Jason gave security that St. 
Paul would leave the city, and that the Apostle 
assented to this undertaking, and was thus 
prevented from revisiting the Thessalonians : 
seelTh2is. 

The Epistles to the Thessalonians, who are 
represented as mainly a Gentile Church (1 Th 
1 9 2 14 ), imply a much longer residence at 
'Thessalonica than three weeks. Y. 2, there- 
fore, must be understood to mean that he 
worked for three weeks among the Jews, and 
afterwards turned to the Gentiles, among whom 
the laboured for three or four months. 

10. Berea (Bercea)] a Macedonian town of 
some importance, 50 m. SW. of Thessalonica. 
■ To this 'out of the way' place (Cicero) St. 
Paul retreated, probably for rest and quiet. 

14. As it were to the sea] i.e. they pretended 
X> go to the sea (to elude pursuit), and then 



turned off and went by land to Athens. Others 
translate simply ' to the sea,' and suppose that 
St. Paul embarked at Dium and went by sea 
to Athens. 15. Unto Athens] D adds : ' But 
he passed by (i.e. did not preach in) Thessaly, 
for he was prevented from preaching the 
word to them.' 

It appears from lTh3 x that Timothy and 
Silas did actually join St. Paul at Athens ac- 
cording to his instructions, but the Apostle 
being filled with anxiety about the state of the 
Macedonian Churches which he had just 
founded, sent them back again to confirm them, 
and to bring him accurate tidings concerning 
them. Timothy was sent to Thessalonica, 
Silas (apparently) to Philippi, so that St. 
Paul was left alone in Athens. On returning 
from their mission, Timothy and Silas found 
that St. Paul had gone on to Corinth, and 
there they rejoined him (18 5 ). 

16-34. Athens. 

After leaving Beroea, St. Paul entered the 
Roman province of Achaia, which was at this 
time a senatorian province, governed by a 
proconsul, and of which the capital was Corinth. 
He first visited Athens. Athens, though 
fallen from its .former glory, was still the 
artistic and philosophic, and, in many ways, 
the religious, capital of the world. The city 
was full of temples and altars, and the people 
so devoted to religious ceremonies and mys- 
teries that they merited the title (whether in 
a good or bad sense) of ' superstitious ' 
(v. 22). Athens, on account of its illustrious 
history, was held in honour by the Romans. 
It was allowed to retain its ancient institutions, 
but the democracy had long lost all real 
power, and the affairs of the city were ad- 
ministered by the aristocratic court of the 
Areopagus (v. 19). Athens was famed for its 
university, the most renowned in the world, at 
which a large number of students from all 
parts of the empire were always in residence. 
As the original home of philosophy, Athens 
was the headquarters of ail the chief philo- 
sophic schools. Among its sacred spots were 
the Academy of Plato, the Lyceum of Ari- 
stotle, the Porch of Zeno, and the Garden of 
Epicurus. The only two philosophies, how- 
ever, which at this time exercised an important 
influence upon politics and social life, were 
Stoicism and Epicureanism, which, for this 
reason, are singled out by St. Luke for especial 
mention. 

16. Wholly given to idolatry] Xenophon 
calls Athens l one altar, one sacrifice and offer- 
ing to the gods.' St. Paul, as a Jew, would 
have no sympathy with the artistic beauty of 
the Athenian statues and temples, but only 
horror at the superstition which they repre- 
sented. 

17. In the market daily] So Socrates used to 



841 



17. 18 



THE ACTS 



17. 26 



sit every day and all day in the market-place of 
Athens, discussing philosophy with all comers. 
The market-place, or agora, of Athens afforded 
a glorious architectural spectacle. ' Here the 
eye fell on portico after portico, painted by the 
brush of famous artists, and adorned with the 
noblest statues. But St. Paul would not have 
admired these so much as the tower and water- 
clock of Andronicus, telling out to him the 
hours of his solitary waiting. This still 
stands to-day. The Agora was dominated on 
its S. side by the abrupt hill of Mars, and the 
still more impressive heights of the Acropolis. 
In the Stoa Poecile he met with the successors 
of Zeno, the Stoics with whom, as with the 
Epicureans, he, like a second Socrates, disputed 
daily ' (F. C. Conybeare). 

1 8. Epicureans and Stoics. At this time 
Stoicism was the philosophy of the majority 
of serious-minded people, Epicureanism that of 
the frivolous and irreligious. The Stoics, so 
called from the Porch (Stoa Pcecile) at Athens, 
in which their founder, Zeno of Citium, lec- 
tured (about 278 B.C.), had many points of 
contact with Judaism, especially with Phari- 
saism. Josephus speaks of the tenets of 
the Stoics and of the Pharisees as being very 
similar. The spirit of both was somewhat 
narrow and austere. Both rejected compro- 
mise, believing that a man should suffer per- 
secution and even death rather than depart in 
the least degree from the path of piety and 
virtue. Both were devoted to Law, the Pha- 
risees to the Law of Moses, the Stoics to the 
Law of Nature, which they regarded as an 
actual code imposed on mankind by the Creator. 
The Stoics were strong fatalists, denying the 
freedom of the will ; the Pharisees were 
strong predestinarians. Both believed in 
Providence, or the rational ordering of the 
world by an intelligent being, a doctrine 
denied by the Epicureans. The Pharisees 
were monotheists ; the Stoics approximated to 
monotheism. They believed in a Divine 
Reason, or Logos, pervading all things and 
ordering all things, though (being Pantheists) 
liny regarded it as the scul of the world, rather 
than as a distinct and transcendent personal 
Being. They also believed in a future life 
for man, though not in actual immortality. 
St. Paul, therefor* , decidedly sympathised with 
the Stoics as against the Epicureans, whose 
doctrine thai the end of life is pleasure, was, of 
course, highly distasteful to him. Epicureanism 
was reprobated both by .lews and by serious 
pagans. Josephus says : 'The Epicureans cast 

providence out of life, and deny that God takes 

care of human affairs, and hold that the uni- 
verse; is not directed with a vie* to the con- 

tinuance <»l the whole DJ the blessed and 

incorruptible Bi ing, hut that it is carried along 
automatically and heedlessly.' 

84 



1 8. Babbler] lit. 'a picker up of seeds' 
(like a bird) ; hence a shallow talker who picks 
up scraps of information, and retails them at 
secondhand. And the resurrection] better, 
' and Anastasis.' The Athenians, either in 
jest or in earnest, seem to have understood 
Anastasis (the Resurrection) to be a female 
deity, the wife of Jesus. 

19. And they took him, etc.] Some translate, 
' And they arrested him and brought him before 
the court of the Areopagus.' But there is no 
indication in St. Paul's speech that he was on 
his trial, or that any judgment was passed upon 
him (v. 32). We prefer, therefore, the render- 
ing, ' And they took him by the hand, and 
brought him to the Hill of Ares ' (Mars' Hill). 
The Hill of Ares, or Areopagus, is an eminence 
situated nearly due W. of the Acropolis. 
Here, from early times, the Court of the 
Areopagus met in the open air. The court 
was not sitting, so that the place was available 
for a quiet lecture and discussion. 

22-32. Paul's speech. It is discreet and to 
the point. It deals not with the OT., with 
which his hearers were unacquainted, but with 
the truths of natural religion, many of which 
were understood (though only partially) by 
the Athenian philosophers (cp. the speech at 
Lystra, U^ f -). 

22. Too superstitious] rather, 'more re- 
ligious ' (than other men). Both senses are 
possible, but the tactful apostle would be more 
likely to begin his speech with a compliment 
than with a reproach. 23. Your devotions] 
RV ' the objects of your worship.' 

TO THE UNKNOWN GOD] RV'To an 
unknown God.' Several ancient writers men- 
tion such altars. Pausanias speaks of ' altars of 
known (lit. ' named ') and unknown gods and 
heroes.' Philostratus says, ' It is more prudent 
to speak well of all gods, especially at Athens, 
where altars are erected even to unknown gods.' 
At Athens during a plague Epimenides let loose 
at the Areopagus black and white sheep, and 
commanded the Athenians to sacrifice ' to the 
proper god,' wherever the sheep lay down. 
Often ' the proper god ' could not be clearly 
ascertained, and so an altar was raised to an 
unknown god. The inscription (as St. Paul 
probably knew) had a purely pagan meaning ; 
but the phrase was a fine one ; it was capable 
of a higher sense, and in this higher sense 
St. Paul made it the text of his sermon. 

24. Creation was altogether denied by the 
Epicureans, who regarded the atoms of matter 
as eternal ; and only imperfectly recognised 
by the Stoics, who were pantheists, and did not 
regard the Divine Person which shaped the 
world as distinct from it. The doctrine of 
citation, as preached by St. Paul, was con- 
sequently a strange one at Athens. 

26. The Apostle rebukes the narrow pride 



17. 28 



THE ACTS 



18. 12 



of the Greeks, who divided mankind into Greeks 
and barbarians, the latter being of no account. 
The Stoics, who believed in the spiritual equality 
of all men, would have agreed with St. Paul 
in this. 

28. A quotation from the ' Phenomena ' of 
Aratus, a Cilician poet. Almost the same 
words occur in the ' Hymn to Zeus ' of Cle- 
anthes. Both these poets were Stoics. St. 
Paul quotes the Gk. poets again, 1 Cor 15 33 and 
Tit 1 12 ; but it is not safe to assume that he 
had any wide acquaintance with Greek classical 
literature. His Pharisaic training would have 
made him indisposed to devote serious study 
to profane literature. 

29. The argument probably is : Since we 
are the offspring of God, in that our souls are 
immaterial and immortal, we ought to regard 
the author of our souls as an immaterial and 
immortal spirit, and not like silver or gold or 
any material object. The Stoics would have 
sympathised with this sentiment. Seneca says, 
' Thou shalt not form God of silver and gold, 
a true likeness of Him cannot be moulded of 
this material.' . . ' God is near thee, He is with 
thee, He is within.' 

30. Times of this ignorance] cp< 14 16 . Re- 
pent] i.e. turn from idolatry. Idolatry was 
pardonable in the times of ignorance, but now 
that the True Light has appeared, it is a heinous 
sin. 31. St. Paul was accustomed, in preach- 
ing to the heathen, to lead up to the idea of a 
judgment to come (24 25 ). Hath given assurance] 
viz. that He will be the Judge. The Resur- 
rection of Jesus is the evidence that He will 
be the future Judge of the world. 34. Dio- 
nysius the Areopagite] i.e. a member of the 
Court of Areopagus. As all members of the 
Areopagus had passed through the office of 
Archon, Dionysius must have been of high 
social position. Tradition makes him bishop 
of Athens, and a martyr. The work ' On 
the heavenly hierarchy ' attributed to him is 
spurious. 

According to this passage Dionysius and 
Damaris were the first converts made in Achaia 
(Greece), but, according to lCorl6 15 > 17 , a 
Corinthian named Stephanas, who must have 
been converted later. The explanation pro- 
bably is that St. Paul regards Athens as a free 
and independent city, not as part of the Roman 
'province of Achaia. 

CHAPTER 18 
I Second Missionary Journey (concluded) 
j| 1-18. St. Paul at Corinth. Corinth was the 
capital of the Roman province of Achaia. The 
ancient town had been entirely destroyed in 
146 B.C. by the Roman general Mummius, but 
I it had been refounded as a Roman colony in 
1 46 B.C. by Julius Caesar. Situated on the 
! dorinthian isthmus, it had two ports, Cenchrese 



on the iEgean, and Lechseum on the Gulf of 
Lepanto. The traffic between Italy and Asia 
chiefly passed through Corinth, which rapidly 
became a populous and wealthy trading centre. 
The morals of the Corinthians, who were de- 
voted to pleasure and the worship of Venus 
(Aphrodite), were such as to outrage even 
pagan sentiment. Allusions to the prevailing 
sensuality of the city, which was encouraged 
by its religion, are to be found in the Epistles 
to the Corinthians. Here Paul stayed a year 
and six months, but St. Luke (for whatever 
reason) gives us few particulars of his work. 
From Corinth St. Paul indited his two Epistles 
to the Thessalonians. 

2. Aquila . . Priscilla] As Aquila and Pris- 
cilla (Prisca) are not said to have been con- 
verted by Paul, they were probably already 
Christians. The edict of the emperor Claudius 
(about 52 a.d.) which expelled the Jews from 
Rome, was caused by tumults which arose in 
the Jewish quarter, when the faith of Christ 
was preached there. This at least is the pro- 
bable inference to be drawn from the words of 
Suetonius, ' He expelled the Jews from Rome, 
because they were in a state of continual 
tumult at the instigation of one Chrestus ' 
(Chrestus is probably ' Christus,' or Christ). 
Aquila and Priscilla were St. Paul's hosts at 
Corinth. Deporting from Corinth with St. 
Paul (v. 18), they remained at Ephesus, where 
they were instrumental in converting Apollos 
(v. 26). The church at Ephesus met in their 
house (1 Cor 16 19 ). They then revisited Rome, 
perhaps to prepare for the Apostle's visit, 
and there also their house was the Church's 
meeting-place (R0I6 3 - 5 ). After St. Paul's 
trial they returned to Ephesus (2 Tim 4 19 ), 
which is our last notice of them. Pontus] with 
Bithynia formed a Roman province occupying 
the S. coast of the Euxine (Black Sea). 

3. Tentmakers] All Jews, however wealthy, 
were taught a trade. 

5. Silas and Timotheus] see 17 15 . They 
brought money with them, so that Paul no 
longer worked with his hands, but gave him- 
self entirely to preaching (2 Cor ll 9 Phil 4 15 ). 

Was pressed in the spirit] RV ' was con- 
strained by the word,' i.e. devoted himself 
continually to preaching. 6. Blasphemed] 
They said 'Jesus is anathema' (lCorl2 3 ). 

7. Justus] RV ' Titus Justus.' Probably a 
Roman colonist of the Roman colony Corinth. 

8. Crispus] St. Paul baptised this import- 
ant convert with his own hands, as also 
Gaius, and the household of Stephanas (1 Cor 
1 15 ). From 1 Cor 16 15 > W we learn that Stepha- 
nas was the first convert made in Achaia. 

12. Gallio] the brother of Nero's tutor 
Seneca, and uncle of the poet Lucan, was 
a well-educated, amiable, and accomplished 
man, who, having filled the office of consul, 



843 



18. 17 



THE ACTS 



19. 2 



was sent out as proconsul of Achaia about 
52 A.D. 

17. The Greeks hated and despised the Jews, 
and seeing that their contempt was shared by 
Gallio, they ventured to insult the Jews in 
his presence by assaulting Sosthenes. Gallio 
cared, etc.] This may either mean that Gallio 
pretended not to see the assault on Sosthenes, 
or else that he cared nothing about the re- 
ligious questions involved. 

18. A vow] After delivery from danger or 
recovery from sickness, the Jews were ac- 
customed to take upon themselves a modified 
form of the Nazirite vow (see Nu6). As the 
special consecration of this state forbade in- 
tercourse with Gentiles, St. Paul deferred it 
till his work at Corinth was finished. The 
essential ceremony was the presentation of the 
hair grown during the period of separation at 
the altar at Jerusalem together with certain 
specified sacrifices ; hence the head was shaved 
both at the beginning and at the end of the 
period of separation. See further 21 26 . It is 
not necessary to suppose that St. Paul took 
this vow to conciliate the Jews or the Jewish 
Christians. He simply adopted the usual 
Jewish way of thanking God for a great 
deliverance. 

Many additional particulars about the Cor- 
inthian ministry of St. Paul can be learnt from 
1 and 2 Cor. See the commentary on those 
Epistles. 

19-22. Visit to Jerusalem. Paul probably 
sailed in a ship specially chartered to convey 
Jews to Palestine to keep the Passover. 

19. Ephesus] The prohibition to preach the 
word in Asia (16°) had now apparently been 
removed. Aquila and Priscilla were left in 
Ephesus to prepare the way for the great 
missionary effort that he desired to make in 
this important centre. 

21. This feast] i.e. Pentecost (or possibly 
Passover) 52 \.n. Clearly St. Paul had vowed 
to make his Nazirite offering at this feast. 
The RY omits the words referring to the 
feasl altogether, btrl they are strongly attested. 

22. And gone up] viz.. to Jerusalem. We 
may suppose that St. Paul spent some time 
at Jerusalem, before going to Antioch. 

Third Missionary Journey, Aug. 52 a.d. 
bo Penteoosi 56 a.d. (Chs.l8»-2] "•) 

23. Visit to Galatia. St. Paul revisits An 
tioeh in Syria and the Churches of (.'alalia 
and Phrygia, founded in the First Missionary 
Journey (i.e. Antioch in Pisidia, Iconiuxn, 
Lystra, I >erb< j. 

24-28. Apollos at Ephesus. 

24. Apollos] The name is a contraction 

of Apollonins. He is mentioned again r. (l 
l Carl " :'»"• 4« l'". 1 TitS 1 *. He had been 

instructed and baptised by the disciples of the 



Baptist, and therefore regarded Jesus as the 
Messiah (Mk 1 7 , etc.), perhaps even as ' the Son 
of God,' and ' the Lamb of God that taketh 
away the sin of the world ' ( Jn 1 29 > 31 ). His 
knowledge was accurate as far as it went, and 
his faith was sincere. That he received Chris- 
tian baptism (probably from Aquila) is a cer- 
tain inference from v 25 compared with 19 W- 

Eloquent] RY l learned.' Both meanings 
may be included. Probably Apollos was ac- 
quainted with the philosophy of the Alexan- 
drian Jew Philo, and his speculations about 
the Divine Logos (' Reason ' or ' Word '). 

26. The synagogue] We infer that Priscilla 
and Aquila, though Christians, still attended 
the synagogue. 27. Wrote . . the disciples] 
Christians travelling received ' letters of com- 
mendation ' to other Christian Churches, which 
secured them hospitality and admission to 
communion (cp. 2 Cor 3 1 ). Helped them much] 
EM ' helped much through grace them which 
had believed.' Apollos was so popular at 
Corinth, that his admirers soon formed a 
faction or party in the Church (ICorl 12 3 4 ). 

28. Convinced] RV ' confuted,' 

CHAPTER 19 

Ephesus 
1-4 1. Paul at Ephesus. Opposition of the 
manufacturers of idols. St. Paul, leaving 
Antioch in S. Galatia (see 18 23 ), approached 
Ephesus not by the usual level route leading 
through Colossaa and Laodicea (see C0I2 1 ), 
but through the northern and more mountain- 
ous route leading down the Cayster valley 
(see 19 x , 'the upper coasts,' RV ' the upper 
country '). He stayed at Ephesus over two 
years and three months, see vv. 8, 10, 22 (in 
20 31 the Apostle calls it three years), and 
making the city his centre, evangelised the 
whole of the province of Asia. According 
to D he did not originally intend to preach 
in Ephesus, but the Holy Spirit constrained 
him (contrast 16 6 ). We hear little here of 
opposition from the Jews. The craftsmen 
and the uneducated classes were hostile, but 
the magistrates of the city (v. 35) and of 
the province (v. 31) were not unfriendly. 

1. Ephesus] the capital of the Roman 
province of Asia, and the most important sea- 
port of Asia Minor, was especially renowned 
for its greal temple of Diana (Artemis), which 
was one of the wonders of the world. St. 
Paul chose it for a prolonged stay because 
(like Corinth) it was on the main line of com- 
munication between E. and W., and also 
been use it was a great centre of religious 
pilgrimage: cp. v. 27. 

Certain disciples] They must have arrived 
since Apollos's departure, otherwise Apollos 
would have instructed them more perfectly. 

2. Have ye received] RV ' did ye receive 



844 



19.3 



THE ACTS 



19. 35 



the Holy Ghost when ye believed?' Of pieces of silver] 50,000 drachmce = £1,700, or, 



course they had heard of the Holy Ghost, but 
St. Paul means, had they experienced that new 
power of holiness, that peace and love and joy 
which the ascended Messiah had first given at 
Pentecost, and was still ready to bestow on 
all believers. Whether there be, etc.] RV 
k whether the Holy Ghost was given.' 

3. Unto (RV ' into ') what then were ye 
baptized ?] St. Paul assumes that if these 
men had received Christian baptism they 
must have heard of the Holy Ghost. It is 
probable, therefore, that the Trinitarian for- 
mula was used (see Mt 28 19 ). 4. John's bap- 
tism was only preparatory, and did not confer 
the special gift of the Spirit. 6. Laid his 
hands] As in c. 8, the Holy Spirit was con- 
ferred, not at the actual immersion, but at the 
laying on of hands which followed. Spake 
with tongues] see on 2 4f . And prophesied] 
cp. 10 46 . Inspired and fervent utterances of 
praise are meant. 

9. That way] i.e. Christianity, see on 9 2 . 

The school] Tyrannus was probably a Gen- 
tile, who made his living by keeping a ' school ' 
of philosophy. Paul no doubt appeared to 
the Ephesians as one of those wandering 
1 sophists ' or professors of philosophy, who 
were so numerous under the early Empire. D 
adds that St. Paul disputed ' from the fifth 
hour to the tenth,' a probably authentic 
detail. 

10. To this period is to be referred the 
foundation of the Seven Churches of Asia, 
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Tyatira, Sardis, 
Philadelphia, Laodicea (Revl 11 ), and of Co- 
lossse, Hierapolis, Troas. 

11. 12. God condescended to work miracles 
through these handkerchiefs, having regard to 
the genuine faith of those who thus used them, 
and not to their superstition. It is not said 
that St. Paul approved the practice. 

13. The exorcism of these vagabond Jews 
was simply the uttering of magical formulas. 
They thought that the mere words ' in the 
name of Jesus ' would produce the required 
effect. 15, 16. There are two historical diffi- 
culties in this narrative : (1) It seems strange 
that sons of so distinguished a person as a 
Jewish chief priest should be strolling exor- 
cists. The reading of D, ' Sceva, a [heathen?] 
priest,' removes this difficulty. (2) Seven sons 
are mentioned in v. 14, and only two in v. 16 
('mastered both of them,' RV). It may be 
supposed that only two took part in this par- 
ticular incident. 

18, 19. The incident led to a reformation 
within the Church. Many converts had con- 
tinued their magical practices after their bap- 
tism. They now came forward and publicly 
renounced them, proving their sincerity by 
burning their books of spells. Fifty thousand 



in actual purchasing power, much more. 

21. Rome] There is evidence that Paul 
planned the evangelisation of the Western 
Empire many years before he actually under- 
took it : cp. Ro 1 io, 13 15 22-24. 22 . Timothy and 
Erastus (not the Erastus of Ro 1 6 23) were 
sent, partly to remind the Churches of Europe 
of the teaching and example of St. Paul, and 
partly to collect money for the poor saints at 
Jerusalem (24 W 1 Cor 1 6 L i°). Shortly after 
this 1 Corinthians was written. 

23 f. St. Luke mentions no persecutions or 
trials until the close of the Ephesian ministry, 
yet we know that though ' a great door and 
effectual ' was opened to the Apostle, yet there 
were ' many adversaries ' (1 Corl6 9 ); that he 
was in daily danger of death (15 30 > 3 i); that 
Prisca and Aquila to save his life ' laid down 
their own necks ' (Ro 16 3 ) ; and that he ' fought 
with beasts,' i.e. savage enemies (lCorl5 32 ). 

23. That way] i.e. Christianity (9 2 , etc.). 

24. Shrines] Many small terra-cotta and 
marble shrines of Artemis, containing a figure 
of the goddess, have been found near Ephesus. 
They were either dedicated in the Temple, or 
taken home by devout worshippers as memo- 
rials of their pilgrimage. 

Diana] Really a native Asiatic deity, a per- 
sonification of the reproductive and nutritive 
powers of nature. From certain quite super- 
ficial resemblances the Greeks identified her 
with their own Artemis, but her worship always 
remained Asian in type. The Temple had 
been burnt down 356 B.C., and rebuilt on a 
scale of sumptuous magnificence. 26. All 
Asia] The Temple had been built by contri- 
butions from the whole of Asia. 

28. Were full of wrath ] D adds, and ' run- 
ning into the street ' cried out, etc. Great is 
Diana] D has, ' Great Diana of the Ephe- 
sians ! ' an invocation of the goddess. This 
reading may be correct. 29. The theatre] 
would hold over 24,000 people. 31. The chief 
of Asia] Gk. the ' Asiarchs.' They were offi- 
cials, not of the city of Ephesus, but of the 
province of Asia, and were specially connected 
with the worship of the Roman emperor. 

33. Since Alexander was a Jew, it seems 
probable that the Jews put him forward to 
explain to the angry mob that they had no 
sympathy whatever with St. Paul's proceed- 
ings. The Jews' contempt for idols was well 
known, and therefore there was imminent 
danger that they would be involved in a mas- 
sacre directed against enemies of idolatry. 

And they drew Alexander, etc.] or, 'and 
some of the multitude instructed Alexander.' 
The reading is doubtful and the sense obscure. 

35. The townclerk] This important official 
drafted the decrees of the senate and people, 
and sealed them when they were passed. He 



845 



19. 37 



THE ACTS 



20. 28 



presided at the lawful assemblies of the 
people. 

A worshipper] RV ' temple -keeper,' Gk. 
neokoros, lit. k temple-sweeper.' A second-cent, 
inscription speaks of Ephesus as ' doubly 
temple-keeper of the Emperors, and temple- 
keeper of Artemis.' From Jupiter] or, ' from 
heaven.' The ' image ' (the word is not ex- 
pressed in the Gk.) was probably not an idol, 
but a meteoric stone, in which the goddess 
was supposed to dwell. 

37. Blasphemers] It is clear that St. Paul 
had expressed his views with gentleness and 
moderation. 38. The law, etc.] rather, ' the 
courts are open,' or, ' court days are kept.' 

Deputies] rather, ' proconsuls,' the correct 
title of the Roman governor in a senatorial 
province like Asia. There was, of course, 
only one proconsul in Asia. The plural is 
colloquial, ' there are such things as law courts 
and proconsuls.' Implead] RV ' accuse.' 

CHAPTER 20 
Third Missionary Journey (continued) 
1-6. Paul in Macedonia and Greece. St. 
Paul waited at Ephesus until the return of 
Timothy and Erastus, and left Ephesus shortly 
after Pentecost, 55 a.d. (1 Cor 16 8 - 12 ). We 
learn from Rol5 19 that he spent some time in 
Macedonia, and extended his missionary labours 
(which were marked by signal miracles) as far 
as Illyricum. From Macedonia he wrote the 
second Corinthian Epistle, and (according to a 
widely held opinion) the Epistle to the Gala- 
tians. In Corinth he spent the three winter 
months of 55, 56 a.d., and there he wrote the 
Epistle to the Romans. 

3. The plot was to kill Paul on board the 
Jewish pilgrim ship in which he had taken his 
passage. 

4, 5. The men mentioned here were dele- 
gates bearing the contributions of St. Paul's 
Gentile churches to the afflicted mother church 
of Jerusalem. Gaius] to be distinguished from 
Gains the Macedonian of 19' 29 , and the Gaius 
of 3JlL He was a neighbour, and, perhaps, a 
friend of Timothy, and had probably been 
converted, like Timothy, during St. Paul's first 
missionary journey. Tychicus] He was with 
St. Paul at Etome during his first imprison- 
ment, and was the bearer of Ephesians (Eph 

1 and Colossiana (Col I 7 --). He is men- 
tion. -.1 again 2Tim4" Tit3" Trophimus] 

a (i- tttill '-"ir « it of EpheSUS, whom St. Paul 
was accused of introducing into the Temple at 
iltin (21 - sf ). Be is mentioned again 
2 Tim 1 '-'. These] i.e. probably Tychicus and 
Trophimus only, not the whole party. 

6. Wei St. Paul found St. Lukeal Philippi, 
where he had left him in charge of the Church 

(c. 16), and, after celebrating the I'a-soverwith 
the local Christians, took him with him toTroas. 



7-12. Troas. 

7. The first clear reference to the keeping 
of the Lord's Day, with which may be com- 
pared 1 Cor 16 2 . The expression ' Lord's Day ' 
first occurs Revlio. The disciples] RV 'we,' 
indicating the presence of St. Luke. To break 
bread] i.e. to celebrate the Lord's Supper. 
This was now clearly the stated Christian ser- 
vice on the Lord's Day. As the Jewish days 
began at sunset, probably the Christians as- 
sembled on Saturday evening, as we should 
call it : see further on 2 46 > 47 . 

10. His life is in him] It has been argued 
both here and at Mt 9 24 that the death was 
only apparent ; but St. Luke, who was a 
medical man, and was present, says expressly 
that Eutychus was dead. We have here, 
therefore, probably a miracle of resurrection. 

11. Broken bread] RY 'broken the bread,' 
viz. of the Eucharist. And eaten] probably 
of the agape, which here apparently followed 
the Communion : see 2 46 » 47 . 

13. Assos] A Greek (iEolic) colony on the 
S. coast of the Troad. By walking thither St. 
Paul avoided the tedious voyage round Cape 
Lectum. 14. Mitylene] the capital of the 
isle of Lesbos. 15. Chios] A large island 
forming part of the province of Asia. Trogyl- 
lium] is opposite Samos. Miletus] the most 
famous and important of the Ionian colonies. 
It was a seaport situated on the Carian coast. 

18-35. St. Paul's Speech to the Elders of 
Ephesus. He reminds them of his ministry 
among them (vv. 18-21). And now that the 
Spirit draws him to Jerusalem, to face the un- 
known future, he entrusts the Ephesian church 
to the charge of the elders to guard her against 
the heresies and enemies which he foresees (vv. 
22-31). He concludes by recommending them 
in touching words to the protection of the 
Almighty (vv. 32-35). 

19. Temptations] trials or misfortunes. 

Lying in wait] RV c plots.' 25. Shall see 
my face no more] St. Paul is not here speak- 
ing as a prophet, but is merely giving utterance 
to an overpowering presentiment that the time 
of his death is near. As a matter of fact, his 
life was preserved many years, and he subse- 
quently revisited Miletus (2Tim4 20 ), Ephesus 
(1 Timl 3 3 14 ), and other places in Asia. 

28. We have here a very decided testimony 
that though Christian ministers may be elected 
by the people, their authority comes from God, 
whose ambassadors they are. Overseers] a 
literal translation of the Gk. word epUccpos 
(Lat. episcopu8, E. "bishop'). At this time 
the title ' bishop ' (i.e. overseer) was freely 
applied to the Christian presbyters ('elders') 
(Phil 1 ] ). By the beginning of the second 
cent, (perhaps already in the Pastoral Epistles) 
the term was generally restricted, as now, to 
tin chief ruler of a church. 



846 



20.30 



THE ACTS 



21. 23 



His own blood] The blood of Christ is here 
called ' God's blood,' a striking expression 
affirming with great emphasis the Deity of 
Christ. There is an inferior reading, ' Feed 
the Church of the Lord ' (RM), which prob- 
ably originated in a desire to eliminate the 
unusual expression ' the blood of God.' West- 
cott and Hort think that the original read- 
ing may have been ' the blood of His own 
Son.' 

30. The heretics, Hymenaeus and Alexander 
(1 Tim 1 20 ), also Diotrephes (3 Jn 9), were pres- 
byters of Ephesus. From the Epistles of St. 
John, which were written at Ephesus, we learn 
that the Ephesian heresies were of the Gnostic 
and Docetic types. St. John's chief opponent 
at Ephesus was Cerinthus, who taught a Jewish 
form of Gnosticism. 

34. Cp. 183 lCor4i2 lTh29 2Th38. 

35. Ye ought to support the weak] ' The 
weak' are here, probably, the poor and the sick. 
The presbyters are exhorted to work with their 
hands (like St. Paul), that with their earnings 
they may support the sick and the poor. It is 
more blessed, etc.] It is strange that this beau- 
tiful saying is found in no Gospel. Similarly 
Aristotle says, ' It belongs to virtue rather to 
confer than to receive a benefit.' On the con- 
trary, Athenseus says, ' A giver is foolish : a 
receiver is fortunate.' 

36-38. A striking example of the intense 
affection which the apostle's converts felt for 
him. If he had bitter enemies, he had also 
staunch friends. 

CHAPTER 21 

St. Paul arrested at Jerusalem 
1. Were gotten] rather, 'had torn ourselves.' 
Coos] or Cos, a fertile island off the Carian 
coast, producing silks, ointments, wheat, and 
wines. 

Rhodes] a city, and large island, situated S. 
of Caria. The famous colossus was a statue 
of the sun-god, 105 ft. high, which stood at 
the harbour entrance. Erected 280 B.C., it 
stood for 56 years, when it was overthrown 
by an earthquake. Its fragments remained 
where they fell till 656 a.d. Patara] an im- 
portant Lycian seaport. After Patara, D adds 
' and Myra,' an accurate geographical touch : 
see 275. 

3. Tyre] The greatest maritime city of the 
ancient world, claiming to have been founded 
as early as 2750 B.C. It produced glass and 
purple dye, but its chief wealth came from 
the fact that it almost monopolised the carry- 
ing-trade of the world. The Tyriaji mariners 
were so skilled in astronomy, and constructed 
such accurate charts, that they sailed by night 
as well as by day, and made long voyages out 
of sight of land. They are known to have 
circumnavigated Africa — an extraordinary feat 



for the small ships of the ancients. 4. Dis- 
ciples] RV ' the disciples.' 

7. Ptolemais] Originally called Acco, its 
name was changed to Ptolemais by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, when, after the death of Alex- 
ander the Great, it came into his possession. 
It is situated on the coast a few miles to the 
N. of the promontory of Carmel, and is now 
called Acre. 

8. Philip] see 6 5 and c. 8. The Evangelist] 
Evangelists were itinerant officers, whose duty 
it was to break new ground, and establish new 
churches. They ranked below the prophets, 
and above the presbyters or pastors. Philip, 
originally a ' deacon,' has now, through the 
success of his missionary work, been advanced 
to a higher dignity. The NT. never uses 
' evangelist ' in the sense of a writer of a 
Gospel. 9. Prophesy] There were female 
prophets under the OT.: Miriam, Exl5 20 ; 
Deborah, Jg4 *; Noadiah, Neh6 14 ; Huldah, 
2 K 22 1* ; cp. Isa 8 3. See Joel 2 28 Ac 2 v. 

10. Agabus] see ll 28 . For his symbolic 
action, cp. 1K22U Isa20 2 JerlS 1 Ezk4, 5. 
For the fulfilment, see v. 27 f. 15. Took up 
our carriages] rather, ' packed up our bag- 
gage.' 16. Brought with them one Mnason] 
A more probable translation is, ' brought us to 
Mnason,' etc. Mnason' s house was probably 
half-way between Csesarea and Jerusalem. J) 
(Latin) reads, ' and when they had come to a 
certain town, we lodged with Mnason, an old 
disciple of Cyprus, and leaving there we came 
to Jerusalem.' 

St. Paul in Jerusalem (Chs21!7-28 16 ) 

17-40. Disturbances in the Temple. St. 
Paul arrested. 

18. James] The Lord's 'brother,' the ac- 
knowledged head of the Church of Jerusalem : 
cp. 15 13 , etc. 19. Particularly] i.e. in minute 
detail. 20. The Lord (i.e. Jesus)] RV ' God.' 

23, 24. The four men were Nazirites (see 
Nu6), and St. Paul was advised to pay for 
their sacrifices, and to associate himself with 
their Nazirite vow during the week that it 
had still to run (see v. 27). By thus becoming 
a Nazirite, and defraying the sacrificial ex- 
penses of these poorer Nazirites (the latter a 
most meritorious work, according to contem- 
porary opinion ; see Jos. 'Ant.' 19. 16. 1), St. 
Paul would prove himself a good Jew as well 
as a good Christian. 

The Jewish Christians were suspicious of 
St. Paul, not because he refused to circumcise 
his Gentile converts (this point had already 
been settled at the Council of Jerusalem), but 
because it was reported that he advised even 
Jews to neglect the observance of the Law 
(v. 21). The charge was false in point of 
fact, but it had this amount of truth in it, 
that St. Paul's principle that a man is saved 



847 



21. 25 



THE ACTS 



23. 3 



by faith in Christ and not by the works of the 
Law, would naturally lead to the abandon- 
ment of the ceremonial Law even by Jews. 

25. See c. 15. 

26. Entered, etc.] We may freely translate 
this difficult passage thus : ' He entered into 
the Temple, informing the priests that within 
seven days (see v. 27) the days of their purifi- 
cation would be accomplished ; and he pur- 
posed to remain with them in the Temple for 
a whole week, until the legal sacrifice had been 
offered for each one of them.' 

27 f . The outer court of the Temple was 
called k the Court of the Gentiles.' Within 
this was ' the Court of Israel,' separated from 
it by a high wall with doors (see v. 30). In- 
scriptions upon the barrier denounced the 
penalty of death upon all Gentile intruders. 
One of these has been preserved, and runs : 
' No alien is to pass within the fence and en- 
closure round the Temple. Whosoever shall 
be taken shall be responsible to himself alone 
for the death which will ensue.' See also Jos. 
'Ant.' 15. 11.5. 

29. Trophimus] see on 20 4 . 

30. They drew him and all his companions 
' out of the Temple,' i.e. out of the Court of 
Israel, and closed the doors of this court, 
ostensibly to prevent any more Gentiles from 
entering. 31. Went about to] i.e. were seek- 
ing to. The chief captain of the band] rather, 
1 the tribune of the Roman cohort,' which was 
stationed in the fortress Antonia, adjoining the 
Temple. 34. Castle] lit. ' encampment.' The 
fortress Antonia is meant. 36. Away with 
him] i.e. Slay him. 

38. Art not thou] rather, ' Thou art not 
then the Egyptian,' etc. Four thousand men] 
rather, the four thousand men of the Sicarii. 
The Sicarii (i.e. assassins) were the extreme 
members of the ' zealot ' party. They carried 
out their l national ' policy by openly assassin- 
ating influential Jews supposed to be friendly 
to Rome. Josephus says, 4 But an Egyptian 
false prophet did the Jews more mischief 
still. He got together 30,000 deluded men t 
whom he led round from the wilderness to the 
Mount <-!' Olives, and intended to break into 
Jerusalem by force from that place. He 
said that at his command the walls of Jeru- 
salem would t';ill down ' (• Wat'/ 2. 13. 5 ; 
•Ant.' 20.8. 6). Felii dispersed them, but 
the Egyptian escaped. 

39. St. Paul was not without civic pride. 

Tarsus iras the seal ot a famous university, 
and had produced several of the most emi 

runt Stoic philosophers. On its coins it 

proudly boasted itself ' Self -Governing Me- 
tropolis.' Citizenship <>f Tarsus was confined 

to a Seleoi fen of the inhabitants, so that its 

possession was proof of respectability and 

social standing. 



CHAPTER 22 
St. Paul's Defence 
1-2 1. St. Paul's Speech to the People. 

St. Paul was accused of (1) hostility to the 
Jews, (2) contempt for the Jewish Law, 
and (3) the desecration of the Temple. He 
answers all these charges by showing, (1) 
that he was a Jew by birth, trained by 
Gamaliel, and so zealous for the Law, that he 
had been a persecutor of the Christian faith ; 
(2) that his conversion to Christianity was the 
result of a direct divine revelation, made 
first at Damascus, and confirmed by a subse- 
quent revelation to Ananias ; (3) that even 
after his conversion he continued to honour 
the Temple, and to worship there, and saw 
a vision there ; (4) that his preaching to the 
Gentiles was the result of a divine command, 
consequent upon the unbelief of the Jews. 

1. Fathers] i.e. the Sanhedrists and rabbis. 

3. Gamaliel] see on 5 34 . 4. This way] 
i.e. Christianity : see 9 2 . 5. The estate, etc.] 
i.e. the Sanhedrin. 6f. See on 9 3 , and cp. 
26 12 . 9. And were afraid] RV omits these 
words. Heard not] i.e. did not distinguish 
the words, or understand the meaning of the 
voice : cp. Jnl2 29 . 13. Looked up] or, 're- 
ceived my sight again and looked.' 

14. That Just One] see 3 14 7 52 . 

17. A trance] Some identify this trance with 
that mentioned 2 Cor 1 2 2 ; but this is (for 
chronological reasons) unlikely. 

22-C. 23 n . Paul before the Sanhedrin. 

23. Cast off] or, ' shook.' 24. Chief 
captain] i.e. tribune. The castle] i.e. the 
fortress of Antonia: see 21 34 . 25. Bound 
him with thongs] The correct reading pro- 
bably means, l And when they had stretched 
him out ready for the scourging.' A Roman] 
see 10 37 . 27. Chief captain] i.e. tribune. 

28. See on 1G 37 . It is evident that the 
chief captain had not bought the citizenship 
under Claudius (41-54 a.d.), who sold it for 
a merely nominal sum. 

CHAPTER 23 

St. Paul sent to C^esarea 

1. St. Paul often asserts his good conscience 
before God and man : see 22 3 24 1 ' 1 . 

2. Ananias] is not the same as Annas (4 ,; ). 
He was tin son of Nebedseus, and held the 
high priesthood from 47-59 A.D. His rapacity 
anil violence were notorious. To smite him] 
because, being a prisoner, he spoke without 
being asked : cp. j n 18 22 . 3. God shall smite 
thee] St. Paul's angry retort lias often been 
• outlasted with our Lord's mild words on a 
similar oerasion (J11I8 23 ). But St. Paul's 
rebuke was w.ll deserved. Thou whited wall] 
i-'. ' thou hypocrite.' The allusion is to the 
practice of limewashing dirty walls to conceal 



848 



23. 5 



THE ACTS 



24. n 



the filth : cp. Mt23 2 ? Lkll-". Contrary to 
the law] see Jn7 51 , and cp. Dtl9 15 , etc. 

5. As the high priest, when present, pre- 
sided over the Sanhedrin, it is somewhat 
strange that St. Paul should not have known 
who Ananias was. A possible explanation is 
that St. Paul was somewhat short-sighted. 

Thou shalt not speak evil] see Ex22 28 . 

6f. The Sadducees, who disbelieved a 
future life or a resurrection, derided the sup- 
posed appearance of the risen Jesus ; but the 
Pharisees, who believed both, heard St. Paul's 
story with considerable sympathy. St. Paul 
then, seeing how matters stood, declared him- 
self a Pharisee of the Pharisees. He declared 
that, like the Pharisees, he looked for the 
coming (i.e. the Second Coming) of the 
Messiah (' the hope ' of Israel), and for the 
future resurrection of the dead, and claimed 
Pharisaic sympathy against his Sadducean 
enemies. II. The appearance was vouch- 
safed to Paul to assure him that his life 
would not be cut short before the great desire 
of his life was attained. 

12-35. St. Paul is sent to Caesarea. 

12. The men who plotted against St. Paul 
were probably Sicarii or Assassins (see on 21 38 ), 
whom we know that the high priest Ananias 
did not scruple to employ to remove his 
enemies. 16. St. Paul's nephew was perhaps 
a rabbinical student at Jerusalem, as St. Paul 
himself had been. 

26-30. Lysias presents his action in the 
most favourable light. He makes no mention 
of his illegal order to scourge the prisoner, 
and takes credit to himself for his zeal in suc- 
couring a Roman citizen, whereas, as a matter 
of fact, he had no idea at the time that St. Paul 
was a Roman citizen. 27. An army] RY 
'the soldiers.' 31. Antipatris] founded by 
Herod the Great, now Ras-el-'Ain. 

33. The governor] i.e. Antonius Felix, 
procurator of Judaea, circ. 52-58 a.d. His 
ferocious repression of the Zealots called into 
being a new and still more pernicious class of 
enthusiasts, the Sicarii, or Assassins : see on 
21 38 . His folly and cruelty goaded the 
nation into disaffection and rebellion. 34. Of 
Cilicia] Cilicia and Judaea were at this time 
minor provinces, attached to the superior pro- 
vince of Syria. Hence Felix could have sent 
Paul for trial to the governor of Syria, if he had 
wished. 35 . Herod's judgment hall] the palace 
built by Herod the Great at Caesarea. where 
the Roman procurator resided. It was also a 
fortress, and would contain a guard-room. 

CHAPTER 24 
St. Paul before Felix 
1-27. St. Paul and Felix. 
I. Tertullus] in spite of his Roman name 
may have been a Greek or even a Jew (cp. ' our 



Law,' AV v. 6). 2. Great quietness] Felix 
really deserved some credit for his vigorous 
action against the brigands and zealots, when 
he first entered office, and for his suppression 
of the Egyptian false prophet. And would 
have judged . . his accusers to come unto thee] 
These words, though absent from many ancient 
authorities, seem from internal evidence to be 
genuine and authentic. They probably belong 
to the D text, but D is here deficient. 8. Of 
whom] i.e. of Paul, if the above words are 
omitted ; but of Lysias, if they are retained. 
9. Assented] RY ' joined in the charge.' 
10-22. St. Paul's Defence. St. Paul an- 
swered the charges as follows. (1) He had 
no seditious intentions, for he was found puri- 
fied in the Temple ' neither with multitude, 
nor with tumult' (v. 18). (2) The sect of 
the Nazarenes, to which he belonged, was a 
perfectly orthodox and lawful combination of 
Jewish believers, accepting ' all things which 
are written in the law and the prophets,' 
accepting also the orthodox doctrine of the 
resurrection and the judgment, which some of 
his accusers (being Sadducees) denied (v. 14). 
(3) No evidence was produced of an intended 
pollution of the Temple (v. 19). 

14. Heresy] RY ' a sect.' Tertullus had 
applied the word to the Christians in a bad 
sense. 

15. Allow] rather, ' look for.' 16. Herein] 
i.e. relying on this hope. But others under- 
stand it to mean ' during this earthly life.' I] 
RY 'I also,' i.e. 'I as well as they.' 17. Many 
years] or, 'some years.' 18. Whereupon] RY 
'Amidst which.' 21. By you] RY 'before 
you.' 22. That (the) way] i.e. Christianity. 

I will know the uttermost of] rather, ' I will 
determine.' 23. Liberty] rather, 'indulgence.' 

24. Drusilla] The youngest of the three 
daughters of Agrippa I (the Herod of 12 1 ). 
She deserted her husband, Azizus, king of 
Emesa, to marry Felix. 

25. Felix trembled] Instead of simply stating 
what the Christian faith was, St. Paul, after 
the manner of the Baptist and the ancient 
prophets, boldly called his august hearers to 
repentance. He reasoned of righteousness 
(condemning Felix's receipt of bribes and evil 
government : cp. v. 26) ; of temperance, or, 
rather, ' continence ' (with special reference to 
the adulterous union of Drusilla and Felix), 
and of the future judgment, which will be with- 
out respect of persons. The result was that 
Felix trembled, but delayed his repentance ; 
and that Drusilla was made an irreconcilable 
enemy. 

27. Porcius Festus] succeeded Felix as pro- 
curator of Judaea about 58 a.d. He died after 
a short tenure of office, having governed, upon 
the whole, well. He is credited with having 
(for a time) suppressed the Sicarii or Assassins. 



54 



849 



25. 1 



tup: acts 



26. 9 



And Felix . . Paul bound] For these words 
the Bezan text substitutes, 'but Felix left 
Paul in prison for the sake of Drusilla ' (a very 
probable statement). 

Remark. St. Paul spent two whole years in 
prison at Caesarea. How was the time occupied ? 
Some critics suppose that he wrote the third 
group of his Epistles (Philippians, Colossians. 
Ephesians. Philemon). Much can be said for 
this view. E.g. in Phil 1 13 he says, 'my bonds 
in Christ are manifest in all the praetorium 
(or palace),' and we know from Ac23 35 that 
he was confined in the praetorium (palace) of 
Herod. But upon the whole it seems more 
probable that all four were written at Rome (e.g. 
'they of Caesar's household,' Phil 4 22 , naturally, 
though not necessarily, suggests Rome). St. 
Luke was doubtless busy collecting materials 
for his Gospel and Acts, transcribing his own 
notes, etc. He probably obtained much in- 
formation from Philip the Evangelist who 
resided at Caesarea ; from James the Lord's 
1 brother,' and from Mary the "Virgin, or from 
some intimate female friend of hers. 

CHAPTER 25 

St. Paul before Festus 
i f . St. Paul and Festus. 

2. The high priest] RY * the chief priests.' 

3. Favour] They desired from the judge 
partiality, not justice ; and probably offered 
him money. 5. Able] rather, ' influential.' 

6. More than, etc.] RY 'not more than 
eight or ten days.' 

9. Provincial governors were generally anx- 
ious to be on good terms with their subjects, 
because, when their term of office was over, 
the provincials had the right to complain of 
them to the Emperor. Before me] The pro- 
posal was that Paul should be tried by the 
Sanhedrin, and that Festus should be present 
to see fair play. 

10, 11. The appeal was forced upon him 
because. (1) trial by the Sanhedrin (even with 
Festus presenl as moderator)meant certain con- 
demnation ; and (2) there seemed no prospect 
of release without appeal. Festu> was too just 
t<> pronounce his condemnation; but he was 
also '00 timid to incur the odium of pronouncing 
him innocent. 10. I stand] RY (correctly) ' I 
am 1 now) standing before Caesar's judgment- 
seal ' 1 i.e. thy judgment-Beat, ( I Festus >; ' where 

1 OUghl to hr judged ' (and not before B Jewish 

court, like the Sanhedrin), 12. The council] 
i.e. the governor's Legal advisi ?•-. 

13. King Agrippa and Bernice] Agrippa II 
(Marcus Julius Agrippa) \\:i> the son of 
Agrippa I and Cypr» S it. • Dynasty of 
tlic Serods.' Hi- sister Bernice, with whom 
at this time he was living on terms of criminal 
intimacy, was an attractive hut dissolute 
woman. At thirteen she was married to her 



uncle, Herod, king of Chalcis. to whom she 
bore two sons. After his death she became 
wife of Polemo, king of Cilicia, and mistress 
of Yespasian and Titus. To salute] RY 
' and saluted.' On the arrival of the Roman 
governor, the inferior rulers naturally made 
haste to show him respect. 

19. Superstition] RY ' religion.' 

20. Doubted] RY ' (was) perplexed how to 
inquire concerning these things.' 

21. Augustus] lit. ' the Augustus.' ' Au- 
gustus,' originally a family name, had now 
become an official title of the Emperor. 

23. Chief captains] i.e. tribunes. 

26. As Agrippa was expert in all matters of 
the Jewish law, Festus hoped that he would 
help him to compose a letter to the Emperor, 
which would make it clear what the charges 
against Paul really were. 

CHAPTER 26 
Defence before Agrippa 

1-32. St. Paul before Agrippa. This speech, 
though in form a defence to the Jews, is 
really intended by St. Luke to be St. Paul's 
defence to the world — an apology for his 
whole life and work. 

Analysis. Opening compliment to Agrippa 
(vv. 2. 3) ; the Apostle's orthodox Pharisaic 
education (vv. 4, 5) ; he is really called in 
question because he believes in the hope of all 
orthodox Jews, the coming of the Messiah, 
and the Resurrection (vv. 6-8) ; his persecu- 
tion of the Church in the time of his ignorance 
(vv. 9-11); his conversion and divine commission 
to preach to the Gentiles (vv. 12-18) ; his sub- 
sequent conduct the result of a direct divine 
command (v. 19); his labours among Jews and 
Gentiles (v. 20) ; the hostility of the Jews 
(v. 21) ; the conclusion, emphasising the fact 
that Christianity is nothing but orthodox 
Judaism properly understood. Moses and the 
prophets taught. (1) that the Messiah should 
come ; (2) that He should suifer ; (3) that He 
should rise again from the dead, the first-fruits 
of them that sleep ; (4) that in the Messiah's 
days the religion of Israel would be taught to 
the Gentiles. This is precisely what St. Paul 
preaches, and therefore he claims acquittal from 
Agrippa, and from all orthodox Jews (vv. 22. 
23. 27). 

5. See 223 93c Phil3 J . 6.The promise] viz. 
of the Messiah, made to Abraham. (In22 ls : 
also of the Resurrection, for it was believed 
by the Pharisees and orthodox Jews that all 
Jews would be raised to life to share in 
the Messianic kingdom. 7. Instantly] RV 
'earnestly.' 9, 10. 'I once found the same 
difficulty in believing that God does actually 
raise the dead ; and therefore I bitterly per- 
secuted those who proclaimed the Resurrection 
of Jesus, just as you are now persecuting me.' 



850 



26. 9 



THE ACTS 



27. 10 



9. Contrary to the name] i.e. in order to 
suppress the confession and invocation of it. 

10. My voice] RV l my vote.' The Gk. 
means ' the vote of a judge,' and establishes 
the fact that at the time of the death of 
Stephen, Paul, though so young a man, was a 
member of the Sanhedrin. 

12-18. See on 9 3 22 6 . 

16-18. It appears from 9 6 22 10 that all the 
directions that Jesus gave to Paul at the 
moment of his conversion were,. ' Arise, and 
go into the city, and it shall be told thee what 
thou must do.' The command to preach to 
the Gentiles was apparently given through 
Ananias (22 15 ), and more definitely in a sub- 
sequent vision at Jerusalem (22 21 ). It seems 
reasonable, therefore, to suppose that St. Paul 
here summarises the contents of more than 
one revelation. 

23. That Christ should suffer] RV 'how 
that the Christ must suffer ' ; RM ' if the 
Christ must suffer,' or, ' whether the Christ 
must suffer ' : see Lk24 2 M6 an d l sa 53. The 
first] see 1 Cor 1 5 20 , ' the firstf ruits of them 
that slept ' ; Col 1 18 , ' ' the firstborn from the 
dead ' ; Rev 1 5 , ' the first begotten of the dead.' 

Light] see Lk232 I sa 92 426 49 6 601-3. T he 
people] i.e. the Jewish nation, ' the people of 
God.' 

24. The exclamation of Festus shows impa- 
tience and perhaps anger at the idea that an 
uneducated peasant like Jesus (one, moreover, 
who had been crucified) could have anything 
to teach a Roman like himself. Much learn- 
ing] lit. ' the numerous writings,' probably the 
writings of Moses and the prophets, quoted 
by St. Paul in his speech. Or the reference 
may be a general one to the Apostle's well- 
known studious habits. 25. Observe the good 
temper and courtesy of St. Paul's retort. 

Most noble] see Lk 1 3 , ' most excellent 
Theophilus ' (same word). 

28. Almost thou persuadest me to be a 
Christian] This translation is now given up. 
The best rendering seems to be, ' Too easily 
art thou persuading thyself that thou canst 
make me a Christian ! ' 

32. Agrippa, speaking as a Jew, pronounces 
St. Paul's views orthodox, or at least not 
heretical. There is nothing in them, he thinks, 
contrary to the OT., though, of course he does 
not accept them as true. 

CHAPTER 27 

The Voyage and Shipwreck 
27 1 -28 16 . The Journey to Rome. 
This narrative is the most detailed account 
of an ancient voyage which we possess, and is 
our principal source of knowledge of the art 
of navigation as practised by the ancients. St. 
Luke describes the voyage at length, because it 
exhibits his hero in a very favourable light. 



The details of the voyage are clearly authentic 
(see Intro.). 

1. Julius] a person otherwise unknown. 
The narrative reveals him as courteous and 
humane, open to religious impressions, and 
able to appreciate a great character. Augustus' 
band] rather, ' the Augustan cohort.' This 
cohort has been generally regarded as one of 
the five cohorts which, Josephus tells us, 
were stationed at Caesarea. Prof. Mommsen, 
however, thinks that it belonged to a body of 
troops called frumentarii (lit. ' victuallers '), 
whose headquarters were at Rome on the 
Ccelian hill. They not only superintended 
the provisioning of the imperial armies, but 
were continually going to and fro on the Em- 
peror's business. 

2. A ship of Adramyttium] i.e. a ship owned 
at Adramyttium, which was about to undertake 
its homeward voyage. Adramyttium was an 
important seaport of Mysia. We launched, 
meaning to sail by the coasts of Asia] RV 
'which was about to sail unto the places on 
the coast of Asia, we put to sea.' Aristarchus] 
see 19 29 20 4 . 3. Sidon] an important sea- 
port situated about 20 m. N. of its great 
commercial rival, Tyre. To refresh himself] 
rather, ' to receive attention.' 4. Under 
Cyprus] RY ' under the lee of Cyprus ' ; i.e. 
to the E. of the island, as was usual with ships 
westward bound, to avoid the prevalent W. 
winds. 5. Myra] see 21 \ This town was 
important as one of the great harbours in the 
corn trade between Egypt and Rome. 

6. A ship of Alexandria] At this time Rome 
was almost entirely dependent upon foreign 
corn, obtained mainly from Egypt. This 
vessel was one of the great corn-ships (v. 38) 
employed to convey wheat from Alexandria to 
Puteoli or Ostia. The arrival of these corn- 
ships in Italy was a signal for great rejoicings. 

7. Scarce] i.e. with difficulty. Cnidus] a 
seaport of Caria. Not suffering us] viz. to 
pursue a direct course to Italy S. of Cape 
Malea. Under Crete] i.e. under the lee of 
Crete (to the E. and S. of it). Salmone] 
the NE. promontory of Crete. Upon it stood 
a temple of Athena. 8. Fair havens] where 
St. Paul waited for a considerable time (v. 9), 
still preserves its ancient name. It is a small 
bay situated about 6 m. E. of Cape Litino. 
It is secure only against N. and WW. winds, 
whereas the harbour of Phoenix (v. 12) is 
secure against all winds. Lasea] has been 
identified by its ruins. It is mentioned by no 
other ancient writer. 

9. The fast] i.e. the Day of Atonement, 
falling about the autumnal equinox. Ancient 
mariners reckoned the dangerous season of 
navigation from September 14th to November 
11th. From November 11th till March 5th 
all navigation was suspended. 10. No revela- 



851 



m 



n. 12 



THE ACTS 



28. 13 



tion is to be assumed here. 12. Phenice] RV 
' Phoenix,' i.e. either the modern Loutro, or 
the neighbouring town of Phineka. Toward 
the south west and north west] i.e. the bay or 
harbour formed a semicircle, of which one 
half looked S\V. and the other half NW. 

14. Translate, 'But after no long time 
there beat down from it ' (i.e. from Crete) ' a 
tempestuous wind which is called Euraquilo.' 

Euroclydon] The best reading is ' Euraquilo,' 
i.e. an E.N.E. wind. 

16. RV k and running under the lee of a 
small island, called Cauda, we were able, with 
difficulty, to secure the boat.' Clauda] or 
(RV) ' Cauda ' (now Gavdo or Gozzo), is 23 m. 
S. of Phoenix. To come by the boat] RV ' to 
secure the boat.' This was a small rowing- 
boat towed from the stern of the ship. The 
storm having come on suddenly, there had 
been no time to haul it aboard. This was 
now done, but with difficulty, for it was full of 
water. 

17. Helps] i.e. means of protection against 
foundering. Undergirding] Broad girths were 
passed under the ship, and strained tight, to 
hold the timbers together. Modern seamen 
sometimes resort to the practice, which is 
called k f rapping.' Lest they should fall into 
the quicksands] RV ' lest they should be cast 
upon the Syrtis.' The ' Greater Syrtis,' ' the 
Goodwin Sands of the Mediterranean ' (Farrar), 
lay to the SW. of Cauda. Strake sail] better, 
' reduced sail.' They probably lowered the 
mainsail more than half-way, but left the 
small • artemon ' or stormsail extended. 

18. Lightened the ship] by throwing part 
of the cargo overboard. 19. We . . our] RV 
1 they . . their.' The tackling] i.e. spars, ropes, 
etc. But a better translation is ' the ship's 
furniture,' i.e. beds, tables, benches, cooking 
utensils, chests, boxes, etc. 

23. The angel] rather, ' an angel.' For 
other visions of Paul see 18 9 2218 23 ". 

26. St. Paul here speaks as a prophet, and 
accurately predicts the future. 27. The four- 
teenth night] viz. from their departure from 
Fair Havens. In Adria] RV ' in the sea of 
A<lri;i.' which lay between Malta. Italy, Greece 
and Crete. 28. They sounded] ' J. Smith 
shows how exactly the geographical details in 
the traditional St. Paul's Bay (on the NE. 
coasl of Malta) correspond with fche description 
here 1 ( K aowling). 

34. For your health] R V for your safety.' 
Unless they irer* strengthened by food fchey 
mighl be drowned in bheattempl to get ashore. 

35. All pious Jews gave thanks to God 
before t;ikm<_ r food. 37. The number of 
persona on board is Large, bni not unusually 
so. The vessel on win* h Josephus was wreck* <l 
carried about 600 persons. 39. To thrust in 
the ship] rather, ' to run the ship aground. 1 



40. RV ' and casting off the anchors, they 
left them in the sea, at the same time loosing 
the bands of the rudders ; and hoisting up the 
foresail to the wind, they made for the beach.' 

Rudder bands] RV ' the rudders.' Ancient 
vessels had two rudders (in the form of a huge 
oar or paddle), one on each quarter. While 
drifting, the sailors had raised the blades of 
the rudders out of the water, to prevent them 
from being broken. Now that steering had to 
be done, they unlashed the rudders, and let 
them down into the water. 

41. A place where two seas met] This may 
either mean, (1) a strait (i.e., in this case, the 
narrow strait which separates Selmun Island 
from the mainland) ; or, (2) a tongue of land 
(or spit of sand) washed on both sides by the 
sea. 42. To kill the prisoners] cp. 12 19 16 27 . 

CHAPTER 28 
St. Paul a Prisoner at Rome 

I. They. . they] RV 'we . . we.' Melita] 
RM 'Melitene.' Melita is certainly Malta, 
and not (as has been erroneously supposed) 
Meleda off the Illyrian coast. Tradition cor- 
rectly locates the shipwreck in St. Paul's Bay, 
about 8 m. NW. of Valetta. 2. The bar- 
barous people] RV 'the barbarians.' The 
Gk. word does not imply that they were un- 
civilised, but only that they were neither 
Greeks nor Romans. 

3. Cp. Mkl6 18 . As St. Paul was arranging 
the faggot on the fire, the viper, feeling the 
heat, glided out of the faggot and bit the 
Apostle's hand. There are now no vipers in 
Malta, but the clearing of the ancient forests, 
and the great density of the population, are 
sufficient to account for their disappearance. 

4. Vengeance] rather, ' Justice ' (personified 
as a goddess). A god] cp. the events at 
Lystra (14 n ), which also illustrate the popular 
levity of judgment. 

7. The chief man] lit. ' the first man.' In- 
scriptions show that this title is technically 
correct. Malta was part of the province of 
Sicily, and Publius was a subordinate of the 
praetor of Sicily. Tradition places his house 
at Citta-Vecchia. 8. Bloody flux] RV 'dysen- 
tery.' Observe in this v. the technical medical 
language. 9. Others] We have here the first- 
hand evidence of a competent medical witness 
to the reality of St. Paul's miraculous cures. 

II. After three months] i.e. probably some- 
what early in February, before the usual time 
of navigation. Castor and Pollux] (lit. 'the 
Dioscuri'), the twin sons of Jupiter, and 
tutelary deities of sailors. 12. Landing] RV 
'touching.' Syracuse] 100 m. N. of Malta, 
the capital of Sicily, and a Roman colony. 

13. Fetched a compass] i.e. made a circuit. 

Rhegium] an ancient Gk. colony situated 

on the Italian side of the Straits of Messina, 



852 



28. 15 



THE ACTS 



28.30 



near the dreaded rock of Scylla, and the 
whirlpool of Charybdis. Puteoli] also called 
Dicaearchia, was (with Ostia) the great corn 
mart of Italy, where the Alexandrian corn- 
ships discharged their cargoes. It lay on the 
N. shore of the Bay of Naples, and contained 
a certain number of Jews. 15. Appii forum] 
RV ' the Market of Appius,' was 43 Roman 
m. S. of Rome on the great Appian Road, the 
main line of communication between Rome 
and the East. The Three Taverns] 10 Roman 
miles from the capital. 

St. Paul in Rome (28 16 - 31 ) 

16. The captain of the guard] either the 
captain of the praetorian guard (prcefectus 
prcetorio), or, more probably, the captain of 
the troops called frunientarii, whose camp was 
on the Ccelian hill : see on 27 1 . To dwell by 
himself] This exceptional treatment was due 
to the favourable report of Festus and the 
goodwill of the centurion. 

17. Called the chief of the Jews together] 
or, ' called together the Jewish community 
first,' in accordance with his usual plan of 
preaching to the Jews before he preached to 
the Gentiles. 21. It is somewhat strange 
that the chief priests did not write. Perhaps 



they did, but the letter was delayed, or mis- 
carried. 22. The Jews profess no first-hand 
knowledge of the Christians, hence it is 
evident that at Rome the Church and the 
Synagogue were already definitely separated. 
The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by 
Claudius is probably the cause of this. There 
being no Jewish community, the infant Church 
started as a mainly non-Jewish body. 

25. See Isa6 9 . Our fathers] *RV 'your 
fathers.' St. Paul renounces fellowship with 
the unbelieving Jews. 29. This v. is omitted 
by important ancient authorities, but much is 
to be said for its genuineness. 

30. Two whole years] Such delays of 
justice were not unusual. In this case the 
delay was apparently caused, (1) by the loss 
of the official papers in the wreck, (2) by the 
non-appearance of the accusers, (3) by the 
difficulty of getting together the witnesses. 
During this imprisonment St. Paul wrote the 
Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, Ephe- 
sians, and Philemon. At his first trial he was 
acquitted, and released. A few years later he 
was again arrested, brought to trial at Rome, 
condemned, and executed. 

On Rome and the Roman Church, see the 
Intro, to the Epistle to the Romans. 



853 



ROMANS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Place in Scripture. This letter, though 
it is not the earliest nor the simplest of the 
noble group ascribed to St. Paul, and though 
equally with the rest it was prompted by 
special local needs, fitly comes first in the 
series. The book of Acts, with its prophecy 
in 23 n concerning St. Paul, ' so must thou 
bear witness also at Rome,' ends with a vivid 
picture of him a prisoner in Rome. The first 
of the Epistles dramatically follows with its 
disclosure of his mind as in freedom he had 
looked forward to a purposed visit to that city. 
It is the greatest of his writings in importance 
as in length, the most characteristic and com- 
prehensive, the letter best suited to form an 
introduction to his teaching, and an epitome 
of his thought. It was fitting that the chief 
letter of the Apostle to the Gentiles should be 
a letter to the Church in the capital of the 
Gentile world, and that it should have pre- 
cedence in the final order of his published 
writings. 

2. Place in the Life and Writings of St. Paul. 
It is not possible to date the events in his life 
with absolute precision, but the narrative in 
Acts, together with information contained in 
his own writings, enables us to arrange their 
sequence. If we accept the chronology of 
C. H. Turner, which approximates to that of 
Ramsay very closely, and forms a mean be- 
tween those of Harnack and Lightfoot, the 
conversion of St. Paul took place 36 a.d., six 
years after the crucifixion ; the first missionary 
journey, 47 a.d. ; the Council at Jerusalem, 49 
a.d. : the second journey, 49-52 a.d. ; the third 
journey, 52-56 a.d. ; the arrest in Jerusalem, 
56 a.d. ; the imprisonment in Caesarea, 56-58 
a.d. : the arrival in Rome, 59 a.d.; and the 
martyrdom there, 65 a.d. 

Arranged m chronological order, the thirteen 
Epistles of St. Paul fall into four groups : 

i. 1 and 2 ThessalonianB, during the second 

journey, 51 a.d. 
ii. 1 and 2( Sorinthians, Qalatiana, and Romans, 

during the third journey, 62—56 a.d. 
hi. Philippians, ESphesians, Colossians, and 

Philemon, during the Roman imprison 

merit. 59 6 1 a.d. 
IV. 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus, after his 

release. 

In point of doctrine, as of time then' is a 
marked distinction between these four groups, 



due in part to differences in the spiritual attain- 
ments and requirements of the recipients ; in 
part, also, to the unresting activity of the 
writer's own reflections upon the meaning of 
the faith he proclaimed. In the first group 
the doctrinal statements are brief, simple, and 
practical ; the second coming of Christ receiving 
special attention. In the second group the 
truth of God's salvation in Christ is presented 
as a whole, defined, through questioning and 
controversy and through opposition to Jewish 
legalism, as a universal scheme of grace, and 
its main principles are stated and applied. In 
the third group the ripened thoughts of the 
Apostle concerning the exaltation of Christ's 
person, and the true nature of the Church as 
His body, are gathered and set forth contem- 
platively. In the fourth group there is no 
continuous exposition of doctrine, but, instead, 
pastoral suggestions of practical details in 
Church life. 

The Epistle to the Romans is thus at the 
very heart of the Apostle's teaching, the 
greatest literary product of his life's most 
strenuous period and of his highest powers. 
Repulsed by Jerusalem, towards which in 
pride of birth and education his face had 
formerly been set, he has turned to imperial 
Rome, whose people are in truth the world in 
miniature, the seed of Adam, if not of Abra- 
ham, not without law or conscience though 
beyond the pale of Jewish law, in their own 
way responsible to God and under condemna- 
tion. Behind and beyond the Christians in 
Rome he sees in thought the countless millions 
of the Gentile world unsaved. Equally with 
Israel they know and own a moral law. and 
recognise their inability to keep it. Towards 
them, also, he would fain fulfil his apostleahip. 

3. Date and Place of Composition. Com- 
parison of the Epistle with Acts points to 
Corinth as the place, and to 56 a.d. as the 
date, towards the close of the third great 
journey, when he was about to return to Jeru- 
salem with the alms of the Greek Churches. 
Alter the three years spent in Ephesus he 
' purposed in the spirit, when he had passed 
through Macedonia and Achaia, to go to Jeru- 
salem, saying, After I have been there I must 
also see Rome' (AcHt- 1 ); and when he 
reached Jerusalem he was the bearer of Greek 
alms to the distressed Church in that city (Ac 
24 17 ). In the letter itself he states that it has 



854 



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INTRO. 



oftentimes been his purpose to preach in 
Rome (l 13 15 23 ), but his sense of prior duty 
to other Gentiles who had not received the 
gospel has hindered him, and restricted his 
journeys hitherto to a circuit from Jerusalem 
to Illyricum (Ro 15 19 " 22 ). ' But now I go unto 
Jerusalem ministering unto the saints ; for 
it hath been the good pleasure of Macedonia 
and Achaia to make a certain contribution for 
the poor among the saints that are at Jeru- 
salem . . . When I have accomplished this, I 
will go on by you unto Spain ' (15 25 ' 28 ). It is 
therefore the winter of 55-56 a.d. He is in 
Achaia — in fact, in Corinth ; for G-aius, his host, 
whose house is the local church (lG 23 ),had been 
baptised by him there (1 Cor 1 14 ). Erastus, 
who sends greeting, is treasurer of that city 
(16 23 , cp. 2Tim4 2 °), and Phoebe, the bearer 
of the letter, is a ' deaconess of the church that 
is at Cenchrese,' the port of Corinth (16 1 ). 

It is a solemn moment in the Apostle's life, 
and his spirit is moved as he looks back upon his 
mission to the Gentiles in Greece and Asia Minor. 
Bitter opposition and controversy and misre- 
presentation (2 Cor, Gal) have been his portion, 
as well as wonderful success. Jewish pride, 
prejudice, and legalism have pursued him and 
stirred up enmity against him. His apostolate 
to the Gentiles, though it has put alms for the 
Jewish Church into his hands, has enlarged his 
thought and preaching beyond Jewish limits, 
and brought suspicion on his fidelity to Hebrew 
scripture and tradition. He has deepened his 
Roman citizenship and his grasp of human 
nature. The Western as well as the Eastern 
Empire must receive Christ. There is already 
a Church in Rome ; he will strengthen it, and 
pass on westwards, even to Spain. In this 
Epistle a heroic spirit, a universal outlook, a 
note of triumph over controversy and mis- 
representation, an imperialistic instinct, and a 
profound insight into human nature, have 
united to inspire its intense passion and its 
unique power. 

4. Occasion and Purpose. Like the other 
Epistles by St. Paul it is a true letter, not an 
epistolary treatise. It owes its massiveness 
and comprehensiveness to the greatness and 
impressiveness of the situation which called 
for it and of the subject with which it deals. 
Jerusalem and Rome are both in his thoughts, 
Jewish and Gentile unrest of spirit and need 
of a Saviour arise before him as he writes, and 
in response to them the divine scheme of re- 
demption through Christ takes shape as never 
before in his mind. Thinking of them he 
lives over again the spiritual anguish of the 
crisis of his own life (chs. 7, 8). His experience 
of deliverance, himself a Pharisee of the 
Pharisees, a citizen of Rome, and a son of 
cultured Tarsus, must and will be repeated by 
proud Rome. There, in Jewish synagogue 



and in Gentile church, the law will yield its 
forbidding sovereignty to the gospel of God's 
grace in Jesus Christ, as once it has done in 
his own experience upon the way to Damascus. 

The letter finds its formal occasion in the ap- 
proach of the long-expected opportunity to visit 
Rome. It is primarily a letter of self -intro- 
duction to an unvisited Church, to prepare its 
members for his coming. He has many friends 
among them. He has heard much of them, 
their faith, their obedience, their divisions, 
their difficulties, and their temptations (1 8 
12-16) ; and it may be that they, like others, 
have received an evil report of his teaching. 
In any case, he does not mean to reside with 
them for long, but to make Rome his base for 
further evangelisation in the West, his work 
being ended for the present in the East. They 
will strengthen him, as he hopes to stablish 
them ' in the fulness of the blessing of Christ ' 
(li 2 15 2 9). 

But it has a larger purpose, reflected by 
its doctrinal outpouring. It is as though he 
foresaw in Rome the mingling of all the in- 
fluences against which his own life -conflict, 
within and without, had had to be waged, for 
sooner or later all living things converged on 
Rome. With characteristic imagination he 
anticipates his arrival ; the floodgates of his 
soul are flung open, and the pent-up thoughts 
which he would then have voiced refuse to be 
restrained. The letter is an earnest, a fore- 
taste, of the promised ' spiritual gift to the 
end ye may be established ' (1 n ), of the gospel 
which he is ' ready to preach to you that are 
in Rome ' (1 15 ). The Roman Christians are 
themselves able to admonish one another (1 5 14 ) ; 
his object is but to put them again in remem- 
brance (15 15 ) as a 'minister of Christ Jesus 
unto the Gentiles.' Though he is a stranger 
and they are Gentiles, he has an apostolate to 
Gentiles. His letter is more than a contro- 
versial contribution, or a personal apologetic, 
or a treatise ; it is an apostolic, and, therefore, 
authoritative utterance directed to meet their 
known and their presumptive needs. From 
the lips of an apostle not less than a Gospel 
was looked for, and such the Epistle came to 
be as it took shape. 

5. Destination. As it stands, the letter 
plainly is addressed ' to all that are in Rome, 
beloved of God, called to be saints' (1 7 > 15 
15 28 ), l called to be Jesus Christ's ' (1 6). Are 
they Jews or Gentiles ? The presumption is 
that if it is for all Christians, both are included 
(cp. 9 24 , ' us whom he also called not from 
the Jews only, but also from the Gentiles ') 
Many passages refer to, or are applicable to 
Gentiles only (e.g. ' among all the nations . 
among whom are ye also,' 1 5 > 6 ; ' fruit in you 
also, even as in the rest of the Gentiles,' 1 13 
1 1 speak to you that are Gentiles,' ll 13 ; ' 



855 



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INTRO. 



write unto you because of the grace given me 
that I should be a minister unto the Gentiles,' 
15 15 ' 16 ): the argument in chs. 9-11 is for 
Gentiles exclusively, and in it the Jews (' my 
kinsmen,' not 'your' or even 'our') are 
spoken of as an outside body, while many of 
the sins against which warning is given are 
such as Gentiles rather than Jews were 
addicted to (6 12 > 13 . ^13 13 ). On the other hand, 
familiarity and sympathy with the Jewish 
standpoint is assumed both in writer and 
readers. In c. 2 under the general apostrophe 
addressed to all mankind (' thou art without 
excuse, man, whosoever thou art,' 2 1 ), the 
Jew is naturally addressed in the second 
person (' if thou bearest the name of a Jew,' 
2 17 " 27 ), but immediately thereafter the Jews 
are spoken of in the third person (2 28f - 3 lf -) ; 
the reference in 4 1 to ' Abraham our fore- 
father ' (cp. 3 9 9 10 ) betrays no more than the 
unfailing remembrance of the Apostle to the 
Gentiles that he is himself a Hebrew (cp. 9 3 10 1 , 
etc.), while in 7 1 , 'I speak to men that know 
law,' the reference need not be to Jewish law 
at all, but simply to universal moral law (cp. 
1 19 > 32 ), and even if it were to Jewish law, they 
might have been Gentile proselytes to Judaism 
before conversion to Christianity, or, if they 
were converts to Christianity directly, the 
Old Testament was still the Christian Bible. 
In 9 lf -, and again in 10 x especially, where 
Jewish privilege is dwelt upon wistfully, the 
Apostle gives no hint that any of his readers 
are Jews : his l brethren and kinsmen accord- 
ing to the flesh ' are referred to in the third 
person as if over against his readers in a separate 
camp. Several of the persons greeted in the 
letter bear Jewish names, but most have Gentile 
names, Greek for the most part, as was natural. 
It is noteworthy that, unlike the Thessalonians, 
Corinthians, and Galatians, they are not ad- 
dressed collectively as 'a church.' In 16 5 
the ' church ' in the house of Prisca and Aquila 
is marked off from the rest. Presumably in 
Rome there would be a number of Christian 
circles and meeting-places. As a whole the 
evidence is convincing that the Roman 
Christians addressed are a loose-knit body, 
composed almosi wholly of Gentiles, conver- 
sant, either as Jewish proselytes or as Christian 
converts, with the Old Testamenl religion, 
and concerned as < 'hri<t::in^ to adjusl their 
ceremonial, moral, ami spiritual relationship to 
it rightly. • 

6. History of Christianity in Rome. 

(a) Jewish preparation. Between •!< rn 
salem and Rome there had Long i.e. mi direci 
ami easy communication. If the military heel 
of Rome was planted (irmly on Jewish soil. 
the softer tread of Jewish commerce and reli- 
gion was simultaneously heard upon the pave 
nieiits of the Roman capital. Ajb conquered 



Greece soon took her captor captive by the 
force of her literature, art, and culture, con- 
quered Israel was already advancing towards 
a like success by means of its lofty ethics and 
religion, which were also enshrined in an im- 
perishable literature. At least as early as the 
2nd cent. B.C. Jews found their way to Rome 
on embassies, and in 63 B.C. the capture of 
Jerusalem by Pompey brought many against 
their will to settle as slaves or freedmen in the 
city. They formed a synagogue and a ' Ghetto,' 
and found protection and favour under the 
first emperors, numbering many thousands, 
and making many proselytes without effort. 
Tiberius and Caligula withdrew the imperial 
favour. Under Claudius many of them were 
temporarily expelled (52 A.D.), among them 
Aquila and Prisca (Acl8 2 ), on account, it 
appears, of disorders which broke out upon 
the preaching of Christ among them. Under 
Nero hitherto they had prospered. 

(b) The Christian Church. There is 
evidence, as well as probability, that news 
was brought to Rome of Jesus' career and 
claims very soon after Eis death. To the 
Roman Jews all that passed in Jerusalem was 
deeply interesting (cp. Ac2 10 ), and the life- 
work and teaching of the Prophet of Nazareth, 
with the resurrection-faith of His followers 
and the conversion of Saul for sequels, formed 
an episode in Jewish history which could neither 
be suppressed nor ignored. The expulsion 
under Claudius of Aquila and Prisca, St. Paul's 
informants concerning Rome, and his fellow- 
workers in Corinth Ephesus and Rome, sug- 
gests that the gospel met with strenuous 
opposition, first from the Jewish, and later, 
as a cause of civil tumult, from the Imperial 
authorities. The account of St. Paul's arrival 
in Acts (28 15 " 2S ) suggests that he was met and 
welcomed by Gentile ' brethren,' and proves 
that the Jewish authorities were not ignorant 
of the new ' sect everywhere spoken against,' 
but as a body had stood aloof, and with some 
exceptions persisted in their attitude. In 
Rome as elsewhere it had proved easier for 
Gentile proselytes than for born Jews to 
receive the new Teaching. To them St. Paul, 
as if in anticipation of Jewish coldness, chiefly 
appeals in his letter. 

(/) Connexion of Roman Christianity with 
(1) St. Paul and (2) St. Peter. 

(1) Plainly St. Paul has had no part in the 
introduction of Christianity into Rome, yet 
he knows its existing position intimately, and 
knows not a few of its Jewish and Gentile 
professors there. 

(2) The late tradition that St. Peter was 
the founder is incompatible with the absence 
of any reference to him in c. 15 ; nor, had he 
been then the head of the Roman Church, 
could a personal greeting to him have been 



856 



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ROMANS 



INTRO. 



absent. There is no indication of any apostolic 
origin. The foundation has been laid, Christ 
is there named (15 20 ), house-churches exist 
(16 5 ), but strictly speaking there is no united 
Church. Such apostolic basis as it was to have 
was first afforded by this letter. It is like a 
consecrating breath of the Apostle's presence. 
Though Christianity had long preceded him 
in Rome, its people, Jew and Gentile, were 
not fused into a single Church until the genius 
of St. Paul, who read the hearts of both, by 
letter and by word supplied the sacred fire. 
7. The Epistle as a whole. 

(a) Authenticity and Integrity. That it is 
the work of St. Paul admits of no serious 
question. The evidence, internal and external, 
is overwhelming. It is the supreme self- 
revelation of the Apostle. That the Epistle 
as we have it is a coherent unity has been 
doubted on substantial though inconclusive 
grounds. The doxology which marks the close 
of the Epistle after 1 6 24 in most of the best 
manuscript authorities, is found elsewhere, after 
14 23 , or in both places, in others. Moreover, 
apart from this massive and impressive dox- 
ology, there are other passages, benedictory in 
form, between 14 23 and 16 24 , which look like 
endings, e.g. 15 33 16 20 and 16 24 ; in one im- 
portant manuscript Rome is not mentioned, 
and some of the persons named in a 16 are 
known to have been connected with Ephesus, 
which has suggested Ephesus as the original 
destination of that chapter. It is not impos- 
sible that in shortened or lengthened form the 
Epistle to the Romans may at some time have 
circulated among several groups of readers, 
but the unity of the Epistle in its present form 
cannot be disproved or seriously shaken. In 
any case its teaching remains unimpaired. 

(b) Style. Like St. Paul's other letters, it 
was dictated to an amanuensis (16 22 ), a fact 
which helps to explain the irregularities of the 
language and the thought as it flowed on in a 
rushing broken torrent from the passionate 
soul of the Apostle. The tentmaker and the 
organiser of the Churches had scant leisure to 
polish his sentences and ponder his phrases. 
It may be that his hand was nimbler with the 
needle than the pen. His style is a mirror of 
himself. Not the letter, but the spirit ; not the 
seen and the superficial, but the unseen and 
the underlying ; not the part, but the whole ; 
not the nice details of argument, but the broad 
sweep of truth, is his concern. Doubtless 
these dictated letters preserve for us, even 
better than his reported speeches in the book 
of Acts, the form and manner of his preaching, 
as well as the vehemence of its intellectual, 
moral, and spiritual power. 

(c) Use and Interpretation of the Old Testa- 
ment. Familiarity with every portion of the 
Old Testament is assumed in the readers as 



well as exhibited by the writer. Its law, 
history, psalmody, and prophecy are all requi- 
sitioned in the argument in a manner strongly 
reminiscent of the rabbinical school, kindred 
snatches of Scripture being run together, alle- 
gory and type being traced in narratives, yet 
also with a masterly insight into the prophetic 
spirit of the book, and With a Christian's sense 
of its completion and fulfilment in Jesus Christ 
(cp. 3 10 -!8 9 25 ' 33 10 1G " 21 ; alsocp.chs. 4, 10, and 
11). By some threescore quotations the uni- 
versal reign of sin and need of grace, the saving 
power of faith, the sovereignty of the divine 
will, the judgment of unbelieving Israel, and 
the summons to the Gentiles, are confirmed by 
way of preparation for the universal truth in 
Christ. In legal language, and by scriptural 
thought, the legal is transcended, and way is 
made for grace. The stricken conscience of 
the Hebrew under law is healed by the hope 
of Israel realised in Jesus Christ. 

(d) Relation to Christ's Teaching. As a 
teacher the Apostle, though wielding authority, 
differs vastly from the Master, who taught ' not 
as the Scribes.' The form and manner of the 
general teaching could scarcely differ more 
from His ; but it is impossible to read chs. 
12-14 without discerning the ethical identity 
of the ideals enjoined by both. It is the 
same Christian life and character that each 
would fain see realised. Nor can it be gain- 
said that the Apostle at bottom shares his 
Master's characteristic attitude to the burdens 
of the Pharisaic law, and extends the same 
invitation to weary and heavy-laden bearers of 
the yoke to come to Him for rest. Between 
the teaching of Jesus and that of Paul the two 
great facts of atoning death and triumphant 
resurrection have intervened, the facts which 
in succession cast Paul down and lifted him up, 
blinded him and gave him new sight, caused him 
to die and to live again. Of necessity Paul's 
own relation to the Cross as a Pharisaic per- 
secutor in the name of law, and his experience 
as a convert of its regenerating power, suffuse 
his whole* conception of Christ's gospel. 
Though Jesus in the Gospels might assure 
men of God's forgiveness apart from any re- 
ference to His death, Paul had no experience 
of any such unmediated forgiveness. The 
death and reappearance of the Lord alone had 
sufficed to bring home to him at once the full 
enormity of his guilty enmity to good and the 
irresistible sufficiency of the will of God to 
pardon and to save through Christ. If in the 
recorded words of our Lord we would find 
anticipations of the Pauline gospel, it is not to 
the parable of the Prodigal Son alone, but 
also to the institution of the Sacramental 
Supper on the eve of the Saviour's sacrifice 
that we must turn. Can it be seriously said 
that Paul's conception of the bond between 



857 



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INTRO. 



the Saviour and the saved is any other than 
the Saviour's own ? All that we can say is 
that, while it was the simple comprehensive 
truth of God as it was in Christ Jesus that he 
saw and proclaimed, while it was a borrowed, 
not an original gospel, that he preached, he 
saw the truth with his own eyes unflinchingly, 
and declared it in his own language. None of 
the apostolic band could view the truth in 
Christ from so detached a standpoint as he, 
with his birth in the dispersion, his education 
as a rabbi, his Roman citizenship, and his 
Grseco-Cilician home. It was a necessary con- 
sequence of this very detachment which enabled 
St. Paul to see the truth in Christ's life and 
Person so independently, so universally, and 
in such clear perspective, that his manner of 
teaching, his vocabulary, and his mode of 
thought should seem to be at utter variance 
with his Master's. But the more we study his 
teaching as a whole, and the more patiently we 
compare its burden and its spirit with that of 
Jesus, the more we realise the justice of that 
verdict of Christendom which has judged him 
to be the greatest and truest of Christians, and 
the justice of his own favourite self -description 
as a ' bondservant of Jesus Christ.' 

(e) The Contents. (For detailed outline see 
p. 86-1 below, and for running exposition see the 
commentary.) 

As has been said, the Epistle is a true letter, 
personal in testimony and in exhortation 
throughout. C. 1 1 - 17 contains the address and 
preamble. Chs. 118-1136 contain a foretaste 
of the ' spiritual gift ' which it is the Apostle's 
longing to impart to the Roman Christians 
(l 11 ), a reasoned vindication of k the gospel' 
which he is ' ready to preach ' to them, of 
which he is not ashamed, which is ' the power 
of God unto salvation to every one that 
believed).' and i n which 'is revealed a righteous- 
ly tea of God from faith unto faith.' Though 
full of profound thought, the teaching in this 
section is not a treatise, it is personal instruc- 
tion addressed again and again to 'brethren,' 
abounding in vivacious uses of ' 1.' ' you,' l we,' 
in true letter form. ('lis. L2 1 — 15 18 contain 
practical exhortations suggested naturally by 
the Apostl 'a presentation of the truth in 
Christ, —exhortations universally applicable to 
Christian people (chs. 12, 13), and exhortations 
specially addressed bo the circle of Ins readers 
(chs, 11. L5). Chs. I"' 11 L6 27 contain a variety 
of persona] details: the Apostle's motive in 
writing Mo"-' 1 ), plans of travel, introduction 
of Phoebe, personal greetings, admonition 
against authors of error and dispeace, con- 
veyance of greetings From his friends, and 
.solemn final doxologj , 

8. The Teaching of the Epistle. 

'The following is an outline of the thougb.1 

embodied in the Epistle, particularly in 



chs. 1-11, which, while rather a vindication 
than an exposition of his gospel, contain the 
substance of his whole message. To constitute 
a comprehensive summary of his teaching as a 
whole, it must be supplemented by the reader 
in many important details from the other 
Pauline Epistles, for a mind like the Apostle's 
was in continual movement, expanding, en- 
riching, and maturing its convictions, and each 
of his letters has its own distinctive contri- 
butions to the sum of Christian truth. If we 
would complete our account of his teaching, 
e.g. on the Person of Christ and His relation- 
ship to the Christian, on the Church, the 
Ministry, the Sacraments, not to mention 
other themes, we must make use of the other 
Epistles. This outline, however, of the 
thought in the greatest of his writings may 
serve as a useful introduction to, and fore- 
glimpse of, his teaching as a whole. 

The Preamble (1 *-"). St. Paul writes not 
only as a servant of Jesus, the Christ, but 
also as a messenger of long-expected good 
news from God. The promised Son of David's 
race according to the flesh has at last been 
born and lived His life ; b}- resurrection from 
the dead He has been supernaturally shown 
to be the Son of God according to the Spirit. 
' The mystery kept in silence through times 
eternal is now manifested' (16 25 ). This good 
news it is a sacred duty to tell both to Greeks 
and to the rest of the world. It is a gospel to 
be proud of ; for every man, be he Jew or 
Greek, who accepts it in faith receives from 
God not a theory of salvation but a saving 
power. It reveals a new righteousness, not 
human but divine, issuing from living faith. 

(A) The Need of the World. 

Of such good news, and such faith-right- 
eousness leading to salvation, mankind is 
universally in sore need. Gentile and Jew 
alike are deservedly under the wrath of God, 
who has revealed His anger against all un- 
righteousness and irreligion. All have sinned. 
All are without excuse. God has suffered all 
to become in some measure hardened and 
reprobate through sinful habit. 

(a) Think, first, of tne Gentile world. 
Though less favoured than Israel, the Gentiles 
have not been without revelation. They have 
been able to discern from the open face of 
nature the everlasting power and divinity of 
the invisible God. In their minds they have 
had knowledge of God, the self -manifesting. 
But everywhere they have lapsed. They have 
trampled on the truth, reasoned foolishly, and 
fallen into all manner of idolatry, worshipping 
and serving the creature rather than the 
Creator. Their wisdom, their philosophy, has 

ended in failure. They have been ungrateful, 

and have not glorified God. Before Him they 
are without excuse. Deservedly He has given 



858 



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INTRO. 



them up to the indulgence of their impure 
lusts, to abuse their bodies, to dishonour sex, 
to cherish a reprobate mind. By act and by 
consent they have been guilty of every form 
of social, domestic, and personal sin against 
God and man. They have known the divine 
ordinance, that they who practise such things 
are worthy of death, but they have chosen to 
ignore God. They are self-condemned, for 
they are ready to judge one another, knowing 
well when they are wronged that sin is sin. 
and their just judgment upon others recoils 
upon themselves. How is it that men are 
blind to this, abusing God's forbearance, which 
should prompt them to repentance, and aggra- 
vating their guilt ? God will assuredly render 
to every man according to his works. To 
those who by patience in well-doing seek for 
glory and honour and eternal life He will 
grant the objects of their quest; to the fac- 
tious and disobedient, anguish under His indig- 
nation (118-216). 

(b) Are the Jews in better case ? They are 
involved in the self -same judgment. Indeed, 
as first in privilege, they are first in condem- 
nation. God has no partiality : His justice is 
even-handed. If the Gentile who has never 
enjoyed the privilege of Jewish law and 
revelation is condemned for his sins against 
his own more limited light, God cannot permit 
the privileged Jew to sin with impunity. The 
same justice that metes out stern punishment 
to the Gentile who is outside the pale of 
Jewish law and revelation because he sins 
against the unwritten law within the heart, 
demands an even sterner sentence upon the 
Jew who breaks his higher Law. There are 
Gentiles who do by nature the things of the 
Law, though they know not Moses and the 
Prophets : these become as it were their own 
law, in that they show the work of the Law 
written in their hearts, their conscience bear- 
ing witness therewith, and their reflections one 
with another accusing or else acquitting them 
— such men put many a Jew to shame. 

It is indeed a great thing to belong to the 
Hebrew race, to be heir to the oracles of 
God, to the Law, the Promises, the sacred 
ordinances and rites of God's chosen and 
adopted people, to have the blood of Abraham 
in one's veins, to be of one flesh with the 
Christ who should come (217-3 2 9 3 - 5 ). But 
to be born a Jew, to be circumcised a Jew, to 
receive a Jewish name, is not enough. To 
God a man's heart is more than his flesh and 
blood, his conduct than his ceremonial. ' He 
is not a true Jew who is one outwardly : 
neither is that true circumcision which is out- 
ward in the flesh : but he is a Jew who is one 
inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart, 
in the spirit not in the letter.' ' They are not 
all Israel who are of Israel : neither because 



they are Abraham's seed are they all children. 
. . It is not the children of the flesh that are 
children of God.' Hebrew history and Scrip- 
ture are full of evidence that mere possession 
of the Law has never secured obedience to it ; 
each of the commandments has been dis- 
honoured daily ; and instead of being the 
glory of God, Israel has too often been a 
reproach to Him among the nations. It is 
not more true that the Law is the pride of 
Israel as a nation among the nations, than 
that the Law is the condemnation of the 
individual Jew (2i 7 -3 8 , also chs. 9-11). 

Thus it appears that as the Greek or other 
Gentile is convicted by his unwritten law of 
conscience, so the Jew is convicted by his 
recorded law. All are under sin. There is 
none righteous, none whose works fulfil the 
demands of the divine Law under which he 
lives. Every mouth is stopped. Were law to 
have the final word, the doom of all were 
sealed (3 9-20). 

(B) The Inadequacy of Law to save (c. 7). 

The persistence of sin under the rule of 
Gentile conscience and Hebrew law is proof 
that law has been unable to save, though it is 
able to condemn : it can teach, threaten, and 
admonish, but it cannot inspire and empower. 
Indeed, in man's fallen condition, law seems 
but to aggravate the evil it denounces. But for 
it we should not know sin — our lives were 
innocent as those of babes or beasts. Obe- 
dience, the essence of duty, presupposes a 
command or prohibition, the essence of law. 
The insistence of law is a standing provoca- 
tion and temptation to disobedience. The 
very words ' thou shalt not ' suggest to man's 
wayward sense of freedom ' why not ? ' ' shall 
I not ? ' Apart from law sin is dead, lifeless, 
or unborn : through law sin finds its opportunity 
and enters the heart of man on its fatal errand. 

Is law sinful, then, because it thus opens 
the way for sin ? No : the sin is not in law, 
but in us who respond so perversely to its 
just demands. The law is in itself a thing 
of righteousness ; it is the voice of God, 
whether the whisper of conscience or the peal 
of Sinai ; it is good throughout. It is in fact 
the great instrument for showing up sin in its 
true character, in its naked ugliness. Sin is 
seen at its worst as man's enemy when it thus 
subverts the very law of God for its baleful 
uses. Law would fain guide us to life : ' obey 
and ye shall live ' is its burden ; but sin se- 
duces us into the way of death. By pointing 
out the way of life law must, however un- 
willingly, disclose to us implicitly other ways 
which lead to death. Sin, when we have thus 
become familiar with the way to death, casts 
its spell over our eyes and invests the fatal 
way with a seductive glamour. But sin is not 
in law, is not in God ; it can only be in us. 



859 



INTRO. 



ROMANS 



TNTRO. 



There is in us a principle of evil, our carnal 
nature, a kind of lower law. The mind of 
the flesh is enmity against God and rebellion 
against His law : it is death (8 6 > 7 ). In our 
moral life we are aware of division and dis- 
cord within us. After the inward man we 
delight in the law of God, we hate evil, we 
desire to obey and do good, yet we do not 
succeed. The good which we would, we do 
not ; the evil which we would not, that we 
habitually do. It becomes as it were a law of 
our life to sin. "We are sin-possessed. Another, 
a lower law in our members, in our flesh, wages 
war against the law of our mind, and enslaves 
us. In the agony of despair the soul of man 
cries out, 1 wretched man that I am ! who shall 
deliver me from this living death, from this sin- 
dominated, death-bringing bodily existence ? ' 

(C) A New Way of Salvation needed and 
foreshadowed. 

History and experience thus combine to 
attest man's need of deliverance. Man as 
man must be liberated from sin, from condem- 
nation, from the law of his lower self, even in 
a sense from the grim grasp of the Revealed 
Law of Israel's Covenant-God. In himself 
man has proved powerless to achieve salvation 
even when guided by explicit law and encour- 
aged by special providences and uplifting 
promises. Can it be that he is now without 
hope and lost ? Gentile wisdom and Jewish 
privilege stand self -condemned and humbled. 
Unless God intervenes salvation is for ever 
beyond reach, and the divine end of creation 
frustrated. 

With true prophetic insight St. Paul dis- 
cerns a divine purpose in this humiliation of 
mankind. Thus humbled, man is prepared to 
look above for deliverance, and to remain 
humble should God deign to save him. And 
man's utmost need is God's utmost opportunity 
('where sin abounded, grace did abound more 
exceedingly,' 5 20 ). Conscience and law are 
seen not only to be inadequate for man's 
complete salvation, but also by reason of their 
incompleteness to deepen man's sense of need 
and to point forward to the coming in God's 
providence of a higher law and a fuller revela- 
tion. To say with the Jew that either the 
law must save or we are lost, is to fetter and 
cramp the goodness of God, to make the law 
greater than its Giver. There may have been, 
nay, there has been, waiting in the secret 
OOnnael of God a way of salvation destined, 
not to discredit Or set aside law. hnt to trans 

eend the old method of attempting to satisfy 
conscience and law and to achieve work- 
righteousness. Gentile and Jew were right, 
were bound, to seek salvation by honouring 
their Conscience and their law, and cherishing 
their light) and they have not been without 
their reward : but they were wrong to -hut 



their eyes and their hearts to the limitation 
and the partiality of the old-time method and 
the pitiful inadequacy of its results : their 
failures ought to have led them to turn with 
increased humility and hope to God, from 
whom alone so great a boon as their soul's 
salvation could come. Man's unbelief cannot 
annul God's faithfulness. 

The new way is not without some fore- 
shadowing in the Old Dispensation (cp. c. 4). 
The children of Abraham might have remem- 
bered that the justice of God was never 
mechanical : that His favours were not always 
bought or earned, but might be freely given, 
and often descended on unexpected quarters. 
Who could say that Israel's position as God's 
peculiar people had always, had ever, been 
deserved? (cp. chs. 9-11). The history of 
Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, proves 
that God's dealings with him were based on 
other grounds than simple legal justice. God's 
recompense of good is far more than legally 
proportioned to man's desert. It was some- 
thing more than virtuous acts that commended 
Abraham to God and gave value to his life : 
' not through the law was the promise to Abra- 
ham or to his seed that he should be heir of the 
world.' The supreme merit of Abraham was 
his faith in God : it was his firm faith that 
enabled him alike to obey the call to leave home 
and kindred and to yield up his only son, and 
to believe that, in spite of his own old age and 
the barrenness of Sarah, God would give him 
a son and fulfil the promise that he would be- 
come the father of many nations. Abraham's 
true seed and heirs are those who cherish his 
faith in God : he will become the father of 
many nations when the Gentiles enter into 
that faith. It is circumcision of the heart, 
trustful self-surrender to God, that is the mark 
of the true child of Abraham, the true heir 
of that faith which was in Abraham's bosom 
before his flesh was circumcised, and of those 
promises which were out of all proportion to 
his actual deeds. 

The prophets in their day looked beyond 
human actions and Hebrew merit for the sal- 
vation of Israel, and taught that God's eye is 
ever on the heart which moves the hand. The 
heart must be right, must be fixed on God, 
must look to Him for power to raise and 
wisdom to guide the hand that works. Did 
not the very hope and promise of Messiah, a 
Saviour from the right hand of God, imply 
that man was powerless to save himself ? The 
.Messianic hope was therefore the harbinger of 
a new righteousness not resting on works done 
by men, but instead resting on God's grace 
and i nahlinggood works to be done — a right- 
eousness of the heart, a conscience cleared not 
by human merit but by divine forgiveness and 
renewal. 



sen 



INTRO. 



ROMANS 



INTRO. 



This means that a new view must hence- 
forth be taken of Israel's history, privilege 
and vocation, its sacraments and its Messiah, 
its righteous God who judges not as man 
judges, but looks upon the heart and reads 
its secrets. Pride of race, presumption upon 
God's favour, must for ever be laid aside. 
God's aim is not Israel's aggrandisement, but 
man's universal sanctification and attachment 
to Himself. The election of Israel is that 
all the nations may share the blessing. The 
coming of Messiah therefore could have no 
other purpose than the coming of God's uni- 
versal and eternal kingdom of holiness, the 
highest good of the greatest number. Con- 
science, law, and Messiah have righteousness 
on earth as their common aim. Conscience 
and law are the world's schoolmasters to 
educate it up to Christ. His actual and 
attested coming is the fulfilment and therefore 
also the vindication of both (3 31 ), the achieve- 
ment of righteousness by a new means which 
was beyond their reach. God is now fully 
disclosed in His true character, not as an arbi- 
trary sovereign grasping at sovereignty for its 
own sake, nor as a stern judge administering 
a grim law over which He has no control, 
but as a Holy and Loving Father, jealously 
requiring righteousness in His children for 
their own sake, and putting forth every effort 
to realise their highest good. ' For the earnest 
expectation of the creation waiteth for the 
revealing of the sons of God . . for the whole 
creation groaneth and travaileth in pain to- 
gether until now. . . For the creation was sub- 
jected to vanity, not of its own will simply, 
but of God's who subjected it, in hope that the 
creation itself also shall be delivered from 
the bondage of corruption into the liberty of 
the glory of the children of God ' (S 1 ^ 22 ). Of 
free grace His beneficent hand equips both 
men and nations with their several talents at 
the outset of their stewardship, while as yet 
of merit they can have none, and rewards them 
at the close of their day according to, yet far 
above, their works. Of free grace He bestows 
on some a larger stewardship than on others. 
Of free grace likewise He bestows His supreme 
gift of righteousness unto salvation which men 
can neither achieve nor earn, but which they 
must prepare themselves to receive through 
humble penitence for sin committed, and 
through heart-yearning and heart-trust, in a 
word, through faith in God who alone saves. 
' O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom 
and of the knowledge of God ! how unsearch- 
able are his judgments, and his ways past tracing 
out ! For who hath known the mind of the Lord, 
or who hath been his counsellor ? or who hath 
first given to him, and it shall be recompensed 
unto him again ? For of him, and through 
him, and unto him are all things' (ll 33 * 36 ). 



(D) God's Salvation in Jesus His Christ 

(3!9- 3 i5, 8). 

What conscience and law could not do in 
that they were weak through the flesh, God 
has accomplished, sending His own Son in the 
likeness of our human, sin-ridden flesh. He 
has set men free from their bondage to fleshly 
lust, to sin, and to the law which can con- 
demn to death but cannot save unto life, 
through the higher law or principle of the 
Spirit of Life in Christ Jesus. This deliver- 
ance is not simply revealed but mediated and 
effected through Jesus, for He purifies and 
renews the heart as well as opens the eyes. 

Jesus is the Christ, the promised Saviour 
from sin. He is God's true, unique, ' own ' Son, 
His representative on earth, doing His work, 
wielding His power, revealing His mind, shar- 
ing His Spirit, reconciling men to His Father 
as veritable sons. His coming was ' for sin.' 
His life and death were a condemnation of sin, 
as showing that human life could rise above 
it in the power of the Divine Spirit : they are 
also the destruction of sin, breaking its power 
over men, revealing its hatefulness and dead- 
liness, and reconciling us to the Heavenly 
Father from whom it has estranged us. Jesus 
the Christ was a man (5 15 ), human as Adam : 
His work of grace will prove as far-reachmg 
in its consequences for good as Adam's trans- 
gression has proved for evil. He is the second 
Adam (5 12 ' 21 ), undoer of the mischief of the 
first. Through Adam's fall, his one trespass, 
sin and death entered the world and reigned 
over men, ' even over them that had not sinned 
after the likeness of Adam's transgression, 
and through the one man's disobedience the 
many were made sinners.' In like manner 
through Jesus' one life-comprehending act of 
obedience, His self-surrender in death the 
righteous for the unrighteous, His lifting-up, 
grace shall reign, the many shall be made 
righteous even though of themselves they 
shall not achieve the same obedience. Sin, 
condemnation, death formed our portion as 
Adam's heirs through the flesh : through 
Christ holiness, justification, and life are ours, 
a free portion given to us as partakers of His 
Spirit, joint-heirs of God with Him. Accord- 
ing to the old regime a man must die to ex- 
piate his sin : ' he that hath died is justified 
from sin ' (6 7 ). In Christ a higher than 
forensic justification is accomplished without 
the necessity of physical death. If a man 
becomes by the grace of God one with Christ, 
knit to Him in spirit, he passes spiritually 
through the Saviour's experience of death and 
resurrection. He dies to the old life, to sin, 
with Christ. In spirit he is crucified with the 
Lord. The carnal in him falls away, as flesh 
falls away from spirit in death : mortality and 
sin are laid aside as in a grave : and the 



861 



INTRO. 



ROMANS 



INTRO. 



spirit, the true self, God's child in him, rises 
with the risen Christ to the new life, dead 
only to sin, alive unto God in Christ Jesus. 

The life and work of Jesus as the Christ of 
God is thus not only the instrument of de- 
liverance and a final revelation to man of God 
and of man's own self, but also an all-embrac- 
ing cosmic fact. It is far more than a type 
or object-lesson of the Christian's experience, 
for it is also a supreme instrument in its own 
reproduction. It thus gathers up within itself 
all individual spiritual experience of salvation. 
Through the Cross and the open sepulchre 
every soul must find its exodus from bondage 
to liberty. It is the appointed way. Every 
soul has a death to die and a resurrection to 
receive : a life to withdraw from the world 
and yield up to God, and to receive back 
with the seal of acceptance and renewal 
upon it. We not only know this now through 
Christ and see it in Him, but we experience 
it in and with Him. He dies and lives 
again in us, or we die and live again in 
Him. We are one with Him in the Spirit. 
And if with the apostle we know Christ cru- 
cified and raised from the dead, that is self- 
yielded unto death for our sins, and God- 
accepted for our assurance and our justification 
through the faith which rests on His resur- 
rection regarded as a proof of God's acceptance 
of His death for others, we know Christ fully. 
His death and resurrection are a summary and 
consummation of His whole life. To know 
Him in them is to know Him completely, and 
not only Him but the love of God disclosed 
in Him, for it was love that prompted God 
to send Him to us : ' God commendeth his 
own love toward us in that, while we were yet 
sinners, Christ died for us ' ; and it is the same 
divine love that is ' shed abroad in our hearts 
through the Holy Spirit which was given unto 
us.' Through Christ it has come about that 
our knowledge of God as the righteous vin- 
dicator of stern law is all but merged to vanish- 
ing in our knowledge of His tender love, the self- 
same love unto death which Jesus cherished 
towards us on earth, and still cherishes at the 
right hand of God as our constant intercessor, 
a love from which ' neither death, nor life, nor 
angels, nor principalities, nor things present, 
nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature shall be able to 
separate as.' 

Surveying this divine work of salvation, the 
Aposth dearly distinguishes certain activities 
on the pari of Gtad, irhose succession need not 
be thoughl of as Btrictly temporal in the eter- 
nal will. The redeeming purpose of divine 
Love involves the following sequence qf grace. 
Qtod foreknows His individual children ; fore- 
rdcUtu them 'to be conformed to the image 
of bis Bon thai be may be the firstborn among 

8G 



many brethren ' ; calls them to fulfil their 
destiny ; justifies them, i.e forgives their sin 
and imputes to them new righteousness when 
in faith they respond to His call ; and glorifies 
them, i.e. through sanctification brings them 
to the consummation of their life -purpose and 
the realisation of their true selves (8 29 > 30 ). 
In each stage of the process the k image of his 
Son ' is present ; in each the eternal Christ par- 
ticipates ; our election, our vocation, our jus- 
tification, our adoption, our sanctification, and 
our glorification are inseparable from Him. 

(E) The New Righteousness : Life in the 
Spirit (chs. 5, 6, 8, 12-15). 

With singular fulness and insight St. Paul 
describes the substance and the secret of 
salvation as an experience of the human soul. 
The Epistle is a revelation of the spiritual 
riches of his own experience, as well as a 
masterly delineation of a universal ideal. His 
touch is never firmer, his grasp never stronger, 
than when he lays bare in swift heart-search- 
ing sentences the meaning, the joys, the hopes, 
and the responsibilities of the new life in 
Christ. Whatever view be taken of the 
fidelity of other elements in his teaching to 
the letter of the explicit words of his Master, 
no one can seriously allege that the Apostle's 
conception of the regenerate life, or, for that 
matter, his practical embodiment of it, differs 
in any material respect from that which is en- 
shrined in the Sermon on the Mount and in 
the Gospels as a whole. The words may be 
different ; the manner of the teacher may not 
be the same ; but beyond question the self- 
same spirit breathes through both, the same 
vision arises at the bidding of each. 

(1) In relation to God the Christian lives 
a filial life. All that a son should be in 
thought, word, and deed, it is for him to be 
towards God. Perfect freedom of access to 
the Father, unbroken communion, childlike 
trust, unfailing hope, self-yielding love, are 
his. Intercourse with Him and service are 
his chief joy ; growth in likeness to Him 
is his chief reward. Gratefully he acknow- 
ledges his utter dependence upon the Father 
for forgiveness and reconciliation and new 
righteousness, and for every good gift. To 
glorify Him is the sum of duty and the sum- 
mit of ambition. The Christian is a son and 
therefore an heir of God, joint-heir with Christ 
the Elder Brother and the First-born of many 
sons. Bondage and fear towards God are 
done away : ' Abba, Father ! ' is his cry. 

(2) In relation to Christ. No words can 
exaggerate the intimacy of the bond between 
the believer and Christ. He belongs to his 
Lord ; in life and death his face is towards 
Him who died for him (14 s ). From His love 
he 18 inseparable (8 35 ). He is in Christ Jesus; 
baptised into Him, into His death, — crucified, 
) 



INTRO. 



ROMANS 



INTRO. 



dead, buried, and risen with Him. It is 
not simply the man Jesus, good, obedient, 
pure, and true till death, but Jesus the Eternal 
Christ of God — Christ in spite of crucifixion, 
Christ because raised from the dead, enthroned 
with the Father, and alive for evermore. 
' The Lord is the Spirit ' (2 Cor 3 17 ), known no 
longer after the flesh, visible only to the eye 
of faith. It is not so much the deliberate 
imitation or following of Jesus as a man, for 
that may mean but self-reliance, after all, as 
faith in Him the Son of God, that is first 
demanded, for it is by faith that we are en- 
abled to follow, — faith must precede, even 
where we cannot see. We are to ' put on the 
Lord Jesus.' Serving Him we please God, and 
are approved of men (15 18 ); receiving Him we 
have an earnest of the satisfaction of all our 
needs (13 14 ). 

According to St. Paul, then, faith is the 
link that unites us to Christ in the unseen and 
eternal world, the principle that links our life 
to His so that we are one with Him, even as 
He is one mth the Father in spiritual fellow- 
ship. Faith is our response to the advances of 
God's redeeming love. St. Paul is not content 
with St. John to dwell on love to God as our 
response to His love ; doubtless he takes that 
answering love for granted, for he was no 
stranger to the power of love, and on occasion 
could hymn its praise as greater even than faith, 
and he speaks of the love of God as shed abroad 
in our hearts (5 5 ). Probably he had been 
constrained to believe in Jesus as Christ upon 
the way to Damascus even before he was con- 
scious of passionate love towards Him, and 
therefore lays stress upon the priority of faith. 
He loved Him because he saw in Him the 
suffering and triumphant Christ of God; it 
was not simply because he loved Him that he 
believed Him to be the Christ. Love followed 
faith and crowned it. He fastens upon faith, 
a living trust in a living God, a personal re- 
liance upon a Saviour Christ, as the root- 
principle of the Christian life, the instrument 
of Christian progress. Through this vital 
attachment, self is forgotten, the world recedes, 
the body is reduced to its true position, the 
higher life nourished and supported. Like 
love, faith lays hold of the whole man and 
transforms him; it is not blind or unintelligent : 
it trusts because it knows and has experi- 
ence ; it holds the key to obedience ; such is its 
power over the springs of moral action, that 
'whatsoever is not of faith is sin' (14 23 ). 
Christianity is the life of faith. 

(3) In relation to the Spirit. If the Christian 
life upon its human side is a life of faith, on 
its divine side it is life in the Spirit of God, 
in the Spirit of Christ, in the same Holy Spirit 
who of old spake in prophecy, in Scripture, 
and in conscience. The Spirit is the motive - 



power of the Christian life, quickening its per- 
ceptions and faculties, flooding the heart with 
the love of God, identifying Himself with the 
believer's spirit, and witnessing with it that it 
is the true child of God the Father, helping 
us to pray, pleading with the Father, bringing 
Christ into the soul to mingle with it. ' As 
many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are 
sons of God ' (8 14 ). l If any man hath not 
the Spirit of Christ, he is none of His ' (8 9 ). 
The higher instincts of men belong to the 
Spirit, and are divine ; the kingdom of God on 
earth ' is not eating and drinking, but righteous- 
ness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit ' 
(14 17 ). Christian virtues are fruits of the in- 
dwelling Spirit. The work of grace is its 
unresting activity. 

(4) In relation to Society. In chs. 12-15 
the Apostle pours out from the treasury of 
his experience and reflection, ethical precepts 
and exhortations which glance like jewels in 
their spiritual brilliancy. Every aspect of the 
Christian character, every phase of the life in 
Christ, is here reflected. In the power of the 
Spirit, in the righteousness which is through 
faith, the Christian is to be modest, humble, sin- 
cere, patient, cheerful, sympathetic, merciful, 
generous, hospitable (c. 12). Remembering 
the death of his Lord for all, he will not live for 
himself, but sacrifice himself for others, deny 
himself innocent pleasures and lawful rights 
rather than lead a weak brother into temptation, 
or set a stumbling-block in his path (c. 14). 
He will not succumb to evil, not try to over- 
come evil with evil. He will eschew anger and 
revenge, will bless his persecutors, and feed his 
enemy (c. 12). As a citizen he will loyally 
recognise the lawful and divinely appointed 
authority of the ruling powers which restrain 
evil-doers, and encourage well-doing ; he will 
not withhold from them taxes, customs, fear, and 
honour (13 1-7 ). As a member of the Church, 
the one body in Christ, he will play his part 
diligently, in a fervent spirit serving the Lord ; 
he will exercise his own spiritual gifts, and 
respect the varying gifts of others, whether 
prophecy, ministering, teaching, exhortation, 
ruling, or contributing to the temporal needs of 
the Church (12 6 " 8 ) ; he will by every means in 
his power help on his brethren, love them for 
Christ's sake, and encourage them in the 
Christian life, bear their infirmities (15 1 ), be 
slow to judge them (14 10_13 ), live in peace and 
harmony with them, avoid causes of stumbling 
and division in doctrine and practice (16 17 ). 

(5) In relation to Oneself. The Christian 
will honour himself and keep himself pure. 
Remembering that Christ died for him and for 
sin, he will present his body a living sacrifice, 
holy, acceptable to God, in reasonable service 
(12 1 ). He will restrain his fleshly nature 
watchfully; keep the commandments ; culti- 



863 



INTRO. 



ROMANS 



INTRO. 



vate the spiritual side of his nature resolutely, 
even at the expense of the bodily ; enter into 
the life of Christ, abhorring evil, cleaving to 
good. He will strive not to be fashioned ac- 
cording to this world, but to be transformed 
by the renewing of his mind into the image of 
God's Son, so proving God's good and perfect 
will (12 2 ). As one who shall stand before 
the judgment-seat of God (14 10 ), and who 
knows that the consummation of God's saving 
work draws nearer (13 n ), and that the night 



preceding the great day is far spent, he will 
put slumber far from him, and cast off the 
works of darkness, and put on the armour 
of light (13 n - 14 ). Under difficulties he will 
be of good courage, assured that to those who 
love God all things work together for good 
(8 28 ). He is Christ's ; he has the Spirit dwell- 
ing in him; he is the child of the Father in 
heaven. These things he cannot forget — his 
personal life is shaped by them, guided by the 
One Spirit. 



Summary of the Epistle 



The subject of the Epistle is the meaning 
and power of the gospel, i.e. God's message 
to man of salvation through faith in Jesus 
Christ, for Jew and Gentile alike. 

I. Chs. 1-8. The Divine Way of Acceptance 
with God. 

1 1 : 17 . After an introduction fitted to engage 
the attention and sympathy of the Roman 
Christians (1 i* 15 ), St. Paul sets down the 
subject of the Epistle. It is the gospel which 
works a moral miracle among men by proclaim- 
ing a state of acceptance with God, offered to 
all as a free gift, on the sole condition of 
faith (1 16 f.). 

l 18 -3 20 . St. Paul shows that all men need 
salvation. Both Gentile and Jew have sinned, 
though God has given each a law of life ; and 
each will be judged by the law he has (1 18 -2 29 ). 
In spite of his privileges, the Jew needs 
salvation as much as the Gentile, as his moral 
condition shows (3 1-20 ). 

321-26 The need of sinful man has been met 
by the love of God. Christ has shed His 
blood as an offering to God for man's redemp- 
tion. Thereby God's holy displeasure against 
sin has been manifested, and all who join in that 
offering by self-surrendering faith in Christ 
are received by God into a state of acceptance. 

4 1 -5 21 . Reasons why men should welcome 
this way of salvation. (1) It is in harmony 
with G-od's dealings in the past. Acceptance 
with God has always been on account of faith 
(4 '--'). (2) It brings to men peace and joy 
and everlasting security (5 1 * 11 ). (3) By trans- 
ferring us into relationship with Christ, it 
more than abolishes the evil effects of sin and 
death which we have derived from our former 
relationship with Adam (5 18 * n ). 

5L-g80 The power of the gospel. It does 

not merely provide against tin' consequences 

of sin. By his faith in Christ a believer is 
changed. He heroines so vitally united with 
Christ in His death and life that the man he 
used to be is dead, and his heart is joined with 
Christ in communion with God (6 1 " 88 ). 



Nothing else would do this. So evil is man's 
nature that even the holy law only emphasises 
the fact of his slavery to sin (7 1 " 23 ). But the 
man who has faith in Christ is freed from 
slavery by a greater power than himself. The 
Spirit of Christ has entered into him, and the 
Spirit within overpowers the sin in his flesh, 
will deliver his body from the grave, and 
makes him God's son and heir of God's glory. 
Thus, in all his troubles, the Christian is 
secure in the divine love of Christ (8 1 - 39 ). 

II. Chs. 9-11. God's Way of Acceptance vindi- 
cated. St. PauHeels that some might object — 
The Messiah, and the blessings of His king- 
dom, were promised by God to Israel. But 
Israel as a whole has rejected Jesus, and is 
outside His kingdom. Therefore, if Jesus be 
the Messiah, God has broken His word to 
Israel ; which cannot be thought of. 

He answers — God never bound Himself to 
Israel as a race. He has always claimed the 
right to select some descendants of Abraham 
to be His instruments, and to reject others 
(9 1-21 ). Yet He has been merciful to Israel, 
who have fallen by their wilfulness (9 22 -10 21 ). 
However, Israel's fall is partial and temporary, 
the disobedience of both Gentiles and Jews was 
reckoned with in God's purpose, and He will 
bring the Jews, finally, into His kingdom ( 1 1 1 " 3(5 ). 

III. Chs. 12-10. The Practical Life accept- 
able to God. In chs. 12 f. St. Paul points out 
the life of love and obedience which is the Chris- 
tian's true sacrifice, and which would commend 
Christianity to the people of Rome and to 
the rulers of the empire. 

In chs. 1 4 f . he enjoins love and tolerance 
between the Jewish and Gentile sections of 
the Roman Church (14 L l 5 18 ). He hopes to 
visit Kome after a visit to Jerusalem under- 
taken in the furtherance of unity (15 14 " 29 ), for 
which he asks their prayers ( 15 80 " 88 ). 

C. 16. In the midst of personal greetings 
occurs a warning (lG 17 " 20 ) against hostile 
teachers, probably Jewish, whose appearance 
at Rome he expected. 



8G4 



1.1 



ROMANS 



1. 13 



CHAPTER 1 

The Power of the Gospel and the 
Need of the World. The Guilt of 
the Heathen 

In his salutation the apostle emphasises his 
commission, and the greatness of the Person 
whose servant he is and who is the centre of 
his message (vv. 1-7). After expressing his 
desire to visit the Romans (vv. 8-15), he 
states the subject of his Epistle, viz.. acceptance 
with God through faith in Jesus Christ (vv. 
16, 17), and proceeds to develop it by showing 
that none have been able to merit acceptance 
with God. He begins by proving this of the 
Gentiles (vv. 18-32). 

1-7. The Salutation. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) I, Paul, who write am a 
bondservant of Christ, set apart by God as 
an apostle to proclaim that message of good 
news (2) which was promised by His prophets. 
(3) The subject of the message is His Son, of 
David's lineage by human descent, (4) but, as 
regards His spiritual being, shown to be Son 
of God by the divine power exercised in His 
Resurrection. (5) Since, through Christ, I was 
brought into God's favour, and commissioned 
to be apostle to the Gentiles, (6) and that you 
at Rome, whom Christ has chosen, are Gen- 
tiles ; (7) therefore I write to you, praying 
that God may grant you His blessings.' 

1. Servant] A title used in the OT. of 
those devoted to a special work for God : cp. 
Josh 24 29 Ps36 (title) Jer7 25 Dan9 n Zech3 8 . 
St. Paul claims a similar place in the New 
Covenant. Servant of Jesus Christ] cp. OT. 
expression ' servant of God ' ; one of many 
undesigned testimonies to the Apostle's belief 
in the divinity of Christ : cp. 9 5 10 12 . 

Called] i.e. chosen by Christ. He empha- 
sises this, because a party of Judaising Chris- 
tians, who opposed the doctrine of salvation 
by faith, and held that circumcision was of 
perpetual obligation, denied his apostleship : 
cp. 1 Cor 9 1 f - Gal 1 ! : see Intro. Gal. Apostle] 
see on 16 7 . Separated] cp. Acl3 2 Gal l 15 . 

3. David] Thus fulfilling prophecies, as 
Isall 1 , and the expectation of the Jews (cp. 
Mkl235 Jn7 42 ) that the Messiah would be 
descended from David : cp. Mtl 1 -" Lk3 23 - 32 . 

4. Declared] cp. Acl3 33 . Son of God] For 
St. Paul's teaching on the person of Christ 
cp. 8 3 > 32 95 2Cor4 4 8 9 Phil26 Coll is '• 29. 

With power] i.e. by a display of divine 
power. The Resurrection was a miracle : cp. 
2Corl3 4 Epulis. According to] i.e. as 
regards. Spirit of holiness] Not the Holy 
Spirit, but Christ's human spirit ' in which the 
J Divinity or Divine Personality resided ' (San- 
day and Headlam). By the resurrection] As 
I His words and works marked Him out as 
\ more than mere man (cp. Mtl6 16 ), so did the 



Resurrection. Notice the confidence and the 
emphasis with which the apostles proclaimed 
the Resurrection of Christ as being a certain 
fact, and as proving the truth of the gospel : 
see on 4 2 ^ Acl 22 2 24f - 171 s . 3 !, etc. 

5. Grace] In Acts and Epistles this word 
usually means the unmerited favour of God, 
shown (1) in forgiveness and salvation, cp. 
3 24 Ephl*; as opposed to debt, cp. 4 4 , to 
works, cp. 1 1 6 Eph 2 8 *. and to law, cp. Gal 2 21 ; 

(2) in the call of the Gentiles, cp. Eph 3 2f - ; 

(3) in special gifts of calling to and fitness 
for Christian work, cp. 12 6 1515 lCor3!° Gal 
2 9 Eph 4^. Here 'grace' means the Christian 
standing generally, to which is added in Paul's 
case the distinctive gift of apostleship. For 
obedience to the faith] RY ' unto obedience of 
faith,' i.e. to win that obedience which is con- 
nected with faith: cp. 16 26 . Nations] RY 
'the nations,' i.e. Gentiles: cp. v. 13, Gal 
l 16 2? f . Name] RY 'name's sake,' i.e. the 
Apostle works for the sake of Christ, and to 
promote His glory. The name of God is 
what God has revealed about Himself: cp. Ex 
345 f. Mt28 19 . 

7. Called to be saints] lit. 'summoned 
saints.' l Saint ' means ' consecrated to God' : 
cp. Ex22 31 . In this sense all Christians are 
saints : cp. lPet2 9 . 

8-15. The Apostle greatly desires to visit 
Rome. 

Paraphrase. ' (8) I thank God that your 
faith is so well known. (9) I constantly pray 
about you, (10) asking that God may permit 
me soon to visit you. (11) For I long to im- 
part to you some spiritual benefit, (12) in fact 
that we may be mutually helped by each 
other's faith. (13) I have often planned a 
visit, although I have been prevented, for (14) 
all Gentiles, of whatever race, lie within the 
sphere of my duty. (15) Therefore, so far 
as the decision rests with me, I am eager to 
preach the gospel to you.' 

9. Serve] The Gk. word is used of the wor- 
ship of God by people or priest. St. Paul's 
work of preaching the gospel was a priestly 
service, in which he offered the Gentiles as 
a sacrifice to God : cp. 15 16 . With] RY 
' in.' 10. Have a prosperous journey] RY 'be 
prospered.' He knew his journey to Jerusalem 
would be dangerous, cp. 15 30 , but did not fore- 
see that he would visit Rome as a prisoner: 
cp. Ac27 24 . 11. Spiritual gift] The term is 
sometimes used of the special endowments 
which accompanied the reception of the Holy 
Spirit: cp. 1 Cor 12-1 4. The meaning here is 
that St. Paul hopes the Romans may increase 
in faith and love through his teaching and 
influence. Established] i.e. strengthened in 
faith and other virtues. 12. The Apostle 
will not assume superiority. 13. Let] RY 
'hindered,' i.e. by more pressing calls: cp. 



55 



865 



1. 14 



ROMANS 



15 22f . 14. Greeks] The Roman Christians 
were Greek-speaking for 250 years. To the 
Greek and Roman, all the rest of the world 
was barbarian. 15. In me] Emphasis on 'me'; 
God might will otherwise. St. Paul was going 
to Jerusalem, and felt that his life would be 
in danger: cp. 15 25f - Ac2022f. 

16, 17. The main subject of the Epistle — 
Righteousness by Faith. 

Paraphrase. '(16) I am not ashamed to 
preach the message of Christ even in great 
Rome, for it is the divine power whereby 
God brings salvation to all who have faith in 
Christ. (17) For in it is revealed that God 
accepts men as righteous solely on the con- 
dition of faith, as is shown in the OT.' 

16. Ashamed] cp. lCorl 23f . Salvation] i.e. 
deliverance from dangers or enemies. So it 
signified the deliverance which the Messiah 
would bring : cp. Lk 1 69 " 71 . Here it is such as 
belongs to a spiritual kingdom ; and is from 
'sin,' cp. Mtl 21 Lkl"; from 'wrath,' cp. 5 9 ; 
from 'the grave,' cp. 13 n ; and to 'eternal 
life,' cp. Jn3 15f . As regards conversion and 
baptism, Christians ' were ' or ' are saved,' cp. 
8 24 (RV), Eph2 5 - 8 2 Tim I 9 ; as recipients of 
God's favour and blessing, Christians are 
' being saved,' cp. Ac24?(RV), 1 Corl is (RV); 
as regards future glory, Christians ' will be 
saved,' cp. 13 n MtlO 22 . Believeth] i.e. who 
devotes and entrusts himself to Christ as his 
Lord and Saviour. The Jew first] to whom 
the Messiah was promised and from whom He 
came. Greek] i.e. any one not a Jew = Gen- 
tile. 17. The righteousness of God] RV ' a 
righteousness of God.' A state of righteous- 
ness, or acceptance with God, to which man 
could not attain by his own efforts, but which 
God bestows upon him of His free grace. 

From faith to faith] RV ' by faith unto 
faith,' i.e. given, on condition of faith, to those 
who have faith: cp. 3 22 . Just] RV 'right- 
eous.' The quotation is from Hab2 4 , which 
referred to preservation from the calamities of 
the Chaldean invasion. The principle is that 
it is faith which gains God's approval. 

18-32. The Apostle has briefly stated God's 
offer of righteousness in the Christian mes- 
sage. He now proceeds to show that all men 
have failed to attain acceptance with God 
by other means. First he speaks of the Gen- 
tiles. They lie under God's wrath on account 
of their unrighteousness (v. 18). They might 

have had a knowledge of God (vv. 19, 20), 
but have turned away to idolatry (vv. 21-23), 
and arc sunk, in consequence, in moral corrup- 
tion (vv. 21 -32). 

Paraphrase. '(18) The need of such a method 
of salvation IB evidenl when wc consider how 

mankind has always suppressed tin- truth within 

and lived in wickedness. For them wrath, not 
righteousness, is revealed. (19) For instance, 



Go J has made Himself known to the Gentiles ; 
(20) for His power and divinity are so clearly 
impressed upon the visible creation that they 
cannot plead ignorance. (21) They had a 
revelation of God, but instead of worshipping 
Him aright, they became so involved in useless 
speculations about His nature, that they lost 
the sense of truth and right. (22) Their 
conceit led to such idolatrous folly (23), that 
they regarded an image of man or beast as 
a fitting representation of the majesty of 
God. (24-27) Therefore God gave them over 
to the degradation which was the result of their 
apostasy. (28-31) Their rejection of the 
true idea of God was followed, as a penal 
consequence, by depravity and every kind of 
sin. (32) So great is their wickedness, that 
although they know the guilt of such sins, they 
not only commit them, but approve of them 
in others.' 

18. Wrath] i.e. the steadfast indignation of 
God against sin. God ' would not love good, 
unless He hated evil, the two being insepar- 
able ' (Trench). Revealed] by the state to 
which sin had brought the Gentile world, and 
by God's revelation of a coming day of wrath : 
cp. 2 5 . Hold] RV ' hold down,' i.e. sup- 
press. 19. Known . . in them] i.e. nature 
teaches a knowledge of God, and man has the 
faculty of receiving the teaching. 20. From] 
RV ' since.' By] RV ' through.' Godhead] 
RV ' divinity.' 

21. Vain] i.e. foolish, empty. Imagina- 
tions] RV ' reasonings,' i.e. about God. 

23. Changed] i.e. exchanged. Glory] i.e. 
the manifested power and goodness of God. 

Into] RV ' for.' Man] as in Greece and 
Rome, where even immorality was ascribed 
to the gods. Birds, etc.] as in Egypt. 

24. Gave them up] Those who forsake God, 
forsake Him who restrains evil and inspires 
good. Further, one sin leads to another, by 
natural consequence which is God's law : cp. 
Ps81 12 Ac7 42 . So the idolatry of success, 
money, pleasure, and luxury, often leads to 
gambling, dishonesty, and vice. 

25. Who] RV ' for that they.' Changed] 
RV ' exchanged.' Truth of God] i.e. the true 
idea of God. Into a lie] RV ' for a lie,' i.e. 
for an idol, a false conception of God. More] 
RV ' rather.' 

26. Affections] RV ' passions.' 

28. Convenient] RV' fitting.' 

29. Debate] RV 'strife.' Whisperers] i.e. 
secret slanderers. 

30. Despiteful] RV ' insolent.' Proud] RV 
• haughty.' 

32. Knowing] i.e. by conscience. Judg- 
ment] RV 'ordinance.' Have pleasure in] 
R V ' consent with.' A sign of ' complete victory 
over conscience, and complete callousness to 
the moral ruin of others ' (Moule). 



866 



ROMANS 



2.18 



CHAPTEK 2 

The Failuke of the Jews 

In c. 1 St. Paul showed that the Gentiles 
were under God's judgment on account of sin. 
Now he is about to turn to the Jews. He 
asserts first, that God's judgment will fall 
impartially upon all sinners (vv. 1-11). Each 
man will be judged by the light which he has 
(vv. 12-16). The privileges and knowledge 
of the Jews only aggravated the guilt of their 
flagrant disobedience (vv. 17-24) ; and cir- 
cumcision would not protect them, for God 
looks at the heart and life (vv. 25-29). 

I— II. The Jew would agree in condemning 
the sins mentioned in c. 1, yet he himself 
was equally guilty, and must be judged, like 
the Gentiles, by his deeds, whether good or 
bad. 

Note. There is no contradiction here to the 
doctrine of justification by faith, for (1) St. 
Paul is speaking of men apart from the gos- 
pel ; (2) ' faith is present in a more or less 
rudimentary state in every upward effort or 
aspiration of man ' (Hort, quoted by Gore) ; (3) 
good works are the fruit and evidence of faith. 

Paraphrase. '(1) Perhaps you condemn such 
sinners. In doing so, you condemn yourself, 
for you too are guilty. (2) We all know that 
God's judgment against evildoers is unerring 
and impartial. (3) Do you think you are differ- 
ent from others, and exempt from judgment ? 
(4) or do you think God is too kind to punish 
you, not understanding that His kindness is 
meant to move you to repent ? (5) Seeing 
that you do not repent, you are daily incurring 
a heavier judgment. (6) For God will judge 
every man by his deeds, (7-10) whether he be 
Jew or Gentile, giving eternal life to those who 
do good, while there will be wrath for all who 
persist in evil ; (11) for God judges impartially.' 

i. Inexcusable] RY ' without excuse ' : cp. 
120. Judges] cp. Gal 2 15 . The same things] 
of the same kind, if not so glaring. 2. Are 
sure] RY ' know,' i.e. by reason and revela- 
tion. 5. After] i.e. in accordance with. 

Against] RY 'in.' 8. Contentions] RY 
' factions,' i.e. upholding their ideas and 
traditions against God's voice : cp. Jn5 44 . 

Indignation] RY ' shall be indignation.* 

9. Jew first] privilege increases responsi- 
bility. 11. Respect of persons] i.e. regard 
for the outward circumstances of a man in- 
stead of his real character ; here of the 
partiality of an unjust judge : cp. AclO 34 
Gal26 Eph69 Col3 2 5 Jas2i. 

12-16. All men are under a law of some 
kind, whether revealed law or the light of 
nature ; and by the law that they have they 
will be judged. 

Paraphrase. ' (12) I say God is impartial, for 
He will punish every man who sins against the 



light, whether, as with Gentiles, it be the light 
of conscience, or, as in the case of the Jews, the 
light of law. (13) It is not because a man has 
a law, but because he keeps it that he will be 
justified. (14) This applies to Gentiles as well 
as Jews. For Gentiles have an inner law of 
nature, as is shown by their good deeds, (15) 
which testify to a sense of right and wrong ; 
their conscience shows the same thing ; and 
so does the fact that they blame or praise one 
another's actions. (16) By this law they will 
be judged at the last.' 

12. Without law] i.e. without a revealed 
law of right and wrong. In the law] RY 
' under law.' By the law] RY ' by law.' The 
expression ' the law ' means the Law of Moses ; 
' law,' without the article, means law in general, 
'the will of God for man's conduct.' St. 
Paul regards the pre-Messianic period as 
essentially a period of law, both for Jew and 
for Gentile ' (Sanday and Headlam). 13. The 
law] RY ' a law.' Justified] i.e. declared 
righteous at the Judgment. 14. Not the law] 
RY ' no law.' By nature] i.e. without a 
revelation. 

15. Which] RY ' in that they.' The work 
of the law] i.e. the effect of the law in 
marking what is right from what is wrong. 

Conscience] the faculty by which we reflect 
upon the character of our actions. It may be 
more or less enlightened, cp. lCorS 7 ' 10 *- ; it 
may become corrupt through sin, cp. Tit 1 15 , 
and give no light, cp. Mt6 23 . Therefore a 
man's appeal to conscience is not decisive, 
unless he has taken pains to inform it and 
keep it pure. 16. My gospel] i.e. the mes- 
sage I am commissioned to preach : cp. 16 25 
2 Tim 2 8 . Judgment by Christ is a distinctive 
doctrine of the gospel : cp. Mt25 31f - Acl7 31 
lCor45 2Cor5 1 0. 

17-24. Here, first, the Jew is expressly 
addressed. He relied upon God's favour and 
his knowledge of God's will. Yet his wicked- 
ness was a matter of common knowledge. (St. 
Paul is speaking generally ; there were bright 
exceptions.) 

Paraphrase. ' (17) I turn to the Jew, proud 
of his religious superiority, (18) and of the 
knowledge of God's will and the high ideal of 
conduct which he derives from the Law of Moses, 
(19, 20) thinking that he is in the light and 
all other peoples in darkness. (21-23) How 
shameful, then, is the conduct which is so 
contrary to his profession, (24) and which 
brings such dishonour upon the name of God 
among the heathen ! ' 

17. Jew] the national name. Restest in] 
RY ' restest upon,' i.e. feeling secure of God's 
favour from the mere possession of the Law. 

Of God] i.e. as peculiarly bound to the Jew. 

18. Approvest, etc.] i.e. able to distinguish 
delicately between the more and the less good. 



867 



2. 20 



ROMANS 



3. 19 



20. Form] i.e. perfect embodiment. 
2i. Cp. Mt37 Mkl240 Jn8 7. 22. Commit 
sacrilege] RV 'rob temples' : cp. Acl9 37 . 

24. Cp. Isa525Ezk36 2 i f . 

25-29. The Jew thought that because he 
was circumcised, i.e. a member of the covenant 
people, he was sure of God's favour. But 
circumcision implied a surrendered life, which 
is the only thing acceptable to God. 

Paraphrase. b (25) You trust in circum- 
cision, and it is good to be a Jew ; but if you 
are not obedient to God's Law, you are no 
better than an uncircumcised heathen, (26) 
while a heathen who, according to his lights, 
does what your law requires will be accepted 
by God although he is uncircumcised, (27) 
and will be in a superior position to you, seeing 
that you break the Law in spite of your 
advantages. (28) For the true people of God 
are those who are so, not by race or profes- 
sion only, (29) but by obedience of heart and 
life. They may not be called Jews, but they 
are praised by God.' 

25. Profiteth] cp. 3 lf - 9 lf - Keep] i.e. as a 
habit, opposed to habitual transgression. 

26. The uncircumcision] i.e. the uncircum- 
cised man. Righteousness] RV ' ordinances ' : 
cp. AclO 35 . 27. Judge] cp. v. 1. By the 
letter] RY ' with the letter,' i.e. with written 
law. 28. Cp. 9 6f - Phil 3 3 . 29. Heart] cp. 
DtlO 16 Ac7 51 . Letter] i.e. outward con- 
formity to the literal command, contrasted 
with the spiritual change which it represented. 

Praise] The word i Jew ' is derived from 
• Judah,' which means 'praised' : cp. Gn29 35 . 

CHAPTER 3 

The New Way of Acceptance with 
God 

In chs. 1 and 2 St. Paul has shown that 
both Gentile and Jew have sinned wilfully, 
and are under God's condemnation. He now 
digresses to Jewish objections against the 
gospel, which he had, no doubt, heard urged 
in synagogues (vv. 1-8). Returning to the 
main subject, he clinches his indictment of 
the Jew out of the Scriptures, and concludes 
that all the world is 'under the judgment of 
God' (vv. 9-20). 

Having thus shown that man is sinful and 
lost, In' now proceeds to set forth the gospel. 
(iod has provided a way by which acceptance, 
springing from God's love, and secured by the 
redemptive work of Christ, is granted to all 
who have faith in Christ (vv. 21-26). Thus 
acceptance depends upon faith, nol upon 
human merit <\\. 27, 28), and is open to all 
(vv. 29, 30). Ai the same time, faith leads 
to true obedience ( v. 31 ). 

1-8. Jewish objections ;m>wered. 

Paraphrase. •(!) Y<>w may say: If those 
only arc God's people who are so inwardly 



and spiritually, what advantage is it to be a 
Jew ? (2) I reply : Much ; to begin with, 
God's Word with its precious promises was 
entrusted to them. (3) And since that is so, 
will God break His word because some have 
shown their want of faith by rejecting Christ ? 
(4) Impossible ! Whoever be false, God will 
be found true, His promises will be justified 
and His conduct vindicated. (5) You may 
say : If this be so, our sin in rejecting Christ 
has made God's faithfulness to His promises 
clear, and it is unjust of Him (humanly 
speaking) to punish us. (6) I reply : Horrible ! 
On your grounds no sin would be punished. 
(7) If you plead : This is an exceptional case. 
My sin has glorified God by showing how He 
keeps His word : (8) why should I not be 
accepted by Him equally with the Christians, 
who say, as I say, let us do evil that good 
may come ? I can only reply : Such a 
principle is to be condemned, and to impute 
it to us is slanderous.' 

2. Much] cp. 9 4f . Oracles] i.e. the utter- 
ances of God in the OT. 3. Did not believe] 
RY ' were without faith.' Unbelief] RV « want 
of faith.' Faith] RY ' faithfulness.' 4. God 
forbid] lit. 'let it not be.' Written] Ps51 4 . 
Art judged] RY ' comest into judgment.' 

5. Taketh vengeance] RY ' visiteth with 
wrath.' As a man] RY ' after the manner of 
men,' i.e. speaking of the dealings of God as if 
they were the dealings of men : cp. Gal 3 l: '. 

7. For] RY 'but/ 8. Evil] St. Paul said, 
' We are not justified because of what we do.' 
His adversaries represented him as saying. 
' It does not matter what we do ' : cp. v. 31, 
6 1 ' 15 . Whose, etc.] i.e. those who hold such 
a principle as ' let us do evil,' etc., will be 
condemned, and that justly. Damnation] RY 
' condemnation.' 

9-20. Jewish Scriptures testify to Jewish 
sin. 

Paraphrase. ' (9) What follows then ? We 
Jews have advantages over the Gentles, but 
are we better than they ? By no means. The 
charge I laid was against Jew as well as Gentile, 
that both are under the power of sin. (10-18) 
The Scriptures make the same charge, Psalmist 
and Prophet alike speak of universal corruption. 
(19) Such passages exclude self-justification on 
the part of the Jews, and prove the guilt of 
mankind against (iod. (20) This must always 
be so ; weak, sinful man can never attain to 
acceptance with God through obedience to law ; 
law, since it is never kept, cannot secure right- 
eousness, it can only convict of sin.' 

9. Proved] RY ' laid to the charge.' 

10-18. From Pss5 9 10 7 14i f - 36 1 140 3 
Isa59 7f . 

19. Them who are under the law] i.e. 
the Jews. Become guilty before] RY ' be 
brought under the judgment of.' 



868 



3.20 



ROMANS 



3. 30 



20. Therefore] RV ' because.' The deeds 
of the law] RM ' works of law,' i.e. done to 
merit salvation by fulfilling an appointed task : 
cp. 7™ Gal3 19 > 21 . 'Law is a factor in the 
moral life fitted to acquaint the intellect with 
the divine standard of conduct, but incapable 
of bringing the life of man into harmony with 
its precepts ' (Robertson, HDB.). No flesh] 
cp. Psl43 2 . 

21-26. The way of acceptance declared in 
the Christian message is independent of law 
(v. 21), a free gift from God through faith in 
Christ (vv. 22-24), and made possible because 
Christ's death was propitiatory (vv. 25, 26). 

Paraphrase. ' (21) We have seen that by 
obedience to law none can enter into accept- 
ance with God because none have rendered it. 
Now a way of acceptance has been revealed 
which has nothing to do with law, to which 
both Law and Prophets bear witness. (22) God 
accepts all, without distinction, who have de- 
voted their hearts to Jesus Christ. (23) I say 
all, and the want is universal. All alike have 
sinned, and feel far off from God. (24) But 
God's gracious favour is such, that He accepts 
them without question of merit, through the 
deliverance from sin and its penalty which 
Christ purchased, and which we receive by 
union with Him. (25) For on the Cross He 
offered up His life, to restore to the favour of 
God all who by faith appropriate that offering. 
In that awful spectacle God manifested His 
righteous displeasure against sin, forbidding 
us to attribute to indifference the forbearance 
by which He passed over, without adequate 
punishment, sins committed before Christ came. 
(26) In the death of Christ He so then dis- 
played, I say, His judgment against sin, that 
now the perfect holiness of His character is 
vindicated, and He can also accept those who 
have faith in Jesus.' 

21. Now] i.e. under the gospel. The right- 
eousness, etc.] RY ' apart from the law a 
righteousness of God hath been manifested ' : 
cp. I 1 ?. 'A righteousness of God,' i.e. a way 
of acceptance which God has provided. Mani- 
fested] i.e. in the Person and work of Christ : 
cp. 2Timl 10 . Witnessed] i.e. by types and 
promises. 22. Faith of] RY ' faith in ' : cp. 
Gal 2 16 . This further defines the ' righteous- 
ness' spoken of. The means by which it is 
received is faith in Christ, and it is given to 
all who have such faith. Faith is ' man's trust- 
ful acceptance of God's gift, rising to absolute 
self -surrender, culminating in personal union 
with Christ, working within . . as a spirit of 
new life ' (Farrar, ' St. Paul,' p. 473). Differ- 
ence] RY ' distinction.' 

23. Come short] The Gk. word, which 
means ' to feel one's need,' is that used in Lk 
15 14 of the Prodigal. Glory of God] i.e. the 
divine perfection, which is manifested in Christ 



(cp. 2 Cor4 6 ), and which shines upon man and 
transfigures him into the likeness of Christ, 
partially now, and completely hereafter : cp. 
818 2Cor3i8 Un3 2 . 

24. Justified] i.e. declared or accounted 
righteous, as by a judge ; accepted : refers to 
' them that believe,' v. 22. God can justly 
declare a sinner righteous who has faith in 
Christ because his face is turned to the light ; 
he is in sympathy with Christ, and desires to 
follow His example. Grace] see on 1 5 . Re- 
demption] ' Redemption ' means, (1) deliverance 
from bondage by payment of ransom : cp. Lv 
25 48 ; (2) deliverance in general, as of Israel 
from Egypt : cp. Ex 6 6 . Christ redeemed us 
from sin and its penalties : cp. 8 23 Eph 1 7 Col 
1 14 . The ransom was His life, not considered 
as paid to any one, but as the price which it cost 
Him to procure our deliverance (cp. MklO 45 
1 Tim 2 6) and to restore us to God : cp. 1 Cor 6 20 
7 22f . In Christ Jesus] see paraphrase. The 
form ' Christ Jesus ' (not ' Jesus Christ ') always 
refers to the glorified Christ. 

25. Propitiation] i.e. that which makes ii 
possible for God to be propitious, or favour- 
able to man. In his blood] RY ' by his blood,' 
i.e. Christ became a propitiation by shedding 
His blood. Declare] RY ' shew,' for, other- 
wise, it might have been doubted. For the 
remission, etc.] RY 'because of the passing 
over of the sins done aforetime ' : cp. Acl7 30 . 
' Passing over,' i.e. temporary suspension of 
punishment (Sanday and Headlam). 

Forbearance] i.e. temporary suspension of 
anger. 

27-31. Since salvation is by faith, it follows 
that no claim can be made on the ground of 
human merit (vv. 27, 28), that Jew and Gentile 
are on the same footing (vv. 29, 30), and that 
law becomes fulfilled at last (v. 31). 

Paraphrase. ' (27) It is plain that the gospel 
way of salvation by faith leaves no room for 
reliance upon privilege or merits, (28) for man 
is accepted through reliance upon his Saviour, 
not upon himself. (29) It is also plain that 
Jew and Gentile are on the same footing before 
God, (30) for there is one God for all, and He 
accepts all men on the same condition, viz. 
faith. (31) Some say that by preaching salva- 
tion through faith alone we abolish law. On 
the contrary, we set the principle that God's 
will must be done on a firmer basis.' 

27. Boasting] cp. 21. 23 . The law] RY ' a 
law,' i.e. system. 28. Therefore] RM ' for.' 

Without] RY ' apart from.' 30. Circum- 
cision] i.e. Jews. Uncircumcision] i.e. Gentiles. 

By . . through] The Judaistic Christians seem 
to have held that they were justified on account 
of (' by ') circumcision and obedience to the Law, 
if they had faith (' through faith ') ; but that 
Gentiles were justified on account of (' by ') 
faith, if, in addition, they were circumcised and 



869 



3.31 



ROMANS 



4. 13 



obeyed the Law (' through law '). St. Paul re- 
joins that justification depends on faith alone ; 
Jew and Gentile alike are justified both ' by ' and 
' through' faith: cp. v. 28, Gal 2 ^ 31. The 
law] RM ' law.' God's will is brought out 
more fully in the gospel (cp. Mt 5 17f -), and 
the believer is enabled to fulfil it: cp. 6, 8 4 
Gal 2 19'. 

CHAPTER 4 

Acceptance by Faith foreshadowed in 

the old Dispensation 

In 3 21f - St. Paul set forth the great truth of 
acceptance by faith. A Jew might object 
that it was new, and therefore not true. In 
3 31 St. Paul answered that in the Law and in 
faith there is the same moral and religious 
ideal, which is more completely developed and 
more perfectly fulfilled by faith. Now he 
turns to the past, to show that acceptance by 
faith is not a new idea. It was faith for 
which Abraham was accepted, not works (vv. 
1-8), nor circumcision (vv. 9-12), nor on ac- 
count of obedience to the Law (vv. 13-17). 
The history shows the nature of the faith 
which God accepts (vv. 18-22), in our case as 
well as in Abraham's. 

1-8. It was faith, not works, for which 
Abraham was accepted. 

Paraphrase. '(1) Take, e.g., the case of 
Abraham. His descendants should readily 
admit the force of his case, which shows that 
acceptance by faith is no new principle. (2) 
If he had been accepted on account of his 
deeds, he would have had something to be 
proud of in man's sight. And we men do 
honour him, and rightly. Yet even then he 
could not claim merit before God. (3) For 
the Scripture says that it was on account of his 
faith that he was reckoned as righteous. (4) 
Now reward for work would not be so spoken 
of. There is no favour in paying wages that 
are due. (5) Such an expression as " his faith 
is reckoned for righteousness " is only properly 
used of one who makes no claim for work 
done, but simply puts faith in God. (6-8) 
Notice, too, how David pronounced a man 
happy, although he had sinned deeply, simply 
because God forgave him and reckoned him as 
righteous.' 

1. What .. then] refers to 3 2 < f . That] 
RM of.' As pertaining to the flesh] i.e. by 
natural descent. The question is put in the 
mouth of a Jew. Therefore it does not 
follow thai the Etonian Christians were chiefly 
Jews. ( ']>. also I ( "or LO 1 , ' our fathers,' though 
the Corinthian christians were mostly Gentile. 

Hath found] RM omits. 

2. Abraham] St. James also refers to Gn 
l.V ; . hut concludes ( that by works ,1 man is 
justified, and not by faith only,' Jas2 38( . St. 
James wrote of mere intellectual belief: op. 



Jas 2 19 . St. Paul meant by ' faith ' a complete 
change of relation towards God, which would 
affect the believer's actions: cp. c. 6. Gnlo 6 
was a common text for discussion among the 
Jews. Possibly St. James was thinking of per- 
versions of St. Paul's teaching. Glory] cp. 3 27 . 

3, 5. Counted] RV ' reckoned.' 4. Work- 
eth] i.e. a workman in daily life. 5. Worketh 
not] i.e. as ground of acceptance. Ungodly] 
not meant of Abraham ; the extreme case is 
put : cp. 5 6 . 6. Describeth, etc.] R Y ' pro- 
nounceth blessing upon.' Imputeth] RV 
' reckoneth.' Without] RY ' apart from.' 

7. Blessed] i.e. happy ; from Ps32 lf . 

9-12. The blessing was not dependent upon 
circumcision, to which as signifying admission 
to covenant with God, the Jews attach such 
importance. 

Paraphrase. '(9) Again. The blessing was 
irrespective of circumcision. (10) For at the 
time that Abraham's faith was reckoned for 
righteousness, he was uncircumcised. (11) 
His circumcision was but a token, by which 
God sealed that acceptance which was his as a 
believing man. Hence, all Gentiles who be- 
lieve are his spiritual children, and have 
righteousness reckoned to them. (12) And 
those Jews are his children who are not 
merely circumcised, but believe as he be- 
lieved.' 

9. Cometh'] RY 'Is this blessing then 
pronounced.' 10. Abraham's faith preceded 
circumcision by many years: cp. Gnl5 6 
17io,24. „. sign] cp. GnlTH, 'a token 
of the covenant,' Seal] ratifying his accept- 
ance. Imputed] RY ' reckoned.' 

13-17. The promise was independent of 
any system of law. 

Paraphrase. ' (13) Again. The promise to 
Abraham of world-wide inheritance was not 
to take effect by obedience to law. (14) For 
if the inheritance be for those who keep a law, 
then faith has lost its value, and the promise 
has been nullified. (15) For the effect of law, 
which reveals the requirements of a righteous 
God, is to bring about, not blessing, but con- 
sciousness of sin and expectation of God's 
wrath; transgression cannot exist without 
some law to be broken. (16) Therefore ac- 
ceptance was made to depend upon faith, that 
it might proceed from God's bounty not our 
merit, and that all Abraham's descendants 
mighl be certain of obtaining the promise. 
And by ^descendants I mean, not Jews only, 
hut all those who have the faith which he had. 
(17) For in spite of his old age, lie fully be- 
lieved G-od who promised him seed, and God 
has made him the father of all who believe in 
Jesus Christ.' 

13. Heir of the world] i.e. by the univer- 
sality of the reign of Christ: cp. Gnl22t 
22 Wi. ^ 



870 



4 14 



ROMANS 



5.5 



14. Void] because an opposite condition 
would have been brought in : cp. Gal3 18 . 

15. Cp. 3 20 . For where] RY ' but where.' 

16. By grace] RY ' according to grace,' i e. 
on the principle of free gift. Sure] because, 
(1) not depending on the fulfilment of a law 
which would certainly be broken, and (2) ad- 
mitting Jew and Gentile by the same gate 
of faith. Of the law] i.e. believing Jews. 

Abraham] who was not under .the Law. 
Us all] i.e. Christians, from 'many nations.' 

17. Father] cp. Gnl7 5 . Before . . God] i.e. 
God regards Abraham as father of all believers. 

Quickeneth] i.e. makes alive. When God 
promised Isaac, Abraham, and Sarah were as 
though dead : cp. v. 19. Calleth] i.e. sum- 
mons. Which be not] i.e. the promised seed. 

18-22. It was because Abraham's faith was 
so unwavering, that it was reckoned unto him 
for righteousness. 

Paraphrase. '(18) His confident faith, when 
it was against human probability that God's 
promise of a son should be realised, led 
to the fulfilment of the promise. (19) His 
faith did not fail at the apparent impossibility. 
(20) Fixing his eye on God's promise, he 
received fresh youth, acknowledging God's 
power and truth (21) with complete certainty. 
(22) And because his faith was unwavering, God 
accepted it as though it were righteousness.' 

18. Believed in hope] i.e. had confident faith. 
That he might] RY ' to the end that he 

might.' So] i.e. as the stars : cp. Gnl5 5 . 

19. Being not weak] RY 'without being 
weakened.' Considered not] RY 'considered,' 
i.e. he realised his weakness, but still believed. 

Dead] RY ' as good as dead.' 20. RY ' yea, 
looking unto the promise of God, he wavered 
not through unbelief, but waxed strong through 
faith.' 21. Persuaded] RY ' assured.' 

22. Imputed] RY ' reckoned.' 

23-25. Abraham's faith is the pattern of 
ours. 

Paraphrase. '(23) Thus the history of 
Abraham's justification teaches us the principle 
on which God proceeds. (24) As Abraham 
trusted in God to bring Isaac as it were from 
death to fulfil His promise, so, if we believe 
on Him who raised up Jesus to fulfil His pur- 
pose, our faith will be accepted. (25) For 
Christ, who died because we had offended, was 
raised to bring about our acceptance.' 

23,24. Imputed] RY 'reckoned.'. 24. Us] 
RY 'our sake' : cp. 15 4 lCor9 10 . If we be- 
lieve] RY ' who believe.' 25. Delivered] RY 
'delivered up,' i.e. by the Father: cp. 8 32 ; 
equally by Himself : cp. Gal2 2 ° Eph5 2 . Our 
justification] The Resurrection brings about 
our justification, because (1) it shows the 
divinity of Christ, and therefore the value of 
His death: cp. lCorl5 17 ; (2) through the 
Resurrection, faith in the Atonement became 



possible, for it showed that the Atonement 
was complete : cp. 3 25f - 6 10 ; (3) Christ risen 
becomes the source of new life to us by 
our union with Him : cp. 6 n . 

CHAPTER 5 

God's Salvation and the Results of 

its Acceptance 

St. Paul completes his exposition of accept- 
ance by faith by pointing to its blessed effects 
(vv. 1-11). In the following vv. he compares 
sin and acceptance, as to which he has shown 
that all men have sinned, while acceptance is 
open to all, and declares the cause of this 
universality. Sin is universal, because all men 
derive their being from Adam. But, over 
against Adam, Christ has entered into our race 
as its new head ; and from Him, all who be- 
come His derive righteousness and life, which 
OA^erpower sin and death (vv. 12-21). 

I— II. Acceptance brings about triumphant 
hope of glory, which is guaranteed by our 
assurance of the love of God. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Blessed effects follow 
upon acceptance, and we should realise them. 
Such are reconciliation to God, (2) and admis- 
sion to His gracious favour, with triumphant 
expectation of future glory. (3) Beyond this, 
we should triumph even in tribulations, because 
their bracing effect upon the character (4) 
strengthens our expectation of glory, (5) and 
this expectation is confirmed by a sense of 
God's love implanted by the Holy Ghost. 

(6) We are right in trusting utterly to such 
love as God revealed by the death of Christ. 

(7) Its like has never been known among 
men, for we were not good, (8) but sinful, when 
Christ died for us. (9) In view of this, we 
may trust Him to save us to the end. (10) 
For if God sacrificed His Son for His enemies, 
He will surely save His friends. (11) Recon- 
ciled, therefore, to God, we triumph continually 
in His abiding love.' 

1. Therefore] cp. 4 24f . Justified] i.e. ac- 
cepted. We have] RY 'let us have.' 2. We 
have access] RY ' we have had our access,' as 
into a king's palace : cp. Gal5 4 . Rejoice] RY 
'let us rejoice.' Glory] i.e. the future and 
everlasting presence of God : see on 3 23 . 

3. We glory, etc.] RY ' let us also rejoice 
in our tribulations' : cp. Acl4 22 . Worketh] 
i.e. brings about. Patience] i.e. bearing up 
under great trials without losing heart. 

4. Experience] RY ' probation,' i.e. a test : 
here the character of one who has come through 
the test of suffering strong and ready for all 
things. 5. Maketh not ashamed] RY ' putteth 
not to shame,' i.e. by proving mistaken. Love 
of God] i.e. to us. Is given] RY ' was given,' 
i.e. at a definite time : cp. AclO 44 19 2 . St. 
Paul takes it for granted that all Christians 
have had a definite gift of the Holy Spirit, 



871 



5.6 



ROMANS 



which followed their acceptance of Christ (cp. 
Gal3 2 ), one effect of which was to fill their 
hearts with a sense of God's love to them : 
cp. 8 15f . 

6. Without strength] RV weak,' i.e. morally. 
In due time] i.e. when the need was greatest. 

7. Righteous] i.e. just, contrasted with the 
more lovable 'good man.' 8. Commendeth] 
i.e. shows its excellence : cp. 3 5 . 9. Wrath] 
RV ' the wrath of God ' : see on 1 18 . 

10. Enemies] i.e. opposing God's truth 
and will: cp. 8 7 Coll 21 . Reconciled] cp. 
2Cor5 18f . Saved by his life] RM ' in his life,' 
i.e. saved from the power of sin now, and from 
death and God's wrath hereafter, through 
our union with the life of the risen Christ : 
cp. 6 8f - 8 10f . 11. Joy] RV 'rejoice,' referring 
to vv. 2 f . In God] i.e. in His love and father- 
hood. Now] i.e. under the gospel. Atone- 
ment] i.e. at-one-ment ; RV ' reconciliation.' 

12-14. Thus Christ is the head and repre- 
sentative of humanity, and we derive accept- 
ance and life from Christ, as the OT. shows 
that we derive sin and death from Adam. 

Paraphrase. '(12) Thus there are two 
heads, from whom the human race derives 
inheritance. From Adam all inherited a sinful 
tendency, which became active, so that all died. 

(13) When there is no law to be broken, there 
can be no guilt, yet even before the Law came, 

(14) death was universal, and those who had 
not broken any express command nevertheless 
died. Therefore sin and death are derived 
from Adam ; and in this respect Christ, from 
whom, by union with Him, we derive righteous- 
ness and life, is Adam's counterpart.' 

12. Wherefore] refers to vv. 9-11. As . . 
by sin] sentence broken off ; would continue, 
' so by one man righteousness and life entered.' 

By one man] cp. 1 Cor 1 5 21 f - 45 . Death] i.e. 
physical. Upon] RV 'unto.' For that] i.e. 
because. Have sinned] RV ' sinned.' 

13. Was in the world] as proved by human 
history. Not imputed] i.e. as guilty of wilful 
transgression of law: cp. 4. 14. After the 
similitude] RV ' likeness,' i.e. by consciously 
breaking law. 

15-21. But our inheritance from Christ 
more than repairs (lie ruin of the Fall. 

Paraphrase. '( 1 5) Hut the inheritances from 
Adam ami from Christ differ in degree and in 
kind. For it' Adam's Fall was so powerful 

for harm, (Jod's favour, shown through Christ, 
is much more powerful for good. (16) Again, 

sin is bo terrible, that one Bin led to man's 
condemnation, lint God's favour is still 
mightier, for M offers pardon to all sins. (17) 
So mighty is it that, while we know that 
Adam's sin brought death, it is much more 
easy to conceive that those who welcome 
God's bounty will attain to life and glory 
through Christ. (IK) To sum up; one sin 



brought condemnation to all, but, over against 
this, one verdict of acquittal has brought 
acceptance and life within the reach of all. 
(19) For the obedience of the second head of 
humanity reverses the effect of the disobedience 
of the first. (20) The Law has a subordinate 
place ; it was meant to convert the unconscious 
sin of the world into definite transgression, 
that men might learn how far they are from 
doing God's will. But God's favour was so 
stupendously manifested as to overwhelm 
even this multiplied sin, (21) that the 
power of His gracious favour might prevail 
over that of sin, and bring man, through the 
work of Christ, to acceptance and to eternal 
life.' 

15. Offence] RV 'trespass.' The Gk. word 
means a 'fall.' Free gift] i.e. of acceptance. 

One] RV 'the one,' i.e. Adam. Many] RV 
' the many,' i.e. mankind. Be dead] RV ' died,' 
i.e. became liable to death through sin. Grace] 
see on l 5 . By grace, etc.] RV 'by the grace 
of the one man.' Abounded] i.e. in power for 
good. 16. As it was by one] RV' as through 
one.' To condemnation] i.e. leading to con- 
demnation. Offences] RV 'trespasses.' Unto 
justification] i.e. leading to a sentence of ac- 
quittal. 17. By one] RV ' through the one.' 

Abundance] refers to 'abounded,' v. 15. 

Righteousness] i.e. acceptance. Reign] i.e. 
enjoy glory, and liberty from sin and death. 

Life] i.e. heavenly life. 18. By the offence 
of one] RV ' through one trespass.' To con- 
demnation] i.e. leading to condemnation. 

Righteousness of one] better, ' one sentence 
of acquittal,' passed by God in consequence of 
Christ's obedience : cp. v. 19. Unto justifi- 
cation of life] i.e. leading to acceptance which 
results in life. 19. One] RV ' the one.' 

Many] RV ' the many.' Were made sin- 
ners] in the sense of vv. 12-14. Shall many 
be made] i.e. as generation after generation 
arises. 20. Entered] RV ' came in beside ' : 
cp. Gal3 1!) . Offence] RV 'trespass,' i.e. 
Adam's. Abound] i.e. multiply: cp. 3 20 7 13 . 

Much more abound] overpowering the sin. 

21. Sin, etc.] RV k sin reigned in death,' 
i.e. sin had power which was death-bringing : 
cp. Isa32 1 . Unto . . life] i.e. resulting in . . 
life. 

CHAPTERS 6-8 

St. Paul has finished his exposition of Justi- 
fication (I) 15 -;")- 1 ), and now passes to Sancti- 
fication. In other words, having shown how 
the believer is delivered from the guilt of sin, 
he L r <>< s on to show how he is delivered from 
its power. 

('. (i shows the Christian abiding in living 
union with the risen Christ by the power of 
faith. C. 7 describes the failure of the most 
earnest life apart from Christ. C. 8 shows 



872 



6.1 



ROMANS 



6.7 



Christ abiding in the Christian by the power 
of the spirit : cp. Jnl5 4 . 

CHAPTEE 6 

The New Righteousness in Union with 
Christ 

St. Paul's begins by repeating an objection 
he must often have heard from Jewish adver- 
saries (cp. 3 s ), and suggested here by 5 20 — 
' Does not this teaching of pardon by God's 
free favour practically encourage sin ? ' The 
objection is stated in two forms (vv. 1, 15). 
The Apostle not only answers his opponents : 
he is still more concerned to build up his 
readers in a holy life. He opposes to the 
objection the fact of the believer's union with 
Christ. Faith in Christ means devotion to 
Christ's Person. The Christian is so vitally 
joined to Christ that he is dead with Him to 
sin, and risen with Him to a new state in 
which sin has no place (vv. 1-14). The 
Apostle then presents the same truth in a form 
more easily grasped. In coming to Christ, 
the Christian has experienced a change of 
service ; he is freed from Sin and bound to 
serve Righteousness (vv. 15-23). 

1-14. The Christian life should be like 
Christ's risen life, i.e. it should be lived in 
G-od's loving Presence. Sin belonged to the old 
state, to which the Christian died in baptism. 

Paraphrase. '(1) It is objected that by 
"Justification by Faith" men are encour- 
aged to continue in sin, since the greater 
the sin, the greater the opportunity that is 
afforded for the manifestation of G-od's pardon- 
ing love to sinners. (2) But our baptism 
implied such a breaking-away from the old 
sinful life as may be compared to death. 
Therefore, to say that a Christian may live in 
sin is a contradiction. (3) For our baptism 
signified an identification of our hearts and 
wills with Christ which amounted to a real 
union with Him, so that, while we look to His 
death as the ground of our acceptance, we also 
identify ourselves with that alienation from 
the sin of the world which crucified Him, of 
which His death was the final stage. (4) 
Therefore, our immersion beneath the waters 
of baptism signified death and burial with 
Christ from the sinful life of the world. But 
it is not only His death that is ours. We 
came up out of the water, as He rose from 
the dead, that we might begin to live in a 
new condition animated by His risen life. (5) 
This necessarily follows. For if we are united 
with Him in dying, we must be united with 
Him in new life, morally and spiritually now, 
and physically hereafter. (6) Make no mis- 
take : by His death, Christ finally sealed His 
life-long refusal of sin, and showed that His 
followers must do the same. We, therefore, 
being like-minded with Him through our faith 



in Him, also repudiated sin at our baptism, 
slaying our old sinful selves. Therefore, we 
should realise that the rule of sin over our 
earthly natures is ended ; (7) just as a master's 
rule over a dead slave is ended. (8) If so, 
then life with Christ follows, (9) because we 
are one with Him, and He lives a life in which 
death cannot touch Him any more. (10) This 
is certain, for His death ended that earthly 
state in which He had contact with sin, and 
His life is now one of unbroken communion 
with God. (11) Do you, then, look upon 
yourselves also as dead in regard to sin, but 
alive to God's presence and love and claims 
by your union with Christ. (12) Therefore, 
treat even your bodies as redeemed from sin, 
and do not yield to the lusts (13) which would 
use the parts and powers of your body to 
conquer you again for sin. Rather devote 
yourselves to God once for all, as if you had 
risen from the dead, and let all the powers of 
your bodies be weapons for the good fight in 
God's service. (14) Do not fear failure. The 
power which sin has over those who are under 
law cannot exist in the life-giving atmosphere 
of the redeeming love of God in which you 
live.' 

2. Are dead] rather, ' died,' i.e. in baptism. 
Those addressed had been adult converts. 
Their baptism had been a definite act of 
attachment to Christ and of detachment from 
the .sinful world. Although to crucify sinful 
and selfish desires is painful, it is done even 
joyfully by those who are inspired to the 
imitation of Christ by the perfect beauty and 
goodness of His sacrifice, for they have ' that 
mind' in them 'which was also in Christ 
Jesus.' This, which is part of the inner 
meaning of baptism, is the spirit in which the 
true Christian will live his life. 

3. Cp. Gal 3 2 7. So many of us as] RY 
'all we who.' 4. Are buried] rather, 'were 
buried ' : cp. Col 2 12 . Into death] i.e. into a 
state of death as regards sin. Glory] i.e. 
manifestation of love and power : cp. Jnll 40 . 

Newness of life] i.e. a newness consisting in 
life : cp. Jn336 l()io 173 R G 8 2 C0I3H 

5. Been planted, etc.] RM 'become united 
with the likeness . . with the likeness,' as a 
slip is united with the tree to which it is 
grafted. 6. Is crucified] rather, 'was cruci- 
fied,' i.e. potentially, when Christ was crucified ; 
actually, in faith and baptism: cp. Mtl8 8f - 
Gal2 20 . Body of sin] i.e. the body as the 
servant of sin: cp. Col2 llf . Destroyed] i.e. 
as regards sin. 

7. Is freed from sin] As a dead slave has 
completely escaped from his master's power, 
so one who has so believed in Christ as to be 
joined with Him in His death to the sin of 
the world, should remember that sin has no 
more, legitimately, to»do with him. So far as 



873 



6.8 



ROMANS 



7.5 



its appeal to him is concerned, he should be 
dead. 8. Be dead] rather, 'died.' io. In 
that he died, etc.] RV ' the death that he died 
. . the life that he liveth.' Once] RM ' once 
for all.' ii. Through Jesus Christ our Lord] 
RV ; in Christ Jesus, 1 a phrase by which St. 
Paul often expresses our union with the 
glorified Christ, 12. Obey . . lusts] RV ' obey 
the lusts.' 13. Yield] RY ' present.' 

Instruments] RM ' weapons.' 14. Under the 
law] RY 'under law.' A code of precepts 
gives no power of fulfilment. It only (1) 
shows what is right, (2) reveals man's sinful- 
ness, (3) stimulates him to opposition : cp. 
c. 7 lCorl5 56 Gal4 5 . 'To be "under the 
law," in St. Paul's language, means to avoid 
sin from fear of penalties attached to sin by 
the law. This principle of fear is not strong 
enough to keep men in the path of duty. 
Union with Christ can alone give man the 
mastery over sin ' (Conybeare and Howson). 

15-23. The Christian is to regard sin as a 
master from whom death has freed him. He 
is now the bondservant of righteousness. 

Paraphrase. '(15) Some assert that if they 
are no longer under law they may indulge in 
sin. (16) Impossible 1 You belong either to 
sin or to God ; you cannot belong to both. 
(17) And although you were the servants of 
sin once, you have now taken the Christian 
teaching as your rule of life, (18) thus 
exchanging the service of Sin for the service 
of Righteousness. (19) The illustration is 
inadequate, for you are better than slaves, you 
are God's children. But I want you to see 
that you must now devote your bodies to 
righteousness and sanctification as unreservedly 
as once you devoted them to impurity and 
licence. (20) Formerly, you served sin only, 
(21) and the only reward you had to look for 
was eternal death. (22) Now you serve 
God only, a service leading to sanctification, 
with everlasting life in prospect. (23) Make 
no mistake. Those who serve sin receive the 
death they have deserved. But God gives to 
His servants what they could never earn, even 
everlasting life in union with Christ.' 

15. The law] RV ' law ' : cp. Gal5 13 . 

16. Cp. MtG 24 . Unto] i.e. resulting in. 
Obedience] personified : the mark of the 

lives both of the Redeemer and of the 
redeemed : cp. Phil 2* Eeb5 8f - LOU 

17. That form, etc.] RV ' that form of 

te;iehni'4 u herein) ti . Ve Were delivered,' i.e. 

Simple instruction in Christian truth and 
morality: op. A.c2 42 . 19. After the manner 
of men] i.e. I OSS an illustration drawn from 
human affairs, b. cause \<>u have not had that 

deep spiritual experience bo which l might 
appeal differently : cp. 3*. Flesh] i.e. mi 
spiritual human nature. Have yielded] RV 
• presented.' Iniquity] lit. ' lawlessness.' Unto 



iniquity] i.e. iniquity leading to iniquity with 
the result of a lawless life. Yield] RV 
' present.' Holiness] RV ' sanctification,' i.e. 
growth in holiness. 20. From] RV ' in regard 
of.' 22. Holiness] RV ' sanctification.' 

Everlasting life] i.e. future bliss. 23. Gift] 
RY ' free gift.' Through] RV ' in' : cp. v. 11, 
Un5 llf . 

CHAPTER 7 

The Inadequacy of the Law to save 
1-6. St. Paul had spoken of the Law in a 
way which would offend an earnest Jew : cp. 
3 20, 21 4 15 5 20. i n this c. (w. 7-25) he shows that 
the Law is divine in its character and bene- 
ficent in its work, but unable to free a man 
from the power of sin. Indeed, though not 
the cause, it is the occasion of sin. But first, 
in vv. 1-6, the statement in 6 14 , that Christians 
are not under law, is enforced and explained. 
Law which governs one state of life is often 
not applicable to another. Of this the marriage 
law is an example. And the Christian, by the 
death of his old self, has passed into another 
state, one in which the Law no longer has 
force. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Does any one hesitate at 
my statement (6 14 ) that we u are not under 
law " ? Let me remind him that the power of 
any law over a man ends at his death. And 
we have died with Christ to the old state of 
sin in which law applies, and risen with Him 
to a new life. (2) Or the change in our con- 
dition may be compared to the remarriage of 
a woman after the death of her husband. By 
his death, the legal ties which bound her to 
him were annulled ; (3) for now the Law has 
no power to condemn the woman, although it 
condemned a second union while the husband 
lived. (4) In like manner, the Law which applied 
to us when we were wedded to our old self, had 
no more to do with us when our old self was 
crucified with Christ. So we were free to 
wed the risen Christ, that through union with 
Him we might bring forth fruit for God our 
Master. (5) The state in which our fleshly 
nature ruled was not of such a character that 
we should desire to return to it. For the sin- 
ful passions which the Law revealed, and by 
revealing stimulated, caused us to bring forth 
fruit for Death as our master. (6) But, as it 
is, the Law has ceased to affect us. This does 
not mean that we are free to sin, but that now 
we serve God from inward impulse, instead of 
because we are told to do so by a law.' 

1. Know the law] lit. ' know law,' i.e. 
probably law in general : all know that law 
ceases to be concerned with people when they 
are dead. 2. Loosed] RV ' discharged ' : cp. 
v. 6. Law of her husband] i.e. the marriage 
law. 4. By the body of Christ] i.e. through 
your union with Christ crucified. 5. Motions 



874 



7.6 



ROMANS 



8. 



of sins] EV ' sinful passions.' ' Passions ' = 
passive feelings, e.g. hunger ; sinful, when 
they control the will. By the law] cp. vv. 
7-25, 5 20 , and on 6 14 . 6. Delivered] KV 
' discharged.' That being dead] RV ' having 
died to that,' i.e. to the Law. Spirit] RV 
' the spirit.' In the new state, the spiritual 
part of the man has been emancipated, and 
has become the predominant part of him. He 
lives, as it were, in a spiritual world, and has 
become a spiritual person ; and therefore 
desires to carry out God's will freely and fully. 
In the old state, his obedience was constrained, 
and therefore limited, by a written code. 

7-13. Although, in order that we might 
truly serve God, it was necessary that we 
should be set free from the Law (vv. 1-6), yet 
the Law is not evil. On the contrary, it does 
God's work, for it detects the sinfulness 
hidden in the soul, and exposes it in its true 
nature. 

Paraphrase. '(7) Are we to infer (e.g. from 
v. 5) that the Law is evil ? Not so : the Law 
brings sin to light. For example, the tenth 
commandment made me conscious of the sin 
of coveting. (8) Not only so, but my sin 
became active when there was a commandment 
to resist, so that I coveted all the more be- 
cause coveting is forbidden. Without law, 
sin is dormant. (9) So it was with me ; my 
conscience was untroubled until I realised the 
commandment, then sin sprang to life, and I 
knew myself to be dead before God. (10) 
How startling a consequence of a command- 
ment which pointed the way to spiritual life ! 
(11) But it was the fault of sin within, which 
persuaded me to love that which I knew the 
commandment forbade, not the fault of the 
commandment, (12) which is holy and right- 
eous and beneficent. (13) Thus I realised the 
exceeding wickedness of the sin within me, 
for it not only brought me to death, but did 
so by preventing the beneficent commandment 
from having any other effect than that of 
awakening my resistance.' 

7. Lust] RY ' coveting.' St. Paul instances 
the most searching and comprehensive com- 
mandment of the second table. 8. Taking 
occasion] RY 'finding occasion.' By the 
commandment, etc.] RY ' wrought in me 
through the commandment all manner of 
coveting.' Without] RY ' apart from.' 9. I 
was alive] ' I ' emphatic. 10. Ordained] RY 
omits. 11. Deceived] RY 'beguiled': cp. 
Gn 3 13 . ' All sin is committed under a decep- 
tion, momentary at least, as to (1) the satis- 
faction to be found in it, (2) the excuse to be 
made for it, (3) the probability of its punish- 
ment ' (Yaughan). 13. But sin] Understand 
1 became death unto me.' Working] RY ' by 
working.' 

14-25. St. Paul, taking his own case as 



typical, shows that spiritual death (vv. 11-13) 
is due, not to the Law, nor to the free choice 
of his true self, which approves the Law (vv. 
14-16, 22), but to the power of sin within 
(vv. 17, 20 f.). In doing so, he draws a picture 
of conflict, in which he does evil unwillingly, 
and is unable to do the good he wishes (vv. 
15-20). His personality includes two parts — 
' flesh ' (the lower animal nature) and ' mind ' 
or ' inward man ' (i.e. the part which thinks 
and reasons). The ' mind ' reverences God's 
Law, but is conquered by the 'flesh,' which sin 
controls. He needs a deliverer (vv. 21-25). 

The state described is that of one who has 
been awakened to the claim of God's Law and 
to hate sin, but is not under the power of the 
Spirit of Christ (c. 8). It probably describes 
St. Paul's experience for some length of time 
before his conversion. 

Paraphrase. ' (14) The Law appeals to 
man's spiritual nature, and that is why I can- 
not keep it, for the fleshly nature, over which 
sin rules, predominates in me. (15) I am like 
a slave, who works out his master's thoughts 
without sharing them. I do not what I wish, 
but what I hate, (16) thus acknowledging 
the moral excellence of the Law even while I 
break it. (17) It follows that the sin which 
dwells within me is the real agent of my 
wrong-doing. (18) For I know that no good 
dwells in my fleshly nature, because my good 
wishes are ineffectual, (19) and I do the 
evil I wish to avoid. (20) But if I do it 
against my will, the sin which dwells within 
me is the real agent. (21) Thus I am not 
free. Although I wish to do the good, sin 
says, " Thou shalt not do good, thou shalt do 
evil," and I am obliged to obey. (22) My 
reason and conscience delight in the Law of 
God, (23) but the law of sin (v. 21), which 
rules my body, wars against the dictates of my 
reason and conscience and robs me of my 
liberty. (24) I need a deliverer from this 
reign of sin in my body' (cp. 6 6 ' body of sin '), 
' (25) whom I find in Christ. The sum of the 
matter is that, left to myself, I am divided, 
serving a law of God with my reason and 
conscience, but a law of sin with my fleshly 
nature.' 

15. Allow] RY'know.' 

24. The body of this death] Sin and death 
go together. The body which is under the 
power of sin is also given over to death. 

CHAPTER 8 
The New Life in Christ in relation 

to God and the Spirit 
It was shown in 5 12 f • that condemnation for 
the guilt of sin is done away by justification 
through faith in Christ. The question as to 
the power of sin then arose, answered by the 
doctrine of sanctification in chs. 6-8. In c. 6 



875 



8. 1 



ROMANS 



8. 14 



it is asserted that the union of the Christian 
with Christ is a new condition, which involves 
death with Him to sin and resurrection to 
newness of life. In c. 7 it is made clear that 
there is no force in the Law to break the 
power of sin. Now, in c. 8, St. Paul brings 
forward the truth of the indwelling of the 
Holy Spirit, which accompanies union with 
Christ, conquering sin and death in the Chris- 
tian (vv. 1-11), and bearing witness that he is 
child and heir of God (vv. 12-17). Hence 
the Christian has such hope of glory that he 
can bear his sufferings (vv. 18-25), in which 
the Spirit helps him by intercession (vv. 26, 27), 
and which are bringing about God's purpose 
of good (vv. 28-30). In the security of that 
purpose he triumphs (vv. 31-39). 

I— II. The Christian is sanctified as well as 
justified. In Christ he receives the Spirit, who 
frees him from the power of sin and of death 
(vv. 1, 2). The object of the death of Christ 
was not only to win pardon for man, but also 
to produce right character and conduct (vv. 
3, 4). This is essential, and is brought about 
by the indwelling of the Spirit (vv. 5-9). The 
change means life, of spirit now and of body 
hereafter (vv. 10, 11). 

Paraphrase. ' (1) The deliverance spoken of 
(cp. 7 25 ) for those who are united to Christ (2) 
is brought about by the power of the life-giving 
Spirit, whom they received by union with 
Christ, which freed them from the power of 
sin and death. (3) The Law could not over- 
come sin, because man's fleshly nature could 
not respond to its demands. But God, by the 
incarnation and atonement of His Son, sealed 
the death-warrant of sin in the flesh, (4) with 
the object of producing in us that character 
and conduct which the Law requires, by 
enabling us to live by the rule of the renewed 
spiritual nature. (5) There are two states of 
life, the difference between which is wide. 
According as the fleshly or the spiritual nature 
is the ruling power, so are men engrossed 
either with fleshly or with spiritual things ; 
(6) either they are in a state of separation from 
God, which ends in death both of soul and 
body, or they have joyful communion with 
God and a happy sense of reconciliation with 
Him. (7) Death must be the portion of the 
mind set on fleshly things, because such a 
mind is in a state of hostility bo God, being 
rebellious againsi His Law. (8) They, there- 
fore Over whom the fleshly nature rules cauuot 
he acceptable to God. ('J) Hut yon, who are 
in Christ, are not so. Not the fleshly, hut the 
spiritual nature rules over you, if the Spirit of 
God dwells in you. And unless you have Him 
you are not Christ's, for it is by the Spirit 
that Christ comes to you. (10) Bui if Christ 
does dwell in you, although your body must 
die because of the onrse oi Bin, your spirit has 



already risen into new life because you are 
accepted in Christ. (11) And the Spirit 
within you is a pledge that God will cause 
your bodies also to participate in Christ's 
Resurrection.' 

I. Who walk, etc.] RY omits : probably 
borrowed from v. 4. 2. Law of sin, etc.] cp. 
723,24. 2. Likeness of, etc.] Christ took real 
' flesh,' i.e. human nature, cp. Jn 1 14 , but with- 
out its sinfulness, cp. Heb4 15 . For sin] RV 
' as an offering for sin.' Condemned sin in the 
flesh] (1) Christ proved, by a sinless human 
life, that sin is not necessary to human nature ; 

(2) Christ made expiation for sin on our behalf ; 

(3) Christ made it possible for us to die with 
Him to sin and rise with Him to newness of 
life, by union in love with Him, and by the 
power of the Spirit. 4. Righteousness] RY 
1 ordinance.' 5. Things of the flesh] i.e. 
things merely human: cp. Mtl6 23 ; merelv 
earthly: cp. Mk4^ Phil 3 19 ; or absolutely 
sinful : cp. Gal5 19f . 6. To be carnally minded 
. . spiritually minded] RY ' the mind of the 
flesh . . the mind of the spirit.' 7. Carnal 
mind] RY ' mind of the flesh.' 8. In the flesh] 
cp. 7 5 . Please God] cp. Mal3 4 . 9. Dwell] 
cp. Jnl4i7. Spirit of Christ] The Spirit of 
God is the Spirit of Christ, because He comes 
from the Son as well as from the Father. 
Also His Presence is in effect the Presence of 
Christ : cp. v. 10 Jnl4i6*. Gal4<\ 

12-17. Let us live in accordance with the 
high position which the Spirit testifies is ours, 
namely, that we are God's sons and heirs with 
Christ of glory. 

Paraphrase. '(12) Such a destiny involves 
the duty (13) of putting to death the impulses 
of the fleshly nature, by submitting yourself to 
your renewed spiritual nature. If you do so, 
you will live eternally, (1 4) an amazing destiny, 
but yours as sons of God. For you are shown 
to be sons of God by your following the guid- 
ance of God's Spirit, (15) and by the testimony 
of your own spirits, which, when you became 
Christians, no longer regarded God with the 
slavish fear the Law produced, but received 
such a consciousness of sonship that the prayer 
of our hearts is " our Father." (16) And this 
consciousness is caused by the Holy Spirit Him- 
self, who thus unites with our own spirits in 
bearing witness that we are children of God. 
(17) Well, then, if we are God's children, we are 
heirs of His glory, and shall share it with Christ 
hereafter if we share in Christ's sufferings 
now.' 

1 3. Shall die] R V • must die,' i.e. spiritually. 
Deeds of the body] i.e. so far as the body is 

not under the dominion of the spirit. 

14. Sons] cp. v. 10, 'children.' 'Children' 
denotes 'community of nature,' ' sons ' denotes 
1 dignity of heirship'' (Westcott) : cp. Jn 1 12 Gal 
gilt 4 if The privilege of sonship must be 



870 



8. 15 



ROMANS 



8. 29 



appropriated by faithful obedience to become 
actual. 15. Adoption] cp. Gal4 5 > 6 . Abba, 
Father] cp. Mkl4 3 <5 Gal 4 6. 'Abba' is an 
Aramaic word, meaning ' Father.' Probably 
Christ used it in the Lord's Prayer, and per- 
haps it came to be used as a divine name, 
' Father Abba.' 17. Heirs] Under Roman 
law, ' a will that left the property away from 
the children was invalid ' (Ramsay). If so be, 
etc.] cp. 2Tim2H f -, and Mk8 3 ^- Coll24 ip e t 
4 13 . Christ is ' the Way ' ; the main features 
of His life must be reproduced in the lives of 
His people. 

18-25. The glory to come will far outweigh 
the sufferings we must bear now. All creation 
is moving on through the mystery of pain to 
full redemption, our hope of which is so sure 
that we can wait in patience. 

Paraphrase. ' (18) I said we must suffer with 
Christ. Suffering belongs to this passing season, 
but it is not worth a thought in view of the 
coming glory (19) in which the sons of God 
will stand revealed. Even nature, animate 
and inanimate, eagerly expects that blessed 
future. (20) Although God subjected her to 
imperfection and decay, to further His pur- 
poses, it was not to be for ever. He gave her 
a sure hope (21) of future deliverance from 
the law of decay, and of sharing the freedom 
from all evil which God's children will have in 
glory. (22) She groans, indeed, but in the 
birth-throes of a better order of things. (23) 
And even we Christians, though we have the 
Spirit as a foretaste of blessedness, groan under 
the weakness and imperfections of our bodies ; 
but we await the full dignity of our sonship, 
when our bodies shall be delivered from death. 
(24) When we became Christ's we looked to 
the future for perfect happiness ; we cannot 
expect to have it now. (25) But we have 
certain hope of it, and, therefore, wait and 
endure.' 

18. In us] RY'tousward.' 19,20,21. Crea- 
ture] RY ' creation,' i.e. the irrational creation : 
cp. Gn3 17f « St. Paul represents nature 
poetically, as feeling that dissatisfaction with 
its pain and failure which exists in man's 
mind. There was a general expectation among 
the Jews, based on such passages as Isa65 m -, 
that the Messianic times would usher in a 
renovation of nature. This expectation is 
taken up in the NT.: cp. Ac3i9 f - Coll 20 
2 Pet 3 13 R6V21 1 . In what way it will be 
fulfilled is beyond our knowledge. 19. Mani- 
festation] RY 'revealing': cp. lCorl5 51f - 
1 Th 4 16 f . 20. Vanity] i.e. transitoriness, frus- 
tration : cp. Eccll 2 . Him] i.e. God : cp. Gn 
317. 20, 21. Hath subjected, etc.] RY 'sub- 
jected it. in hope that the creation,' etc. 

21. Glorious liberty] RY ' liberty of the 
glory.' 23. Firstfruits] cp. Lv23io 2 Cor 1 22 
Eph 1 13 f . Groan] cp. 2 Cor 5 2 f . 24. We are 



saved] RY k by hope were we saved ' ; better, 
' in hope,' etc. : see on 1 16 . Hope that is seen] 
here 'hope' means that which is hoped for. 

For what, etc.] RY 'for who hopeth for 
that which he seeth ? ' 25. Patience] i.e. 
patient endurance. 

26-30. While the Christian endures his 
sufferings in hope, the Spirit within is praying 
for him, better than he can pray himself (vv. 
26, 27). Meanwhile he knows that his suffer- 
ings are helping to bring about that great and 
good purpose, in fulfilment of which God has 
brought him into a state of salvation (vv. 
28-30). 

Paraphrase. ' (26) Thus we both groan 
and hope. We cannot pray definitely for the 
removal of our sufferings, because we do not 
know what is best. But the Spirit prays within 
us in inexpressible longings, (27) which God 
understands, and which are (as our words 
might not be) in accordance with His will. 
(28) And this we do know, that all things, 
even our sufferings, are helping to fulfil a plan 
by which God is bringing about good to them 
that love Him. We know this, because it was 
in pursuance of His purpose that He called 
them to become Christians ; (29) and the 
whole course of their salvation is due to His 
purpose ; by which in eternity He regarded 
them with favour, and appointed them to attain 
to the likeness of His Son, that He might be 
the eldest in a glorious family, (30) then called 
them to be His, accepted them as righteous, 
and brought them to glory.' 

26. Infirmities] RY ' infirmity,' i.e. ' our 
ignorance in asking.' What . . for] RY ' how 
we should pray': cp. Phil 1 22 f. Itself] RY 
' himself ' ; spoken of as a Person and distinct 
from the Father. 

27. Because] RM ' that.' Saints] i.e. God's 
people : see on l 7 . 

28. Called] see on l 6 . According to his 
purpose] cp. 9 11 . 

St. Paul does not say that God's purpose is 
to save some and reject others, but ' that he 
might have mercy upon all' (ll 32 ). In pur- 
suance of this purpose first the Jews, and 
then Christians, specially Gentile Christians, 
were called to hold and spread the divine 
knowledge. Among those who had been 
called were those to whom the Epistle was 
addressed. St. Paul encourages them in their 
trials by the thought that God would not for- 
sake those who had been so called by Him, 
and that, as to His favour, they were safe. On 
the other hand, he does not say that they could 
not rebel against God or forsake Him. On 
the contrary, he warns them against such 
presumptuous thoughts (11 20 f.). 

29. Foreknow] For paraphrase cp. Psl 6 
Am 3 2 Mt7 23 . Did predestinate] RY 'fore- 
ordained': cp. Ac 4 28 lCor27Ephl 5 . 11 . 



877 



8. 30 



ROMANS 



9.4 



Conformed] i.e. in essential type : cp. Phil 
26. Image] cp. lCorl5 49 2 Cor 3 ^ Phil 3 21 
Un 3 2 . Brethren] cp. Heb 2 10 f . 

30. Did predestinate] RY k foreordained.' 

Glorified] That which to us is future, is 
already complete in God's mind: cp. Eph2 4f . 

31-39. Since the Christian is the object of 
the divine love and work spoken of in the 
last section, he need fear no evil. 

Paraphrase. ' (31) We may, therefore, face 
the future triumphantly, for God is on our 
side, (32) and the love which sacrificed His 
own Son will withhold from us nothing. (33) 
God's chosen need fear no accuser. Since He 
has acquitted, (34) none can condemn them. 
Since Christ, in His death and life and glory, 
has proved His love for them, (35) neither 
suffering nor death can part us from that love. 
(36) Even though we be martyred, like the 
faithful few of old, (37) His love will make 
martyrdom a surpassing victory. (38, 39) In 
short, no power in the universe will be able to 
part us from the divine love Christ has for us.' 

32. Spared] allusion to Gn 22 16 , where 
LXX has the same word. 33. Elect] i.e. 
chosen, practically = ' called.' It is God] cp. 
Isa50 8f . 34. Intercession] cp. Heb 7 25 1 Tim 
2 1 . 36. Quotation from Ps4422. 38. Prin- 
cipalities, powers] Jewish titles of angels, 
here evil angels : cp. Eph6 12 lPet3 22 . 

39. In Christ] Christ's love is a manifesta- 
tion of God's love. 

CHAPTERS 9-11 

It was obvious that the Church of Christ 
was coming to be almost entirely a Gentile 
Church, and that the Jews as a whole were 
refusing to accept Jesus as their Messiah. 
The Jew argued from this fact that Christianity 
could not be true. For if the Christian Church 
were really the fulfilment of the promised 
Messianic kingdom, and if the Jews were shut 
out from it, then God's promises to the Jews 
in the OT. would have been broken, which 
could not be imagined. 

In chs. 9-11, St. Paul grapples with this 
objection : — 

(1) He points out that in previous epochs 
God had narrowed His choice, making a fin -h 
selection out of those already selected ; and 
He may be acting so again (9 1-u ). 

(2) God is supreme. He may choose His 
instrument! as lie will, and we have no right 
to criticise (9 •*■••). 

('.'>) If the Jewi have failed, it is because of 
their unbelief (c. i<»). 

(4) After ;ill, there may be more faithful 
Jews than is supposed, SS in the time of 
Elijah (11 >-'"). 

('>) Seeing the reception of the Gentiles, the 
Jews themselves maj be stirred up bo accepi 
Christ. God has forgotten neither them nor 



His promises, and His gracious purpose will 
not fail (lln-36). 

It should be noted that these chs. mainly 
treat of the selection by God of nations and 
Churches to spiritual functions and responsi- 
bilities. They have nothing to do with the 
predestination of individuals to salvation or 
condemnation, and the argument closes with the 
statement that what God has done has been with 
the purpose of having mercy upon all (ll 32 ). 
While these chs. assume that God chooses 
His instruments for reasons which we cannot 
fathom, and which are independent of human 
merit and of birth or nationality, at the 
same time there are conditions which must be 
fulfilled on man's part. Those who have been 
chosen or elected, are free to fall away ; they 
have done so in the case of the Jewish nation 
— they may do so in the case of the Gentile 
Church. They can only retain their position 
by ' faith,' i.e. here, by submitting themselves 
to God's purpose (10 2 0f-). 

CHAPTER 9 
The Rejection of Israel no Disparage- 
ment or Disproof of the Gospel 

The Apostle sorrows over the exclusion of 
Israel (vv. 1-5), but their exclusion does not 
involve any breach of God's promises, for He 
always made a selection, even among the 
members of the chosen family (vv. 6-13). 
This cannot be unjust, for God has stated it 
to be His method (vv. 14-18). We should 
have no right to cavil, even if God seemed to 
use us sternly (vv. 19-21). But He has acted 
with mercy (vv. 22-29), and Israel has fallen 
through want of faith (vv. 30-33). 

1-5. It is with the deepest sorrow that St. 
Paul sees the Jews outside the kingdom, for 
he loves them as brethren and remembers 
their privileges. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) It is the solemn truth 
(2) that my heart aches (3) over my 
brethren of Israel, so that I could wish to 
give my soul for their salvation. (4) How 
terrible is the fall of those who had such 
privileges from God, (5) who are descended 
from the patriarchs, and from whom, on the 
human side, has come the Messiah, He who is 
almighty and divine ! ' 

1. In Christ] see on 6" Col 3°. In the 
Holy Ghost] i.e. under His influence. 3. I 
could wish] i.e. if it were lawful and possible. 

Accursed] RV w anathema,' reproducing the 
Gk. : cp. 1 Cor 1 2 3 1 6 22 Gal 1 8 '. The word is 
used in LXX of that which is devoted to 
God, either as an offering (cp. Lv27 28f -), or 
for destruction as evil : cp. Josh 6 m . 

4. Israelites] ' Israel ' being the name given 
by God to Jacob, ' Israelite ' described the 
Jew as the inheritor of God's promises : cp. 
Ill 2 Cor 11 22. Adoption] i.e. of Israel by 



878 



9.5 



ROMANS 



9. 19 



God as first-born son among other nations : 
cp. Ex4 22 . Glory] i.e. the light by which 
God's presence was manifested: cp. Exl6 10 
40 34f . Covenants] with Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. Service] i.e. of Tabernacle and 
Temple. Promises] i.e. of the Messiah. 

5. Of whom, etc.] RV k of whom is Christ 
as concerning the flesh.' God] cp. Jnl 1 10 30 
Col 2 9. 

6-13. Jewish opponents argued that the 
privileges enumerated in the last section were 
guaranteed to them as a nation, unless God 
broke His word. St. Paul replies that God is 
not bound to the whole nation. There had 
been from the first a process of selection, by 
which some had been rejected. The same 
process of selection and rejection might be 
expected now. 

Paraphrase. ' (6) Yet it does not follow 
that God's promises have failed because some 
have rejected them. Heirship of the promise 
does not belong to mere natural descent from 
Jacob. (7) For consider the case of Abraham. 
Ishmael was his elder son, yet Isaac was selected 
to be the father of the chosen race ; (8) which 
shows that a position of privilege with God 
is a matter not of accident of birth, but of 
special promise and choice ; (9) in fact, Isaac 
was born on purpose to inherit the promise. 
(10) Take a plainer example. Esau and Jacob 
had the same parents and were twins ; (11) 
yet in their case also God showed that He 
carries out His purpose by selecting whom He 
chooses, for before their birth (12) He destined 
Jacob's line for privilege, (13) as Malachi 
recognises.' 

6. RY ' But it is not as though the word 
of God hath come to nought.' Israel] in 
the sense of inheritors of the promise. Of 
Israel] i.e. by physical descent from Jacob. 

7. Seed of Abraham] i.e. by natural descent. 
Children] i.e. inheriting privilege. In Isaac, 

etc.] from Gn21 12 . 8. Children of the flesh] 
i.e. those born into the family in the course 
of nature. Children of God] i.e. partaking of 
the ' adoption ' to special privilege spoken 
of in v. 4. Of the promise] i.e. born in ful- 
filment of a promise : cp. Gal4 23 . 

9. The word] RY ' a word.' At this time] 
i.e. at this season next year (Gnl8 10 ). 

11. The purpose] i.e. the purpose of salva- 
tion which existed in God's mind before crea- 
tion : cp. Ro 8 28 Eph 1 9f - 2 Tim 1 9 . Accord- 
ing to election] i.e. the method by which God 
carries out His purpose is the selection of 
individuals and nations to be its instruments. 
So the Jews were selected to preserve the 
knowledge of God in the world, and to pre- 
pare for the call of the Gentiles. The selec- 
tion is not to assured salvation, but to the 
privilege of helping to carry out God's plan 
of salvation for the world. Not of works] a 



further thought. God's choice proceeds from 
unmerited bounty. 12. From Gn25 23 . 

13. Loved . . hated] cp. Mall 2f -, which 
refers to the nations of Israel and Edom, and 
expresses the historical fact that Israel had 
privileges which were denied to Edom. 
1 Hated ' implies decided rejection, but not 
vindictiveness : cp. Lkl4 26 with MtlO 37 . 
There is no reference to eternal salvation or 
rejection. 

14-18. It is objected that the freedom of 
choice, which St. Paul attributes to God, would 
be unjust. This cannot be, for in the OT. 
God claims the same freedom. And, if then, 
so also now. 

Paraphrase. ' (14) The objector argues that 
such apparently arbitrary selection would be 
unjust. Far from it. (15) The Jew admits 
that all God does is just ; here, then, are two 
passages in which God claims this freedom of 
choice. First, He told Moses, leader of the 
chosen people, that not even he could lay claim 
as a right to the favour about to be shown. (16) 
Therefore, human desire and striving are not 
the cause of God's choice of any, but His sove- 
reign will and mercy alone. (17) Secondly, 
the words addressed to Pharaoh show that 
God did not punish him because he was an 
Egyptian, but for special reasons. (18) So, 
then, God is seen to show mercy or to harden 
according to His own will.' 

15. From Ex33 19 . 16. Runneth] i.e. as a 
racer strives. 17. From Ex 9 16 . Raised thee 
up] i.e. as king. St. Paul quotes Scripture 
to show that it was simply due to God's choice 
that Pharaoh, not some one else, was to be a 
world-wide example of God's power in 
punishment. It was not because of Pharaoh's 
nationality. The Apostle confines himself, 
here, to one point. It is that a Jew must 
admit that what God is shown, in the OT., to 
have done, cannot be unjust. He is not 
speaking, here, of eternal life or death. And 
he says nothing of Pharaoh's deserts or 
conduct, because that is not his point here. 
Presently he will assert (1) that those whom 
God has rejected have been rejected by their 
own fault after long forbearance ; and (2) 
that it is God's will to have mercy upon all men. 

18. Hardeneth] cp. Ex4 21 . God is said to 
harden, because He has made man so that, by 
the constitution of his nature, hardening 
follows persistent disobedience. 

19-29. It is now objected that if God's 
will is irresistible, He ought not to blame the 
Jews. The answer is that, first, it is pre- 
sumptuous of man to criticise his Maker ; 
and, secondly, that God has been longsuffering 
with the Jews, as well as merciful to the 
Gentiles. 

Paraphrase. '(19) Another objection. If 
those who resist God's will, do so because He 



879 






9. 20 



ROMANS 



10. 1 



has hardened them, and so fulfil His purpose, 
how can they be guilty ? (20) The answer is 
twofold. First, we are not competent to 
criticise our Maker. (21) It is His right to 
mould each nation of mankind for whatever 
purpose He chooses. (22) But secondly, as a 
matter of fact, God has not been arbitrary. 
Although He is determined to punish sin, yet 
when the Jews have proved unfit for high 
purposes, He has borne long with them ; (23) 
not only for their sakes, but that by their 
means He might be able to show mercy upon 
those prepared from the beginning, (24) even 
upon us, called — such is His mercy — from 
Gentiles as well as Jews. (25, 26) His word 
confirms this again : the call of the Gentiles 
was foretold by Hosea, (27-29) and the fact 
that only a remnant of Israel would enter the 
kingdom was prophesied by Isaiah.' 

20. Shall the thing] cp. Isa 2916 45 9. 

21. Power] RY 'a right' : cp. Isa64 8 Jer 
18 6 . Honour .. dishonour] not referring to 
final salvation or condemnation, but to the 
inequalities of life. Nations as well as in- 
dividuals are called to duties and positions of 
greater or less honour : cp. 2Tim2 20 . 

22. Longsuffering] cp. 2 4 . Vessels] the 
metaphor of the potter continued. Of wrath] 
i.e. deserving wrath. Fitted] St. Paul does 
not say, ' God had made them fit for destruc- 
tion ' (contrast ' afore prepared,' v. 23). They 
had become ' fitted for destruction,' because, 
being intractable under the moulder's hand, 
they were of no use for His purpose. 

23. Might make known] cp. ll llf . Of 
mercy] i.e. experiencing mercy. Prepared] 
cp. 8 28f . 25, 26. From Hosl™ 223, pas . 
sages used freely and typically ; originally 
speaking of the restoration of the Ten Tribes, 
who had become like those who were not 
God's people. 27, 28, 29. From Isal 9 10 22f . 

27. A remnant] RV ' it is the remnant that 
shall be saved.' 28. RV ' for the Lord will 
execute his word' (i.e. sentence) 'upon the 
earth, finishing it and cutting it short,' i.e. 
making it conclusive and brief. 

30-33. The Jews have been rejected because 
they sought acceptance with God in their own 
way by meritorious works. They had not 
that faith which would make them attentive 
to hear and do God's will, and so could not ful- 
fil His purpose (see v. 22 paraphrase). Stereo- 
typed in a conventional religion, they were 
unable, for want <>f Living faith, to receive 
the Messiah. 

Paraphrase. (30) We conclude that Gen- 
tiles, who \\«rc not Beekillg acceptance with 
God, won acceptance given to those who have 
faith, (.HI) while Israel, who was seeking to be 
accepted because of meritorious works, has 
failed. (32) The reason is thai instead of 
living by faith in God, i.e. instead of waiting 



880 



on God to learn what His will for them was, 
they fixed their attention on observances. 
Hence they refused the Messiah, fulfilling 
Isaiah's prophecy that the stone, the strength 
of those who should have faith in Him, would 
cause the fall of the unbeliever. 

30. Followed . . attained] as a runner in a 
race : cp. Phil 3 12 . 31. The law] RY ' a law.' 

32. By the works of the law] RY 'by 
works.' For] RY omits. Stumbling stone] 
cp. 1 Cor 1 23 . 33. A combination of two 
passages. In Isa 28 16 the prophet spoke of a 
foundation stone which God was laying, and 
which would give a sense of security to those 
who trusted His promise. In Isa 8 u the prophet 
spoke of Jehovah as being a stumbling-block 
to the unbeliever. St. Paul combines the two 
passages to show that Christ, who is strength and 
support to those who trust in Him, has been a 
stumbling-block to the faithless Jews. The 
' stone ' of Psll8 22 was interpreted by Christ 
of Himself, Mt21 42 , etc., and from this, proba- 
bly, the 'stone' of other passages was inter- 
preted of Him. ' The stone ' may have been 
a Jewish title for the Messiah. 

CHAPTER 10 
Israel rejected through lack of Faith 

In c. 9 St. Paul, defending the gospel 
against objections founded upon the fact that 
it had been rejected by the Jews as a whole, 
showed that God had never bound Himself to 
the Israelitish race, but had always kept Him- 
self free to choose His own instruments. In 
c. 10 he declares that Israel have caused their 
rejection by failure to recognise God's methods, 
and by obstinate rebellion in spite of the 
patience of His love. 

1-1 5- The zeal of the Jews is useless, 
because they follow their own way instead of 
God's (vv. 1-4), although God's way of salva- 
tion is so easy (vv. 5-11), and open to all 
(vv. 12, 13). and made known to all (vv. 14. 15). 

Paraphrase. '(1) I pray for the salvation of 
my people, (2) for they still are zealous for 
God, though with such lack of insight (3) that 
they are blind to His free offer of salvation, 
and vainly seek to win acceptance by their 
merits, (4) whereas faith in Christ has taken 
the place of obedience to law as the motive 
and inspiration of life and the condition of 
acceptance with God. (5) The old system of 
works called for an obedience beyond human 
power to give. (6) But acceptance by faith in 
( Jhrisl makes no impracticable demand. Christ 
has brought Himself within our reach by His 
Incarnation which made Him man among men, 
(7) and by His Resurrection which restored 
Him to us for ever ; (8) so that the faith the 
gospel asks for is a simple thing, (9) only to 
acknowledge publicly that Jesus is Lord and 
really to believe in His Resurrection. (10) 



10. 1 



ROMANS 



11. 1 



All that is required can be done by human heard.' Without a preacher?] supply, 'but 



hearts and human lips, (11) even as Isaiah 
promises complete security to every one who 
has faith in the Christ. (12) The promise is 
for all, for Christ's Lordship extends over all 
races of men, and He has love enough for all 
who worship Him (13) as Joel testifies ; (14, 
15) and God has made His offer known by 
commissioned preachers, so that the Jews 
have no excuse for unbelief.' 

i. Might] RY'may.' 2. Zeal] which St. 
Paul had shared : cp. Gal 1 " Phil 3 6. Of] R V 
1 for.' Knowledge] i.e. insight into God's will : 
cp. Coll 9 . 3. God's righteousness] i.e. His 
gift of free acceptance on condition of faith. 

Going about] RY k seeking.' 4. End] i.e. 
termination. Law, as the means of winning 
favour with God by its fulfilment, has been 
brought to an end now Christ has come : cp. 
Gal 3 10, 13 Col 2 1*. For] RY 'unto,' i.e. so 
that every one who has faith may be accepted. 

5. RY k For Moses writeth that the man 
that doeth the righteousness . . of the law,' i.e. 
all the Law requires, ' shall live thereby ' : from 
Lvl8 5 . 6. Speaketh] The words that follow 
are selected from Dt30 llf -, where they refer to 
the accessibility of the Law. St. Paul applies 
them to the gospel, as opposed to the Law, 
not as formal quotation of Scripture, but as 
adapting familiar language. Yet the passage 
is one of several which show that holy men 
under the Law looked forward to the spirit 
of the gospel : cp. Ps51 16f - Hos6 6 Mic6 8 . 

7. Deep] RY ' abyss,' i.e. Hades, the abode 
of the dead : cp. Ac 2 27 l Pet 3*9 46. 8. The 
word of faith] i.e. which announces faith as 
the method of salvation. 

9. Confess] i.e. at baptism ; in daily life ; 
and in persecution : cp. MtlO 32 . The Lord 
Jesus] RY ' Jesus as Lord,' i.e. as King and 
God: see on v. 12, and Jn20 28 1 Cor 123 
2Cor4 5 . Raised] cp. 4 24f - The Resurrection 
is spoken of as the object of faith, because, if 
not risen, Christ would be no Lord and no 
Saviour, and union with Him would be impossi- 
ble. 10. Unto] i.e. resulting in. Salvation] 
i.e. final salvation. ' Confession ' represents 
the whole life of devotion to Christ which 
springs from faith. 

11. FromIsa28 16 :cp.Ro9 33 . 12. Difference] 
RY ' distinction' : cp. 3 22 . Greek] i.e. Gen- 
tile. The same Lord] i.e. Christ : cp. AclO 36 
Ro 9 5 . Over all] RY ' is Lord of all.' Rich] cp. 
Eph 3 8 . Call upon him] i.e. asHis worshippers : 
cp. ICorl 2 . From the custom of beginning 
prayer with the name of the deity, the expres- 
sion ' to call upon the name of ' came to signify 
' to be a worshipper of.' Hence, this verse 
implies the Divinity of Christ. In the next 
verse, the name ' Jehovah ' (' Lord ') is applied 
to Him : cp. Jnl2 41 . 13. From Joel 2 32 . 
14. Not heard ?] supply, ' but they have 



there are preachers.' 15. Sent] The Gk. word 
is that from which ' Apostle ' is derived. 
Supply, ' but apostles have been sent.' How 
beautiful] from Isa52 7 . 

16-21. The Jews have had every oppor- 
tunity, and their fall is due to their own 
obstinate wilfulness. 

Paraphrase. ' (16) It is no argument against 
the message to say it has only partially suc- 
ceeded, for Isaiah lamented that the Jews 
would not listen to it, (17) in words which 
imply that there would be a Divine message 
about Christ meant to call forth faith. (18) 
Nor can any one say that the Jews have not 
heard the message, for it has been preached 
everywhere. (19) Nor can it be said that the 
nation which had received the Scriptures did 
not know that the Gentiles were to be included 
in God's favour. Even so far back as Moses 
they were warned that it would be so ; (20) 
and Isaiah uses the plainest language. (21) No 
excuse can be made for them. Their fall is 
due to the same stubborn rejection of God's 
unwearied love which Isaiah saw in his day.' 

16. Lord, etc.] From ^53*. 17. Hearing] 
The same Gk. word as that translated ' report ' 
in v. 16. 18. Their sound, etc.] from Psl9 4 , 
i.e. the gospel message was diffused as widely 
as the declaration by the heavens of the glory 
of God. Not literally so, but probably every 
considerable Jewish colony had heard the 
gospel : cp. Col 1 6 > 23 . 19. I will provoke, etc.] 
FromDt32 2 i. 20. From ^65*. 21. From 
Isa 65 2 . Gainsaying] i.e. contradicting. 

CHAPTER 11 

Iseael's Rejection not final. A 

Warning to the Gentiles 

In this c. St. Paul brings to an end his great 
exposition of God's dealings with the Jews. 
He has shown in c. 9 that God is free to 
choose or reject individuals or nations as the 
instruments of His purpose ; and, in c. 10, that 
the Jews have deserved their rejection. Now 
he declares that, in spite of all this, God has 
not cast off His ancient people. He has seen 
fit, in His mercy, to preserve a portion of them 
faithful to His will, and the remainder are 
still loved by Him. Their having fallen away 
for a time has given an opportunity for the 
conversion of the Gentiles. When the Gentiles 
have been gathered into His kingdom, the Jews 
will be stirred up by their example and return 
to God. 

1-12. God did not utterly reject the Jews 
as a nation (vv. 1, 2). Their failure is partial 
(vv. 2-10), and, as in former days, there is a 
faithful remnant ; their failure is used by God 
for good, and is temporary (vv. 11, 12). 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Does it follow that God 
has finally rejected those He made His own 



56 



881 



11.1 



ROMANS 



11.17 



people ? I, who am proud to be one of them, 
cannot believe it. (2) And it is impossible, 
for from all eternity He marked them to be 
His instruments, and He is unchanging. They 
are no more rejected than they were in Elijah's 
day, (3) when, although Israel was rebellious, 
(4) God preserved a faithful remnant. (5) So 
also now there is such a remnant, selected out 
of the mass by God's undeserved favour, (6) not 
for any merit of their own. (7) Thus, a select 
portion of Israel, having minds open to God's 
will and believing in Christ, has obtained 
acceptance, which the rest, by seeking it in 
self-righteousness, have lost, incurring instead 
that hardening which follows self-will, (8) that 
heavy deafness and blindness toward God 
which Isaiah perceived, (9) that ruin caused 
by misuse of blessings (10) of which David 
spoke. (11) But although the majority have 
stumbled, even they have not fallen for ever. 
Their refusal of Christ has occasioned an 
earlier preaching to the Gentiles, and so has 
been the means of bringing salvation to them, 
and this, in turn, is meant to stir the Jews up 
to accept Christ, and thus regain their old 
privilege. (12) Thus they still are used by 
God, for their failure has been a means of 
blessing to the world, and much greater blessing 
will result from their complete conversion.' 

i. Cast away] cp. Ps94i* IS 12 22. Ben- 
jamin] the tribe which, with Judah, followed 
the house of David, and in whose territory 
Jerusalem stood. 2. People] i.e. the nation 
as a whole. Foreknew] see on 8 29 and v. 29. 

Wot] i.e. know. Of Elias] lit. 'in Elijah' ; 
i.e. in the section of the Scriptures concerning 
Elijah : cp. Mk 12 26 (RV). 3. Lord, etc.] from 
1 K 19 10 . 4. Reserved to] RV ' left for.' To 
the image of Baal] RV ' to Baal.' 6. But if it 
be of works, etc.] RV omits this latter half of 
the v. 7. Election] i.e. the chosen remnant 
who have believed in Christ. Blinded] RV 
'hardened,' i.e. by God, in punishment : see 
next v. Those who will not, at last cannot. 

8. From Dt29* Isa29 1( >. The spirit of 
slumber] RV ' a spirit of stupor.' Unto this 
day] part of the quotation from Deuteronomy. 

9. From Ps69 22f . 10. Bow down their 
back] i.e. in weakness and dejection. 

11. Stumbled] cp. 9 32 . Fall] i.e. so as not 
to rise again. Come unto the Gentiles] It was 
only when the Jews rejected the gospel that 
the Apostle turned to the Gen tiles : cp. Ac 13 ' ,f - 
A Church nationally Jewish would pro- 
bably nave been a hindrance to the complete 
evangelisation of the Gentiles. 12. Diminish- 
ing] RV ' loss.' As a defeated army sutlers 
loss in battle, so the majority <>f the .lews had 
fallen away into unbelief. St. Paul anticipates 
great blessing to the world when the 'fulness,' 
i.e. the entire nation, of the .lews helievcs. 

13-24. St. Paul now addresses the Gentiles. 



They should hope for the restoration of Israel, 
because of the blessing it will bring the world, 
and because Israel still bears God's name 
(vv. 13-16). They should not despise Israel 
(w. 17, 18), nor boast of preference (vv. 19. 20), 
for, if unfaithful, they too will fall (vv. 21, 22), 
whereas the Jews will be restored if they give 
up their unbelief (vv. 23, 24). 

Paraphrase. ' (13) In this which I write, 
I am not disregarding my mission to you 
Gentiles. And you know my heart is in my 
work among you Gentiles. (14) If, then, I am 
always hoping that your conversion may stir up 
the Jews to yearn after their lost privileges, 
it is not only because I am a Jew, (15) but 
also because I am sure that as their rejection 
brought you to God, so their restoration will 
fill the nations of the earth with spiritual life. 
(16) Ajnd their restoration may certainly be 
expected, for the nation still retains the con- 
secration it received in the patriarchs. (17) 
Again, although you have taken the place of 
some of them in God's kingdom, (18) do not 
think yourselves superior to them. Remember 
that you have been admitted into their king- 
dom, not they into yours. (19) If God re- 
jected them for you, it was not because He 
preferred you. (20) Unbelief lost them their 
place, and faith alone preserves you. (21) The 
facts do not warrant self-satisfaction in you, 
but warn you against it. (22) Thus we see 
manifested both God's goodness and His 
severity. His goodness is upon you, but only 
so long as you are faithful. His severity is 
upon the Jews, (23) yet, if they give up their 
unbelief, He will receive them again. And 
their restoration is quite possible, (24) for they 
have more in common with the kingdom than 
you had as heathen.' 

13. RV \ But I speak to you that are Gentiles. 
Inasmuch then as I am an apostle of Gentiles, 
I glorify my ministry.' As the Jews have been 
spoken of in the third person, we infer that 
the Roman Christians were chiefly Gentiles. 

14. Emulation] RV 'jealousy': cp. v. 11, 
10 19 . 15. Reconciling: of the world] In the 
bringing in of the Gentiles, the world began 
to enjoy that reconciliation which Christ gained 
for it by dying for all mankind : cp. 2 Cor5 19 
Eph2 13f . 16. Firstfruit] metaphor from Nu 
1 5 19 f . The ' firstfruit ' and ' root ' represent the 
patriarchs : cp. v. 28, 9 5 . Holy] i.e. separated 
as God's people for His purposes. No reference 
to the salvation of individuals : cp. Mt3 9 . 

17. The Church of God, both before and 
after Christ, regarded by St. Paul as one and 
the same, is here likened to an olive tree : cp. 
Jer 1 1 1C Hos 14 6 . Graffed in] The usual prac- 
tice would be to graft the cultivated olive 
upon the wild stock. St. Paul reverses the 
process in his allegory, to enforce the lesson 
that the Jews were the original Church, and 



882 



11. 18 



ROMANS 



12. 



honourable. 18. Boast . . boast] RY 'glory . . 
gloriest.' 19. See on v v. 11, 12, 15. 24. How 
much more] We may see indications of the 
purpose of God for the Jews in the per- 
manence of their race and in their devoted 
adherence to the God of their fathers. 

25-36. That Israel will be converted has 
been directly revealed by God (vv. 25-27). 
God's purpose of favour to them has not 
changed (vv. 28, 29). Their disobedience is 
reckoned with in God's plan of mercy for both 
Jew and Gentile (vv. 30-32). This view of 
God's dealings calls forth wonder and praise 
(vv. 33-36). 

Paraphrase. ' (25) Learn, then, in humble 
silence, God's revealed will. A partial and 
temporary hardening of Israel has been per- 
mitted. But when the Gentiles as a whole 
have entered the kingdom, (26) Israel, too, 
will accept the Messiah. So Isaiah foretold 
that the Redeemer would remove their ungod- 
liness, (27) and that their sins would be for- 
given, and thus God's covenant with them 
would be carried out. (28) Although they are 
shut out from the blessings of the gospel, that 
the gospel may come to you, yet they are still 
beloved by God for the sake of the patriarchs 
whom He chose, (29) for God, who granted 
them His favour, has not changed His mind, 
(30) but, having first used their disobedience as 
the means of bringing you from disobedience 
to mercy, (31) He intends them so to be stirred 
up by the mercy you have obtained, as to give 
up their disobedience and find mercy in their 
turn. (32) Thus one cannot boast over the 
other. By giving Gentile and Jew, respectively, 
the laws of conscience and of revelation, God 
compelled the sinful nature of both to show 
itself in disobedience, that both might receive 
His mercy as the sole cause of their salvation. 
(33) So we are forced to wonder at God's pro- 
found love and wisdom, and the mystery of 
His working. (34) Into His thoughts no one 
can enter, no one share the shaping of His 
plans. (35) His bounty is unmerited. (36) He 
is source and guide and goal of all things.' 

25. Mystery] Among the Greeks, a ' mystery ' 
meant a secret of religion revealed only to the 
initiated. St. Paul uses the word to express a 
truth once hidden, but now revealed by God : 
cp. 1 6 25 1 Cor 2 7, 10 Eph 1 » 3 4 . Blindness] RY 
' a hardening ' : cp. v. 7. In part] i.e. not affect- 
ing the ' remnant ' who have accepted Christ. 

Fulness] i.e. the full number : cp. v. 12. 

26. All Israel] i.e. the Jewish race will enter 
the Christian Church. There shall come, etc.] 
from Isa 59 20 . 27. From Isa 27 9 . 

29. Calling] cp. l« f - 8 30 . Without repent- 
ance] i.e. God's promises are changeless, because 
He could never do that for which afterwards 
He was sorry. He is sometimes said, in OT., 
to ' repent,' e.g. Gn 6 6 Joel 2 13 . What is meant 



in such passages is, not that He changes His 
purposes or principles, but that, because His 
principles are changeless, therefore His action 
or methods alter as men alter. Such OT. 
language is figurative, belonging to the sim- 
plicity of less-developed religion. Because, 
with men, change of action is caused by change 
of mind, therefore, in OT., when God changes 
His action, He is said to change His mind. 

30. Have not believed] RY ' were disobedient 
to.' Unbelief] RY 'disobedience.' 31. Not 
believed] RY 'been disobedient.' Your mercy] 
RY 'the mercy shewn to you.' 32. Concluded] 
RY ' shut up,' i.e. without power of escape : 
cp. Gal3 22 . In unbelief] RY ' unto disobedi- 
ence ' : cp. chs. 2, 7. Upon all] i.e. who do not 
reject His mercy. 34. From Isa 40 13 . 35. From 
Job 41 11. 36. To him] RY 'unto him'; i.e. 
all things are created to serve and praise God. 



CHAPTER 12 

The Conseckated Life, 
of Love 



The Law 



The doctrinal part of the Epistle being 
finished, St. Paul now turns to practical 
exhortation. God's mercy, shown in the gos- 
pel set forth in the previous chapters, calls 
for the sacrifice of ourselves to do His will 
(vv. 1 , 2), by the humble and devoted use of 
God's spiritual gifts (vv. 3-8), and in love 
(vv. 9-21). 

1-21. Paraphrase. ' (1) God's redeeming 
love should be answered by the true sacrifice 
and spiritual ritual service of a life of purity 
and self-denial and work for God. (2) Do not 
follow the fashions and customs of the worldly 
society around you, but let your ways of 
thinking be so changed by the Holy Spirit that 
you look for and recognise God's will, and love 
to do it. (3) So, although the world does not 
value humility, as God's Apostle I charge 
every one of you to be contented to do that 
work in the Church for which God has fitted 
him. (4, 5) The Christian Society is like a 
body ; each individual has his particular 
function ; while the welfare of the whole 
depends upon how he performs it. (6) Let 
us all learn, then, from our different gifts, 
what it is God's will that we should do. If your 
gift is prophecy, speak what God Himself has 
taught you ; (7, 8) and whatever your gift, 
use it to the best of your power. (9) As to 
other matters of conduct ; let your love be 
sincere ; have strong moral principles ; (10) 
as one family in Christ be affectionate to one 
another ; let each regard others as more fit 
for honours than himself ; (11) be diligent, 
fervent, devoted to the Lord's work, (12) joy- 
fully expectant of future glory, brave in afflic- 
tion, unflagging in prayer, (13) generous and 
hospitable. (14) Bless your persecutors ; (15) 
be sympathising; (16) enter into one another's 



883 



12.1 



ROMANS 



13. 11 



desires and aims ; do not aim at high place or 
honour for yourself, but be content with the 
humble duties that come in your way. (17) 
Never retaliate. Avoid even the appearance of 
dishonourable conduct. (18) Live at peace 
with every one, so far as peace is in your own 
power. (19) If any man wrong you, leave it 
to God to punish him. (20) Do him good, 
and you will make him ashamed of his enmity. 
(21) Do not let the wickedness of others pro- 
voke evil passions in you, but conquer their 
wickedness by doing them good.' 

I. Living sacrifice] as opposed to the sacri- 
fice of a slain beast : cp. 6 13 . Reasonable] i.e. 
an act of the reason. 2. Conformed to] RY 
' fashioned according to.' ' Fashion ' implies 
external resemblance, 'form,' essential nature : 
cp. Phil 2 6. World] lit. ' ^on,' or ' age.' The 
Jews called the Messianic age 'the age to come,' 
as contrasted with 'this age' : cp. Mtl2 32 
Lk20 34 Ephl 21 . At present, considered as 
the kingdoms of Christ and of the world, the 
two ages co-exist. 3. Grace] cp. I 5 . Faith] 
Faith is God's gift, and is of differing power 
and character, carrying with it differing l gifts ' 
(v. 6), i.e. capacities of Christian service. 

5. One body] cp. 1 Cor 1 2*2*. Eph4i5'« 
Col 1 is. 

6. Gifts] see on 1 13 . Is] RY ' was,' i.e. when 
the Holy Spirit was received. Prophecy] i.e. 
inspired speaking, whether foretelling the 
future, or unfolding spiritual truth : cp. Ac 1 1 28 
1 Cor 1 2 28 1 4 1 Eph 2 20 3 5 4 11. Proportion of 
faith] RY ' proportion of our faith,' i.e. in 
proportion to the revelation the prophet's faith 
has received. 7. Ministry] i.e. the service of 
others : cp. MklO 45 ; sometimes any Christian 
office: cp. II 13 ; sometimes, as here, attendance 
on temporal wants : cp. Ac 6 1 1 Cor 1 6 15 2 Cor 8 4 . 

8. Simplicity] i.e. without selfish aim ; RY 
' liberality.' Ruleth] lit. ' presideth,' i.e. in 
the Church or the family : cp. 1 Th5 12 1 Tim 
3 4f - 5!7. 

9. Dissimulation] RY ' hypocrisy. 10. RY 
' In love of the brethren be tenderly aff ectioned 
one to another.' 11. RY 'In diligence not 
slothful' ; 'diligence '= zeal, moral earnestness, 
not merely in temporal affairs. 12. Instant] 
RV'stedfastly.' 13. Distributing] RY ' com- 
municating.' i.e. sharing your goods : cp. Ac2 42 . 

Saints] RV ' the saints,' i.e. Christians, God's 
people. Hospitality] The various Churches 
were linked by the visits of accredited messen- 
gers : cp. Heb 1 3 2 lTim3 2 lPet49 2JnlO 
3Jn5f. 14. Cp. Mt5 44 . 16. Men of low 
estate] RV k things that are lowly.' 17. Pro- 
vide] RV 'take thought for.' Honest] RY 
1 honourable.' 19. Give place unto wrath] i.e. 
leave room for God's wrath to execute the 
vengeance: deserved. Do not usurp the prerog- 
ative of God. Wrath] i.e. the wrath of God : 
cp. 5 '■>. WrittenJ I) t 32 •-"'. 20. From Prov 25 21 . 



Coals of fire] i.e. melt him into shame, as a 
furnace melts metals. 

CHAPTER 13 

The Christian's Duty to the State and 
to his Neighbour 

St. Paul now passes to the duties of 
Christians to the State. In 12 19 he had con- 
demned revenge ; but he asserts here that the 
State may rightly punish, as God's agent in 
temporal affairs. He enforces obedience to 
government, i.e. to social order, not to any 
special form of government. He gives no 
directions as to what is to be done when there 
is a conflict of civil authority (vv. 1-7). Our 
behaviour to men in general is to be regulated 
by love (vv. 8-10). The nearness of Christ's 
coming is a motive for holiness of life (vv. 
11-14). 

1-14. Paraphrase. ' (1) Obey civil rulers, for 
they are divinely ordained, (2) and therefore 
God will punish disobedience. (3, 4) They do 
God's work, rewarding the good and punish- 
ing the evil. (5) Therefore obey, not only for 
fear of punishment, but because it is right, 
(6) as is implied by our rule that Christians are 
to pay taxes. (7) To sum up, give all author- 
ities their due. (8) Owe no debt but that of 
love, which you can never adequately discharge, 
(9) for love sums up and includes all the com- 
mandments, (10) and, by loving, you fulfil 
them. (11) Let the thought of Christ's coming 
awaken you to these duties. (12, 13) Let us 
put off all evil ways, and conduct ourselves as 
those who belong to the kingdom of light. 
(14) Provide for your spiritual nature by 
clothing yourselves with the likeness and 
power of Christ, but pay no attention to the 
wrong desires of your fleshly nature.' 

1. Of God] i.e. having its source in God. 

2. Damnation] RY ' judgment.' 4. Re- 
venger] RY ' avenger.' Wrath] i.e. God's 
anger against evil-doing. 5. For wrath] RY 
' because of the wrath.' 6. Tribute] i.e. taxes 
paid by subject races. The Christians obeyed 
Christ's direction, Lk20 20f . 7. Custom] i.e. 
ordinary taxes. Fear] i.e. scrupulous obedi- 
ence. 8. Another] RY ' his neighbour.' Hath 
fulfilled] i.e. hath fully met its requirements : 
cp. Mt 22 40 . For the Christian, faith and love 
have taken the place of law. 9. The Ninth 
Commandment is omitted in the best texts. 

Thou shalt love] cp. Lvl9 18 LklO 2 ? Jas28. 

10. Worketh no ill] cp. lCorl3 4f . No one 
who truly loves his fellow-man will injure 
him. 

11. And that] RV 'and this,' i.e. and do 
this: cp. lCor6 6 » 8 . Time] RY 'season.' 

Salvation] i.e. complete salvation. Nearer] 
However long Christ tarry, death brings Him 
near to each. But the first Christians evidently 
expected His return in their own time. Sanday 



884 



13. 12 



ROMANS 



14. 1 



and Headlam point out that this belief proved 
beneficial, by quickening the zeal of the Church 
for its difficult task, and by preventing the 
apostles from laying down minute regulations 
for the future. Believed] RY ' first believed.' 

12. The day] i.e. of Christ's appearing. 

Armour of light] cp. Eph6 13f . 13. Walk] 
i.e. along the path of daily life. Honestly] or, 
1 becomingly.' Envying] RY ' jealousy.' 

14. Put ye on] Christ is put on in baptism, 
cp. 6 3 Gal 3 27 ; but the union mUst be realised. 

The reading of these last vv. marked the 
turning-point in St. Augustine's life : see his 
1 Confessions,' bk. 8, c. 12. 

CHAPTER 14 
The Duty or Sympathy and Toleration 

In c. 13 12f - St. Paul urged his readers, by 
their expectation of Christ's coming, to avoid 
the licence and immorality of the heathen. 
Now he turns to the opposite extreme, and 
deals with the ascetic scrupulousness of certain 
Christians. 

Under the Jewish Law there was a dis- 
tinction between clean and unclean meats. 
This distinction, which perpetuated the separ- 
ation between Jew and Gentile, Christ abol- 
ished (Mk 7 19 RY), as was afterwards revealed 
to Peter (Ac 10 28 ), and decided by the Council 
of Jerusalem (Acl5 28f -)- The Council, how- 
ever, directed the Gentile Christians in Antioch, 
Syria, and Cilicia to abstain from meat which 
had been offered to idols, or which had not 
been killed in the Jewish manner, out of con- 
sideration for the feelings of the Jewish 
Christians and to preserve unity. Afterwards 
the question arose at Corinth how far the 
Gentile Christians could join with their heathen 
acquaintances in meals when the meat had 
been offered to idols. St. Paul decided that 
as the meat was God's gift it might be eaten, 
but that when it was avowedly connected with 
idolatrous worship, it should be abstained from, 
for the sake of the consciences of those who 
thought it wrong to eat such meat. 

It would seem that at Rome a minority of 
the Christians scrupled to partake of meat or 
wine in any form. They were probably Jew- 
ish Christians, for such ascetic practices were 
held by certain religious Jews. St. Paul did 
not approve of their scruples. He called such 
Christians ' weak in faith,' i.e. without that 
strong and clear conviction of Christian liberty 
which he held to be in accordance with the 
truth. But such brethren were to be welcomed 
and allowed to follow their convictions ; and 
if there were any danger of wounding their 
consciences, the ' strong ' brethren were to 
abstain themselves for the sake of Christian 
love. 

Although the Apostle so urged toleration, 
yet, when a vital principle was at stake, he 



allowed no compromise : cp. 1 Cor 5, 11 16 15 12f « 
Gal 1 s . 

1-12. The 'strong' and the 'weak' are 
lovingly to tolerate one another, remembering 
that Christ is master of each, and that each 
will be judged by God. 13-23. It would be 
better that the strong should forego his right, 
if its exercise would injure his brother. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Some Christians have not 
grasped the principle that acceptance by God 
depends upon faith alone, and are in conse- 
quence scrupulous about unessential observ- 
ances. Admit them to Christian fellowship, 
and abstain from criticising their scruples. 
(2) For example, one man is confident that he 
may eat any kind of food, while another re- 
frains from meat. (3) Let not him who eats 
meat despise the other as superstitious. And 
let not the other condemn him who eats as 
unspiritual and worldly, for God imposed no 
rule about food upon him. (4) It is not for 
you to say that what Christ allows His servants 
is dangerous for them : their Master will keep 
them safe. (5) Again, one man observes the 
Jewish distinctions of days, while another does 
not. Let each man be faithful to his own 
conscience, (6) and recognise that the aim of 
men of both opinions is to please Christ. 
(7, 8) For His will is our law, in this life and 
in the world of death, (9) as is right, seeing 
that He is Master in both states of existence. 
(10, 11) It does not befit those who must all 
stand before God's judgment seat, to pass 
judgment upon one another. (12) The ac- 
count that each will have to give of himself is 
enough for each to think of. (13) Therefore, 
instead of judging one another, determine not 
to hinder your brother in his Christian life. 

(14) For while in itself no food is sinful, it is 
sinful to those whose consciences forbid it, 

(15) and therefore to insist upon your right 
might injure your brother, which would be a 
breach of love. If Christ gave up His life 
for your brother, can you not give up some 
particular food ? (16) Do not bring reproach 
upon the truth you hold, (17) by making it 
seem that you regard a well-spread table as 
more important than spiritual graces and unity, 
(18) for it is the practice of such graces which 
makes the service of Christ approved by God 
and man. (19) Let it be our aim to bring 
about peace and the welfare of the Christian 
community. (20) It would be monstrous to 
destroy God's Church for the sake of food. 
To eat any particular food is not in itself 
wrong ; but it becomes wrong if by doing so 
you harm your brother ; (21) while it is a 
noble thing to give up your own right for his 
sake. (22) Cherish your own convictions, but 
do not seek to impose them upon every one 
else. You have the great blessing of an un- 
doubting conscience, be satisfied with that. 



885 



14. 1 



ROMANS 



15. 1 



(23) and do not tempt another to eat, when 
the fact that he is not sure whether he is 
doing rigkt condemns him ; for it is always 
sinful for a man to do what his conscience 
does not approve.' 

i. The faith] RY 'faith.' To doubtful dis- 
putations] RM ' for decisions of doubts.' 

2. Believeth that he may] RV l hath faith 
to ' ; i.e. has such a grasp of the gospel of 
Christ that he recognises the indifference of 
these matters. 3. Despise] cp. Mto 22 . Hath 
received] i.e. into the Church. 4. God] RV 
1 the Lord,' i.e. Christ. 

5. One day above another] The reference is, 
no doubt, to Jewish observances: cp. Gal4 10 
Col2 16 . The principle is that salvation does 
not depend upon the observance of special 
days and seasons. These are indifferent in 
themselves, although to set apart special days 
may be practically useful. St. Paul would 
probably have included in this the keeping of 
Sunday. But he would have said that Sunday 
is no different from other days, because all 
days should be holy, not because all days are 
common. The six days should approximate 
as far as possible to Sunday, not Sunday to 
the six days. Hence the inestimable value of 
Sunday to maintain the level of spiritual life, 
quite apart from the benefit of its rest. Per- 
suaded] RV ' assured.' 6. And he that re- 
gardeth not the day, to the Lord he doth not 
regard it] RV omits. Eateth] i.e. eateth 
flesh. Thanks] cp. Mtl5 3t5 Ac27 35 1 CorlO 30 
11241 Tim 44'. 

9. RV ' For to this end Christ died, and 
lived again.' ' He who, to save them, had 
dwelt in both worlds, was their Master in 
both ' (Moule). 10. RV ' But thou, why dost 
thou judge thy brother ? or thou, again, why 
dost thou,' etc. All] emphatic. Christ] RV 
k God.' ' It is important to notice how easily 
St. Paul passes from "Christ" to u God " ' 
(Sanday and Headlam). II. From Isa45 23 . 
Confess] i.e. God's sovereignty. 12. Himself] 
emphatic. 13. Stumblingblock] cp. Mtl8 6f - 
1 Cor8'-» f . 14. By the Lord] RV ^ in the Lord,' 
i.e. in communion with Christ. Unclean] lit. 
4 common ' : cp. Ac 1 ' '• - s . But] RV ' save 
that.' ' Mistaken conscience calls for correction 
by better light, but never for violation. To 
follow conscience is, by itself, no security that 
we are doing what is in itself right ; but to 
violate conscience, which is our actual view of 
right and wrong, is always wrong' (Moule). 

17. Kingdom of God] i.e. the Messianic 
kingdom, expected by the Jews as an earthly 
kingdom, but really the reign of Christ over 
man. whether 111 grace or glory: cp. lCor4 20 . 

Righteousness] i.e. here, right dealing in 
relation to others. Peace] i.e. with one 
another. Joy] i.e. of the united Christian 
brotherhood. In the Holy Ghost] i.e. through 



886 



His indwelling. 18. In these things] RV 
1 herein ' ; i.e. in the exercise of such a life of 
Christian love. 19. Edify] i.e. build up the 
Christian society, which is called in the next 
v. ' the work of God.' 20. RV l overthrow 
not for meat's sake.' Pure] RV ' clean ' : cp. 
1 CorlO 23 . With offence] i.e. to others. 

21. Nor cuiy thing'] RV k nor to do anything' : 
cp. 1 Cor 8 13 . Or is offended, or is made weak] 
RV omits. 

22. Hast thou faith?] RV 'The faith which 
thou hast.' Have it to thyself] i.e. do not 
force it upon others ; respect the scruples of 
the weak. Condemneth] RV ' judgeth.' Allow- 
eth] RV 'approveth.' 23. Damned] RV l con- 
demned.' Faith] here = strong conviction. 
' The words do not apply to those w T ho are not 
Christians, nor to the works of those who are 
Christians done before they became such, but 
to the conduct of believing Christians ; and 
faith is used somew r hat in the way we should 
speak of a "good conscience"; everything 
which is not done with a clear conscience is 
sin ' (Sanday and Headlam). 

CHAPTER 15 

Jew and Gentile alike the Object of 
God's Love. The Apostle's Plans 

1-13. The subject of c. 14 is continued. 
' Strength ' should be displayed in helping the 
' weak ' after Christ's example (w. 1-4). Let 
both sections be united in God's praise, wel- 
coming one another as Christ welcomed them 
(vv. 5-7). As the divergence of views origin- 
ated in the difference between Jew and Gen- 
tile, let both remember that Christ became a 
Jew for the salvation of both (vv. 8-13). 

Paraphrase. '(1) Since the weak are thus 
in danger, the strong should be patient with 
their scruples, and not indulge their own 
liberty. (2) Each should be tender to his 
neighbour's feelings, and seek to promote his 
good, (3) following the example of Christ, 
depicted in the OT., (4) which we should read 
to learn lessons of endurance and to receive 
encouragement which will help us confidently 
to look to future glory. (5) May God teach 
you these lessons, enabling you to bear with 
one another, and to be so united in aims and 
hopes and feelings, after the pattern of Christ, 
(6) that you may join as one body in the praise 
of God. (7) Therefore let both sections wel- 
come one another, as Christ welcomed both. 
A Church so united in brotherhood will re- 
dound to the glory of God. (8) Let the 
Gentile especially remember that Christ became 
a Jew, to secure to the Jews the fulfilment of 
God's promises, (9) and to welcome the Gen- 
tiles through God's pure mercy, (10, 11, 12) 
that Jew and Gentile might unite in His praise, 
as Psalmist and Prophet foretold. (13) May 
God grant that your believing in Christ may 



15.1 



ROMANS 



15. 28 



fill you with such joy and peace that you may of I may glory] RV 'my glorying.' 18. The 



look for Christ in glory with the triumphant 
confidence of those who are possessed by the 
might of the Holy Spirit.' 

i. Bear] cp. Gal6 2 . 2. To edification] 
The words define the kind of good to be 
sought, i.e. the building-up of the Church, not 
of any particular member. The individual 
is to be willing to sacrifice himself for the 
good of the whole body : cp. 14 19 ICorlO 33 . 
Contr. Gal 1 10 , where ' pleasing ' would not be 
for edification. 3. From Ps69 9 : cp. 2 Cor 8 9 
Phil 2 6 . The Psalm describes the sufferings 
at the hands of the wicked of the righteous 
man. The words, therefore, are applicable to 
Christ above all. 4. Learning] i.e. ' instruc- 
tion ' : cp. 2 Tim 3 16 . 5. Consolation] RV 
' comfort.' Likeminded] RY ' of the same 
mind.' Towards] RV ' with.' 6. RV ' that 
with one accord ye may with one mouth glorify 
the God and Father,' etc. 7. Us] RV ' you.' 

8. Now] RV ' for,' introducing proof of 
v. 7 b . Was] RV 'hath been made.' 

Minister of the circumcision] i.e. Christ lived 
and worked under the Old Covenant marked 
by circumcision : cp. Gal4 4f - 2 Cor 3 6 . 

9. Quotation from Psl8 49 . Confess] RV 
'give praise.' 10. From Dt32 43 . 11. From 
PsllT 1 . 12. Fromlsall 10 . In] RV ' on.' 

Trust] RV k hope.' 13. Through] RV ' in.' 

14-33. The Apostle approaches the end of 
the Epistle with personal references. 

14-21. His tone of authority is warranted 
by his commission as apostle to the Gentiles, 
and by the way in which Christ has owned and 
blessed his work. 

Paraphrase. ' (14) Do not suppose I think 
you lacking either in goodness or in grasp of 
Christian principles. (15) But I have re- 
minded you of these things somewhat boldly, 
because God appointed me (16) apostle of the 
Gentiles to bring them to Him. (17) I speak 
with authority, therefore, not because of my- 
self, but because I am Christ's minister, (18) 
and because He has worked through me (19) 
with miracles and spiritual power, so that I 
have preached the gospel widely ; (20, 21) 
always seeking the honour of preaching only 
where Christ has not yet been preached.' 

14. Ye also] RV ' ye yourselves.' 

Goodness] i.e. goodness of heart toward 
others. 15. In some sort] better, 'in part' 
(of the Epistle), e.g. 6* 2f - ll 17f - 14. 

Is given] RV ' was given ' : cp. 1 5 . 

16. The minister] RV 'a minister.' The 
Gk. word, the original of the word ' liturgy,' 
is used in LXX of priests and Levites, and 
denotes one who ministers in sacred things. 

Ministering] RM ' ministering in sacrifice.' 
He was called to offer the Gentiles as a sacri- 
fice to God. He did this by preaching the 
gospel. Offering] cp. Isa66 19f . 17. Where- 



only thing he will boast of is the work Christ 
has done through him for the conversion of 
the Gentiles. Obedient] i.e. in faith : cp. 
15 1626. 

19. Through mighty signs] RV 'in the 
power of signs,' i.e. the power which miracles 
have upon those who behold them : cp. 2 Cor 
12 12 . He speaks of his miracles as well known 
and indubitable. Round about] He had evan- 
gelised on either side of the route from Jeru- 
salem to Illyricum. Illyricum] On the E. 
coast of the Adriatic, and NW. of Macedonia. 
It was approached, and may have been visited, 
in the journey mentioned AC20 1 ' 2 . Fully 
preached] i.e. in the chief centres, founding 
Churches which might carry on the work. 

20. RV ' yea, making it my aim, so to 
preach,' etc. Lest I should build] cp. 2 Cor 
10 12f . 21. FromIsa52i5. 

22-33. He hopes, after a journey to Jeru- 
salem, to visit Rome on his way to Spain 
(vv. 22-29). He desires their prayers (vv. 
30-33). 

Paraphrase. ' (22) My work has often pre- 
vented me from coming to you, (23) but now 
that my work here is finished, (24) I hope to 
visit you on my way to Spain. (25) Mean- 
while I am starting for Jerusalem, (26) to 
convey to the Christian poor there a contribu- 
tion from Macedonia and Achaia, (27) which 
is an acknowledgment of the debt the Gentiles 
owe to the Jews in spiritual things. (28) 
Afterwards I will travel by you into Spain, 
(29) and I feel sure that visit will be the oc- 
casion of much blessing. (30) Wrestle in 
prayer, (31) that I may be delivered from the 
Jews, and that the Jewish Christians may ac- 
cept the peace offering which I bring, (32) 
that I may come joyfully to you and find 
repose. (33) May God bless you with His 
peace ! ' 

22. RV ' Wherefore also I was hindered 
these many times ' : cp. 1 10 > 13 . 24. Brought 
on my way] cp. Ac 15 3 28 15 1 CorlG 6 . 25. Cp. 
Ac 19 21 20 3 . 

26. Poor saints] RV ' poor among the 
saints.' There was much poverty among 
the Christians at Jerusalem, increased, per- 
haps, by the ill-will of the rich Sadducees. 
St. Paul had been intreated to ' remember the 
poor ' (Gal 2 10 ). At the same time there was 
mistrust at Jerusalem of him and his work. 
Therefore he had instituted a collection among 
the Gentile Churches, which, he hoped, would 
draw together the Gentile and Jewish Chris- 
tians : cp. Ac 24171 Cor 16 lf - 2 Cor 8, 9. 27. Min- 
ister] same Gk. word as ' minister ' in v. 16. 

Carnal] i.e. belonging to this earthly life : 
no bad association here. 

28. Sealed] i.e. marked it as their property ; 
made it over to them. To them] i.e. the 



887 



15. 29 



ROMANS 



16.26 



Jerusalem Christians. Fruit] i.e. the contribu- 
tion would be evidence to the Jewish Christians 
of the real faith and love of the Gentiles. 

Into Spain] St. Paul may have visited Spain 
after he was released from Rome, though 
there is no evidence of his having done so. 
Clement of Rome (about 96 a.d.) says he 
went ' to the extremity of the West.' 

29. Though St. Paul did not come to Rome 
in the way he anticipated, his coming was 
brought about by God's Providence for 'the 
furtherance of the gospel ' : cp. 1 n f - Phil 1 13 . 

30. Of the Spirit] i.e. awakened by the 
Spirit: cp. Gal5 22 . 

CHAPTER 16 
Greetings and Warnings 

1-16. Commendation and greetings. 

Observe the number of women to whom the 
Apostle sends greeting. The fact is indicative 
of the change wrought in the position of 
women by the gospel, and of the honourable 
place taken by them in the Christian Church. 
Observe also the difference of nationality in- 
dicated by the names. St. Paul, a Hebrew, 
sends salutation to Greeks, Romans, and per- 
haps Asiatics, many of them probably slaves — 
marking the universality of the gospel : cp. Gal 
328 Col 3 11. 

1. Commend] i.e. introduce: cp. 12 13 2 Cor 
3 1 . Apparently, Phoebe was the bearer of the 
Epistle. Servant] lit. ' deacon,' RM ' dea- 
coness ' : translated 'deacon' in Phil l 1 , etc., 
but 'minister' in Eph3 7 6 21 , etc. Either 
Phoebe had been definitely appointed to min- 
ister to women (cp. 1 Tim5 3f -), or she is called 
' minister ' because she voluntarily devoted 
herself to good works. Cenchrea] the eastern 
port of Corinth. 2. Succourer] or, ' patron- 
ess.' The Gk. word is used for an influential 
friend or protector. 3. Priscilla] RV ' Prisca.' 
For the history of Aquila and Prisca cp. Ac 18, 
1 Cor 1 6 19 2 Tim 4 ». 4. Laid down, etc.] Per- 
haps they risked their lives at Ephesus : cp.. 
Ac 19. 5. In their house] i.e. meeting in their 
house: cp. Acl2 12 lCorl6 19 Col 4*5 Phile- 
mon v. 2. 

Firstfruits] i.e. an early convert. Achaia] 
RV 'Asia,' i.e. the Roman province of which 
Ephesus was the chief city. 

7. Junia] RV ' Junius.' Kinsmen] i.e. Jews 
belonging to the same ' Tribe ' of citizens of 
Tarsus as St. Paul. Of note among the apo- 
stles] i.e. distinguished apostles. 'Apostle' 
means 'one sent on a mission and representing 
the sender.' 'Apostles of Churches,' cp. 
2Cor8'- ,:? (EM) Phil2* (RM), were men sent 
on special missions by particular Churches. 



But, specially, ' apostles ' means ' apostles of 
Christ,' cp. lTh2 6 , i.e. men sent to be 
Christ's witnesses everywhere. Such were the 
Twelve; Paul and Barnabas, cp. Acl4 14 ; 
James, 1 Cor 15 7 Gal 1 19 ; and Andronicus and 
Junias. Apostles of Christ ' must have seen 
the Lord, cp. Lk 24 48 Ac 1 8 . 22 1 Cor 9 1 ; have 
shown spiritual power, cp. 1 Cor9 2 2Corl2 12 ; 
and have received a call from God, cp. 1 Cor 
12 2 8Eph4H. 

9. Urbane] RV ' Urbanus.' 

12. Persis] the name of a woman. 

13. Rufus] cp. Mkl5 21 . St. Mark probably 
wrote his Gospel at Rome. 

Mine] i.e. St. Paul felt for her the affection 
of a son. 

17-20. Warning against false teachers, pro- 
bably Judaistic, whose doctrines St. Paul has 
dealt with in the Epistle. They may not have 
appeared at Rome as yet : cp. Phil 1 15f - (writ- 
ten from Rome). 

17. Offences] RV ' occasions of stumbling.' 

Avoid] RV ' turn away from.' 18. Their 
own belly] i.e. they seek their own interests, 
and their religious ideas are low and material- 
istic : cp. Phil3!' f - Col2 2 ° f . 

19. For] i.e. 'But they ought not to deceive 
you, for,' etc. Simple] i.e. harmless : cp. 
MtlO 16 . 20. Bruise Satan] by defeating the 
false teaching : cp. 2 Cor 1 1 12f . 

21-23. Greetings from St. Paul's com- 
panions. 

21. Lucius] cp. AC13 1 . Jason] cp. Acl7 5f . 
Sosipater] cp. Ac20 n . Kinsmen] cp. v. 7. 

22. Wrote] RV 'write.' St. Paul's habit 
was to dictate his letters: cp. ICorIG 21 Col 
4 is 2 Th 3 17 Gal 6 ". 23. Gaius] cp. 1 Cor 1 ". 

Of the whole church] i.e. the meetings were 
held in his house. A brother] RV ' the brother,' 
i.e. the Christian. 24. RV omits : see Intro. 

25-27. Concluding doxology, summing up 
the main points of the Epistle. 

2 5- My gospel] i.e. his special teaching of 
acceptance by faith for Jew and Gentile. Of 
Jesus Christ] i.e. the object of his preaching 
was to bring about faith in Jesus the Mes- 
siah : cp. 10 8f . According to the revelation, 
etc.] i.e. the preaching of Jesus Christ explains 
God's purpose, which had been hidden : cp. 
chs. 9-11, 1 Cor 2 6'. 

Secret] RV ' in silence.' Since the world 
began] RV ' through times eternal.' 26. By 
the scriptures] cp. 11*381. For the] RV 
' unto,' i.e. leading to the obedience which 
faith implies : cp. 1 5 . 

Subscription. The subscriptions to the 
Epistles are said to have been the work of 
Euthalius, a bishop of the 5th cent. 



888 



1 CORINTHIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



i. The Corinthian Church. 

(a) ' Corinth was in many respects the most 
important city in Greece under the Roman 
Empire. Whereas Athens was the educational 
centre, the seat of the greatest university in 
the world at that time, and the city to which 
the memories of Greek freedom and older 
history clung most persistently, Corinth was 
the capital of the Roman province, the centre 
of government and commerce, of actual life 
and development in the country ' (HDB). 

It was situated on the narrow isthmus 
which connected Macedonia and Achaia, and 
possessed two great harbours, Lechaeum look- 
ing towards the Adriatic Sea and Italy, and 
Cenchreae (Acl8 18 R0I6 1 ) looking towards 
the iEgean and Asia. Though it lay a little 
inland it had all the advantages of a seaport, 
and, occupying as it did a central position on 
the lines of communication between Rome 
and the East, it was a great commercial clear- 
ing-house. Small ships were hauled across 
the isthmus by a prepared way to avoid the 
voyage round the Cape, and travellers from 
Italy to the East landed at Lechaeum and re- 
embarked at Cenchreae. It was thus a place 
where traders and officials were constantly 
coming and going. Its population was com- 
posed of Greeks and Romans, Jews and 
Orientals. Merchants and sailors were its 
most frequent visitors, staying for short 
periods on their voyages, and bringing to it 
the civilisation and the customs of many lands. 

Corinth in St. Paul's day was a Roman 
colony. Two centuries earlier the famous 
Greek city on the same site had been destroyed 
by the Roman armies ; but after lying in ruins 
for a hundred years it had been refounded by 
Julius Caesar in 46 B.C., and had speedily 
regained more than its former greatness. 

Besides its commercial importance Corinth 
was famous as the scene of the great Isthmian 
games, which every second year attracted a mul- 
titude of people to the city ; and it was noted 
as the centre of the abominable worship of the 
goddess Aphrodite, in whose worship virgins 
sacrificed their chastity. The Corinthians were 
notorious even in the world of that time for 
their drunkenness and sensuality. They were 
also much given to faction and strife, being 
always anxious to discuss philosophical and 
moral problems, and to debate the qualifica- 
tions and drawbacks of their public teachers. 



It is a significant commentary on their way of 
life that a man of Corinth was usually intro- 
duced on the stage in a state of intoxication, 
and that ' to live like a Corinthian ' had become a 
proverb to express a life of luxury and licence. 

(b) The Founding of the Church. St. Paul's 
first visit to Corinth was made in the course 
of his second missionary journey, and lasted 
eighteen months (Ac 18). After his failure to 
make any deep impression at Athens, the 
Apostle passed on to Corinth ; probably in the 
autumn of 50 a. d., but possibly a year or two 
later, as the dates are uncertain. On his 
arrival he met with Aquila and his wife 
Priscilla, Jews lately expelled from Rome on 
account of their race and religion. They were 
tentmakers, like himself, so he wrought with 
them and stayed in their house. At first, ac- 
cording to his custom (cp. Acl3 5 > 14 14 1 17 2 ), 
he preached in the synagogue, and endeavoured 
to persuade the Jews and the Greek proselytes 
that Jesus was the Christ. The arrival of 
Silas and Timothy reinforced him, and the 
work was not without effect, for several Jews 
believed, among them being Crispus, the 
ruler of the synagogue, and Titius Justus, 
one of their proselytes. The majority, how- 
ever, remained obdurate, and the Apostle had 
to withdraw from the synagogue. Eventually 
the wrath of the Jews culminated in an 
attempt to convict him before Gallio, the 
governor of the province, of teaching an 
illegal religion. The governor, however, dis- 
missed the case, because the Apostle had not 
broken any Roman law, and the Greeks who 
were present gave a rough approval of his 
decision by beating Sosthenes, the new ruler 
of the synagogue, in sight of the judgment- 
seat. Thus protected by the law, St. Paul 
continued his work until the spring of 52 A.D., 
when he sailed for Ephesus and Jerusalem, to 
celebrate the Passover. 

After his departure from Ephesus, Apollos, 
a learned Jew of Alexandria, who had em- 
braced Christianity, arrived there, and made 
himself known to the Church. His knowledge 
of Christ was somewhat imperfect, but having 
been instructed more fully by Aquila and 
Priscilla, who had accompanied St. Paul to 
Ephesus, he became of great assistance in the 
work of the Lord. It was his desire to go to 
Corinth, and after a time the brethren in 
Ephesus commended him to the community 



889 



INTRO. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



across the sea (Ac 18 27 2 Cor 3 *). In Corinth 
his preaching was very successful (Acl8 27 ), 
and his arguments proved attractive to many 
of the Corinthians, who preferred a more 
philosophical style to the plain words of St. 
Paul. 

(c) Composition of the Church. The Church 
at Corinth was composed to some extent of Jews 
(Ac 1 8 8 1 Cor 7 18 1 32 2 Cor 1 1 22), but chiefly of 
Gentiles (Ac 1 8 7 1 Cor 1 2 2 ). The members were 
of all classes. Gaius, ' the host of the whole 
Church,' and Erastus, 'the chamberlain of the 
city ' (Ro 16 23 — the Epistle to the Romans was 
written from Corinth), were among the better 
class, as was, perhaps, also Stephanas, ' the first- 
fruits of Achaia ' (16 15 ). But others were poor 
(126-28) } and others were slaves (7 22). It is 
certain that here as elsewhere ' not many 
wise men after the flesh, not many mighty, 
not many noble ' were called (1 26 ). The 
majority seem to have been of humble station 
(127,2S) 5 a nd had to work hard for their 
living. Some of these Christian converts 
being of Jewish origin attached importance to 
Jewish rites (9 20), others prided themselves 
on their liberal views (8 8 > 9 10 25, 27) . many had 
been redeemed from vicious habits (6 9-n ), and 
had to keep strict watch over their lives 

(g 12, 13, 20) < 

(d) The Rise of Parties in the Church. In 
order to understand the situation referred to 
in our Epistle, it is necessary to give a brief 
account of the factions which arose in the 
Church after the Apostle's departure (1 12 ). 

Four parties are there named — called by the 
names of the leaders they had adopted — a 
party of Paul, a party of Apollos, a party of 
Cephas, and a party of Christ. The followers 
of Paul were those who had remained faithful 
to the teaching of the founder of the Church, 
and probably included the earliest converts 
who had felt the power of his personal in- 
fluence ; but they made the mistake of opposing 
him to other teachers, and, perhaps, especially 
at first to Apollos, hence they received a special 
rebuke (1 13 ). 

The party of Apollos evidently consisted of 
1 1 ios who admired that eloquent speaker's 
ability in the use of argument and language. 
Apollos seems to have captivated a number of 
the converts by his skill in harmonising the 
teaching of the OT. with the current philo- 
sophy, and his ingenuity in using the allegorical 
method of interpretation in applying the 
Eebrew Scriptures to prove that Jesus was 
the Messiah. St. Paul may be contrasting 
(lie methods of Apollos with his own simpler 
style of teaching the Corinthians when he 
speaks of ' wisdom ' and l foolishness ' in 1 17 " 31 
2 1-18 . The nucleus of the party of Apollos 
would be composed of those whom he himself 
had converted ; others would be attracted to it 



who were easily impressed by a flowing style 
and a philosophic presentation of the truth. 
The differences between the parties of Paul 
and Apollos arose half-unconsciously, hence 
their hostility would not be very pronounced. 

The other two parties had a different origin. 
It would appear that, some time after St. Paul's 
departure, representatives of that party in the 
Church at Jerusalem which maintained that 
acceptance of Christianity involved acceptance 
of circumcision and other Jewish rites, also 
came to Corinth. These Judaisers, as they 
are called, were always hostile to the wider 
developments of Christianity. They found 
fault with St. Peter for his liberal views and 
his attitude to the Gentiles (Ac ll 2 ) at an 
early period of the Church's history. St. 
Paul, however, was the principal object of 
their aversion and ill-will. It is possible that 
they had never forgiven his persecution of the 
Christians in his unconverted days, and cer- 
tainly from the date of his return to Antioch, 
after his first mission to Galatia, they opposed 
his admission of uncircumcised heathen to the 
fellowship of the Church (Ac 1 5 x Gal 2 4). We 
find them sending emissaries in his track to 
alienate the Jewish converts from allegiance 
to him and bring the Gentile brethren into 
bondage to the Mosaic Law (Gal 17 2 12 .i3 3 1 
5 2 6 12 Phil 3 2 ). Some of these Jewish 
Christians had brought letters of commenda- 
tion (2Cor3 1 ) to Corinth, and had been re- 
ceived by the Church. They took occasion to 
exalt St. Peter (Cephas) as the chief of 
the Apostles, and tried to undermine the 
authority of St. Paul, insisting that he was 
not an Apostle, and that he lacked the quali- 
fication of having seen Jesus (9 1 ). 

Thus was formed the party of Cephas, con- 
sisting, probably, of some of the Jews who had 
joined the Church, and. perhaps, of some of 
the proselytes, who, having first adopted the 
Jewish religion and rites, would be the more 
easily persuaded. 

The party of Christ may have arisen as a 
protest against these three sections, whose 
members adopted the names of Apostles as 
party watchwords, or even as a separate and 
stricter Jewish party, maintaining the duty of 
all disciples of Christ to follow Him in His ful- 
filment of the rites of the Law (Lk2 2 ? Jn5 J , 
etc.). Its members seem to have become more 
extreme and fanatical as the strife went on. and 
to have maintained the strictest Judaistic 
principles : see further remarks in Intro, to 
2 Cor, 1 (b). We find in the Second Epistle 
that some of its members withstood St. Paul's 
authority and denied his right to interfere in 
the discipline of the Church, and that it was 
with great difficulty that the Apostle asserted 
his position and regained his influence (2 Cor 
107 1113-15, 21, 22, etc.). 



890 



ItfTRO. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



2. The First Epistle. 

(a) Circumstances of its Origin, and Date. 

Our First Epistle to the Corinthians is one, 
and that not the first, of a series of letters 
written by St. Paul to the Corinthian Church, 
in view of the party quarrels which rent it, and 
the difficulties of belief and conduct which 
perplexed its members. In the interval be- 
tween St. Paul's departure from Corinth, 
after founding the Church, and the date of 
this letter, he had revisited the Churches of 
Galatia and Phrygia (Acl8 23 ), and from there 
had come to Ephesus (Acl.9 1 ). At Ephesus 
he remained for more than two years (Ac 
19 s - 10 ), reaching the city perhaps in 53 or 54 
a.d., and leaving it late in 56 or 57 a.d. 
During his residence there he seems to have 
received tidings from Corinth that some of 
the Christians had fallen back into immoral 
habits, and he wrote a letter to the Church, in 
which he directed the members to exercise 
discipline upon the offenders. To this letter 
(which is not now extant) he refers in 5 9 , 
' I wrote unto you in my epistle to have no 
company with fornicators ' (RV). This letter 
was not well received by the Corinthians. 
Some of them, misunderstanding the counsel, 
declared that it was impossible to follow it 
without going out of the world (5 10 ), and 
others flatly denied his right to interfere at all 
(4 15 ' 18 > 19 ). In reply they wrote a letter, fre- 
quently alluded to and even quoted from in 
the canonical First Epistle (5 10 7 1 8 1 " 10 10 25 
ll 2 ), in which they temporised in regard to 
the cases of immorality, asking for further 
information, and submitted a number of prob- 
lems on which they requested his opinion. 
This letter was probably brought by three of 
their number, Stephanas and Fortunatus and 
Achaicus (16"). 

Meanwhile, however, St. Paul had also 
heard of the factions in the Church. The 
news had been brought by servants of Chloe 
(l 11 ), a lady evidently well known to the 
Corinthians, though whether she was herself a 
Christian does not appear. The tidings caused 
the Apostle much pain and anxiety. He sent 
Timothy to Corinth by way of Macedonia 
(Ac 19 22 1 Cor 4 17 ) to ' bring them into remem- 
brance of his ways in Christ.' About the 
same time he wrote the First Epistle and sent 
it — perhaps by the hands of Titus and the 
brother mentioned in 2 Cor 12 1S — by the shorter 
sea route, that it might arrive before his young 
comrade, whom he commends to their care 
(16 w ). The letter contains first of all a re- 
monstrance regarding their divisions and an 
exhortation to unity, and secondly detailed 
answers to the problems and questions sub- 
mitted in the Epistle from the Church. It 
was probably written and despatched early 
in 55 or 56 a.d. 



(b) Synopsis of Contents. 

Introduction 1 1-9 . Greeting and thanksgiving. 
I. l 10 -6 20 . Problems suggested by the 
reports of Chloe's people. 

(a) 1 10 -4 21 . Parties and party spirit in the 

Church. 

(b) 5 1-13 . The case of immorality. 

(c) 6 1-11 . Christians and litigation. 

(d) 6 12 - 2 °. The obligation of purity. 

II. 71-16 4 . Problems submitted in the 
letter from Corinth, 
(a) 7 1_4 °. Marriage, divorce, and celibacy. 

(Z>) 8 *-l 1 1. Food offered to idols : 

(i)S 1 - 13 . The principle of 

self-denial ; 
(ii)9!-27. St. Paul's own 

example ; 
(iii) 10L-11 1 . Historical illus- 
trations and practical 
advice. 

(c) ll 2 ' 16 . The veiling of women in 

Church. 

(d) 1 1 17 - 34 . The proper observance of the 

Lord's Supper. 

(e) 121-14*0. Spiritual gifts: 

(i) 12 1_31 . Their nature and 

relations ; 
(ii) 13 !- 13 . The most excel- 
lent gift of charity ; 
(iii) 141-40. The gift of 
tongues subordinate to 
prophecy. 
(/) 15 1- 58 . The fact and the doctrine of 

the Resurrection. 
(g) 16 1" 4 . The collection for the poor 

Christians in Jerusalem. 
(h) 16 5 * 24 . Personal messages and con- 
clusion. 

(c) Outline of the Epistle. After saluting 
the Church and giving thanks for their Chris- 
tian graces (li' 9 ) the Apostle deals with the 
evils of which he has heard. First of all 
(1 10-4 3i ) he points out the scandal and danger 
of party spirit in the Church, reminding them 
that Christ is the only Master, the Apostles 
being only preachers of Christ. He shows 
them that the preaching of the Cross is power- 
ful to accomplish their salvation, and that it is 
the only true wisdom to those who have under- 
standing. The Corinthians, however, are still 
carnal, and do not know the truth, as is shown 
by their partisanship. Let them realise that 
Christian teachers are fellow-workers with God, 
servants of Christ, and let them give up this 
strife and rancour. The Apostle then passes 
on (c. 5) to deal with the case of incestuous 
marriage, and bids the Church put out of its 
membership the man who has caused the scandal. 
Litigation before heathen judges is forbidden 
(6 1- 9 ) because it is both foolish and morally 
wrong, exhibiting the spirit of their uncon- 



891 



INTRO. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



verted past, rather than the new spirit of love 
and peace, and then the Apostle urges them 
again (6 10 " 20 ) to purity of life. 

The rest of the Epistle seems to deal with 
problems of Church life suggested by questions 
in a letter from the Corinthians to St. Paul. 
The subject of marriage is dealt with first (c. 7), 
the Apostle commending the married state to 
all who prefer it, and forbidding divorce on 
grounds of difference in religion. Meats offered 
to idols formed a cause of scandal to many, 
and the Apostle (c. 8) points out that while a 
man might well enough eat such meat with a 
pure conscience, his action might give offence 
to another who regarded the eating of such 
food as sin, in which case it was far better to 
avoid it. This suggests a reference to his own 
example (c. 9) of self-denial. He has the 
right to look for material aid from the Church, 
but he refuses to exercise it, and practises the 
same self-denial in this respect as in respect of 
his bodily appetites. He then (c. 10) returns 
to the subject of idolatry, showing its dangers 
by reference to Jewish history, and urging his 
converts to keep from its degrading influence. 

The next subject taken up (ll 2 " 16 ) is the 
place of women in the worship of the Church, 
after which the Apostle deals with the observ- 
ance of the Lord's Supper (ll 17 " 34 ), reproving 
the abuses which disfigure their sacred feast, 
reminding them of the manner of its institution 
by the Lord Jesus, and exhorting them to 
reverence in its use. The use and abuse of 
such spiritual gifts as prophesying and speaking 
with tongues is dealt with in its turn (chs. 1 2-1 4), 
and the Apostle, while commending the moder- 
ate and careful use of all the gifts, bids them 
cultivate above all (c. 13) the most excellent 
gift of charity. Then follows his teaching as 
to the fact and the doctrine of the Resurrec- 
tion, in which he shows how intimately belief 
in the Resurrection of Christ (and consequently 
of the dead, of whom He is the first-fruits) is 
bound up with their Christian faith and new 
obedience, and how all their Christian prac- 
tices and actions and aspirations were in- 
separably connected with it. Turning next to 
the manner of the Resurrection, he points out 
that as it is with the seed sown and the wheat 
reaped, so is it with the mortal body and the 
spiritual body. Through the grave man's body 
passes into a new and higher form, and then 
' when this corruptible has put <>n incorruption, 
and this mortal has put on immortality, then 
shall be brought to pass the Baying that is 
written, Death is swallowed up in victory.' 
The letter concludes (<•. 16) with directions 
about a collect ion for the poor in Jerusalem, the 
Mother-Church, and with personal messages 
to various friends of the waiter. 

(d) Authenticity. This Epistle is accepted 
as St. Paul's by almost all schools of biblical 



criticism, including those often regarded as 
sceptical and extreme. The internal and the 
external evidences are both exceptionally 
good. The Epistle accords with the circum- 
stances under which it is presumed to have 
been written, and presents a true picture of the 
nature and habits of the Corinthians. Its tone 
is real, its exhortations and counsels arise 
naturally out of the circumstances, and it 
reveals the Apostle in many characteristic 
moods. As regards the witness borne to this 
letter in early Church history, it is sufficient to 
say that Clement of Rome, writing to this 
same Church of Corinth about 97 a.d., quotes 
from it and bids them read it again for their 
guidance. 

(e) The Master-thought of this Epistle and 
of the Second Epistle is the union of Christ 
and the Christian. ' I am crucified with 
Christ,' he says (Gal2 20 ) : 'nevertheless I live ; 
yet not I, but Christ liveth in me : and the 
life which I now live in the flesh I live by the 
faith of the Son of God, who loved me, and 
gave himself for me.' Christ and the Apostle 
are so united in mind and spirit that the very 
life of Christ, so to speak, pulsates in Him. 
He has yielded Himself so completely to 
Christ's influence, and drunk so deeply of His 
spirit, that he acts, speaks, thinks, and suffers 
' in Christ.' The sense of personal union with 
Christ sustains him in all his efforts, and he 
desires to realise Christ's presence abiding 
with him in increasing degree. 

' Flow on my soul, thou Spirit, and renew me, 
Fill with Thyself, and let the rest be far ' (Myers). 

What he has thus experienced in his own 
life, he assumes that his converts have in some 
degree experienced also (6 15 8 12 2 Cor 1 21 
5 17 ). He realises indeed that their union with 
Christ is but imperfect and dimly realised by 
themselves ; he can treat them only as ' babes 
in Christ' (3 1 ). But though they do not 
comprehend this fact of their spiritual life, he 
is assured that Christ is indeed already dwelling 
in them (2 Cor 13 5 ) ; and he desires that they 
may receive more and more of the influence of 
Christ, until they live in complete and con- 
scious union with Him. From this controlling 
thought of the union of Christ and the Chris- 
tian the Apostle deduces the two dominant 
ideas — the necessity of union with one another, 
and the necessity of purity of life (see paraph. 
2 Cor 4 13-15). 

(/) Special Teaching of the Epistle. There 
are many points of Christian belief and 
practice which this Epistle sets in a unique 
light, (a) One most important feature is the 
independent witness it bears to the facts of 
Christ's life and death and resurrection. 
Especially does the Apostle dwell upon the 
Crucifixion and the Resurrection (2 2 5 7 



892 



INTRO. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



1. 2 



620 8ii 15 3-8, 20, 23, 57, etc.). The letter was 
written before our Gospels, within about 
twenty-five years of the death of Christ, and 
in all matters of fact it confirms the state- 
ments of the Gospels. 

We learn from it too that the sacraments 
were duly celebrated, although some disorder 
was mingled with the observance of the Lord's 
Supper. Baptism was administered to those 
who confessed their faith in Christ (1 1 2 " 16 6 u 
12 13 ), and the Lord's Supper was observed 
by the breaking of the bread and the giving of 
the cup, and was to be prepared for by 
self-examination (ll 23 " 29 ). Associated with 
the Holy Communion and prior to its cele- 
bration was the agape or common meal, at 
which the members of the Church shared the 
food which each had brought, and ate together 
in token of their unity as members of one 
family. It was in connexion with the agape 
that the abuses had arisen which St. Paul 
condemns in c. 11. 

The doctrines of Christianity are not set 
forth here in a formal way, but are brought 
forward incidentally as they bear on Christian 
life and practice. Belief in God the Father 
(86), in the Lord Jesus Christ (8 6 Hi), and in 
the Holy Spirit (12 3 ), is the foundation of the 
faith. Christ crucified is the great subject of 
preaching (l 23 ). Christ has ransomed man 
(619,20) • H e nas di e d f or their sins according 
to prophecy (15 3 ) ; He is the perfect example 
for them to follow (111), anc [ the chief object 
of their love (16 22 ). Christ's death is the 
power of God unto salvation (l 24 ), and the 
great motive to holiness of life (5 7 > 8 ). His 
Resurrection is the basis of belief in the 
resurrection of the dead (15 i6 ) ; the ground of 
the hope of immortality (15 18 ) ; and the 
pledge of the forgiveness of sins (15 1 7 ). 

The Epistle bears witness also to the ideal 
unity of the Church of Christ (1M 3 3 11 ll^), 
to the fact of forgiveness bestowed by Christ 
(15 3 ), to the great Christian doctrines of 
the resurrection of the body (15 42-44 ), and 
of the life everlasting (15 53 ' 57 ). Closely 
connected with doctrine is duty ; and the 
Christian virtues of self-denial (8 i3 ), unity 
(1 1°), love (c. 13), and purity (31M 7 ), are incul- 
cated in many passages, of which those indi- 
cated are mere specimens. What is insisted 
upon throughout is that the whole purpose of 
the death of Christ was to produce the life of 
the Spirit in the souls of men (1 so 2 2 -5 6 20 7 23 , 
etc.). 

The public worship described is sponta- 
neous and unrestrained. Each one prayed or 
sang or exhorted as the Spirit moved him, 
sometimes in a sort of raptured utterance 
which was unintelligible to the others (14i 2 -i 7 ). 
We can understand that while such worship 
was often hearty and helpful and productive 



of deep impressions (14 25 ), it was liable to 
much abuse, and was in fact frequently spoiled 
by rivalry and disorder, and even by blasphemy 
(123 1411,16,23,30). The Apostle lays down 
strict rules for its proper conduct on the 
principle that all things should be done unto 
edifying (14 26-40 ). There seems to have been 
little or no organisation in the Corinthian 
Church at that early stage. Had there been 
responsible heads of the Church some of the 
causes of disorder could not have been present. 
Perhaps we may see an attempt on the Apostle's 
part to get such recognised ' elders ' or ' bishops ' 
appointed (cp. Phil 1 1), in his advice to the 
Corinthians to submit themselves to such as 
the house of Stephanas (16 15 > 16 ). The prin- 
ciple of discipline was recognised in the 
Church, and the penalty for gross sin was 
expulsion by a solemn service (5 3_5 >n). But 
there seems to have been some difference of 
opinion as to the authority by which the 
sentence was to be pronounced when the case 
arose : this caused delay, and the Apostle had 
to assert his right to exercise discipline when 
the Church as a whole was lax. 

It is mainly the dark side of the Church life 
which is disclosed in this Epistle ; but there 
was also a bright side. There was life in the 
Church ; its members possessed the gifts of 
the spirit ; they were growing in grace 
and in the knowledge of God (l 4 " 9 ), and 
the Apostle could give thanks in spite of all 
drawbacks for the many aspirations and efforts 
and achievements which gave promise of 
better things to come (1 4 > 8 ). 

CHAPTER 1 

Greeting and Thanksgiving. Partisan- 
ship in the Church 

St. Paul, after greeting the Church and 
giving thanks for its spiritual gifts, rebukes 
the preference for various teachers which was 
prevalent among them ; such a spirit lost sight 
of Christ crucified, the one subject of all 
Christian teachers. 

1-9. Greeting and Thanksgiving. 

1. Called to be an apostle] chosen by God, 
not self-appointed : see Ac 22 17 " 2 i. Sosthenes] 
This may be the ruler of the synagogue of 
Acl8i 7 , converted since that time. 

2. Sanctified in Christ Jesus] consecrated 
to God through faith in Christ, having Christ 
living in them and His influence moulding 
them. Called to be saints] lit. ' called saints' ; 
because consecrated to Christ. They bore 
the name and should also show the nature of 
saints. The holiness of the Church is con- 
tinually suggested in this Epistle. With all 
that in every place call] The greeting is ex- 
tended to include all Christians in the neigh- 
bourhood. There was a branch of the Church 
at Cenchrese, the eastern port of Corinth 



893 



1. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



1. 18 



(2 Cor 1 ! Ro 1 6 !). Call upon the name] Prayer 
was offered to Christ by all Christians from 
the time of the Ascension, and this is one of 
the clearest proofs that He was regarded as 
truly divine (Ac7 59 9 21 ). 3- Grace be unto 
you, and peace] St. Paul's invariable greeting 
to the Churches. Grace is the favour of God, 
and peace the result of the enjoyment of that 
favour. 

4-9. Paraphrase. ' I praise God continually 
because through your spiritual union with 
Christ you have received the gifts of His 
grace. (5) I am especially thankful because 
your knowledge of the truth and your ability 
to give it expression have increased (6) with 
the increasing response of your spirits to the 
gospel of Christ. (7) You are thus on an 
equality with other Churches in respect of 
spiritual gifts ; and you wait and watch for 
the coming of the Lord, (8) who will keep 
you faithful, so that none shall reproach you.' 

4. I thank my God] St. Paul regarded the 
Corinthian Church, in spite of its sins and 
faults, as a true and living Church. 5. Are 
enriched] RY 'were enriched.' In all utter- 
ance, and in all knowledge] The fact that they 
abused these gifts (123 131,2 142-13) did not 
lead the Apostle to undervalue them. 6. The 
testimony of Christ] The Apostle's witness to 
Christ's person and power and saving work 
was verified by its effects upon the Corinthians. 

7. The coming of our Lord] cp. 4 5 7 29 
15 51 lTh4 15 2 Pet 3 4 > 14 . 8. Confirm you] 
keep you steadfast. 9. The fellowship of 
his Son] i.e. union with Him. This is the 
keynote of the Epistle, and leads to the thought 
suggested in the next paragraph, that they who 
are united to Christ should be united to one 
another. 

Division I. iio-gM Problems suggested 

by the Report of Chloe's People 
( a ) 110-421. Parties and Party Spirit in 
the Church 
10-17. Paraphrase. ' Brethren, I implore 
you by the Holy Name of Jesus to abstain 
from strife and party spirit. I have heard of 
your disputes and of your use of the names of 
Apostles and even of Christ's Holy Name as 
party watchwords. (13-16) Can Christ be 
claimed as the property of a faction ! And 
are you putting my name on a level with His 
Sacred Name ? 1 BID thankful that I baptised 
so very few of you that none can say I bap- 
tised in in\ own name. (17) Preaching was 
in \ work, no! baptism — the preaching of sal- 
vation through tlir Cross of Christ.' 

10. By the name of our Lord] The Apostle 
appeala to them by the Holy Name of Jesus, 
which itself should remind them of their one- 
ness as His followers, since they had all been 
baptised into it. Speak the same thing] i.e. 



agree in calling Christ your only leader. Per- 
fectly joined, etc.] lit. ' adjusted in the same 
mind and in the same view.' They should 
be reconciled, and try to be of the same 
spirit. 

11. Chloe] We know nothing of her but 
her name. ' Those of her house ' may have 
been sons or brothers or servants. Conten- 
tions] The ' divisions ' of v. 10 had produced 
disputes probably at the meetings for worship. 

12. This I say] The Corinthian Christians 
were divided into parties (see Intro.), each 
professing to follow the teaching and example 
of a favourite teacher. These parties had not 
yet separated into opposing sects, but their 
existence deprived the Church of the power of 
united action arising from united feeling. 

13. Is Christ divided, etc.] see paraphrase. 
St. Paul reminds the Corinthians indirectly but 
emphatically of the crucifixion of Christ for 
them and of their baptism into His name. 
By the one they had been redeemed from sin ; 
by the other they had been dedicated to Christ's 
service, and had entered into communion with 
Him. How then could they put others side 
by side with their crucified Lord ? 

Baptized in (R Y ' into ') the name 'of Paul] 
Their baptism did not dedicate them to PauVs 
service. 14. Crispus] the ruler of the syna- 
gogue (Ac 18 8 ). Gaius] see Ro 16 23 . 

15. Lest any should say] This does not 
mean that the Apostle refrained from baptising 
because he had this danger in view, but only 
that because of the fact that a party had been 
formed in his name, it was well that he had 
not baptised, and so laid himself open to mis- 
representation. 16. Stephanas] was now with 
St. Paul (161?). He had been the first Cor- 
inthian convert (16 15 ). 17. Not to baptize] 
The Apostle reserved himself as far as possible 
for the work of preaching, and left baptism 
for the most part to his companions. Not 
with wisdom of words] i.e. paying attention, 
not to the manner of presenting the truth, but 
to the substance of the truth itself. 

18-25. The gospel of the crucified Christ is 
no foolishness to those who know its power. 
The wisdom of the world has been shown to be 
mere folly by the wisdom of God in Christ, 
Men in their wisdom wandered away from 
God, and it is by this so-called folly of preach- 
ing that those who believe, both Jews and 
Greeks, have been saved. 

18. Foolishness] Christ's self-sacrificing 
death produces no response in some hearts : 
cp. 2Cor2 lft .i6 4 34 . Perish. . are saved] RV 
' are perishing . . are being saved.' Salvation 
is here spoken of as present and progressive. 
The Apostle is thinking of the work of Christ 
in sanctifying those who believe. The power 
of God] Because the lives of those who receive 
it are transformed by the influence of Christ 



8 ( J4 



1.19 



1 CORINTHIANS 



dwelling in them by His Spirit and moulding 
them to His will. 

19, 20. Paraphrase. ' For God still works 
in the same way as when overruling the course 
of history He confounded those who in their 
boasted wisdom doubted His protection, and 
sought alliance with Egypt against Assyria. 
(20) Has He not confounded the wise, both 
learned Jew and keen-witted Greek, by reveal- 
ing how little their learning and eloquence 
have done to save men from sin ? '- 

19. It is written] Quoted from the LXX 
version of Isa 29 14 . 21. By wisdom] The Greeks 
learned nothing of His character from nature 
or speculation, and the Jews failed to recognise 
the truth taught in their history and in their 
law (cp. Ro 1 , 2). The foolishness of preaching] 
St. Paul, of course, is writing sarcastically. 
Yes ! you call it folly ; but it is wiser than 
all your wisdom ! 

22-24. Paraphrase. ' And this is true, as 
the facts declare. The Jews will not believe 
unless a miracle is wrought before their eyes ; 
the Greeks will accept no truth that is not 
commended by philosophical speculation ; (23) 
but the subject of our preaching is salvation 
through. the crucified Christ — who has by His 
death set us free from the bondage and from 
the power of sin — a doctrine which moves the 
Jews to anger and the Greeks to mirth, (24) 
but which is true wisdom to us, because we 
have been delivered from sin and brought to 
God by the transforming power of Christ.' 

23. A stumblingblock] The idea of a crucified 
Messiah was repugnant to the Jews. Foolish- 
ness] The Greeks made a jest of such a re- 
ligion. As an illustration the raillery of 
Lucian in a later age may be cited. 24. Them 
which are called] those whom the message has 
found responsive. Christ the power . . and the 
wisdom of God] He is the power of God 
because He enables the sinner to overcome his 
sin ; and the wisdom of God because He re- 
veals the mind of God and the practicable way 
of salvation. 25. The foolishness of God] 
This method of salvation by the Cross of 
Christ in point of fact saved men from their 
sins. And thus the so-called foolishness of 
God was proved in practice to be wiser than 
the wise methods of men. 

26-31. Paraphrase. 'Look at the state of 
matters in your own Church. There are few 
among you eminent in the eyes of the world. 
(27-29) But it is just what is weak and lowly 
and of no account according to worldly stand- 
ards that God has chosen to shame what is 
strong and lofty and worldly-wise ; that no man 
may boast or compare his work with God's. (30) 
And you Corinthians are the evidences of the 
work of God in Christ who has saved you from 
your sins ; (31) and so the word of prophecy 
has been fulfilled that if any one wishes to 



boast let him boast of what God has wrought 
for him.' 

26. Ye see your calling] RV ' Behold your 
calling.' Calling] Not 'worldly station,' but 
God's invitation given through Christ. Not 
many wise, etc.] The Corinthian Church was 
composed chiefly of people who from the 
worldly standpoint were of little account. 
There were probably many freedmen and slaves 
in the Church, the former being chiefly engaged 
in trade. Prof. Ramsay says that the names 
Fortunatus, Achaicus (16 17 ), Gaius (l 14 Ro 
16 23 ), Tertius (Ro 16 22), and Quartus (Ro 16 23), 
were those of freedmen, i.e. former slaves, who 
had been set free or redeemed. ' Gaius was prob- 
ably a rich freedman to whom the honourable 
duty of entertaining the guests of the Church 
was assigned.' Noble] i.e. of noble birth. 

28. Base] i.e. of low birth. Things which 
are not] i.e. mere nonentities : cp. Mt 1 1 5 > 25 . 

Hath God chosen] Thrice emphatically re- 
peated, to mark the fact that all is due to God. 

29. That no flesh should glory] because 
God's call is not given on account of any earthly 
position or advantage. 

30. Who of God is made unto us wisdom, 
and righteousness, etc.] RM ' Who was made 
unto us wisdom from God, both righteousness 
and sanctification and redemption,' etc. There 
are only three co-ordinate terms in the sen- 
tence. Righteousness, sanctification and re- 
demption are subordinate to wisdom and 
descriptive or explanatory of it. Christ is the 
true wisdom of God, the expression of His 
desire for our salvation and of His power in 
accomplishing it. That wisdom is shown in 
Christ as He first forgives our sins and accepts 
us as righteous, then goes on to make us pure 
and holy by His indwelling influence, and 
finally promises to give us ultimate victory 
over sin and death, and to raise us to life 
eternal. 31. He that glorieth] There was 
nothing of which human wisdom could boast. 
Philosophy had helped a few intellectual minds, 
but had never touched the ordinary man. But 
the Cross made its appeal to the lowly as well 
as to the noble, and ' the foolishness of God ' 
transformed human lives, delivering them from 
the bondage of sin and making them ' new 
creatures' in Christ. Therefore let - them 
glory in God alone. 

CHAPTER 2 
The Nature of St. Paul's Preaching 
1-5- Paraphrase. ' When I visited you in 
Corinth I made no attempt to reconcile my 
message with your Greek philosophy, (2) but 
kept to the proclamation of the facts of Christ's 
life and death upon the Cross. (3) It was 
with much anxiety and self-distrust that I 
preached the gospel to you ; (4) and the suc- 
cess I obtained was due not to my way of 



895 



% 1 



1 CORINTHIANS 



% 12 



commending the truth, but solely to the spirit 
and power which animated me ; (5) and so 
God's purpose was fulfilled, that your faith 
should be based not upon the eloquence of 
man, but upon the grace of God.' 

i. When I came] i.e. on his first visit some 
five years before (AC18 1 " 11 ). Not with ex- 
cellency of speech or of wisdom] St. Paul did 
not try to win the Corinthians to the gospel 
either by the eloquence of his speech in pre- 
senting it, or by his adroitness in showing 
its connexion with some of the philosophical 
ideas which were popular at the time. Testi- 
mony] i.e. which God sent me to give about 
Christ. RV, following another reading, has 
' mystery,' i.e. the hidden counsel and will of 
God revealed in Christ : cp. Ro 16 25, 26. 

2. Save Jesus Christ, etc.] The Apostle re- 
lied for their conversion upon his witness to 
the great facts of Christ's life and death. The 
Crucifixion he dwelt upon all the more em- 
phatically that he knew it must be an un- 
attractive doctrine to many. 3. In weakness] 
His first visit was paid at a time when he 
was either sick in body from his recurrent 
malady (2 Cor 1 2 7 ), or sick at heart from his 
failure at Athens (Ac 1 7 32 ), and dreading lest 
he were again to fail among these argumenta- 
tive Greeks. Fear and . . much trembling] The 
Apostle frequently uses this expression to 
indicate an overpowering anxiety for the 
performance of duty, culminating in a supreme 
effort : cp. 2 Cor 7 15 Eph 6 5 Phil 2 12. 

4. The success of the Apostle's preaching 
was the result of his own possession of the 
divine Spirit, and the power that resided in 
his message to arrest and convince the hearer. 

6-16. Paraphrase. ' There is indeed a wis- 
dom with which the facts of the gospel are in 
harmony and which we declare to those who 
are ripe to receive it. (7, 8) It is not the 
wisdom of this world, for that led its pos- 
sessors to crucify the Lord ; but the wisdom 
which God has long kept secret (9) as the 
Scriptures confirm. (10) This secret wisdom 
G-od has revealed to us by His Spirit ; (11) for 
just as man's spirit alone knows his secret 
thoughts, so only the Spirit of God knows 
G-od'a deep designs. (12) And that Spirit of 
God has revealed these designs to us, (13) and 
we preach them in words suited to convey 
their spiritual message. (14) Now to the man 
who has not been enlightened by the Spirit of 
God these truths make no appeal ; (15) but 
he whose mind has been thus enlightened is 
able to estimate them rightly, and he himself 
in his turn cannot be understood by the un- 
spiritu.'il. (16) For no one can know the mind 
of the Lord BO as to instruct Him ; but we are 
in sympathy with the mind of Christ, and so 
can understand these spiritual truths which 
are revealed in Him.' 



6. Wisdom] Christianity has a wisdom of 
its own. While it is centred in a Person, it 
is capable of being expressed in the terms of 
philosophy, and is in harmony with all that is 
best in human reasoning and speculation. 

Perfect] St. Paul divides Christians into 
two classes, the beginners and the advanced. 
The former must be taught the simple truths 
of the gospel and grounded in its facts : the 
latter are able to receive teaching regarding 
God's plan in redemption and His purpose as 
it is revealed in Christ and illustrated in the 
history of the world. ' Perfect ' means k mature,' 
' full-grown,' and is applied to Christians of 
ripe experience and character. It is often used 
in this sense in the Epistle to the Hebrews : 
cp. Eph 4 is Col 128 Heb2io 5 9 - 14 99 10 1, etc. 

The princes of this world] ' The men of 
light and leading ' (Dods). They showed utter 
ignorance of God's mind : cp. v. 8. 

7. In a mystery] Mystery means something 
formerly hidden in the counsels of God, but 
now revealed. The ' mystery ' here is the 
reasoned account of the redemption brought 
by Christ. Theology is necessary if we are 
to understand our religion. Unto our glory] 
cp. Mt25 34 . 8. The Lord of glory] The glory 
is His ; and He came to bestow it upon us, to 
bring us to the perfection of our nature. 9. Eye 
hath not seen] A free quotation, perhaps from 
memory, of Isa64 4 ; with the addition of 
' neither have entered into the heart of man,' 
in order to emphasise the fact that man has 
had no share in the discovery. The things 
which God hath prepared] The spiritual bless- 
ings and comforts and enlightenment revealed 
in Christ. 10. Searcheth] i.e. explores, fa- 
thoms : Ps 1 39 1 Ro 8 27. The deep things] lit. 
' the depths of God ' : i.e. His counsels. 11. The 
spirit of man . . the Spirit of God] The two ex- 
pressions are exactly parallel. The spirit of 
man is man's conscious self in thought : and 
the Spirit of God is His conscious Self in 
thought. 

12, 13. Render, 'Now when we accepted 
the salvation of the gospel our minds were 
enlightened not by any worldly wisdom, but 
by the wisdom which God's Spirit bestows 
upon the spiritually-minded and which enables 
us to understand and appreciate the blessings 
given us through Christ. (13) And these 
blessings we explain to you in terms sug- 
gested by no human philosophy, but by God's 
Spirit, interpreting spiritual truths in spiritual 
language.' 

12. The spirit of the world] i.e. the wisdom 
falsely so called, which brought men no bless- 
ing. The spirit which is of God] i.e. true 
spiritual insight, which God gives by bestowing 
upon us a portion of His own Spirit, sending 
forth into our minds His light and truth 
(Ps43 3 ). The things that are freely given] 



896 



2.13 



1 CORINTHIANS 



3. 15 



The spiritual blessings brought by Christ, 
forgiveness, sanctification, redemption (l 30 ). 

13. We speak] Our language no less than 
our truths are the result of the spiritual in- 
sight with which God has enlightened our 
minds. Comparing' spiritual things with spirit- 
ual] The phrase should be translated either, 
(1) ' interpreting spiritual truths in spiritual 
language,' or, (2) as in RM, 'interpreting 
spiritual things to spiritual men.' The former 
connects it with the context of -this v., the 
latter with v. 14. With the former also 
cp. v. 4. 

14. The natural man] i.e. man as he is by 
nature before he has come under the influence 
of God's grace. He may have all the intel- 
lectual qualities necessary to comprehend the 
wisdom of man, but he cannot understand 
the wisdom of God without the spiritual 
qualities which come only from acceptance of 
the gospel, e.g. humility, purity of heart, and 
submission to the influence of Christ. 15. Is 
judged of no man] The unregenerate man 
cannot estimate the spiritual man's experiences 
and aspirations : he is only bewildered when 
he hears these things mentioned. 16. Who 
hath known] adapted from Isa40 13 . No man 
untouched by God's Spirit can know anything 
of His mind. His truth is only revealed to 
those in sympathy with the spirit and character 
of Christ. 

CHAPTER 3 
The Fault of Pakty Spirit 

The immaturity of the Corinthian converts 
and their unfitness for anything but element- 
ary instruction in the faith is proved by their 
mutual jealousies and their disagreements 
about their teachers. 

1-9. Paraphrase. ' Ye yourselves, brethren, 
are an illustration of what I say. (2) I have 
treated you as beginners and given you ele- 
mentary Christian teaching, for hitherto you 
have been unfit for any other. (3, 4) You 
are still but immature Christians, as the strife 
and division about your teachers show. (5-7) 
We apostles are but instruments in the hands 
of God to secure your salvation ; we are 
powerless of ourselves. (8, 9) Both of us 
are alike in this respect, and all we are con- 
cerned with is the faithfulness of our work. 
For we co-operate to carry out God's purpose 
in tilling the field of your spiritual life, or, as 
we may put it, in contributing to the building 
of your Christian character.' 

1. Not . . as unto spiritual] The hidden 
wisdom of which the Apostle has been writing 
is not for them. Carnal] The Gk. means 
' fleshy,' and points to the fact that they were 
mere infants, so to speak. It is interpreted 
by the words which follow. 2. Milk] the 
rudiments of the gospel ; the alphabet of 



Christianity. We find samples of it in Paul's 
preaching (Acl3 14 " 43 17 2 ,3 18 22-31 192-4). 

Meat] more advanced teaching regarding 
the purpose of Christ's coming and the faith 
and hope of Christians, such as is presented 
in the Epistles to the Romans, Colossians, and 
Ephesians. 3. Carnal] The Gk. here is dif- 
ferent from that in v. 1, and means 'fleshly,' 
i.e. walking in the lusts of the flesh. 

4. Carnal] The Gk. is again different from 
vv. 1 and 3, and means as RV, ' men.' 

5. Ministers] i.e. servants who ministered 
to your needs. Even as the Lord gave] i.e. 
according to the ability given by God. 6. I 
have planted] St. Paul founded the Church 
at Corinth (AC18 1 " 18 ). Apollos watered] Ac 
18 2r . 8. One] lit. 'one thing,' i.e. having 
a common aim. 9. Labourers together with 
God] RV ' God's fellow- workers.' Perhaps, 
better, 'fellow-workers for God,' the em- 
phasis all through being on God's power and 
work. The Apostles were fellow-workers with 
one another, but not fellow-workers with God 
in quite the same sense. Husbandry] i.e. 
tilled field. Building] The Apostle in the 
next few vv. develops the illustration taken 
from building, with which as a frequenter of 
cities he was more familiar. For this meta- 
phor cp. Eph 2 20-22 Col 27. 

10-15. Paraphrase. 'Let me remind you 
that by the favour of God I was the founder 
of your Church. Those who followed me took 
up my work. (11) The foundation I laid was 
faith in Jesus Christ. (12) No one can lay 
any other ; but every builder is responsible 
for what he builds upon it. (13) The tests 
applied to the spiritual life and character of 
the Church will prove his faithfulness or his 
unworthiness in the day when the Lord returns 
in judgment. (14, 15) If the spiritual life of 
his converts be healthy and their growth in 
goodness evident, he will be rewarded ; but if 
not, he will lose his reward and barely secure 
his own salvation.' 

10. Another buildeth] Apollos and others 
carried on the work begun by St. Paul. How 
he buildeth] The Apostle indicates the great 
responsibilities of Christian ministers and 
teachers. 11, 12. Other foundation] Faith in 
Christ as Saviour and willing submission to 
His influence are the foundation on which 
Christian character must be built. If these are 
set aside, the character is not based on Christ, 
and all teaching which does not begin from 
the statement of these principles and retain 
them as its basis is not in any true sense 
Christian. 

13. The day] i.e. the day of judgment or 
the day of the Lord. The imagery of fire 
testing the building is both natural and 
suggested by the OT. accounts of the mani- 
festations of Jehovah. 15. Saved] because 



57 



897 



3. 16 



1 CORINTHIANS 



of his own Christian life. Yet so as by fire] 
As the builder may escape with his life while 
the flames destroy the building on which he is 
engaged, so the Christian teacher may be saved 
himself, though his teaching be proved worth- 
less for edification. ' Sincerity does not verify 
doctrine, but it saves the man ' (F. W. Robert- 
son). 

1 6, 17. Woe to the teacher who by per- 
nicious teaching or example injures or destroys 
the spiritual life of members of the Church of 
Christ : God shall do even so to him. If any 
man defile] A worse case than v. 15. There 
the merely unprofitable teacher himself escapes ; 
here the positively hurtful is punished. Holy] 
i.e. sacred, not to be injured with impunity. 

Which temple ye are] RV ' and such are ye,' 
i.e. holy. 

18-23. Paraphrase. ' Do not deceive your- 
selves ; but if there be any of you priding 
himself on his worldly wisdom let him quickly 
unlearn it, that he may learn the true wisdom. 
(19, 20) For as Holy Scripture teaches, worldly 
wisdom is but folly in God's sight. (21-23) 
Do not, therefore, use the names of your 
teachers as party watchwords, boasting about 
your devotion to this or that one. Learn 
what is good from them all, for they all alike 
belong to you. And not only do they belong 
to you, but all things belong to you ; and you 
belong to Christ ; and Christ Himself belongs 
to God.' 

19. The wisdom of this world] The conceit 
and vanity of men are folly with God. The 
results of this folly in Christian teachers 
are indicated in vv. 15, 17. It is written] 
Job5!3. 

20. And again] Ps94 n . 21. Glory in men] 
boast of their preference for this or that 
teacher, as they had been doing (l 12 ). 

21. All things are yours] To him who is 
united to Christ all things belong, contributing 
to the growth of his Christian character and 
the increasing perfection of his spiritual life. 
He learns from all teachers ; the world pro- 
vides him with the means of growth in grace, 
for all his experiences in its possessions and 
work influence his spiritual life ; life is full of 
divine meaning and purpose ; death is revealed 
to him as the gate of life ; be is delivered 
from any danger to his spirit arising from the 
perplexities of the present or the problems 
of the future (things to come). 23. Ye are 
Christ's] i.e. yon belong to Christ, not to Paul 
or Apollos or Cephas. And Christ ia God's] 
i.c <iod is over :ill ; even GhrisJ belongs to 
Him. And as we are Christ's, we belong to 
God. Theodore 1 remarks, * Christ belongs to 
God, not as God's creature, but as God's 
Son.' Perhaps the Apostle simply desires to 
assert that God is supreme over all : ep. 1 ;V- M 
Jn434. 



CHAPTER 4 

Christian Teachers only the Instru- 
ments of God 

The folly and sin of quarrelling about 
different teachers who are but servants of 
Christ and responsible to Him. 

1-5. Paraphrase. ' You have been engaged 
in strife about the merits and position of your 
teachers. Consider for a moment what they 
are. They have no authority of their own ; 
they only bear Christ's messages. (2-4) Ser- 
vants are responsible to their master ; and so 
I am responsible not to you or to any man, 
but to Christ. (5) Have patience until Christ 
comes, when every man will be rewarded as 
he has deserved.' 

I. Ministers] rather, subordinates. 

Stewards] dispensing the truths entrusted 
to them, not giving of their own. Mysteries 
of God] the spiritual truths revealed by Christ, 
and by His Spirit in Christian experience (Jn 
16 12, 13) 2 . Required in stewards] cp. Mt 
24 4 5-5i Lk 1 6 1. 2 . 4. I know nothing by myself] 
RV ' against myself.' The idea is the same 
as in Ac24 16 . 5. Before the time] i.e. of 
Christ's return. St. Paul evidently expected 
the advent of Christ within the lifetime of 
himself and his converts, though the exact 
time was uncertain : cp. 15 51 . 

The hidden things of darkness] the things 
that are at present unknown. There is no 
suggestion of evil in the phrase. Along with 
the counsels of the hearts it denotes all the 
materials for forming a just judgment. 

6-13. Paraphrase. l In speaking of the folly 
of these divisions I have used only the names 
of Apollos and myself ; but the same princi- 
ples apply to your attitude to all your teachers. 
(7) Why do some of you pride yourselves on 
being better than others ? None of you has 
anything that he did not receive. (8) You 
boast as if you had all possible wisdom. 
Would that it were so, that we might share it. 
(9) It looks as if we who are Apostles were the 
least worthy of all God's servants, a spectacle 
for men and angels. (10) You are wise and 
honourable ; we are foolish and contemptible. 
(11-13) We suffer and toil, returning blessing 
for cursing ; and are looked upon as outcasts 
to this day.' 

6. Not to think of men above that which is 
written] RV ' not to go beyond the things 
which are written.' The expression is am- 
biguous to us : it may refer either to what St. 
Paul has already written or to the general 
teaching of the OT. Perhaps it was a familiar 
quotation, 'Do nothing beyond the injunctions 
of Holy Writ.' Be puffed up for one against 
another] lit. ' Be puffed up the one in favour 
of one (say, Paul) against the other (say, 
Apollos).' 7. Who maketh thee to differ] 



898 



4. 8 



1 CORINTHIANS 



5. 1 



better, ' who maketh thee (who art puffed up) 
superior ? ' That thou didst not receive] i.e. 
from us (whom ye now despise), as is shown 
by v. 8. 8. Now ye are full] The Apostle 
now returns to the use of sarcasm, the weapon 
he has already wielded with effect. The 
several sentences are either interrogative or 
exclamatory, and should have marks of inter- 
rogation or exclamation. He expresses with 
bitter irony their own estimate of themselves 
as having reached perfection, ' come into their 
kingdom,' so to speak, and needing to learn 
nothing more. Would to God you did reign] 
How little they knew their true spiritual posi- 
tion : cp. Rev 3 17 . 9. The Corinthians' fancied 
position is contrasted with the Apostle's actual 
position. Last, as it were appointed to death] 
RV ' last of all, as men doomed to death.' He 
likens the Apostles to criminals condemned to 
fight to the death in the arena. For the meta- 
phor cp. 15 32 . A few years later Christians 
were often so put to death. Spectacle] Gk. 
•theatre.' 10. The sarcasm is continued. We 
are fools] in preaching the foolishness of the 
Cross. Ye are wise] i.e. shrewd, clever. 

12. Working with our own hands] St. 
Paul's constant practice : cp. Ac 18 3 20 34 1 Cor 
915 lTh29 2Th38. 

14-21. Paraphrase. 'I write not to shame 
you, but to admonish you ; and I have the 
right to do so, for I am your spiritual father. 
(16, 17) Follow my example, therefore ; and 
attend to the instructions of Timothy whom I 
sent to remind you of my teaching and prac- 
tice. (18) Some of you have been pluming 
yourselves on your attainments, and posing as 
authorities, as if I were never to return to you. 
(19, 20) Do not deceive yourselves. I shall 
soon be with you to test not the words of 
these authorities, but their power : for the 
kingdom of God is advanced not by empty 
words, but by spiritual power. (21) The spirit 
in which I shall come depends upon your- 
selves. If you continue in your evil courses I 
shall act with severity : if you repent I shall 
be gentle and encouraging.' 

15. Instructers] RY 'tutors' : those who 
succeeded St. Paul at Corinth. Begotten you 
through the gospel] St. Paul had been the 
means of their conversion. He had given 
them the new life. 

17. Timothy. See Intro. My ways which 
be in Christ] i.e. my manner and conduct as a 
teacher in Christ's service. In every church] 
He constantly appeals to the practice of other 
Churches as a check to the spirit of individual- 
ism and separation so prevalent at Corinth : 
cp. 7 17 ll 16 14 33 > 36 . 18. Puffed up] Some of 
the Corinthian converts conceived themselves 
so ' wise ' as to be able to despise St. Paul's 
authority. Their opposition developed later 
on, and drew from St. Paul the ' severe ' letter 



which we have in 2 Cor 10-13. See Intro. 
2 Cor. As though I would not come] RY ' as 
though I were not coming.' They seem to 
have thought that as he had remained so long 
in Ephesus he would not return to Corinth. 

19. Shortly] cp 16 5 . For his plans and 
their ultimate fulfilment see Intro. 2 Cor. 

20. Not in word, but in power] The exten- 
sion of God's kingdom is promoted not by elo- 
quence of speech but by spiritual influence 
proceeding from Christ's followers, and becom- 
ing a power in men's lives : cp. Rol4 17 . 

CHAPTER 5 

(b) 5 1 " 13 . The Case of Immorality 
The Apostle had written (4 21 ) of coming to 
exercise authority. Here was a case in which 
it was needed. A man had created a scandal 
by marrying his stepmother, and the Corinth- 
ians had done nothing. They had allowed 
him to retain his membership in the Church. 
St. Paul instructs them to excommunicate the 
offender, and keep the Church pure. 

1-8. Paraphrase. ' A rumour has reached me 
that unchastity exists among you, and that one 
of your number has taken his stepmother as 
his wife, an act which the very heathen abhor. 

(2) How can you maintain your attitude of 
self-satisfaction in presence of this scandal ? 
Why do you not rather humiliate yourselves 
and remove the sinner from your fellowship ? 

(3) For I who am at a distance feel the dis- 
grace as though I were among you, and have 
already decided what must be done, as if I 
were in your assembly. (4, 5) When you are 
gathered together, I being present with you in 
spirit, proceed to pass sentence of excommuni- 
cation on this man, delivering him solemnly to 
Satan in the name of Jesus our Lord, that 
his soul may. be saved even if his body perish. 

(6) How senseless is your self-conceit in pre- 
sence of this impurity. Do ye not realise that 
you are all in danger of being degraded by it ? 

(7) Put away this leaven of unholiness, then, 
and remain free from it. Remember how at 
the Passover all leaven was put away ; and 
now that our Paschal Lamb Christ Jesus has 
been sacrificed, and our feast of unleavened 
bread begun, (8) let us celebrate our Passover 
by putting away the leaven of vice and sin and 
using only the unleavened bread of purity and 
truth.' 

1. It is reported commonly] RY ' It is actu- 
ally reported.' His father's wife] The father 
may have been dead or separated from his 
wife : the stepson had then married her. The 
Corinthian Church was evidently unconscious 
that there was anything sinful in such a union. 
Had the man and woman been living in sin 
without marriage the Church could scarcely 
have made even a show of defending their 
conduct. The persons referred to in 2 Cor 7 12 



899 



5.2 



1 CORINTHIANS 



6.2 



have no connexion with this incident : see 
notes there. 2. Puffed up] This is probably 
to be taken generally as referring to their 
boastfulness about their spiritual privileges 
and attainments : cp. 4 6 " 12 . The Apostle ex- 
presses surprise that the scandal among them 
did not humble their pride. 3. Have judged 
already] taking their concurrence for granted ; 
or giving them a suggestion trusting that they 
would follow it at once. He here asserts his 
authority to guide them in matters of dis- 
cipline ; and it was over this question of 
authority, and not over that of the offender's 
conduct, that the dispute between St. Paul and 
the Church arose. 4. In the name of our Lord 
Jesus] Placed emphatically at the beginning, 
to indicate the Church's final authority for 
taking this step to enforce discipline: cp.Mt 
1818,20 When ye are gathered together, etc.] 
St. Paul did not take discipline out of the 
hands of the Church. He stepped in when 
the Church had failed in duty, pointing out the 
duty and leaving the Church to perform it. 

My spirit] They were to think of him as 
present in spirit, and to let his influence mould 
their deliberations. 5. To deliver .. unto Satan] 
The offender was to be solemnly excom- 
municated and handed over to Satan, who 
had power to cause disease, in the belief 
that sufferings of body would assail him and 
work repentance and salvation in him, even if 
they ended in bodily death: cp.Lkl3 16 2 Cor 
12 7 . 6. Your glorying] see on v. 2. A little 
leaven] Leaven is here used of corrupting 
influences as elsewhere in the NT., except in 
our Lord's parable of the leaven : cp.Mtl6 6 > 12 
Mk 8 15 Lk 1 2 1 Gal 5 9 . A low ideal of conduct 
even in one case has far-reaching effects upon 
the whole community. 7. The old leaven] Not 
(or, at any rate, not only) the unchaste sinner, 
but the spirit in the Church which is indiffer- 
ent to the sin. Christ our Passover] The 
mention of leaven, which was associated with 
the Passover, causes the Apostle to think of 
that institution ; and leads him to speak of 
Christ in allegorical fashion as the Christian 
Church's Passover. As Christ has been sacri- 
ficed the days of the spiritual feast of unleavened 
bread have begun ; and consequently every 
vestige of impurity and malice and sin must be 
rigorously excluded. 

9-13. Paraphrase. ' This is just what I wrote 
to you in 111 p former letter — that you were to 
have no connexion with men of impure life. 
(Id) I did not mean that you were to have 
nothing to do with the heathen, who are greedy 
and covetous and idolaters, in matters of busi- 
ness and such like, for that is impossible. (11) 
But I meant that if any professing Christian 
were guilty <»f such wickedness as impurity or 
drunkenness or evil speaking or greed, you 
were to have no fellowship with him. (12,1 3) 



I have nothing to do, so far as judgment is 
concerned, with the world at large. We have 
to judge those in the Church ; whereas the 
judgment of the world we leave to God. 
Therefore, excommunicate that wicked man.' 

9. In an epistle] This clearly refers to a 1 
previous letter no longer extant and prior to 
any of our Epistles to the Corinthians. See 
Intro. 11. But now I have written] RM l As 
it is, I wrote.' The meaning is, k What I wrote 
was,' etc. The Corinthians probably asked St. 
Paul in their letter in reply to his first one, 
what they were to do when they met non- 
Christians in business and society. Not to eat] 
They might be compelled to meet with such 
men and to have some business or social rela- 
tions with them, but they were not to have any 
association with them but what was absolutely 
unavoidable. 12. Them. . that are without] i.e. 
the heathen generally ; all outside the Church. 

Do not ye] They exercised discipline in some 
cases though they had not recognised its neces- 
sity in this one. 

CHAPTER 6 
(c) 6 1 " 11 . Christians and Litigation 
St. Paul reproves the Corinthians for re- 
ferring their disputes about ordinary affairs 
to heathen judges. The subject was suggested 
by rumours he had heard ; and the mention 
of 'judgment' in v. 13 of the previous c. 
prompted its treatment at this stage. 

1-6. Paraphrase. ' How is it that when 
you quarrel with one another you go before 
heathen judges and do not let some of the 
brethren decide your matter? (2) You spoke 
of the saints judging the world, why not allow 
them to settle these trifles ? (3) You spoke 
of Christians as looking to sit in judgment 
on angels ; why not then let them deal with 
the ordinary affairs of life ? (4) And if you 
must have these things settled formally, make 
umpires of unimportant Church members 
rather than heathen. (5) I write thus to 
make you ashamed. Is there really no wise 
man among you who can be trusted to judge 
between his brethren, (6) and to prevent this 
unseemly practice of calling in unbelievers to 
settle your disputes ? ' 

1. Dare any of you] Such action was an- 
tagonistic to the Christian spirit. The unjust] 
RV ' the unrighteous,' i.e. the heathen. The 
name is used in irony for ' unbelievers ' (v. 6). 
' Do you call the heathen unjust, and yet dare 
to go to them alone for justice ?' Saints] i.e. 
Christians. 

2. That the saints shall judge the world] 
This v. and the two following vv. are written 
sarcastically. They appeal to the ' knowledge ' 
of the Corinthians, and it is probable that they 
were suggested by expressions in the letter 
sent by the Corinthians to St. Paul. They 



900 



6.6 



1 CORINTHIANS 



6. 13 



were puffed up with spiritual pride (5 2 ), and 
in their conceit and vanity had spoken of their 
hope to judge both men (5 12 6 2 ) and angels 
(6 3 ). If this be their expectation, says the 
Apostle, surely they are capable, even the 
meanest of them, of judging in matters of 
daily life. To take these expressions, about 
the saints judging the world and angels, seri- 
ously, is to miss the point of the Apostle's 
argument. Besides, he has already said that 
the Christians (both he and they) had nothing 
to do with judging the world, which was God's 
part (5 12 > 13 ). (See Ramsay, 'Hist. Com. on 
Corinthians,' in ' Expositor,' VI. 4, p. 278.) 

6. Before the unbelievers] The Corinthian 
converts referred their disputes about matters 
of daily life, such as ' prices and ownership ' 
(Ramsay), to heathen judges or arbitrators. 
St. Paul urges them, if quarrel they must, to 
choose arbitrators from among the brethren. 

7— II. Paraphrase. ' But the fault lies deeper 
than this, for you should have no such disputes 
at all. Far better be wronged and defrauded 
(8) than wrong and defraud your brethren. 
(9, 10) After all, in the end the unrighteous 
shall not inherit the kingdom of G-od. And 
who are the unrighteous but the unchaste, the 
greedy, the drunken, and the extortionate, none 
of whom have any part in that kingdom ? 
(11) Such indeed were some of you Corinth- 
ians ; but since your baptism you have pro- 
fessed that you are seeking to become pure 
and holy through the influence of Christ and 
the working of the Holy Spirit.' 

7. There is utterly a fault] RV 'Already 
it is altogether a defect in you.' St. Paul here 
ceases to employ raillery, the weapon he has 
used so effectively in the previous vv., and 
remonstrates with them in the most serious 
fashion. The real fault was not in going to 
heathen judges to get their disputes arranged, 
but in having occasion to call in any one at all. 

9. Shall not inherit the kingdom] i.e. have 
no share in its present ^privileges and future 
blessings. The kingdom of God is a spiritual 
kingdom (Jn 18 36 ) ; its blessings and privileges 
are spiritual ; how then could such unspiritual 
men as those enumerated, whose conduct 
tended to harden the heart and dull the spirit- 
ual insight, have any part in it ? cp. Ac8 21 . 

11. Ye are washed] RM 'ye washed 
yourselves,' i.e. submitted to baptism as the 
sign of the washing away of your sin. 

Sanctified] set apart, dedicated to God's 
service. Justified] accepted as righteous. 

In the name of the Lord] i.e. through 
spiritual union with Him and continual sub- 
mission to His influence. 

(d) 612-20. The Obligation of Purity 
The Corinthians seemed to have claimed 
that they were free to satisfy all bodily 



desires now that the gospel had set them 
free from the association of eating with 
idolatry. 

St. Paul points out, first, that there are 
qualifications of this freedom even in things 
that are morally indifferent, and then that 
fornication is not one of these things. The 
subject arises naturally out of what he has 
said in vv. 9, 10. 

12-20. Paraphrase. ' It is true as you sug- 
gest that "all things are lawful" ; but this is 
not an absolute but a relative principle. You 
must not argue that the existence of appetites 
proves the lawfulness of their gratification : 
you must take care that what is lawful is also 
wise, and that appetite does not make you its 
slave. (13, 14) Both food and the organ which 
digests it are perishable. But the body has 
an eternal element, and unchastity harms that 
eternal element, designed as it is for the service 
of Christ and participation in the Resurrection. 
(15-17) You know that your bodies partake 
in the mystic union that exists between Christ 
and His people. How shameful is it, therefore, 
to violate this union by acts of immorality. 
Such acts cause a carnal union between those 
who participate in them, just as Scripture 
speaks of husband and wife being u one flesh" : 
whereas the Christian is united to Christ in a 
spiritual union. And the immoral union is 
destructive of the spiritual union. (18, 19) 
Therefore keep yourselves unspotted by this 
sin ; for there is none that defiles the body 
like this and makes it unfit for the dwelling- 
place of the Holy Spirit. (20) Remember 
that you are not your own possession ; you 
have been purchased by Christ who has given 
His life for you ; therefore, see that you 
honour Him by consecrating your very bodies 
to His service.' 

12. All things are lawful] cp. 10 23 . St. Paul 
seems to have stated this as a principle in 
regard to the use of certain kinds of food (e.g. 
meats offered to idols, lO 25 - 27 ), and the Cor- 
inthians had applied it generally to sensual 
indulgences. The Apostles, therefore, while 
still asserting the principle, points out two 
qualifications of it ; (a) that what is lawful 
should also be beneficial, and (b) that no one 
should become a slave even to a lawful habit. 
We shall best understand the principle and its 
application if we think of it in relation to 
some such modern practice as, e.g., the use of 
strong drink. 13. Meats] An instance of 
things indifferent : cp. chs. 8-10, where this 
matter is treated at length. St. Paul grants 
liberty in respect of meats ; but the liberty 
does not excuse violating another man's con- 
science or becoming a slave to gluttony. Now 
the body is not, etc.] The Corinthians regarded 
the use of food and fornication as exactly on 
the same level, as both satisfying appetites : 



901 



6. 14 



1 CORINTHIANS 



7. 12 






they held that the existence of bodily appetites 
justified their gratification. St. Paul, on the 
contrary, draws a sharp line of distinction 
between these two things. 

14. Will also raise up us] St. Paul's argu- 
ment in the whole passage is based on his 
view of the Resurrection which he explained 
in c. 15 : see esp. vv. 35-53. Man's body is 
eternal ; death and the grave do not destroy 
but purify and change it, as the earth removes 
the husk and glorifies the corn cast into it. 

16. Saithhe] i.e. God in Scripture (Gn 2 24 ). 

One flesh] The words spoken first of mar- 
riage are applied here to an unholy union. St. 
Paul does not place the two on the same plane, 
but only points out that in this one respect 
they are similar. 17. One spirit] i.e. he shares 
in the life of the Lord : cp. Jnl5 4 > 5 . 

18. Without the body] i.e. outside it ; do 
not affect its spiritual nature and destiny in 
the same way as this sin. Sinneth against his 
own body] see on v. 14. 19. The temple] i.e. 
the shrine wherein He dwells : cp. 3 16 2 Cor 6 16 . 

Ye are not your own] The best of all reasons 
for not defiling the body. 20. Bought with a 
price] Christ has given Himself for you, and 
you are His ; yea, God has given Christ for 
you, and you belong to God through Him. 

Glorify God in your body] RV omits the 
rest. St. Paul is dwelling on the necessity of 
bodily purity, and appropriately concludes with 
this appeal. 

Division II. *] l -it*. Problems submitted 
in the Letter from Corinth 

CHAPTER 7 
(a) Answer to Questions about Marriage 

The Corinthians had in their letter (7 1 ) 
asked St. Paul's opinion on several points 
connected with marriage. His language in reply 
is guarded ; he speaks with some diffidence ; 
he constantly admits exceptions and lays down 
restrictions. This makes his meaning some- 
times obscure ; but the general drift is that 
celibacy, though a good thing in itself, is not 
suited to the needs of many, especially in cir- 
cumstances like theirs ; and marriage, though 
not obligatory, is not only sinless, but good in 
itself ; and those married, even to heathen 
spouses, should not separate without necessity. 

1-7. Celibacy is good, but marriage is usually 
advisable ; only let it be real and complete. 

Paraphrase. ■ ( 1 ) In answer to your ques- 
fcions— Celibacy is a good thing. (2) But 
because <>f the profligacy around you. it is 

well thai each should marry. (3, 4) Hut tin- 
marriage must be a real one cadi giving the 

other conjugal rights. (6) Let there be separa- 
tion only by mutual consent, for a given time, 
for purposes of devotion. (•'>) Hut I say all 
this as a concession to your circumstances, not 



as a command. (7) I should like all to be like 
myself. But all have not the same gifts from 
God.' 

1. The things whereof ye wrote] Probably 
most of the rest of the Epistle is taken up 
with answers to these questions, and consider- 
ations arising out of them. It is not clear 
whether the letter from the Corinthians sug- 
gested that celibacy ought to be universal, or 
deprecated it as unnatural, or asked, as Ramsay 
thinks, whether it was 'incumbent on Christians 
to marry, as the Jews and Roman law main- 
tained.' Good] i.e. celibacy is an excellent 
thing (the reasons for this are given, vv. 26, 32), 
but marriage is often the safer course. 2. To 
avoid fornication] which was very prevalent 
at Corinth. St. Paul treats of the higher aspect 
of marriage elsewhere (Epho 25 > 33 ). Every 
(RV ' each ') . . his own] Concubinage and 
polygamy are forbidden. 3. Due benevolence] 
RV l her due ' ; i.e. primarily, cohabitation. 

5. To fasting and prayer] RV 'unto prayer,' 
omitting ' fasting ' on the authority of the best 
MSS. So Mk9 29 . For your incontinency] i.e. 
through your lack of self-control. 6. This] 
Perhaps v. 5 ; more probably, all he has said 
in recommendation of marriage from v. 2 
onwards. 7. Even as I myself] i.e. able 
through self-control to lead a celibate life. 

His proper gift] He to whom God has denied 
this ability, has received some other gift from 
Him. St. Paul must have been unmarried, or, 
just possibly, a widower. 

8-16. Consequent advice or commands. 
(a) 8, 9. To the unmarried and widows — to 
remain so, unless they have an overmastering 
desire, (b) 10, 11. To the married Christians. 
The Lord's command is against separation ; if 
such take place, the separated party is to re- 
main unmarried, (c) 12-14. In cases of mixed 
marriages St. Paul's opinion is that the two 
should continue to live together if the heathen 
partner is willing ; for the fact that the one 
is a Christian brings the other also into the 
Christian sphere, as is the case with the 
children. 15, 16. But if the heathen partner 
wants to separate, he or she may do so, and 
the Christian is then set free. But domestic 
peace is what God desires ; the heathen partner 
may possibly be converted. 

8. Even as I] i.e. unmarried and without 
desire for marriage. 10. Not I , but the Lord] 
This exhortation is confirmed by the Lord's 
own authority (Mt5 82 19 4-9 ) which forbids 
divorce. This is one of the passages which 
show St. Paul's acquaintance with Christ*! 
teaching, and the supreme authority be 
attached to it: cp. lTim6 3 . 12. I, not the 
Lord] Christ had said nothing about mixed 
marriages ; the Apostle is left to his own 
judgment : cp. v. 40. He does not encourage 
mixed marriages (2 Cor 6 14 ), but is thinking of 



902 



7.14 



1 CORINTHIANS 



7.28 



cases where husband or wife has been con- 
verted since marriage. 14. Is sanctified] i.e. 
brought into the Christian sphere, under 
Christian influences. Now are they holy] i.e. 
regarded as Christian children ; as are still 
more evidently the children of two Christian 
parents. This phrase ' enunciates the principles 
which leads to infant baptism, viz. that the 
child of Christian parents shall be counted as 
a Christian ' (J. Lightfoot). 15. A brother or a 
sister] the Christian partner. Not under bond- 
age] i.e. is not bound to continue with the other. 

15, 16. God hath called us to (RY 'in') 
peace. . save thy wife] v. 16 either (a) con- 
tinues the thought of v. 15 — G-od's aim for us 
is peace, which will here be best secured by 
separation ; and the possibility of saving the 
heathen partner by remaining is, after all, 
uncertain — but more probably, (b) it continues 
the main thought of vv. 12-14, v. 15 being 
parenthetical, ' But God desires that the married 
should live in peace together, and this may re- 
sult in the conversion of the heathen partner.' 

17-24. The general principle ; let each re- 
main as he was when God called him (vv. 17, 20, 
24). This holds good, (a) of circumcision and 
un circumcision. Let each keep as he is ; the 
one important thing is to keep God's com- 
mandments. (5) Of slavery and freedom. A 
slave should not mind his position (though he 
may avail himself of an opportunity to become 
free). The Christian slave is Christ's freed- 
man ; the Christian freeman, Christ's bond- 
servant, owing service to Him, not to men. 

17. But] RY ' only ' ; I only lay down the 
general rule. Hath distributed] i.e. his con- 
dition and circumstances of life. 18. Circum- 
cised . . uncircumcised] Used metaphorically, 
k If any Jew has been converted, let him remain 
a Christian Jew ; if a Gentile is converted, let 
him not seek to become a Jew, but remain a 
Christian Gentile.' 19. Circumcision is nothing] 
cp. Gal 5 6 6 15 Ro 2 25 " 29 . ' Not nationality but 
obedience to God determines Christian char- 
acter' (Stevens). 20. Calling] not 'occupation 
in life.' but ' condition in which God's call 
found him.' St. Paul lays this down, not as a 
universal, but as a good general rule : cp. vv. 
9,15,28. 

21. But if thou mayest be made free, 
use it rather] an ambiguous sentence, like v. 
16. ' It ' may mean ' slavery ' or ' freedom.' 
Either ' even if you have an opportunity of 
freedom, remain a slave ' — this suits the 
immediate context — or, ' but if you have an 
opportunity of freedom, take it.' This would 
be a parenthetical piece of advice. This is 
favoured by St. Paul's thought elsewhere. He 
was proud of his citizenship ; he prefers celi- 
bacy because it gives greater freedom to serve 
God. So does liberty compared with slavery. 
Slavery was an essential part of the social con- 



ditions of the time. The Apostle accepts it as 
such, but lays down a principle which under- 
mines it, viz. that Christ makes no difference 
between bond and free. He insists, not on 
the rights of slaves, but on the duties of 
masters towards their Christian brethren (Eph 
6 5-9 Col 3 22 -4 1 1 Tim 6 L 2 , and especially Phi- 
lemon). The spread of the Christian spirit 
swept away the worst evils of slavery, before 
abolishing slavery itself. 

22. Freeman] RY ' freedman ' ; set free 
from sin (Jn8 34 " 3 6 R08 2 GalS 1 ), but still 
owing service to Him who freed him. Christ's 
servant] R Y ' bondservant ' ; bought by Him 
' whose service is perfect freedom.' 23. Bought 
with a price] cp. 6 20 . Servants] (RY ' bond- 
servants ') of men] i.e. slavishly yielding to their 
desires ; slaves to custom or public opinion : 
cp. 2Corll 2 o. 24. With God] i.e. in His 
presence, consciously doing His will. 

25-38. Marriage of virgins. The Cor- 
inthians seem to have asked particularly 
whether fathers ought to give their daughters 
in marriage. St. Paul now comes to this 
point, first, however, going into the question 
of marriage generally, and giving reasons for 
preferring celibacy. He says he cannot appeal 
to any commandment of the Lord, so simply 
gives his own opinion, assured that he deserves 
their confidence. He repeats the general rule 
(cp. v. 17) that it is best for each to remain as 
he is, considering the early coming of the 
Lord and the distress preceding it ; so that 
while there is no sin in marriage, yet celibacy 
is best, (a) because the married will meet with 
greater troubles ; (5) because the shortness of 
the time before the Lord's coming bids all to 
sit loose to worldly things ; (c) because the 
unmarried is freer from distraction, and able 
to serve the Lord more completely. However, 
he does not want to constrain tljem, but merely 
to advise for the best. If a man considers it 
right to give his daughter in marriage, let him 
do so ; but he who, feeling no such necessity, 
resolves to keep her unmarried, does better. 

25. Virgins] i.e. unmarried daughters. The 
Roman law endeavoured to make marriage 
universal ; and the Jewish view was similar. 

No commandment of the Lord] either laid 
down by Him while on earth (see on vv. 10-12), 
or imparted by special revelation. To be 
faithful] i.e. to give a trustworthy opinion, 
one deserving of confidence, as a steward of 
the mysteries of God (4 1 - 2 ). 26. The present 
distress] Perhaps persecution, which, however, 
is not elsewhere mentioned in this Epistle ; 
more probably the ' distress ' Christ had said 
would precede His return (Lk 2 1 23 ), which was 
thought to be near (v. 29). So to be] RY ' to 
be as he is.' 27. Art thou loosed] i.e. un- 
married. 28. Trouble in the flesh] i.e. in 
their earthly circumstances. Trouble would 



903 



7.29 



1 CORINTHIANS 



8. 




fall not only on themselves, but on those dear 
to them. St. Paul wants to save them such 
suffering (RV ' and I would spare you '). 

29. The time is short : it remaineth, that, etc.] 
RV ' the time is shortened that henceforth,' etc. 
The thought of the nearness of the Lord's 
coming, when earthly things would pass away, 
should keep them from being engrossed in 
present interests. 31. Abusing] RM ' using 
it to the full,' as if the sole source of enjoy- 
ment : cp. Un2i5-i7. 

32. Without carefulness] RV 'free from 
cares.' 33, 34. The exact words and punc- 
tuation are doubtful (cp. RM) ; but this does 
not affect the general sense, viz. that the un- 
married are less subject to worldly distractions 
and anxieties than the married. 35. Cast a 
snare (or, ' halter ') upon you] i.e. not deprive 
you of liberty ; force you into this course. 

Comely] RV ' seemly.' 36. Any man] i.e. 
parent or guardian. Uncomely] i.e. unfairly, 
in not seeing her married. His virgin] 
daughter or ward. Let them] i.e. the maiden 
and her suitor. 37. Hath power over (RV 
'as touching') his own will] i.e. is able to 
carry it out. The whole v. shows the need of 
careful deliberation in the matter ; no hasty 
resolve. Throughout, according to the social 
and legal conditions of the time, no account is 
made of the maiden's own wishes. This is 
probably due also to the precise question St. 
Paul had to answer. 

In applying this c. to the present day we 
have to remember, (1) the altered social con- 
ditions, (2) that St. Paul's advice is influenced 
by his regarding the Lord's coming as very 
near. 

39, 40. Remarriage of widows. A widow 
may remarry after her husband's death, pro- 
vided it be a Christian marriage ; but St. Paul's 
opinion is, she will do better to remain a widow. 

39. In the Lord] This forbids marriage 
from unchristian, worldly motives ; and, prac- 
tically, marriage with a heathen. 40. So abide] 
RV 'abide as she is': cp. lTim5 3 - 10 , for 
widows on the Church roll. Have the Spirit 
of God] am guided by Him in what I say, 
not merely expressing my personal inclinations. 

CHAPTERS 81-111 
(b) Food offered to Idols 
In these chs. St. Paul answers another 
question of the Corinthians — as to the lawful- 
ness of eating food which had been offered in 
sacrifice to idols. This was a very urgent 
question. The whole worship of the heathen 
w;is sacrificial, and sacrifices were offered by 
them whenever a l>irth<lay or marriage was 
celebrated. Only part of the animal was 
consumed on the altar. Of the remainder, 
part became the priest's perquisite, and the 
rest was returned to the sacrificer, and he and 



his friends commonly feasted upon it, often in 
the precincts of the temple. Again, the bond 
of union between members of a Greek club, or 
guild, was a feast following a sacrifice. Much, 
too, of the meat in the market would have been 
offered in sacrifice, and sold by either priest 
or offerer. Thus a Corinthian Christian at a 
feast given by a heathen friend would probably 
have before him meat which had been offered 
in sacrifice ; this might be the case even with 
meat bought in the market ; and continued 
membership of these guilds meant joining in 
their sacrificial meals. 

The Corinthians found this problem con- 
tinually confronting them, and had asked St. 
Paul's advice. Their letter seems to have 
suggested that as an idol did not represent a 
real deity, food could not be polluted by being 
offered to it, and so might lawfully be eaten. 
St. Paul, however, admitting the truth of their 
view of idols, tells them that (1) knowledge 
must be tempered by love, care being taken to 
avoid injuring another's conscience ; and (2) 
they must beware of idolatry. 

In c. 8 he deals with the general principle, 
giving caution (1) above. In c. 9 he appeals 
to his own example, in forbearing, for the 
sake of others, to exercise rights he actually 
possessed, and in guarding against self-in- 
dulgence in his own life. In c. 10 he warns 
them against the danger of idolatry, reminding 
them of the sin and fate of the Israelites, and 
that the idol feasts mean fellowship with 
demons (idolatry being a suggestion of the 
powers of evil), which is inconsistent with the 
fellowship with and in Christ, bestowed in the 
Lord's Supper. Finally, he gives the practical 
advice, not to be needlessly scrupulous oneself, 
but to respect the scruples of others. 

At the Council of Jerusalem, Gentile con- 
verts were directed to abstain from things 
sacrificed to idols (Acl5 29 ). St. Paul had 
himself published these decrees in Syria, etc., 
but does not mention them here, though he 
says nothing inconsistent with them. Possibly 
he saw the Corinthians would be more in- 
fluenced by argument than by appeal to au- 
thority, seeing that they prided themselves on 
their wisdom (3 18 ) and their ability to discern 
spiritual truth (213-15 31). 

CHAPTER 8 

(b) Food offered to Idols : (i) The 
Principle of Self-denial 

Knowledge must be tempered by love. 
More enlightened Christians must respect the 
scruples of their weaker brethren in the matter 
of eating meat which had been offered to idols. 

x-13. Paraphrase. ' Your next question 
relates to meat offered in sacrifice to idols, 
asking whether it is permissible for a Chris- 
tian to partake of it. We all know, as you 



004 



8.1 



1 CORINTHIANS 



9. 



remark, that such food is absolutely harmless 
to a man's spiritual life ; but we must have 
regard for the feelings of others, and let love 
regulate our attitude. (2) Any one who 
prides himself on his knowledge is but a be- 
ginner in learning ; (3) but if a man loves 
God, He receives His divine approval. (4) We 
know, of course, that an idol represents no 
real deity, for there is but one God. (5, 6) The 
heathen, doubtless, speak of many deities and 
demigods, but we know that these have no 
actual existence : we believe in God the Fa- 
ther and the Creator and in Jesus Christ His 
Son. (7) There are many Christians, however, 
not so well instructed as we are, who still 
think, as they have been accustomed, of an 
idol as representing an existing deity, and are 
shocked at the idea of eating meat which has 
been offered to it in sacrifice. (8, 9) Now it 
is quite true that whether we eat it or not is, 
in the abstract, a matter of indifference ; it 
will make us neither better nor worse in the 
sight of God. But, at the same time, you 
must take care to do nothing that will shock 
another's feelings or wound his conscience. 
(10) If a man who thinks he cannot as a Chris- 
tian eat in an idol's temple, sees one of you 
doing so, he may be led to follow your ex- 
ample ; although his conscience, which is not 
so enlightened as yours, tells him he is doing 
wrong. (11) He is thus led to act against and 
stifle his conscience; and so the man for whom 
Christ died is brought to moral ruin by your 
self-confidence and bravado. (12) If you act 
in this way, offending the consciences of less 
self-reliant brethren and leading them into 
temptation, you sin directly against Christ. 
(13) Kather than thus do the weakest of my 
brethren spiritual injury, I would eat no flesh 
as long as I live, if to eat it is to harm another 
soul.' 

i. We all have knowledge] This remark is 
probably quoted from the letter of the Cor- 
inthians. Yv. 2, 3 are St. Paul's comment on 
it. Charity] RV ' love.' 3. Known of him] 
' We can only know God by love. . . They who 
love Him are known of Him because they 
have intercourse with Him, and this mutual 
intercourse enables them to know him per- 
sonally ' (Sadler): cp. Gal 4 9. 4. An idol is 
nothing] i.e. has no spiritual reality behind it. 

6. ' For us there is but one God the Father, 
the Source of all things, for whose service we 
exist, and one Lord Jesus Christ, by whose 
agency all things were created, and we Chris- 
tians created anew.' 7. With conscience of 
the idol unto this hour] RV ' being used until 
now to the idol' ; i.e. not having yet been able 
to shake off the idea that it represents some 
spiritual power. Their conscience being weak 
is defiled] i.e. they have a sense of moral de- 
filement, because their conscience is not pro- 



perly enlightened. 8. But meat, etc.] It is 
not such matters that make us well-pleasing 
to God. 9. This liberty of yours] i.e. freedom 
to eat. 

10. See thee . . sit at meat in the idol's 
temple] This was what their boasted liberty 
had brought them to. Some of the Christians 
had actually partaken of a feast held in hon- 
our of some of the heathen deities. This was 
a more serious matter than merely eating (at 
home or at a friend's house) of meat which 
had been offered to an idol, and more fraught 
with danger to others. For it involved some 
sort of recognition of the heathen deity — at 
least, the weak brethren would naturally think 
so. Knowledge] enlightenment, consciousness 
that idols do not represent a real deity. 

11. Perish] The result of acting against 
conscience: cp. Rol4 23 . 'Whatsoever is not 
of faith ' (i.e. done without thorough convic- 
tion that it is right) ' is sin.' 12. Sin against 
Christ] who identifies Himself with His breth- 
ren (Ac 9 4 Mt25 4 0). 13. Probably this ab- 
staining from flesh would be practised by St. 
Paul only where circumstances required it, as 
at Corinth. 

CHAPTER 9 

(b) Food offered to Idols 
(ii) St. Paul's own Example 

St. Paul has appealed to the ' enlightened ' 
converts at Corinth to give up for the sake of 
others a practice which they might otherwise 
have had no hesitation in indulging. He now 
strengthens this appeal by pointing to his own 
example of self-denial. As an Apostle he had 
the right to maintenance from the Church, 
but had refrained from exercising it, lest he 
might be suspected of preaching for gain. 

Since his opponents declared that he main- 
tained himself by his own work simply because 
he knew he was no true Apostle, he begins by 
proving (vv. 1-3) his claim to the Apostleship, 
and so (vv. 4-6) to the rights enjoyed by other 
Apostles. He defends this right (vv. 7-14) by 
a number of arguments. Then he gives (vv. 
15-22) his reasons for not exercising it. His 
whole conduct has been influenced by the aim 
of causing no hindrance to the gospel, but of 
commending it to every man. 

1-6. His claim to Apostleship, and conse- 
quent right to maintenance. 

Paraphrase. '(1) Am not I myself free 
from outward authority ? For am I not an 
Apostle, having seen Jesus our Lord ? (2, 3) 
Why, your very existence as a Christian Church 
should be to you a sufficient proof of my 
Apostleship. (4-6) Now other Apostles, the 
Lord's brethren, and Peter himself, are sup- 
ported as well as their wives, by the Churches 
they visit ; have not Barnabas and myself this 
same right ? ' 



905 



9.1 



1 CORINTHIANS 



9. 21 



i. Am I not free] (RY puts this question 
first) i.e. being an Apostle, I am free from 
man's authority, and could do many things I 
abstain from doing for your sakes : cp. v. 19. 

Have I not seen Jesus] An Apostle's work 
was to be a witness of the Resurrection (Ac 1 22 
2 32 ); therefore he must have seen the risen 
Lord. This St. Paul had done at his conver- 
sion (Ac22 14 lCorl5 8 ' 9 ). 2. Unto others] in 
their opinion. The seal] That which authenti- 
cates, or proves true. The existence of the 
Corinthian Church was a proof of St. Paul's 
apostolic power. V. 3 probably refers to this, 
not to what follows, ' If you want a proof of 
my apostleship, look around you ! ' 4. Power] 
RY ' right.' To eat and to drink] as guests 
of the Church. 5. To lead about a sister, a 
wife] R Y ' a wife that is a believer ' ; i.e. to 
claim support on his journeys for his wife as 
well as himself. It is implied that the Apostles 
were mostly married ; Peter's wife's mother is 
mentioned Mt8 14 . No doubt their wives were 
of great service in getting access to the women 
of Eastern cities. Lead] as the companion of 
his travels. He asserts that he could reason- 
ably claim not only support for a wife, but also 
payment of her travelling expenses as well as 
his own. The brethren of the Lord] cp. Mt 1 2 46 
13 55 . They seem here included among the 
Apostles ; but the title of Apostle was not 
limited to the Twelve. 6. Barnabas] was like 
St. Paul, an Apostle (Acl4 14 ), and like him, 
but unlike the rest, he maintained himself 
by his own labour. They may have jointly 
adopted this course on their missionary jour- 
neys (Ac 13, 14). We see that Barnabas was 
known to the Corinthians, and still working 
as a missionary. For St. Paul's self-support 
see on 4 12 . 

7-14. Proof of this right. This right is 
proved (v. 7) from the analogy of soldiers, 
husbandmen, shepherds; (vv. 8-10) from the 
direction in the Law that the ox should not be 
muzzled (vv. 11, 12) on grounds of common 
fairness and gratitude ; (vv. 13, 14) from the 
example of the Jewish priesthood. 

7. Who goeth a warfare] The Apostles were 
spiritual soldiers, husbandmen, shepherds. 

8. As a man] RY l after the manner of 
men'; i.e. reasoning only from analogies of 
common life. 9. For it is written in the law] 
BV * Is it not also written in the law?' Thou 
shalt not muzzle the. . ox] Dt25 4 . The ox 
threshed out the corn either by simply walking 
upon it, or l»y dragging ;» heavy Bledge over it. 

Doth God take care for oxen ?] RY k Is it for 
the oxen thai (Jod caret h ? ' i.e. lie did not 
make this law merely for their sake ; He meant 
the principle to go much farther, to be applied 
to men. This is an instance «>f St. Paul's use 
of the allegorical method of interpretation : 
cp. 2 Cor 3 13 Gal 4 22 . 10. Altogether] or, 



1 really,' ' certainly.' He that thresheth in hope, 
etc.] RY ' He that thresheth to thresh in hope 
of partaking.' The same principle which ap 
plies to oxen holds good of human labourers, 
and so of spiritual labourers. 11. Carnal 
things] i.e. earthly material support : cp. Ro 
15 27 . 12. If others be partakers] This shows 
that there were some persons receiving support 
from the Corinthian Church : cp. 2 Cor 1 1 20. 

Power] RY • right.' Rather] RY ' yet more ' ; 
i.e. as the instruments of your conversion. 

Suffer] RY ' bear.' Hinder the gospel] by 
being suspected of self-interest. 13. Live 
(RY ' eat ') of the things of the temple] i.e. its 
tithes and offerings. Partakers with the altar] 
Part of the offering was burnt on the altar ; 
part fell to the priest : cp. Nul8 DU8 1 - 3 . 

14. Hath the Lord ordained] MtlO^LklO'. 
15-23. His own reason for not exercising 

this right. 

Paraphrase. '(15) But I am resolved to 
maintain my independence. (16-18) It is the 
one thing I can boast of. I cannot boast of 
my preaching the gospel, for I am compelled 
to preach the gospel ; I have no choice in the 
matter ; but this self-support is of my own 
free will, and I find its reward in increased 
opportunities and success. (19-23) To obtain 
such, I have also been in the habit of adapting 
myself to the position and circumstances of 
every class of men in turn.' 

15. I have used none of these things] The 
Apostle was the more free to advocate the 
principle ' that they who preach the gospel 
should live of the gospel,' because his own 
refusal of support kept him free from personal 
bias. These things] i.e. these rights. Make 
my glorying void] deprive me (by supporting 
me) of my boast of preaching the gospel freely. 

17. Willingly . . against my will] RY ' of 
mine own will . . not of mine own will.' He 
preached under the constraining influence of 
the love of Christ. Reward] answers to 
1 glorying ' : cp. Ro 4 2 " 5 . A voluntary action 
admits of ' glorying,' and calls for ' reward.' 
So it was with St. Paul's self-support ; not 
with his gospel-preaching. Dispensation] RY 
' stewardship.' 18. That I abuse not my power] 
RY ' so as not to use to the full my rights ' ; 
viz. of claiming maintenance from his people. 

19. Free from all mm] Under authority or 
obligation to no man. Servant unto all] Ac- 
commodating myself to their desires and pre- 
judices as far as possible. 

20. I became as a Jew] preaching first in 
their synagogues ; appealing to their Scrip- 
tures, e.g. Ac 13 14 , etc. As under the law] e.g. 
circumcising Timothy, who was half a Jew 
(Ac 16 1 " 3 ); helping the men who bad taken 
the Nazirite vow (21 23-20) . keeping the feasts 
(20 16 ). RV inserts, 'not being myself under 
the law ' : cp. Gal 2 «-». 21. To them that are 



006 



9. 22 



1 CORINTHIANS 



10.5 



without law] i.e. Gentiles : cp. Ro2 12 ' 1 9. To 
them he became as without law ; e.g. refusing 
to have Titus, a Gentile, circumcised (Gal 2 3 * 5 ) ; 
mixing freely with Gentiles ; using arguments 
from natural religion and from Greek litera- 
ture and philosophy, as at Lystra (Acl4 15 - 17 ) 
and Athens (17 22-31 ). Being not without law 
to God] Liberty did not mean licence ; though 
free from bondage to the Law of Moses, he 
yielded obedience to the moral law of God as 
revealed in Christ. 22. The weak] cp. 8 13 
Rol4, 15. By all means] some in one way, 
some in another. 23. Partaker thereof with 
you] RV 'joint partaker thereof,' i.e. share 
with my converts in its blessings and salvation. 
This v. forms the transition to the next para- 
graph. St. Paul practised self-denial for his 
own sake also. 

24-27. The importance of self-discipline. St. 
Paul illustrates the need of this self-denial 
which he has been inculcating from the Greek 
games or athletic sports, some of the most 
noted of which (the Isthmian) were held near 
Corinth every two years. The prize was a 
mere wreath (at Corinth, formed of parsley, 
afterwards of pine), but the winner was wel- 
comed home to his native city with the honours 
of a victorious general ; his statue was erected ; 
his victory was celebrated by a leading poet ; a 
front seat was assigned him at all festivals and 
spectacles; he was frequently relieved from 
taxation. St. Paul draws lessons for his con- 
verts from the earnestness and self -discipline 
needed in these contests : cp. Phil 3 13 > 14 2 Tim 
2M7Hebl2i. 

24. Not all who start in a race, win ; only 
the best. In the Christian race there is a 
crown for all who run their best, but only for 
such. 25. Striveth for the mastery] RV 
'striveth in the games.' Temperate in all 
things] i.e. under strict ' training ' as to food, 
drink, and exercise. An incorruptible] ' a 
crown of glory that fadeth not away ' (1 Pet5 4 ). 

26. Not as uncertainly] not hesitating, look- 
ing back. Not as one that beateth the air] 
but aiming my blows well. The metaphor 
changes from running to boxing. 

27. Keep under, etc.] RV ' I buffet my body 
and bring it into bondage.' The body is the 
seat of temptation to self-indulgence. One 
great object of fasting and abstinence is to 
secure this control over our bodies, so that 
1 the flesh may be subdued to the spirit.' The 
illness to which St. Paul was subject, his ' thorn 
in the flesh' (2 Cor 1 2 7 ), must have tempted 
him often to seek his own ease and comfort 
and to live a more self-indulgent and less 
laborious life ; and this temptation he fought 
against unceasingly. Preached to others] like 
the herald who proclaimed the conditions of 
the contest and its prizes, and summoned the 
competitors. A castaway] RV • rejected '.; 



disqualified. ' No amount of usefulness to 
others will save us if we ourselves live not 
the life of God ' (Woodford). 

CHAPTER 10 

(b) Food offered to Idols 

(iii) Historical Illustrations and 

Practical Advice 

St. Paul has been speaking of the need of 
earnestness and self-discipline, and the danger 
of failure ; he now holds out the fate of the 
Israelites as a warning against self-confidence. 
The Corinthians were tempted to the very 
same sins for which Israel suffered. 

All of the Israelites received great blessings 
from God, types of the sacramental privileges 
Christians enjoy, yet most of them perished 
in the wilderness because of sin. They ac- 
cepted the privilege of their high calling, but 
renounced its responsibility. Their fate should 
warn his converts against setting their heart 
on evil things, idolatry, impurity, presuming 
on God's patience, murmuring. 

1. All our fathers] Though most of the 
Corinthians were Gentiles, yet the Israelites 
were their spiritual forefathers ; the Christian 
Church is a continuation of the Jewish. 

The cloud., the sea] see Exl3 21 >22 14. 
The cloud denoting the presence of God was 
over them, the water of the Red Sea on either 
side of them. Their passage through the sea 
was a break with their old life in Egypt ; it 
definitely committed them to Moses' guidance, 
was in effect a profession of discipleship to 
him(Exl4 31 ); they were thus baptized unto 
Moses. This typified our baptism, which is, 
(1) deliverance from the bondage of sin and 
entrance upon a new life; (2) discipleship to 
Christ and union with Him. So the spiritual 
meat (the ' manna,' Ex 16) and spiritual drink 
(water from the rock, Ex 17 Nu20) by which 
their life was sustained, were types of the 
Body and Blood of Christ, by which our souls 
are nourished. Our Lord Himself made the 
manna a type of Himself, the Living Bread 
(Jn6 31 " 35 ). Here only in the NT. are the two 
Sacraments mentioned side by side. This food 
and drink are called 'spiritual' because, (1) 
miraculous, (2) typical, (3) assuring the people 
of God's presence, strengthening their faith. 

4. That (R V ' a ') spiritual Rock that followed 
them : and that Rock was Christ] The several 
visible rocks from which water came were 
symbols of the one invisible Rock who 
accompanied them and bestowed these 
blessings. God is often called a Rock in the 
OT., e.g. Dt 32 is-18 Psl82, 3 i. We see St. 
Paul's recognition of Christ's pre-existence ; 
the divine power which sustained the Israelites 
was the power of Christ working on earth 
before His Incarnation : cp. also Jn 7 37 > 38 

5. Many] RV 'most.' All shared these 



907 



10.6 



1 CORINTHIANS 



10. 22 



same blessings, yet most, all, in fact, except 
Caleb and Joshua, perished in the wilderness. 
So our sacramental privileges will not save us 
if we live a careless life. 6. Examples] to be 
avoided : cp. Heb 3 7 -4 2 . They . . lusted] after 
the flesh-pots of Egypt (Nu 11); the Corinthians 
were inclined to hanker after heathen pleasures. 
7. The people sat down, etc.] in honour 
of the golden calf (Ex32 6 ). Play] revelling 
accompanying the idol-worship. 8. Some of 
them committed] Nu25. Fornication was a 
temptation to the Corinthians (c. 6). It was 
closely associated with idolatry ; at Corinth 
there were a great number of women attached 
to the temple of Aphrodite (Yenus) and 
devoted to her shameful service. 9. Tempt 
Christ] (RY ' the Lord'; with AY, see on v. 4) 
i.e. try His patience. Destroyed of serpents] 
Nu21M. 10. Murmur] as some might at 
losing their old heathen pleasures. Destroyed 
of the destroyer] i.e. the destroying angel 
inflicting pestilence (Ex 12 23 2 S 2415, 16 Nu 

1641-49). 

11. For ensamples] RY 'by way of ex- 
ample.' Written for our admonition] not 
merely as ancient history: cp. Rolo 4 . The 
ends of the world] RY ' of the ages.' Chris- 
tians are 'the heirs of all the ages,' living in 
the final dispensation: cp. Hebl 2 13. Such 
as is common to man] RY ' such as man can 
bear.' God is faithful] He will not fail you 
(l 9 ); so endure, assured that He will support 
and finally deliver (make a way to escape). 

14-22. Partaking of the Holy Communion 
is morally incompatible with partaking of 
idolatrous feasts. By partaking of the Eucha- 
rist they showed themselves Christians having 
communion with Christ, and in Him with one 
another ; by sharing in sacrificial feasts in 
honour of idols they made themselves pagans, 
recognising the existence of false gods and 
forming a brotherhood with idol-worshippers. 
The two were morally incompatible, an offence 
against the Lord, who required their whole 
allegiance. 

Paraphrase. ' (14) Therefore avoid all 
connexion with idolatry. (5) Judge for your- 
selves, ye that are sensible men. (16) The 
Cup that we bless, the Bread that we break, 
do they not mean fellowship with Christ 
through sharing in Christ's Blood and Body ? 

(17) And we are all made one body in fellow- 
ship together by partaking of the one Bread. 

(18) So among the Jews, eating of the sacrifice 
nu ;uis communion with God through (or with) 
the altar. (19) N<>w though an idol is a mere 
nothing, (20) yet we cannot help regarding 
heathen sacrifices as ofTcred to evil spirits, 
(21) and it is morally impossible to share both 
in the Table and Cup of the Lord, and in 
those of evil spirits ; (22) we cannot afford to 
provoke the Lord to jealousy.' 



14. Flee from idolatry] do not run into 
temptation by attending these sacrificial feasts. 

15. As to wise men] such as the Corinth- 
ians prided themselves on being: cp. 3 18 4 6 
8 10 . They could judge how incongruous it 
was, after having by the Eucharist been made 
partakers of Christ, to share in idol sacrifices, 
and so enter into fellowship with evil spirits. 

16. Cup of blessing] the cup of wine upon 
which a blessing was pronounced. We bless] 
i.e. consecrate by thanksgiving and prayer. 

Communion of the blood of Christ] Inc. 11 
St. Paul presents the Eucharist under the 
aspect of a memorial of Christ's death; here 
under that of communion with Him ; hence 
our term ' Holy Communion ' for this Sacra- 
ment. Partaking of the Cup bestows spiritual 
communion with Christ, helping those who 
have faith to receive more and more of His 
spirit and influence. So partaking of the Bread 
brings the same spiritual blessings. Both form 
one act of communion, the only difference 
being that while partaking of the Cup their 
thoughts are fixed on Christ's Blood shed for 
many, and while partaking of the Bread, upon 
His broken Body. We break] following 
Christ's own institution (Mt 26 26, 27). The 
Church is spoken of as doing what was actually 
done by its president (Ac20 n ). 17. For we 
being many] better, RM l Seeing that there is 
one bread, we who are many are one body.' It 
is a Sacrament of unity in Christ ; partakers of 
the one Bread, broken and distributed to each, 
we all partake sacramentally of Christ's Body, 
and are thus ' members incorporate in His 
mystical Body, the blessed company of all 
faithful people.' 

18. Israel after the flesh] the natural Israel. 
We Christians are the true Israel, who do 
God's will (GalG^). Partakers of (RY 
'have communion with') the altar] i.e. with 
God, whose share was offered on it: see on 
9 13 . Or, ' communion (with God) in (by) the 
altar.' ' The altar on which the victim was 
given to Jehovah, and from which it w 7 as given 
back to the offerers, was a meeting-place of 
communion betw r een God and His people ' 
(Evans). 19. That the idol is any thing-] 
no contradiction of 8 4 > 7 . 20. They sacrifice 
to devils (lit. 'demons'), and not to God] an 
echo of Dt32 17 . St. Paul means that while 
particular heathen gods have no real existence, 
yet idolatrous worship is the invention of evil 
spirits, who instigate the excesses connected 
with it. To join in idolatrous feasts is to come 
into contact and fellowship with these spirits. 

21. Cannot] It is morally impossible ; to 
indulge is the latter makes the former a mere 
mockery. 

22. Provoke the Lord to jealousy] (from Dt 
.')2 1 ' ; - 1 : cp. Ex20 6 ) by dividing an allegiance. 

Are we stronger than he?] This was really 



908 



10.23 



1 CORINTHIANS 



11.3 



what the conduct of those who frequented 
idol-feasts amounted to — a challenge to God. 
How absurd their conduct when thus analysed ! 

io 23 -!! 1 . Practical directions. St. Paul 
has shown the moral danger of joining in what 
was avowedly a sacrificial, idolatrous feast. 
He now comes to cases where it was lawful to 
eat meat that had been offered in sacrifice to 
idols, provided the feelings of others were 
considered. 

Paraphrase. ' (23, 24) In dealing with the 
limits within which Christian liberty may be 
exercised, we have to consider not merely 
whether a thing is permissible, but whether it 
is helpful to others, as well as to ourselves. 
(25, 26) You may freely eat, without asking 
questions, any meat you buy in the market, 
for all that is in the world is from God, and 
therefore good. (27) And if you go to a 
feast at a friend's house, eat, without ques- 
tioning, whatever is placed before you ; (28, 
29) but if told that anything has been offered 
in sacrifice, abstain from it, so as not to wound 
the conscience of your informant. (29, 30) 
Remember it is entirely for his sake that you 
abstain ; for in the abstract it is not well that 
another's conscience should be scandalised by 
the liberty I exercise, or that what I receive 
as God's good gift should cause me to be 
maligned. (31) So not only eat and drink, but 
do everything, to God's glory ; (32) and 
avoid giving offence to men, whether Jews, or 
heathen, or fellow-Christians. (33) Remem- 
ber that I always seek to deny myself for 
others with a view to their profit and salva- 
tion. (11 !) Follow my example in this respect 
as I follow Christ's.' 

23. All things (i.e. things indifferent) are 
lawful] see on 6 12 > 13 . Edify] lit. ' build up ' 
the Christian character. 24. Another's wealth] 
RY ' his neighbour's good.' ' Wealth ' is old 
English for 'welfare.' 25. Shambles] the 
meat market. Asking no question for con- 
science sake] i.e. so as not to trouble your 
conscience, or, not stopping to consult con- 
science. St. Paul does not want to encour- 
age unhealthy scruples. 26. The earth is the 
Lord's, and the fulness thereof] i.e. all its 
contents (PS24 1 ) ; said to have been a Jewish 
grace before meat. RY omits these words 
at end of v. 28. 29. Of another] RY ' by 
another.' Stevens paraphrases the v., ' Such 
action would have its entire reason in the 
weakness of the scrupulous man, for, in itself 
considered, one's liberty is not determined by 
some one else's conscience, but by his own.' 

30. If I by grace be a partaker] RM, better, 
' If I partake with thankfulness ' : cp. 1 Tim 
•I 3 " 5 . Evil spoken of] Heathens, or weak 
Christians, would think it grossly inconsistent 
to thank God for food offered to idols. 

31. Do all to the glory of God] The prin- 



ciple the Apostle has been inculcating in 
respect of meats has a universal application. 

32. None offence] RY 'no occasion of 
stumbling.' 33. I please all me?i] cp. 9 22 , and 
especially RolS 1 - 2 , 'Let every one of us 
please his neighbour for his good to edifica- 
tion ' : contrast Gal 1 10 . 

C. 11. 1. Be ye followers of me] cp. 4 16 . 
For Christ's example cp. Phil 2 4 Ro 15 3 , 
' even Christ pleased not himself.' This v. is 
closely joined to the preceding ; ll 2 begins a 
new section. 

CHAPTER 11 
Disorders in Worship 

2-16. (c) The Yeiling of Women in 
Church 

2. Now I praise you] This v. introduces 
the two following sections. The Apostle 
begins by praising them, perhaps echoing 
words from their own letter, for keeping the 
rules and teaching he had given ; but goes on 
to rebuke faults that have come to his know- 
ledge. Keep the ordinances] RY 'hold fast 
the traditions ' : cp. 2 Th 2 15 . I delivered them 
to you] ll 23 15 3 . Probably here rules for 
worship are specially meant. 

3-16. Dress of women in public worship. 
In Greek, as well as in Eastern cities, it 
was customary for women, except those of 
bad character, to cover their heads in public. 
Some of the female Corinthian converts had 
discontinued this practice in Christian worship, 
thus practically claiming equality with men. 
Now St. Paul himself taught that ' there can 
be no male and female : for ye are all one in 
Christ Jesus' (Gal 3 28 , written either shortly 
before or shortly after 1 Cor). By this he 
meant that salvation is offered to all alike, 
all are alike in spiritual position ; but these 
women had taken such teaching to mean that 
all social subordination to men was also done 
away. But just as in the case of slavery (see 
on 7 21 ), Christianity did not come to abolish 
existing social conditions. It has done much 
to improve the condition of women, but has 
done so gradually. And when all is said, 
there remains a natural subordination of 
women to men ; and the conduct of these 
women in the prevailing circumstances of 
the age was likely to bring reproach on 
Christianity. 

St. Paul first lays down the principle of 
subordination. He then speaks of the un- 
seemliness of the practice in question, and 
of its converse, namely, men covering their 
heads ; and shows how this matter comes 
under the above principle, while women are 
not degraded by this subordination. He next 
uses corroboratory arguments from nature, 
and finally appeals to the practice of all other 
Churches. 



909 



11.3 



1 CORINTHIANS 



11. 17 



Paraphrase. ' (3) Every man is subordinate 
to Christ ; woman, on the other hand, is sub- 
ordinate to man, just as Christ is subordinate 
to God. (4) Now, on this principle, if neces- 
sary, if any man were to worship with covered 
head he would disgrace himself, because the 
covered head is the symbol of inferior position. 

(5) In the same way every woman who wor- 
ships without her veil, thus violating the 
custom among women of good character, acts 
discreditably and brings shame upon herself. 

(6) Indeed, she might as well have her hair 
cut short ; and she knows the shame attaching 
to that. (7-9) The man, therefore, as receiv- 
ing his authority directly from God, ought to 
keep his head uncovered in worship ; whereas 
the woman should veil her head as the sign 
that her authority is derived from man. (10) 
And this is the more necessary when we re- 
member that the angels are witnesses of 
Christian worship. (11, 12) But, after all, 
in the Christian life man and woman are 
dependent upon each other, just as they are 
in natural life, and in all things they are 
dependent upon God. (13-15) Now, just say 
yourselves if it is seemly for a woman to wor- 
ship unveiled. Why, even nature, by giving 
her long hair for a natural veil, asserts the 
contrary. (16) But if any one is still uncon- 
vinced, let me say, once for all, that this practice 
of the unveiling of women is unknown to us and 
to the Churches of God.' 

3. The head of every man is Christ] as the 
Son of man, the second Adam ; and so the 
head of all men: cp. Eph4 15 . The head of 
the woman] cp. Eph5 22 > 23 . "Woman was 
socially subordinate to man, and this was to 
be recognised in her behaviour at public wor- 
ship. The head of Christ is God] He is sub- 
ordinate to the Father (a) in His humanity, 
His mediatorial work, (b) as deriving His 
nature from the Father : see on 3 23 . 4. Pro- 
phesying] i.e. uttering a revelation of God's 
will. Dishonoureth his head] because he is wear- 
ing the mark of dependence. 5. Dishonoureth 
her head] through not wearing the symbol of 
dependence. As if she were shaven] i.e. it is 
;is Bhamefu] us if her hair were cut off. 6. Be 
shorn] be like men in this also. A shame] it 
was t he punishment of an adulteress. 7. Image 
and glory of God] displaying most fully the 
divine perfections (Gn 1 - r< ). The woman is 
the glory of the man] The meaning is that 
while man's authority is derived directly from 
God, woman's authority is derived from man. 
SI).- thus receives not immediate but reflected 
Light, so to speak. 8, 9. Of the man. . for the 
man] cp. Gn2 18 * 23 . 10. Power] RV 'a sign 
of authority,' i.e. that she is under authority. 

Because of the angels] The angels were con- 
ceived to be present as witnesses of and sharers 
in Christian worship. The recollection of this 



should make the worshippers more reverential : 
cp. ' With angels and archangels . . we laud and 
magnify thy glorious name.' 11,12. See out- 
line. 14. Nature] i.e. the natural order of 
things, and man's sense of its fitness. For 
such guidance, cp. Ro2 14 . 

15. The argument is that God, by providing 
woman with a natural veil, has taught that she 
ought to cover her head before Him. 

16. Contentious] argumentative ; not open 
to conviction. No such custom] i.e. that 
women should be unveiled. For similar ap- 
peal to the example of other Churches, see on 
417 717 1433-36; C p # w ith the whole passage 
w. 3-16, Eph5 22 - 24 lTim'28-i5. 

17-34. (d) The Proper Observance of 
the Lord's Supper 

Like other societies and guilds in Greek 
cities, the early Christians used to have a 
common meal, to which all contributed accord- 
ing to their power, the rich helping their poorer 
brethren. Being thus a token of brotherly 
love and Christian fellowship, it was called a 
' Love Feast ' (Gk. agape, see Jude v. 12 
RY). In the earliest times the Eucharist 
was connected with it, as at the institution of 
the Lord's Supper, from which perhaps this 
feast was copied. But later on, perhaps in 
consequence of such disorders as those here 
mentioned, the two were separated, the Eu- 
charist being held in the morning, the Love 
Feast in the evening ; and the latter gradually 
died out. Here the two are clearly united, 
and it is not clear whether k the Lord's Supper' 
means the whole feast or the memorial service 
preceding or following the ' Love Feast.' 

This feast had been greatly abused by the 
selfishness and individualism so prevalent at 
Corinth. Each individual or small clique 
began at once to consume the food and wine 
brought by themselves without waiting for the 
whole community to assemble, and without 
letting the poorer brethren share with them. 
What ought to have been an evidence of 
brotherly love had become an exhibition of 
selfish greed ; and under these circumstances it 
was impossible to have an orderly and reverent 
administration of Holy Communion. See also 
art. ' The Church in the Apostolic Age.' 

St. Paul in this passage denounces this con- 
duct (w. 17-10). He blames them for the 
divisions and abuses which desecrated their 
religious meetings, and shows (vv. 20-22) how 
this spirit is fatal to the proper observance of 
the Lord's Supper. He reminds them of the 
institution and meaning of the Eucharist (w. 
23-26), of the need of partaking in a right 
spirit, and the sin and penalty of doing other- 
wise (w. 27-32). He concludes (vv. 33, 34) 
with practical recommendations, which he will 
supplement when he comes. 



910 



11. 17 



1 CORINTHIANS 



11. 25 



17-34. Paraphrase. 'I wrote of praising 
you for keeping my ordinances, but I cannot 
praise you with regard to your Church meet- 
ings, which, as now conducted, do you more 
harm than good. (18) First I hear of there 
being factions among you there, and I think 
there must be some truth in the report. (19) 
The existence of such parties serves, at all 
events, to make known true Christians. (20) 
But the result of this factious spirit is that 
in your meetings there is no proper observ- 
ance of the Lord's Supper ; (21) each cares 
only for himself ; some get too little, some 
too much. (22) Cannot you satisfy your 
hunger at home ? Do you dare to treat with 
contempt the Church of God and your poorer 
brethren? (23-25) Call to mind what I 
taught you, as I myself received it from the 
Lord, about the most solemn institution of 
this Sacrament. (26) The observance of it is 
a constant proclamation of the Lord's death 
for man till His return ; (27) to partake of it 
unworthily is to be guilty of insult to the 
Lord's Body and Blood offered for us. (28) 
Let every one, then, first examine his motives 
for coming. (29) Any one not realising the 
presence of the Lord's Body in this Sacrament 
brings a judgment on himself, (30) hence the 
prevalence of sickness and death among you. 
(31, 32) If we would but judge ourselves, we 
should not be so judged ; but this judgment is 
the Lord's chastening, to save us from final 
condemnation with the world. (33) Therefore 
avoid this greedy selfishness, (34) and satisfy 
your appetite at home, that your meetings 
may not bring down a judgment upon you. 
Other matters I will settle when I come.' 

17. The Apostle had praised them (v. 2) for 
keeping his instructions ; and had gone on to 
instruct them further regarding the veiling of 
women, a subject he had probably not needed 
to mention before. He now tells them that 
his praise is qualified. In this] RY ' in giving 
you this charge.' Ye come together] for Church 
meetings. Not for the better] which ought to 
be the result of all religious meetings. 18. In 
the church] i.e. as always in the NT., not 
the building, but the assembly ; EM ' in con- 
gregation.' Divisions] or, 'schisms,' lit. 'splits.' 
They split up at their meeting into different 
sets. 19. There must be also heresies] cp. 
Mtl8 7 , ' It must needs be that offences come,' 
i.e. owing to human weakness and sinfulness. 

Heresies] KM 'factions' : cp. Gal5 20 . The 
word (lit. 'choice,' then ' chosen opinions,' or 
' a party holding opinions of their own ') is 
repeatedly used of the sects of the Jews. That 
they which are approved, etc.] i.e. these parties 
4 are a magnet attracting unsound and unsettled 
minds, and leaving genuine believers to stand 
out approved by their constancy' (Findlay). 

20. This is not to eat] RY ' it is not possible 



to eat.' Their selfishness (v. 21) was fatal to 
the proper spirit of devotion and brotherly 
love ; it became no more than an ordinary 
meal. The Lord's supper] This name occurs 
only here in the NT. ; it is uncertain whether 
it refers here to the Eucharist alone, or to the 
whole supper, or Love Feast. 21. Every one 
taketh, etc.] corrected, v. 33. See introduc- 
tory remarks on vv. 17-34. 22. Have ye not 
houses] cp. v. 34. Despise ye the church of 
God] i.e. by thinking only of yourselves, and 
not of the welfare of the whole household of 
God. Them that have not (RY ' nothing ')] i.e. 
the poor, who have no food to bring. I praise 
you not] cp. v. 2. They had not kept this 
' tradition he had delivered them.' 

23. I have received of the Lord] It is doubt- 
ful whether this must mean k by direct rela- 
tion,' or whether it may be ' through instruc- 
tion from others' : cp. 15 3 . Probably the 
facts were learnt from older Christians, but 
their full significance was directly revealed to 
him by the Lord. St. Paul contrasts here the 
solemn circumstances of the institution of the 
Sacrament with the disorderly scenes accom- 
panying its frequent celebration at Corinth. 
Which also I delivered unto you] Instruction 
about this Sacrament formed part of St. Paul's 
earliest teaching to his converts. The same 
night in which he was betrayed] The mention 
of this calls to mind all the circumstances of 
the Passion, which we see St. Paul and his readers 
must have fully known, and so gives force to 
His last command. The account here of the 
Institution of the Eucharist agrees closely 
with that given by St. Luke, who may have 
been familiar with the words St. Paul used 
when consecrating ; and differs slightly from 
the accounts of St. Matthew and St. Mark. 
The one phrase found only here is, ' This do 
ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of 
me.' 24. Take, eat] RY omits. In the MSS 
which have this reading the copyists probably 
supplied it from St. Matthew's Gospel, for the 
sake of securing uniformity in the accounts of 
the institution. 

Is broken for you] RY 'is for you.' St. 
Luke says, ' which is given for you.' This do 
in remembrance of me] So Lk, not Mt, Mk. 

This do] i.e. all that was done then — ' Take, 
bless, break, distribute,' eat. In remembrance 
of me] or, ' as a memorial of Me ' and of My 
atoning death (v. 26) — one great aspect of 
the Eucharist. 25. When he had supped] 
RY ' after supper.' The bread was taken and 
distributed by our Lord during the Passover 
feast : cp. Mt26 26 ; the cup was given at the 
close of the feast, and may have been the or- 
dinary cup of thanksgiving taken at the con- 
clusion of the Passover feast, set apart by 
Christ to this special purpose henceforth. This 
cup is the new testament (RY ' covenant ') in 



911 



11. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



12. 10 






my blood] SoLk, Mt, Mk, ' this is my blood of 
the covenant.' Christ's Blood establishes a 
new covenant between God and man, one of 
forgiveness and grace : cp. Heb8 6 ' 13 9 15f . 
The cup is a seal or assurance of our being in- 
cluded within this covenant. 26. Ye do show 
the Lord's death] The celebration is ' a living 
sermon.' 

27. Eat . . and drink] RY 'eat . . or drink.' 
This suggests a possible interval between the 
two : see on v. 25. Unworthily] i.e. carelessly, 
irreverently, as if an ordinary meal, regardless 
of its sacred meaning. Guilty of the body and 
blood] i.e. he sins against them ; by insulting 
the Sign, he insults the thing signified. 28. Let 
a man examine (RY ' prove ') himself] i.e. see 
that he understands the sacrament, and is in 
a fit moral condition to receive it. 29. Un- 
worthily] RY omits here, and for not discern- 
ing reads, ' if he discern not the body,' i.e. if 
he does not realise that it is not mere bread, 
but the Lord's Body that is given under the 
symbol, and if while he partakes of the bread 
he does not also receive inwardly of Christ's 
spirit and increase in consciousness of union 
with Him. Damnation] RY ' judgment,' not 
final condemnation, but God's chastening 
punishment intended to bring to repentance, 
and so save from the final condemnation of 
the ungodly world (v. 32). So vv. 31, 34, 
where RY reads ' judgment ' for ' condemna- 
tion.' 30. For this cause] Their irreverence 
had led God to punish them by disease and 
death (sleep, i.e. ' in death'). They had been 
visited with sickness, and St. Paul was enlight- 
ened by God to see in this the punishment of 
this irreverence. It is possible, however, that 
the words may be used in the spiritual sense, 
and may refer to the moral condition of the 
Corinthians. 31. Judge ourselves] realise our 
true condition. 33, 34. These vv. correct 
abuses described vv. 21, 22. 

St. Paul regards the Eucharist as, (1) a 
means of communion with Christ (10 16 > 17 ) ; 
(2) a sign of brotherhood by which all Chris- 
tians are united together (10 17 ) ; (3) a memorial 
of Christ and of His death for man (II 24 - 26 ) ; 
and he records Christ's words which describe 
it as (4) the Seal of the New Covenant. From 
these chs. we get the phrases ' Holy Com- 
munion,' ' Lord's Table,' ' Lord's Supper.' 

CHAPTERS 12-14 
(<?) Si- 1 RITUAL G I FTS 
In the early Church various powers, facul- 
ties, and graces were bestowed on individual 
Christians by the Holy Spirit. Sonic of these 
were distinctly miraculous, Buch as prophecy, 
tongues, power to work miracles ; others were 
less extraordinary gifts, such as teaching or 
wisdom; or special graces of Christian char- 
acter, such as love. The Apostle does not 



distinguish between these classes ; all alike 
come from the same Source, and are to be 
exercised for the good of all. The Corinthians 
were inclined to overvalue the more showy 
gifts, especially that of tongues. Those pos- 
sessing this gift were tempted to use it for 
mere display ; those not possessing it envied 
these others, and undervalued their own gifts. 
St. Paul first (c. 12) shows that all these 
gifts come from the same Spirit, and all alike 
contribute to the well-being of the Church. 
But love (c. 13) surpasses them all ; without 
it they are of no avail. Of these gifts, 
prophecy (i.e. inspired preaching, revelation 
of God's will) is better than tongues because 
it builds up the Church, and produces a better 
effect upon unbelievers (c. 14). But the exer- 
cise of both gifts must be so regulated that 
all things may be done, (a) ' to edifying ' ; (b) 
1 decently and in order.' 

CHAPTER 12 

(e) Spiritual Gifts 

(i) Their Nature and Relations 

1-3. The test of the Spirit's presence is the 
confession of Jesus as the Lord. It would 
seem that some members of the Church, carried 
away by their excitement when speaking in 
the congregation under the power of the 
Spirit, as they said, had called Jesus accursed, 
as if they had been unbelievers. No such 
utterance, says the Apostle, can proceed from 
any one who speaks by the Spirit. 

2. Gentiles] and so ignorant of all spiritual 
gifts, and requiring guidance now. 3. Where- 
fore] i.e. because these gifts differ from any 
experience you had when heathens. Calleth 
Jesus accursed] RY ' saith, Jesus is anathema,' 
as unbelieving Jews would say. Jesus is the 
Lord] cp. Ro 10 9 (RY). This sincere confession 
is the essence of Christianity, and proves the 
presence of the Holy Spirit, the possession of 
a gift from Him. For a similar test cp. 1 Jn 
2 1 " 8 . Prof. Stevens paraphrases thus : ' The 
very first thing to be understood is that the 
confession of Jesus Christ as Lord is the key- 
note of all inspired speech. The primary test 
of the Spirit's inspiration is : Do you acknow- 
ledge the Lordship of Christ ? ' 

4-1 1. There are many gifts, but all are 
bestowed by one Spirit. 

4, 5, 6. Spirit . . Lord . . God] The doctrine 
of the Holy Trinity is implied here. Adminis- 
trations] RY 'ministrations' ; ways in which 
the Lord is served. Operations] RY 'work- 
ings.' Which worketh all in all] i.e. who is the 
author and instigator of all these activities in 
all who possess them. 7. The gift by which 
the Spirit manifests His presence is given to 
each for the common good of all. 9. Faith] 
i.e. (probably) a great wonder-working faith 
(13 2 Hebll 33 ). 10. Prophecy] i.e. inspired 
912 



12. 11 



1 CORINTHIANS 



IB. 



utterance of God's mind ; not only ' fore- 
telling,' but ' forth-telling ' : see on 14 1 . Dis- 
cerning of spirits] power to recognise whether 
a man were a true or a false prophet. Tongues 
. . interpretation] cp. intro. to c. 14. n. As 
he will] Notice the personality and the freedom 
of the Spirit. 

12-31. The Church is like the human body. 
It consists of many members, with different 
functions, but all intended to promote the 
good of the whole. Thus there is no room for 
selfish display, envy of others' gifts, contempt 
of one's own : cp. Ro 12 4 > 5 Eph 4 15 > 16 ; and the 
Roman fable of the belly and the members. 

12, 13. Stevens paraphrases thus : ' The 
unity of those who possess the various gifts is 
analogous to the unity of the body ; they are 
all one in Christ. Their baptism into Christ 
signifies their unity in Him, whatever their 
nationality or social condition.' 12. Are] i.e. 
constitute one body. So also is Christ] Christ 
is regarded here as the personality whose body 
is the Church. He is so closely connected with 
the Church that He is almost identified with 
it. He infuses His Spirit into it, and His 
Presence interpenetrates it. Every Christian 
is a member of Christ's body — head, hand, 
foot, eye, ear, or some other equally essential 
member. 13. Into one body] i.e. so as to be- 
come one body : cp. Eph4 4 . Have been all 
made to drink into (RY 'of') one Spirit] or, 
perhaps, ' been watered with one Spirit.' He 
has poured His gifts into us all. 15. A 
warning against being envious of others' gifts, 
negligent of our own. Is it therefore not of 
the body ?] RY ' it is not therefore not of the 
body' ; it does not on this account cease to 
belong to it. 

17*. If the whole body] Just as the differ- 
ences of powers and functions are a great 
advantage to the body, so the existence of 
different gifts benefits the Church. The 
position of each individual, his possession of 
this or that gift, has been ordered by God. 

21. I have no need of thee] a rebuke to 
those who despised those not possessing their 
gifts. 23. Bestow more abundant honour] i.e. 
by clothing them. 24. No need] of clothing. 
' Tempered . . together] wrought all into 
harmony. Given more abundant honour] by 
implanting in men the instinct of v. 23. 

25. No schism] contrast 1 10 11 18 , where see 
note. 26. All the members suffer with it] 
What is true of the human body, through the 
nervous connexion of all its parts, should be 
true of the Church : cp. Rol2 5 . 

27-31. Application. The various offices 
and functions in the Church, Christ's Body. 
These are by God's assignment ; ail do not 
possess the same gift. 27. Ye are the body of 
Christ] true of individual Churches, as here ; 
and of the Church universal (Eph 1 23 ). 



Members in particular] i.e. each in his place ; 
RV ' severally members thereof.' 28. First 
apostles, etc.] cp. similar list, Epb.4 11 . It is 
a list not so much of distinct offices as of 
functions and gifts, some of which may be 
combined in the same man. St. Paul was 
Apostle, prophet, teacher (AC13 1 ), worked 
miracles, and spoke with tongues (1 Cor 14 18 ). 

Apostles] commissioned witnesses of Christ's 
Resurrection, founders or organisers of 
Churches. Prophets] cp. v. 10, inspired re- 
vealers of God's mind. Teachers] who gave 
instruction regarding the faith and the bearing 
of religion upon life and conduct (v. 8). 

Helps] including the original work of dea- 
cons, ministration to the poor and sick. 

Governments] i.e. powers of organisation 
and administration, including much of the work 
of presbyters. Tongues] are perhaps put last, 
because overvalued at Corinth. 

30. Interpret] i.e. the tongues (v. 10). 

31. Covet (RY 'desire ') earnestly the best 
(RY ' greater ') gifts] The lowest have their 
place, but it is right to aim at possessing the 
higher. And yet shew I unto you a more 
excellent way] RY ' a still more excellent way 
show I unto you,' i.e. in which to possess and 
use them. To have them is good, but it is 
still more important to use them in a spirit of 
love. 

CHAPTER 13 

(e) Spiritual Gifts 
(ii) The most excellent Gift of Charity 

In this c. we enter into the purest at- 
mosphere and breathe the most fragrant 
odours. Passing from the previous chs. 
with their tale of faction and scandal and 
shame to this passage with its description of 
Christian love is like passing from the en- 
chanted ground of the ' Pilgrim's Progress ' to 
the land of Beulah within sight of the Celestial 
Gate. 

The Revised Yersion reads ' love ' for charity 
throughout the c. The Gk. word is translated 
'love' in most places of the NT., so is the 
corresponding verb always. The RY change 
(1) is desirable for consistency ; (2) gives the 
Apostle's meaning better — love being much 
more than almsgiving or kindly judgment, 
which are now the usual meaning of ' charity ' ; 
(3) shows St. Paul and St. John are agreed in 
attaching the highest value to love, thus 
enforcing the ' great commandment of the 
Law ' as declared by our Lord. The Gk. 
word translated ' charity ' in AY does not 
exist in classical Greek. It is found first in 
the Septuagint. The corresponding verb 
means to desire the good of one whom you 
esteem ; and the noun is appropriately applied 
to the spirit which seeks not its own but 
others' good, and sacrifices itself for others. 



58 



913 



13. 1 



1 CORINTHIANS 



14. 1 



1-3. Great gifts (e.g. tongues, prophecy, 
knowledge, faith) and even good deeds are of 
no avail without love : cp. Mt7 22 . What a 
man is, is more important than what he 
has. 

1. Tongues] the gift the Corinthians most 
valued. Have not charity] do not use the 
gift in a spirit of love. Sounding brass] i.e. 
merely so much noise. 2. All faith] see on 
12 9 . Remove mountains] Mtl7 20 21 21 . St. 
Paul may have our Lord's words in mind ; 
but it was a proverbial expression. 3. These 
actions would seem works of love, but may 
spring merely from ostentation or vainglory. 

Give my body] A still greater instance of 
self-devotion. To be burned] Some MSS have, 
' give my body that I may boast,' in self- 
approval. 

4-7. The character and actions of Love. 

4. Vaunteth not itself] does not make a 
display. Puffed up] i.e. conceited. 5. Seeketh 
not her own] i.e. her own advantage (10 24 > 33 ). 

Thinketh no evil] RY ' taketh not account 
of evil ' ; does not reckon up her grievances. 

6. Rejoiceth not in iniquity] i.e. in hearing 
or telling of others' faults or follies. In (RY 
' with ') the truth] i.e. in the spread and victory 
of truth and right. 7. Beareth] without break- 
ing down. Believeth all things] is not sus- 
picious ; puts the best construction on things. 

Endureth] without giving up. 

8-13. Love is eternal. Other gifts, know- 
ledge, prophecy, tongues serve but a temporary 
purpose. 'They are only means towards an 
end. Love remains the completion and per- 
fection of our human being' (F. W. Robertson). 

9. In part] partially, imperfectly, n. When 
I was a child] an illustration of v. 10. Under- 
stood] RY ■ felt,' 12. Through a glass] RY 
' in a mirror,' seeing only a reflection, not the 
actual reality. Ancient mirrors were of metal 
(cp. Ex38 8 ), often reflecting imperfectly. 

Darkly] lit. ' in a riddle,' taught by hints 
and metaphors. Our knowledge of divine 
things is necessarily imperfect ; much is not 
revealed, much only partially ; we have to 
use earthly and human figures and language 
to express eternal truths. Know even as also 
I am known] ' Then shall I plainly know 
spiritual things with a knowledge like that of 
God ' (Stevens) ; or, ' even as God knows 
me.' 

15. Now abideth] Probably meaning not 
' these three exist now, but finally love alone 
will remain ' ; but, ' the fact is that these three 
alone are eternal.' Faith (confidence in Cod) 
will continue in the next life : so will hope 
(expectation of future good) ; for that life 
will be one of progress not stagnation. The 
greatest of these is charity] RY l love.' For 
love is the mainspring of faith and hope ; and 
1 God is love.' 



CHAPTER 14 

(e) Spiritual Gifts 

(iii) The Gift of Tongues subordinate 
to Prophecy 

The Apostle in this c. deals with the abuse 
of the gift of tongues which characterised the 
Corinthians, and declares that it is inferior to 
the gift of prophecy, though valuable enough 
in itself if kept in proper control. Speaking 
with tongues is a phenomenon we meet with 
in the NT. only here and in the Acts of the 
Apostles. The gift as recorded in Ac 2 
seems to have been the power to speak 
in foreign languages. We are told that 
Parthians, Medes, and Elamites, as well as 
dwellers in Asia Minor, Egypt, Rome, Crete, 
and Arabia heard their own languages spoken 
by the disciples on the day of Pentecost. In 
the Corinthian Church the gift of tongues 
seems to have been manifested in a different 
way. It took the form of ecstatic utterance. 
Those who possessed it often burst forth 
during public worship in a rhapsody of words, 
unintelligible to others and often to them- 
selves. There were others who had the gift 
of interpreting these utterances and explaining 
them to the congregation. But often there 
was no interpreter present ; and the unedify- 
ing spectacle was witnessed of several wor- 
shippers speaking at once, and no one under- 
standing a syllable of what was said. This 
gift, too, as it attracted attention and appealed 
to the Greek belief in prophetic ecstasy and 
love of display, was held in high estimation 
and anxiously sought after : but as the results 
proved, it was capable of grievous abuse. 

The Apostle here points out that the gift 
of tongues while it is of value to the person 
who possesses it (v. 4), and of importance as 
attracting the notice of unbelievers (v. 22), is 
of no benefit to the Church, because it provides 
no edification (vv. 2, 5, 11, 12). On the other 
hand, the gift of prophecy is a benefit to 
others, for by it the Church receives edifying ; 
because the speaker declares the secrets of 
God's dealing with men and reveals to men 
their need of God's grace, speaking so that all 
can understand him. Therefore the Apostle, 
though himself possessed of the gift of tongues 
in a high degree (v. 18) and desiring that 
others should have it also (v. 5), declares that 
prophecy is a far higher gift, because far more 
useful to the Church (v. 5, 22, 24, 25). 

1-19. The gift of prophecy is better than 
that of tongues, because it edifies believers. 

1. Follow after charity] Seek a loving 
spirit before ;ill things. And desire] RY 'yet 
desire earnestly '(cp. 12 81 ); do not neglect other 
gifts. But rather that] and more especially 
that. Prophesy] inspired preaching ; declar- 
ing God's mind. A prophet in Scripture does 



914 



14. 2 



1 CORINTHIANS 



14 25 



not simply foretell the future ; he tells forth 
the will of God, and speaks for God as His 
mouthpiece. 

Paraphrase. '(2-4) One who has the gift 
of tongues speaks only to God ; he does not 
communicate to others the mysterious truths 
of which he is conscious ; he cultivates only 
his own spiritual life. But a prophet builds 
up the spiritual life of the Church by his 
words of exhortation and encouragement. (5) 
I do not disparage tongues ; I should like you 
all to possess that gift ; but it is inferior to 
prophecy unless the speaker can interpret and 
so build up the Church. (6) I myself could 
do you no good by speaking in a tongue, 
unless I added interpretation and teaching. 
(7) The melody played upon a musical in- 
strument cannot be recognised unless the 
notes are distinct ; (8) the bugle-call must be 
clear if it is to bring men to battle. (9) 
Similarly, unless it is possible to understand 
what you say, of what value are your words ? 
(10, 11) Every language in the world has a 
meaning ; but the hearer must understand the 
speaker's language, if they are to communicate 
with one another. (12) Seek then for the 
spiritual gifts which are most useful in edify- 
ing the Church. (13) Let him who has the 
gift of tongues seek also the gift of interpreta- 
tion, (14, 15) so that his understanding may 
have its part in his prayer and praise, as well 
as his spirit. (16, 17) How can the ordinary 
worshipper say u Amen " when you give thanks, 
if he does not understand what you say ? 
Your thanksgiving may be earnest and heart- 
felt, but it is valueless for his comfort and 
encouragement. (18, 19) I am thankful that 
I am highly endowed with this gift ; but I 
would rather in your gatherings for worship 
say five words that would be helpful to your 
spiritual life than ten thousand which no one 
could understand.' 

2. An miknovm tongue] RY omits ' unknown ' : 
so throughout the c. In AY it is in italics, 
merely added as an explanation or interpreta- 
tion. 4. Edifieth (EM ' buildeth up ') himself] 
by conscious communion with God. 6. Except 
I shall speak to you] i.e. in addition to (or in- 
stead of) speaking with tongues. A rhapsody 
of praise imparts little truth to others. 

9. By the tongue] i.e. with your tongue, 
the instrument of speech. 10, 11. Kinds 
of voices] i.e. languages. Barbarian] i.e. 
foreigner. 12. Excel] RY 'abound,' i.e. in 
these gifts. 13. Pray that he may interpret] 
i.e. pray for the ability to make known to 
others the meaning of the impassioned words 
in which he has poured out his spirit. 

14. Is unfruitful] is of no use to myself or 
to any one else. 16. Bless . . giving of thanks] 
Probably no special reference to the Eucharist. 
It is clear that public worship was largely at 



least extempore. Every member who was 
moved to do so, contributed to the edification 
of the congregation, by psalm, or prayer, or 
exhortation, or explanation : cp. v. 26. 

Occupieth the room (RY ' filleth the place ') 
of the unlearned] RM ' him that is without 
gifts ' ; probably here, ' any one not under- 
standing your ik tongue." ' The (RY) Amen] 
the close of prayers and thanksgivings among 
both Jews and Christians, expressing the 
assent of the congregation (Neh8 6 Psl06 48 .) 

19. In the church] i.e. at a Church assembly. 
St. Paul insists upon Church worship being 
really ' common prayer,' each worshipper 
joining intelligently in what is said. 

20-25. Prophecy is better than ' tongues ' 
for convincing unbelievers. 

Paraphrase. ' (20) Do not reason like 
children, but like grown men : it is only 
in regard to knowledge of evil that I wish 
you to be childlike. So do not overestimate 
the more pretentious gift. (21) The history 
of God's dealings with Israel suggests a lesson 
regarding the use of unintelligible speech. 
The warning of impending judgment was 
brought home to the people of Judah when 
they heard the strange accents of the Assyrians 
among them. (22) And what is suggested 
to us is that the utterances of those who have 
received this gift are a sign to attract the 
attention of unbelievers and warn them of the 
presence of the Spirit : whereas, on the other 
hand, prophecy makes its appeal rather to be- 
lievers. (23) But if an unbeliever comes into 
your assembly and hears only words uttered 
in ecstasy without interpretation, will he 
not suspect you all of madness ? (24, 25) 
Whereas if he comes in and finds you pro- 
phesying, he is likely to be impressed and 
converted.' 

20. Be not children] who seek the showy 
rather than the useful : cp. MtlO 16 R0I6 19 . 

21. In the law] i.e. the OT. (Isa 28 n > 12 ). As 
God confounded the unbelieving Jews who 
rejected Isaiah's plain warnings as folly, by 
bringing upon them invaders (Assyrians) of 
unintelligible speech, so tongues are meant to 
impress unbelievers, as a sign of the existence 
of spiritual influences ; but, as of old, many 
will be confirmed by them in their unbelief. 

22. Tongues] were valuable to unbelievers 
as a sign of the Spirit's presence, but not for 
believers, who already were convinced of it, 
and who could appreciate prophecy. 23. All 
speak with tongues] Not necessarily all at 
once, but one after another, leaving space for 
nothing else. Unlearned] cp. v. 1 6 ; any one not 
understanding this gift. 

24. He is convinced of all] ' His conscience 
is aroused and awed by this united testimony 
to truth' (Massie). 

25. In you of a truth] ' among you indeed.' 



915 



14. 26 



1 CORINTHIANS 



15. 



26-33. Regulations for the exercise of the 
various gifts. 

Paraphrase. '(26) Now, brethren, I hear 
that there is much disorder in your worship, 
each of you being eager to utter his psalm, or 
lesson, or rhapsody, or interpretation, or ex- 
hortation, and apt to interrupt the other. Let 
this disorder cease, and everything be done 
with a view to strengthening your faith and 
deepening your spiritual life. (27, 28) Let 
no more than two or three speak with tongues 
at any meeting, and let them speak in succes- 
sion, what they say being interpreted. But if 
there be no one present to interpret, let them 
engage in silent prayer and worship. (29-31) 
So also with the prophets : let two or three 
speak in succession ; and if some one be 
moved to speak at any time, let him who is 
addressing you make way. In this way, you 
will all get an opportunity of edifying and 
being edified by one another. (32, 33) The 
prophet who is truly inspired is to be recog- 
nised by his self-restraint ; for God does not 
inspire men to bring disorder into the Church, 
but prompts them to do the things that make 
for peace.' 

26. Every one of you] The right of taking 
the lead in public worship was practically un- 
restrained at Corinth ; and the need of regu- 
lation is here made very manifest. Hath a 
psalm] i.e. to sing (cp. Eph 5 19 ) ; either from 
the OT., or else impromptu: cp. the Magnificat, 
Benedictus, Nunc Dimittis. Doctrine, reve- 
lation] cp. v. 6, 12 28 . 27. By two] i.e. two or, 
at most, three may speak in succession, if there 
is an interpreter. 28. Speak to himself, and 
to God] i.e. use this gift at home, not in 
public worship. 29. Let the other (RV 
' others ') judge] whether the speakers have 
a message from God : cp. 12 10 . 30. Be re- 
vealed to another] The speaker is to conclude 
if he perceive another has received a sudden 
revelation. 31. Comforted] i.e. encouraged, 
exhorted. 32. The spirits of the prophet, 
etc.] So let none maintain he must speak, or 
cannot stop. 33. TJie author] RV '« God. 1 
Not confusion, but peace, is to His mind : cp. 
Rol5 33 . As in all churches of the saints] 
i.e. all Christian communities. This clause 
belongs to the whole preceding paragraph, 
' Such arrangements are in force elsewhere, 
and you also ought to adopt them ' : cp. 11 w 
4 17 note. 

34-36. Women are not to speak in Church 
assemblies : cp. 118-M lTim2U*i* In li- 
st. Paul si 1 his (o allow, provided the head be 
covered, what he forbids here. Either (a) on 
second thoughts he now forbids if altogether; 
or, (/;) here he is thinking of public services ; 
there, of more private gatherings : cp. Ac 
18 26 , where Priscilla is associated with Aqnila 
in the teaching of Apollos. See also lti 1 '. 



34. As also saith the law] Gn3 



cp. 



1 Tim2 13 - 14 . 35. If they will learn any thing] 
Perhaps some had expressed their own opinions 
under cover of seeking information. Their 
husbands] Most would be married ; speaking 
would be still more unsuitable for the un- 
married. 36. Came the word of God out from 
you ?] RV ' Was it from you that the word 
of God went forth? or came it unto you 
alone ? ' ; i.e. you are neither the original nor 
the only Church ; what are you that you di- 
verge from the general practice and set up a 
standard of your own ? The Apostle here 
falls back again on the weapon of sarcasm. 

37-40. Conclusion of subject. 

Paraphrase. '(37) To sum up, then, let 
those who claim to have these spiritual gifts 
attend to these regulations, for they express 
the will of the Lord. (38) But if any one 
refuse to learn, let him just abide in his ig- 
norance. (39) Do not forbid the exercise of 
ecstatic utterance ; but encourage prophecy. 
(40) See that above all you have all orderly 
and seemly worship.' 

37. Spiritual] i.e. possessing spiritual gifts. 

Let him acknowledge] If their claim to 
have the Spirit is true, they will recognise the 
authority of these regulations. The com- 
mandments of the Lord] cp. 7 10 ; contrast 
7 25 > 40 . 38. Let him be ignorant] RM ; If any 
man knoweth not, he is not known,' i.e. God 
does not recognise him. But perhaps the 
Apostle means, ' If any man will not learn, then 
he must just abide in his ignorance, with all its 
inevitable loss': cp. Rev 22 n . 39. Covet to 
prophesy] This is to be ' earnestly desired ' 
(RV); tongues are merely allowed. 

40. Decently] i. e. in a becoming and proper 
way. 

The principles St. Paul keeps steadily in 
view are, (1) Public worship must be edifying 
to all ; (2) it must be conducted in good 
order. 

CHAPTER 15 

(/) The Fact and the Doctrine of the 
Resurrection of the Dead 
Some Corinthians disbelieved in the resur- 
rection of the dead — not, apparently, in Christ's 
Resurrection, though St. Paul felt this would 
soon follow, but in their own future resur- 
rection. This occasioned him to write this 
grand chapter, which has cheered the hearts 
of so many mourners, read, as the greater part 
of it is, at the burial of the dead. He first 
(w. 1-11) repeats the historical evidence for 
Christ's Resurrection, a truth taught by all 
Christian teachers to all their converts ; then 
shows (vv. 12-19) that the denial of the resur- 
rection of the dead leads logically to the 
denial of Christ's Resurrection, thus over- 
throwing the whole Christian faith. He next 



916 



15. 



1 CORINTHIANS 



15.6 



(vv. 20-28) speaks of the consequences of 
Christ's Resurrection ; and (vv. 29-34) the 
influence of the hope of resurrection upon 
Christian life and practice. 

He then throws light on the nature of the 
resurrection-body (vv. 35-44), by using the 
analogy of seed and plant, and reminding his 
readers of the differences now existing between 
various bodies. So the resurrection-body 
will spring from the earthly one, but be far 
more glorious, a spiritual body, not like 
Adam's earthly body, but like Christ's glorified 
one (vv. 45-49). The bodies of the living 
(vv. 50-52) will experience a similar change. 
This resurrection change is the final victory 
over sin and death (vv. 53-58). The Apostle's 
teaching is to be distinguished from the doc- 
trine of the immortality of the soul taught by 
the great heathen thinkers like Socrates and 
Plato. It includes that doctrine, but adds to 
it the doctrine of the redemption of the body 
(Ro 8 23 ) ; and bases the whole doctrine of the 
resurrection-life upon the fact that Christ is 
risen from the dead. 

The doctrine of resurrection and future 
life was not clearly revealed in OT. times. 
Death was commonly regarded not as the end 
of all things, but as followed by a shadowy 
existence, not worth calling a life, cut off 
from all its joys and even from God Himself 
(Ps 6 5 88 5 > 12 Isa 38 1S ). So the rewards and 
punishments set before Israel in the Law were 
temporal ones (Dt28). But G-od gradually 
led His people on to clearer light. (1) Their 
consciousness of communion with God was 
so strong that they felt death could not end 
it (Ps73 24 ' 26 ). (2) They felt a future life 
was required to vindicate God's justice. 
Isaiah (26 19 ) speaks of a national resurrection 
(cp. Ezk37); Daniel (12 2 ) of an individual 
one. The hope gradually grew stronger ; in 
our Lord's day the Pharisees held to it firmly, 
though the Sadducees denied it (2 Maccabees 
and the Psalms of Solomon, probably written 
by Pharisees about 45 B.C., show the preva- 
lence of this hope). But our Lord's Resur- 
rection changed what was previously only 
partially revealed into a ' sure and certain 
hope': cp. 2 Tim lio. Not only did it (1) 
prove the truth of His claim to be the Son of 
God (Rol 4 ), and (2) assure men that His 
sacrifice had been accepted (Ro 4 25 ) ; it is 
(3) appealed to by St. Paul as a call to Chris- 
tians, in virtue of their mystical union with 
Christ, to live no longer to sin, but to God 
(Ro 6 4 , etc.) ; and (4) it is the pledge that we too 
shall rise again (here, and 2 Cor 4 14 Ro 8 n , etc.). 
And what we gather as to the nature of Christ's 
resurrection-body (Lk24 Jn20) throws light 
upon the change in ours, which will be con- 
formed to the body of His glory (Phil3 2 i RV). 
It was a real body, bearing the marks of His 



former ' natural ' body (Jn 20 27 ) ; capable of 
receiving food (Lk24 43 ), and of being recog- 
nised by those who had formerly known Him, 
though apparently only when He willed to be 
recognised : cp. Lk24 15 > 16 > 31 . Yet it could be 
transported mysteriously from place to place, 
passing even through the closed doors. St. 
Paul uses the analogy of plant and seed to 
explain the relation of the resurrection-body 
to the present one. We may infer that the 
glorified body will have some relation to the 
natural body, thus preserving personal identity; 
but will not be composed of the identical 
material particles of the body laid to rest ; it 
will be free from its limitations and imper- 
fections, a fit abode for the perfected spirit. 

I— II. The historical evidence for Christ's 
Resurrection. St. Paul reminds his converts 
of his original teaching at Corinth — how the 
Resurrection was one of the essentials of his 
gospel message. As at Athens (Acl7 18 ) he 
preached ' Jesus and the Resurrection,' and 
their position as Christians rests upon their 
adherence to this truth. His great message 
to them was Christ's atoning death, His burial, 
and His return from the grave. He mentions 
five separate appearances of Christ after His 
Resurrection, and finally mentions the Lord's 
appearance to himself. He reminds them 
that, although unworthy to be called an Apostle 
on account of His former persecution of the 
Church, God's grace has made him a true 
Apostle. And he concludes by pointing out 
that in the matter of proclaiming the Resur- 
rection of Christ he and the other Apostles 
are at one. 

2. Are saved] i.e. are in the way of salvation 
(see on 1 18 ), by faith in the crucified and risen 
Saviour. Keep in memory] RV 'hold fast.' 

Have believed (RV ' believed,' i.e. at your 
conversion and baptism) in vain] i.e. without 
consideration, and so without stability. 3. I 
delivered . . which I received] see on 1 1 2 > 23 . 
Probably he ' received ' the accounts of these 
appearances of the risen Lord on his visit to 
Jerusalem (Ac9 27 > 2 8 Gal 118.19), when he saw 
Peter and James. First of all] As most im- 
portant. For our sins] i.e. to atone for them. 

According to the scriptures] Not by accident, 
but in fulfilment of God's plan : cp. Isa 53 Lk 
2444-46. 4. Buried] This proves the reality of 
both Death and Resurrection. 5. He was 
seen] RV 'appeared to.' Not a complete 
list. Mary Magdalene, e.g., and the two at 
Emmaus (Lk24) are omitted. He mentions 
those personally known to himself, and whose 
authority would have weight at Corinth. 

Cephas, then of the twelve] Lk24 33 " 3( \ 

6. Above five hundred brethren at once] 
probably on the mountain in Galilee (Mt 
28 i 6 'i 7 ). Some are fallen asleep] i.e. dead. 
Twenty-five years at least had elapsed. Sleep 



917 



15.7 



1 CORINTHIANS 



15.21 



is used of death often in OT. (e.g. lK'i™), but 
Christ, by using it of those He was about to 
restore to life (Mt9 24 Jnll 11 ' 13 ), and by His 
own Resurrection, which is the assurance of 
ours, has given new meaning to it, viz. not merely 
cessation of the work of life, but a sleep from 
which we shall awake to new life. 7. James] 
The Lord's brother (Gall w Ac 15 13 ). This 
appearance is not mentioned in the Gospels. 

All the apostles] probably just before the 
Ascension, Ac 1 4 . 

The present passage is the oldest account 
of the appearances of the risen Lord, written 
years before any of our Gospels, and only 
about twenty-five years after the events, while 
hundreds of witnesses were still living. It is 
thus a most valuable piece of evidence as to 
the certainty of our Lord's Resurrection, 
which would remain firmly attested even if the 
authenticity of our Gospels were denied. 

8. Of me also] on the road to Damascus, at 
his conversion (Ac 9). Born out of due time] 
Suddenly, without the gradual training of the 
rest ; as inferior as an immature birth is to a 
mature one. 9. The least of the apostles] cp. 
ITimI 12 - 16 . 10. I am what I am] i.e. an 
Apostle. Not in vain] i.e. was justified by its 
results. His apostolic work, as well as his 
apostleship itself, was due to the grace of 
God. 11. Or they] i.e. the other Apostles ; 
Christ's Resurrection was taught by all Chris- 
tian preachers, accepted by all believers. 

12-19. Denial of the resurrection of the dead 
logically involves the denial of Christ's Resur- 
rection, which would overthrow the whole 
Christian Faith. The belief in the resur- 
rection of the dead is bound up with the 
Resurrection of Christ. But His Resurrection 
shows that resurrection is not an impossibility, 
and as He is Son of man, ' the spiritual head 
of humanity,' His Resurrection does not 
stand by itself ; it is man's resurrection also. 
The Corinthians accepted the truth of the 
Resurrection of Christ, and the Apostle asks 
them how they can logically deny the truth 
of the resurrection of the dead. He then 
proceeds to establish the truth of the resur- 
rection of the dead by the method of indirect 
proof, showing the awful consequences which 
would result from its denial. The first of 
these impossible consequences is that Christ 
is not risen ; another is that they are still 
unforgiven sinners, their faith being useless ; 
a third is that the Apostles are proclaim- 
ing falsehoods ; and ;i fourth is that their 
beloved dead are hopelessly lost to them. Be 
concludes, therefore, that if their hope in 
Christ has reference only to the present life 
they are in a pitiable state, for they are 
cherishing a mere delusion, if there be no 
truth in the resurrection of the dead. 

12. How say some among you, etc.] Their 



unbelief probably sprang from the philosophical 
idea that the matter was essentially evil, so 
that the soul would be better otf when set 
free from the body ; thus the doctrine of the 
Resurrection was to them a needless difficulty : 
cp. also 2 Tim 2 17 . The Corinthians, however, 
accepted the Resurrection of Christ as a fact, 
and the Apostle argues that they cannot logi- 
cally deny the fact of the resurrection of the 
dead, as Christ's Resurrection is a particular 
case of it. 13. Then is Christ not risen] For 
if a thing be altogether impossible, there cannot 
be even one instance of it. In this and the 
following vv. (see summary) the Apostle 
shows the logical consequences of disbelief in 
the resurrection, or, rather, the consequences 
that would follow were there no resurrection. 
These consequences, he concludes, are unthink- 
able or absurd, and, therefore, he argues that 
the premises which produce them are false. 

14. Vain] i.e. there is nothing in it. 

15. False witnesses] not merely empty 
talkers, but positive liars. No thoughtful 
sceptic now-a-days regards the Apostles as 
impostors. Their character, as well as their 
sufferings, forbids this ; but he would say they 
were victims of a mistake — merely imagined 
they saw the risen Lord. But the idea of 
this never enters St. Paul's mind ; it was to 
him perfectly impossible that they could have 
been mistaken. 17. Yet in your sins] not 
justified from them (Ro2 25 ) ; unforgiven, 
unrenewed. ' Christ's Resurrection is the seal 
of our justification and the spring of our 
sanctification ' (Findlay). If there be no 
resurrection, of what avail are forgiveness 
and salvation ? 18. They also which are 
fallen asleep] The Apostle here argues from 
the natural affections of the human heart. It 
is impossible to believe that those who died 
in faith in Christ perished utterly. The in- 
ference is : l But we are sure these things 
are not so ; therefore Christ has risen ; there- 
fore the resurrection is possible.' He argues 
from Christian experience. 19. If in this life 
only we have hope in Christ] If our hope in 
Him does not reach beyond this life, we are 
most miserable (RV ' pitiable '), because the 
hope of future joy and blessing which inspires 
our toils and sufferings is a mere delusion. 

20-28. The fact and the consequences of 
Christ's Resurrection. Christ is risen as the 
firstfruits of those who sleep. As death came 
on all through Adam, so resurrection-life 
will come to all through Him. But this will 
only be at His coming, which will be followed 
by His handing over the Mediatorial Kingdom 
to the Father, now that all things, even death 
itself, have been subjected to Him. 

20. The firstfruits] The first sheaf accepted 
by God is a pledge of the coming harvest : 
cp. Lv23 10 > n . 21, 22, The Apostle, as in 



918 



15.23 



1 CORINTHIANS 



15. 35 



Ro5, contrasts Adam, from whom by natural 
descent we all derive a corrupt nature, with 
Christ the second Adam, the Son of man, our 
spiritual head, by union with whom we receive 
spiritual life. All . . all] The first ' all ' means, 
of course, all mankind. The second may mean 
the same, in which case shall be made alive 
simply refers to resurrection, whether to life 
or to judgment (Jn 5 28 > 29 ; cp. Dan 12 2 Ac 24 15). 
But perhaps more probably it means only, ' all 
those who are Christ's ' (v. 23), who shall enjoy 
the * resurrection of life.' Cp. v. 23, ' Christ 
the firstfruits : then they that are Christ's.' 

23. In his own order] i.e. rank, or place. 
Christ comes first, the rest long after. 

24. Then cometh the end] Christ's Advent 
and the Resurrection conclude this dispensa- 
tion. When he shall have delivered up the 
kingdom] The purpose of the Incarnation will 
have been accomplished ; Christ will have re- 
covered for His Father the dominion over all 
things. ' This is no ceasing of Christ's rule, 
but the inauguration of G-od's eternal king- 
dom ' (Findlay). All rule] i.e. every opposing 
power. 25. He must reign] according to 
prophecy (PsllO 1 ). 26. The last enemy] 
1 The first enemy of Christ and of Christians 
is the devil, who was conquered by Christ on 
the Cross ; the second is sin, which through 
the grace of Christ is conquered by Christians 
in this life ; the third is death, which, as the 
last of all, will be conquered at the Resur- 
rection ' (quoted by Sadler). 27. For he (God) 
hath put all things under his (Christ's) feet] cp. 
Ps8 6 Heb28 Phil29-n. The Father has be- 
stowed upon Him as Son of man dominion over 
the whole universe. When he saith, etc.] EM 
' when he shall have said, All things are put in 
subjection (evidently excepting him that did 
subject all things unto him), when, i" say^ all 
things,' etc. ; i.e. when Christ announces His 
complete victory, which is no infringement of 
God's sovereignty. 28. Then shall the Son 
also himself be subject] see on v. 24. The 
Son will continue to be subordinate to the 
Father, as now. This is involved in the very 
idea of Sonship : cp. 3 23 1 1 3 . That God may 
be all in all] The universe, with all it com- 
prises, will wholly answer to God's will and 
reflect His mind. 

29-34. The practical effects of the doctrine 
of the Resurrection. The Resurrection alone 
gives an adequate motive for (a) baptism for 
the dead ; (b) running risk of death in Christian 
work ; or indeed (c) abstaining from a life of 
self-indulgence. 

29. Baptized for the dead] a very obscure 
allusion. There was somewhat later a practice, 
among certain sects of vicarious baptism ; when 
a man died unbaptised, a friend would receive 
baptism in his stead. This may have already 
existed and be meant here. St. Paul mentions 



' baptism for the dead,' without expressing his 
approval ; but some think the practice sprang 
up later from a perversion of this passage. 
Two other views seem possible. (1) That of 
St. Chrysostom : ' Before baptism we confess 
our faith in " the resurrection of the dead," 
and are baptised in hope of this resurrection.' 
(2) That of Godet, who regards the baptism 
as the baptism of suffering, the baptism with 
which those were baptised who have by 
martyrdom entered the Church invisible. But 
it can scarcely be denied that, as Dr. Dods 
says, ' the plain meaning of the words seems 
to point to a vicarious baptism, in which a 
living friend received baptism for a person 
who had died without baptism.' 

31. By your rejoicing] RV ' by that glorying 
in you,' i.e. as surely as I am proud of you : 
cp. 1 Th 2 19 > 20 . I die daily] am daily in danger 
of death, and my daily sufferings must end in it : 
cp. 2 Cor 1 1 23 . 32. After the manner of men] 
i.e. from ordinary human motives, for applause 
or money ; and with no hope of reward in the 
resurrection life. I have fought with beasts] 
probably a strong metaphor (cp. 4 9 ) for some 
plot of the Jews or attack of the mob. His 
Roman citizenship and influential friends 
(Acl9 31 ) would have saved him from actually 
having to fight wild beasts in the theatre ; and 
this, if it had really happened, would probably 
have been specially mentioned (2Corll 23f -). 

If the dead rise not] RV takes this with the 
next sentence. Let us eat and drink] Isa 22 13 . 
The natural though not the necessary con- 
sequence of disbelief in a future life is to care 
only for self -gratification. 

33, 34. Do not associate with those who 
deny this vital truth. You are in great danger 
of being corrupted by them. Be aroused to a 
sense of your condition, and cease from sin. 
I trust that my words will shame you out of 
your folly. 

33. Evil communications] RV 'evil com- 
pany,' a quotation from a Greek poet, Menander, 
warning the Corinthians against the influence 
of heathen ideas about the future life. The 
line had probably in St. Paul's day become a 
proverb, as it is still. 34 Some have not the 
knowledge of God] hence both unbelief in 
resurrection, and low moral tone. To your 
shame] i.e. to shame you ; for you ought to 
surpass the heathen. 

35-44. The nature of the Resurrection and 
the Resurrection body. St. Paul here uses 
several illustrations of (a) the possibility (b) 
the nature of the resurrection change. The 
seed sown in the ground decays, but gives birth 
to a new plant. So from the body laid in the 
grave a nobler one will arise. There are in 
the world many varieties of animal life, each 
suited to its surroundings, and, moreover, 
bodies of heavenly beings as well as earthly 



919 



15.36 



1 CORINTHIANS 



16. 



far more glorious than they. Moreover, sun, 
moon, and various stars have different degrees 
of brightness. So our resurrection body will 
be far more glorious, adapted to its surround- 
ings. Our body sown in corruption, dishonour, 
weakness — a mere natural body — will be raised 
in incorruption, honour, power — a spiritual 
body : see intro. to this c. 

36. Thou fool] RV ' thou foolish one.' The 
Apostle is somewhat impatient of objections 
to his doctrine of the Resurrection, which 
the analogies of nature readily refute. That 
which] i.e. the seed which. Is not quickened, 
except it die] cp. Jnl2 24 . In nature, death 
leads to higher life. 37. Not that body that 
shall be, but bare (RV ' a bare ') grain] The 
actual seed sown does not reappear, but some- 
thing higher, a complete plant, springs from 
it. 38. His own body] RY ' a body of its 
own,' i.e. a plant of the same kind as the seed. 

39. There are many different forms of 
animal life ; so there may be of human life. 

40. Celestial bodies] probably this refers to 
angels, not to sun and moon, etc. But this 
leads him in the next v. to speak of degrees of 
glory. Bodies terrestrial] i.e. creatures of the 
earth. 41. One star differeth] The primary 
meaning is the literal one. Some stars are 
brighter than others. There are great differ- 
ences between things of the same class ; so 
also between the natural and the spiritual body. 

44. A natural body] (cp. 2 14 , 'the natural 
man ') endowed with natural life and fitted for 
an earthly existence. The spiritual body will 
be filled with spiritual life and adapted for a 
spiritual existence. The word ' natural ' is 
literally ' soulish,' and suggests the possession 
of an ordinary human personality ; while the 
word ' spiritual ' suggests a relation to the divine. 
Man possesses the spiritual life through his 
union with Christ, and the Apostle asserts that 
there is a spiritual body fitted for the require- 
ments of this spiritual life, and that he will 
come into possession of it in the resurrection 
life 

45-49. Our bodies will be like Christ's, no 
longer like Adam's. Adam, made from the 
earth, became 'a living soul ' ; Christ, who is 
from heaven, is constituted a life-giving Spirit. 
We belong to both, and so share the nature of 
both ; we have borne the image of the earthly 
man, we shall bear that of the heavenly Man. 

45. Was made a living soul] (tin 2 7 ). Life 
was given bo him, while Christ is the Giver 
of life. The last Adam was made] RY' be- 
came '(i.e. a1 His Resurrection). A quicken- 
ing (RV ' lif egiving ') spirit] bestowing resur- 
rection as well as spiritual life: cp. Jn f>-i -'-"•> 
1125,20. The last Adam] the new I bad of 
the human race : op. w. 21, 22, Bo5. 47. Of 
the earth, earthy] hence Bubjed to deoaj and 
death: cp. Gn.'i 1 '-'. 'out of it' (the ground) 



' wast thou taken ; for dust thou art, and unto 
dust shalt thou return.' From heaven] and 
so, spiritual and eternal. 49. Have borne the 
image] i.e. have been made like. Our present 
body is like Adam's, but it will be conformed 
to the body of Christ's glory (Phil3 21 ). 

50-53. The necessity of this change, in 
which the living will share. Our earthly 
perishable nature cannot take possession of 
God's imperishable kingdom. All men will 
not pass through death, but all alike will be 
instantaneously transformed. Our mortal 
nature must clothe itself with immortality. 

50. Flesh and blood] i.e. human nature 
in its present material and perishable condi- 
tion. Inherit] take possession of ; have right- 
ful entrance upon. The argument is, that 
such a spiritual body as he has been speaking 
of is absolutely necessary in the kingdom of 
God. 51. Not all sleep] for some will be 
living when Christ comes again. 52. At the 
last trump] cp. Mt24 31 lTh4i6— a signal 
which all will hear : cp. also Exl9 13 . We] 
i.e. those still living ; the quick. 

Shall be changed] The Apostle hoped Christ 
would return in his lifetime. 53. This mortal 
(body) must put on immortality] cp. 2Cor5 1 " 5 . 

54-58. The Resurrection is the final triumph 
over sin and death. When this glorious body 
has been received, then will be the end of 
death and the grave. Sin, too, shall have 
disappeared, and the Law will be no longer 
necessary. Over all God gives us the victory 
through Christ. Let us therefore praise Him, 
and seek to abound in His work, which is not 
in vain if done in Christ. 

54, 55. Death is swallowed up, etc.] Isa 
25 s . O death, where is thy sting, etc.] from 
Hosl3 14 . 56. The sting of death is sin] 
which brought death into the world (Ro5 12 ), 
and gives it its bitterness : cp. Heb 2 14 > 15 . And 
the strength of sin is the law] which reveals 
sin and, indeed, ' intensifies its power,' without 
giving power to overcome it (Ro 7 7 ' 13 8 2 > 3 ). 
But God giveth us the victory over sin now 
(R08 V-'), and hereafter over death (R08 11 ). 

Through our Lord] because Christ has over- 
come sin, and through faith in Him we, in- 
spired by His Spirit, overcome it also. 

58. Unmoveable] not shaken by false teach- 
ing. Not in vain] contrast vv. 16-19. In the 
Lord] Christ is regarded as the atmosphere, so 
to speak, in which their work is done. It is 
inspired by Him and done for Hi sake: cp. 
91. 

CHAPTER 16 

The Collection. Personal Messages 
and Conclusion 

The Apostle in this c. instructs the Corinth- 
ians to make a collection for the poor Christians 
in Judaea, intimates his intention of visiting 



920 



16.1 



1 CORINTHIANS 



16.24 



them at an early date by way of Macedonia, 
and concludes with kind messages of brotherly 
love. In v. 8 he mentions his intention to 
stay in Ephesus till Pentecost. He probably 
stayed much longer, owing to the troubles that 
arose in Corinth ; for in our Second Epistle 
(2 Cor 9 2 ) he speaks of the collection which 
he here appoints to be made, being ready a 
year ago. Meanwhile he had probably made 
the Corinthians a short visit by sea from 
Ephesus, and returned disappointed. He 
finally visited them by way of Macedonia, 
according to his original intention, announced 
in this c. after their repentance. On the whole 
circumstances see Intro, to 2 Cor. 

(g) 16 1 - 4 . The Collection 

The collection for the Church in Jerusalem 
was made at St. Paul's request by all the 
Churches he had founded in the Gentile world, 
as we learn from his letters and from the list 
of delegates sent by these Churches to Jeru- 
salem (Ac20 4 ). The Church in Jerusalem 
included many poor (AC6 1 ), and the Gentile 
Churches were enabled to show alike their 
gratitude to and their sympathy with the 
Mother- Church by material aid from their 
more ample resources. 

1. The collection for the saints] cp. 2 Cor 8 
and 9, Rol5 25 " 28 . 

To the churches of Galatia] either by mes- 
senger, or by a letter not preserved ; not in our 
Epistle to the Galatians. The Churches of 
Galatia were those he had established in 
Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra: 
see Acl3 14 -14 23 . 2 . The first day of the 
week] viz. Sunday, already the day for Chris- 
tian assemblies (Ac 20 7 ) ; a fit time for an 
act of Christian love. This v. is the great 
scriptural justification of the weekly offertory. 

That there be no gatherings (RY 'that no 
collections be made ') when I come] i.e. that it 
may be all your own doing, not mine. 3. By 
your letters] of commendation to the Christians 
at Jerusalem : cp. 2 Cor 3 1 . Delegates would 
go from Corinth to avoid all suspicion of mis- 
appropriation of the money (2 Cor 8 19 " 21 ). 

(h) 16 5 - 24 . Personal Messages and 
Conclusion 

5. I do pass through Macedonia] i.e. this is 
my present intention. His original plan had 
been to go direct to Corinth (2 Cor 1 15 > 16 ), but 
only for a passing visit. 6. Yea, and winter] 
RY ' or even winter.' He stayed three months 
in Greece (Ac 20 2 > 3 ), when at length he carried 
out his plan. Bring me on my journey] cp. 
Rol5 24 Tit3 13 . 8. Pentecost] one of the 
three great Jewish feasts, associated under 
Christianity with the descent of the Holy 
Spirit. 9. A great door and effectual is opened] 



cp. 2 Cor 2 12 Col 4 3 Rev 3 8 . 'I have good open- 
ings, and must make full use of them.' Many 
adversaries] Ac 20 19 , also 19 23 . 

10. If Timotheus (RY ' Timothy ') come] 
cp. 4 17 . It is not quite certain whether or not 
he reached Corinth : see Intro. 2 Cor. He was 
young (cp. lTim4 12 ), and seems to have been 
timid. 11. With the brethren] the bearers of 
this letter. 12. Apollos] Perhaps the Corinth- 
ians had asked that he might visit them. His 
refusal may have arisen from fear of rekindling 
the party feeling at Corinth. 13, 14. These 
vv. sum up the practical teaching of the Epistle. 
They needed to avoid carelessness, fickleness, 
and moral feebleness, and to cultivate a spirit 
of Christian love. 15. The house of Stepha- 
nas] baptised by the Apostle himself (1 16 ). 

The firstfruits of Achaia] There were con- 
verts at Athens (Acl7 34 ), therefore Achaia 
must be used in the narrower sense of Southern 
Greece ; or else these were the firstfruits as 
a household. Addicted themselves to the 
ministry] RY ' have set themselves to minister.' 

16. Submit yourselves unto such] ' esteem- 
ing them very highly in love for their work's 
sake' (lTh5 13 ). 17. Stephanas and Fortu- 
natus and Achaicus] who had probably brought 
the letter from the Corinthians (7 1 ). That 
which was lacking on your part they have 
supplied] i.e. their visit has made up for your 
absence. 18. And yours] for you will be glad 
to hear of my gladness. 19. Asia] i.e. the 
Roman province, of which Ephesus was the 
capital — the western part of Asia Minor or 
Turkey in Asia : cp. Acl9 10 > 2 6 Rev in. 

Aquila and Priscilla] cp. Ac 18 2 > 3 ; at Ephesus, 
Ac 1 8 18 > 19 > 26 . The church that is in their house] 
Those Christians who assemble there. 

20. An holy kiss] a token of Christian 
brotherhood: cp. R0I6 16 . 21. With mine 
own hand] This signature authenticated the 
letter, which was written by a secretary, 
perhaps Sosthenes (l 1 ): cp. R0I6 22 2Th 
317. 

22. If any man love not the Lord] Without 
this love, religion is a delusion or mockery ; 
where this love is the man cannot go far 
wrong. And love is shown by obedience (Jn 
14 15 ). Anathema] a Gk. word, meaning ' ac- 
cursed,' 'cut off from God.' Maran-atha] 
This expression stands by itself and is not 
joined to anathema as in AY. It is two 
Aramaic words, meaning either ' the Lord has 
come' (cp. Un5 20 ), or 'our Lord cometh ' 
(RM), or perhaps 'Lord, come': cp. Phil 4 5 
Rev22 2 °. 

24. My love be with you all] though I have 
had to reprove severely, and though some 
prefer other leaders. In Christ Jesus] who in- 
spires all Christian love. 

For the" subscription see Intro. : v. 8 shows 
that the Epistle was written from Ephesus. 



921 



2 CORINTHIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



The problems presented by the Second 
Epistle to the Corinthians are more numer- 
ous and complex than those of the First. In 
opening this Epistle we find ourselves at 
once in a different atmosphere from that 
of the previous one. St. Paul writes in 
a different tone. He alludes to matters of 
which there is no mention in the earlier letter. 
He indicates that a momentous crisis in the 
relations between himself and the Church has 
been safely passed. And in reconstructing 
the situation for ourselves we have nothing 
but hints and allusions and references to past 
events in the letter itself to guide us. The 
difficulties, however, largely disappear if we 
assume what is regarded by many scholars as 
proved, viz. that chs. 10-13 were a letter 
written some time after 1 Cor., and that chs. 1-9 
were a third letter written when the Apostle 
learned the effect produced by chs. 10-13 
in the Corinthian Church. 

i. Events between the First and Second 
Epistles. 

(a) The reception of the First Epistle at 
Corinth. As was mentioned in the Intro, to the 
First Epistle, when the Apostle heard of the 
irregularities in doctrine and morals that had 
arisen in the Church, he announced that 
Timothy would visit Corinth after he had per- 
formed the work entrusted to him in Macedonia, 
to bring them into remembrance of his ways in 
Christ (1 Cor 4 17 1 6 10). About the same time he 
sent the First Epistle by the shorter sea route 
to Corinth, perhaps by the hands of Titus and 
another of his companions (12 18 ), to whom 
was also given the duty of organising the 
collection (1 CorlG 1 ' 2 ). The mission of Timo- 
thy was in the first instance to the Churches 
of Macedonia, and it is uncertain whether or 
not he ever reached Corinth. Meanwhile the 
work of organising the collection, whether by 
Titus or by others, went on apace, and such 
favourable reports of the success of the move- 
ment reached St. Paul, that he afterwards 
quoted the Corinthians to the converts of 
Macedonia as an example of liberality (!•-). 

On the completion of these arrangements Titus 
probably returned bo St. Paul at Ephesus and 

reported the progress made. 

(b) The increasing influence of the * Christ ' 
party. Very soon after these events there 
Beems to have taken place a considerable increase 



in the influence of the party of Christ, which 
is just mentioned in the First Epistle (1 Cor 
1 12 ). An attempt, which for a time threatened 
to prove successful, was made by them to im- 
pose upon the Corinthian Church the require- 
ments of the Jewish law, and undermine the 
influence of St. Paul. We gather the informal 
tion about this movement, not from any direct 
statements on the subject, but mainly from the 
Apostle's defence of his apostleship, and the 
points on which he dwells in refuting the 
charges brought against him. The leaders of 
this party — perhaps recently arrived from 
Jerusalem — claimed to speak for Christ in a 
way in which they said that St. Paul could 
not speak. They were Hebrews (ll 22 ); they 
called themselves apostles and ministers of 
Christ (11 13 > 23 ) ; they taught another gospel, 
inculcated another spirit, preached even an- 
other Jesus (11 4 ). St. Paul calls them false 
apostles (11 13 ), deceitful workers (ib.), minis- 
ters of Satan (11 15 ). It would seem that they 
set up Judaism as the entrance to Christianity. 
They may not have insisted upon the imposi- 
tion of the rite of circumcision, but they prob- 
ably demanded obedience to the ceremonial 
law, taking their stand upon the teaching and 
example of Jesus Himself (e.g. Mt3 15 5 17 ), 
and insisting upon the maintenance of the 
legal standard of righteousness. They thus 
naturally came into conflict with St. Paul, 
whose doctrine of justification by faith (cp. 
Ro4, 5) seemed to them to be destructive of 
the Law; and perhaps being incensed at the 
lax morals of some of the Corinthian converts, 
they traced the irregularities to his teaching, 
and denounced him as a false apostle. Not 
content with this, they attributed to him vacil- 
lation and cowardice (10 10 ), pointed to his 
refusal of sustenance as a proof of his lack 
of authority (ll 7 ), and declared that he was 
afraid to exercise the power he boasted of in 
his letters (13 2 > 10 ). They charged him with 
cheating his converts (12 14 - ls ), said that he 
was puffed up with vanity (10 14 ), and even 
called him a fool (Hie, 21, 88). 

In this way these Judaising teachers sought 
to discredit the Apostle. They probably 
attracted those who had been of the party of 
Peter, and those who had been of the party of 
Christ at an earlier date, and united them 
in one strong body which influenced or over- 



922 



INTRO. 



2 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



awed the whole Church. They called them- 
selves Christ's men, preached Christ as the 
Messiah according to the flesh, and gloried in 
their connexion with those who had actually 
seen the Lord(10 7 1123 121). 

That they met with great success is evident 
from the Second Epistle. They turned the 
Church as a whole against St. Paul. The Cor- 
inthians received them without suspicion, lis- 
tened readily to their charges, and as the result 
renounced their allegiance to their spiritual 
father (7 2 1 1 3 > 4 1 3 2 > 10 ). They submitted even 
to be victimised by these intruders, and allowed 
them to do with impunity the very things they 
counted wrong in St. Paul. The members of 
the Church were so infatuated with their new 
teachers that they permitted themselves to be 
' brought into bondage, devoured, robbed, struck 
in the face ' (1 1 20 ). The more the new apostles 
demanded, the better they were pleased with 
.them. All that St. Paul had done for them 
was for the time forgotten, and their allegiance 
transferred to the new-comers, who denounced 
him as no minister of Christ at all. 

(c) St. Paul's brief (unrecorded) visit to 
Corinth. 

It was not long before the news of the re- 
volt reached St. Paul. It may be that Timothy 
coming south to Corinth as the Apostle indi- 
cated in the First Epistle (lCor4 17 ) found 
the Church already in revolt, and that on at- 
tempting to deliver a message from his master 
he was insulted and put to silence (7 12 . Here 
1 his cause that suffered wrong ' may refer to 
Timothy). Or it may be that the Apostle 
heard of the state of matters in some other 
way, as he had heard of their contentions 
before writing the First Epistle (ICorl 11 ). 
In any case, he felt that he must take prompt 
and resolute action, and accordingly he paid a 
short visit to Corinth in order to restore his 
authority and win the Corinthians back to their 
allegiance. 

This visit is not recorded in the book of 
Acts, nor is its occurrence related in so many 
words in St. Paul's letters ; but it is frequently 
referred to in 2 Corinthians and implied in 
several of the Apostle's statements. In 2 1 
he distinctly alludes to a visit which he had 
paid to the Church ' in sorrow.' In 12 1 4 13 1 
he announces that he is coming to them the 
third time. And as the only visit recorded in 
the Acts or in 1 Corinthians is the visit made 
when founding the Church, it is obvious that 
a second visit must have been paid in the 
interval before these passages were penned. 
In 13 2 indeed he distinctly mentions this second 
visit, and reminds them that he told them on 
that occasion that if he came again and found 
them unrepentant he would not spare them. 
This visit was probably paid as soon as he re- 
ceived the bad news, the journey being made 



923 



by sea. The Apostle's appearance at Corinth, 
however, had not the expected effect. The 
influence of the Judaisers was still supreme : 
an attack of the illness to which he was subject 
prostrated him, and it was interpreted by his 
enemies as a mark of divine disfavour, and 
used to discredit his apostleship (12 7 " 10 ). He 
had to retire to Ephesus baffled and dis- 
heartened, having perhaps been insulted and 
denounced to his face in presence of the Church 
by some violent member (7 12 , if the reference 
is not to Timothy but to himself. But see 
note). 

(d) The visit of Titus with the 'severe' 
letter. 

On reaching Ephesus again St. Paul wrote 
a letter to the recalcitrant Church, in which 
he sought to bring the members to a sense of 
their position. This letter is referred to in 
2 3 > 4 7 8 . It was written ' in much affliction with 
many tears ' ; it was stern and severe in its 
tone ; and it was designed to make them sorry 
and bring them to repentance. So strong were 
its terms, indeed, that St. Paul for a time re- 
gretted having written it. The greater portion 
of this ' severe ' letter, in the view of an increas- 
ing number of scholars, is preserved in chs. 
10-13. This theory solves many of the prob- 
lems raised by 2 Corinthians, and best explains 
the facts as we know them. (For reasons see 
below, under 2.) 

The 'severe' letter was dispatched from 
Ephesus by the hands of Titus, who seems to 
have been regarded by St. Paul as better able 
to deal with the situation than Timothy. On 
receiving it the Corinthians were stung by the 
reproaches of conscience, and repenting of 
their treatment of St. Paul, cast out of the 
Church by a majority the man who had given 
offence by his attack on the Apostle or his 
messenger (2 6 ), and acknowledged their founder 
once more (7 n ). Titus seems to have aided 
materially in bringing about the happy change ; 
and, having from the outset realised the re- 
sponsibility of the charge committed to him, 
he was overjoyed at the issue of his visit (7 6 ' 7 ). 

(e) St. Paul's meeting- with Titus. 
Meanwhile St. Paul left Ephesus and crossed 

the sea to Philippi, sailing along the coast to 
Troas, and thence taking ship for Europe. 
Troas offered him a good field for mission 
work (2 1 2 ); but, when Titus did not appear 
as he expected, anxiety about the Corinthians 
drove him onwards to meet him. At last in 
Macedonia (perhaps at Philippi) he encountered 
his messenger (213 7 5 .<5), and was relieved and 
gladdened by the good news he brought. In 
his delight at the return of the Corinthians to 
their faithfulness, he proceeded to carry out his 
purpose of visiting them as announced in the 
First Epistle (1 Cor 16 5), and first of all sent 
?itus back to them with a letter expressive 



INTRO. 



2 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



of his relief and joy — the Second Epistle, 
chs. 1-9. 

This plan of visiting Corinth after passing 
through Macedonia was ultimately carried out 
according to his original intention ; but at one 
period St. Paul had in mind another plan, 
which he afterwards disclosed to the Cor- 
inthians. This was to cross by the direct 
route from Ephesus to Corinth, and from 
thence to visit Macedonia, returning again to 
Corinth on the way to Jerusalem, thus giving 
the Corinthians ' a double benefit ' (1 15 » 16 ). Cir- 
cumstances, however, caused him to revert to 
his original intention, and pay the visit to 
Macedonia before going south to Corinth. 

(/) The 'thankful' letter. 

Chs. 1-9 of the Second Epistle seem to 
constitute the letter written by the Apostle 
after receiving the good news. This letter 
was sent by Titus, who is repeatedly referred 
to in it (213 76,13,14 8MM3), an d with him 
were sent other two — 'the brother whose praise 
is in the gospel throughout all the churches ' 
(8 18 ), and ' our brother whom we have often- 
times proved diligent in many things ' (8 22 ). 
Besides the conveyance of the letter they were 
entrusted with the reorganisation of the col- 
lection for the saints at Jerusalem, which had 
promised well when it was begun, but had 
probably fallen into abeyance while the trouble 
lasted (9 2 ' 5 ). Following in their footsteps, 
St. Paul soon afterwards himself arrived at 
Corinth to complete the reconciliation. 

2. The Authenticity, Unity, and Date of the 
Epistle. 

(a) That the Second Epistle is a genuine 
work of St. Paul has seldom been seriously 
disputed. Allusions to passages in it are 
found early in the second century in the 
letters of Polycarp, and it is quoted by the 
early Christian writers, Irenaeus, Athenagoras, 
and Clement of Alexandria. The evidence 
from the Epistle itself is stronger. In par- 
ticular, the personal allusions and references, 
the details of the Apostle's life and work, the 
intensely earnest character of its thanksgivings 
and appeals, confirm its own testimony to the 
authorship of St. Paul. 

(b) The theory that portions of more than 
one letter of St. Paul to the Corinthians are to 
be detected in the Second Epistle is supported 
by the following amongst other arguments ■ 

(1) The thoughtful reader of 2 Corinthians 
can hardly fail to notice the remarkable 
change is tone between chs. 1-9 and 10- 
13. In clis. 1-9 the breach between St. Paul 
and the Corinthians seems to be completely 
healed. The section abounds in expressions 
of love and goodwill, of thanksgiving and 
confidence: cp. 2«.W 3 2 7*. 7, 9." 87 W". 
In chs. 10-13, on the other hand, it is evi- 
dent that the breach is not yet healed. He 



there meets charges brought against him 
(102,io H6,7 ? etc.), defends his apostleship by 
an appeal to his work and sufferings (ll 21 " 33 ), 
declares himself to be in no way ' behind the 
very chiefest apostles ' (12 n ), and threatens to 
visit them in severity and not to spare (13 2 ). 
The circumstances to which the writer has 
regard in chs. 1-9 are different from those to 
which he looks in chs. 10-13. No explanation 
is so satisfactory as that which dates chs. 10-13 
before, and chs. 1-9 after, the causes of strife 
had been removed. 

(2) There are passages in chs. 1-9 which 
seem to refer to passages in chs. 10-13, and 
are best explained in the light of them. 
Cp. 13 2 , ' If I come again, I will not spare,' 
with 1 23 , ' To spare you I forbore to come 
to Corinth' ; and 13 10 , 'I write these things 
while absent, that I may not when present 
deal sharply,' with 2 3 , ' I wrote this very 
thing, lest, when I came, I should have sorrow':. 
cp.alsolO 2 with 8 22 ,10<5 with 2 9, and 115,18,23 
with 3i 5 1 2 . 

(3) In chs. 1-9 there are four references to 
a former letter apparently severe in tone. 

(a) It was written ' out of much affliction 
and anguish of heart with many tears ' (2 4 ) ; 

(b) after sending it away the Apostle re- 
pented of his action (7 8 ) ; (c) in it he had 
commended himself ' again ' (3 1 5 12 ) ; (<7) the 
Apostle was at the time of writing the former 
letter meditating a visit to deal sharply with 
them, which, however, in mercy he did not 
pay (1 23 2 1 ). These points describe the letter 
chs. 10-13, and apply to no other letter of the 
Apostle now extant ; e.g. (a) and (b) cannot 
refer to the First Epistle, and (c) does not 
apply either to the First Epistle or to any 
passage in 2 Cor before 3 1 , where he speaks of 
commending himself ' again.' 

(4) Chs, 1-9 were written from Macedonia 
(218 7 5 9 2 ); while 10™ indicates that the 
geographical position of the writer of that 
passage — which speaks of his hope to preach 
the gospel in the regions beyond them — was on 
the E. of Corinth rather than on the N., for 
we know that St. Paul's plan was to visit 
Rome. This suggests thai chs. 10-13 were 
written from Ephesus, and affords another 
hint of identification between chs. 10-13 and 
the ' severe ' letter of 2 ' 7 s . [A full discussion 
of the question is given in Dr. J. H. Kennedy's 
'The Second and Third Epistles to the Corinth- 
ians,' from which the above sections are mainly 
drawn.] 

(c) The dates of the two parts of the Second 
Epistle remains to be fixed. According to 
the evidence afforded by First and Second Cor- 
inthians themselves, the latter was written 
about eighteen months after the former. In 
1 Cor 16 St. Paul gives directions about the 
collection for the poor in Jerusalem, men- 



92 1 



INTRO. 



2 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



tioning such details about the method to be 
adopted in gathering it as lead us to the con- 
clusion that a beginning was now only being 
made with it. As the offerings were to be made 
weekly, and as many of the converts were poor 
(lCorl 26 ), it is obvious that some months 
would have to elapse before the contributions 
amounted to such a sum as the Church would 
like to send. In 9 2 , however, the Apostle 
commends them for being ready with their 
contribution ' a year ago ' : cp. 8 10 . It there- 
fore follows that some months more than a 
year separate the First Epistle from these 
passages in the Second. If, therefore, the 
First Epistle was written in the spring of 55 
or 56, it follows that chs,l-9 of the Second were 
written in the autumn of 56 or 57. Chs. 10-13 
were written in any case only a month or six 
weeks before chs. 1-9. That about eighteen 
months thus separated the First and Second 
Epistles is confirmed by the recollection of the 
humber of events which took place between 
them. "We have to allow time for the trans- 
mission of the First Epistle, for the develop- 
ment of the rebellion against St. Paul's author- 
ity, for the news to reach the Apostle at 
Ephesus, for his visit to Corinth and return, for 
the dispatch of the ' severe ' letter by Titus, and 
for St. Paul's journey to Philippi. Two lines of 
proof thus converge upon the same conclusion. 

It may be briefly mentioned here that some 
scholars regard the passage 6 14 -7 l as an inter- 
polation, and hold that it is really part of the 
first (lost) letter of St. Paul to Corinth. The 
contents of the passage certainly correspond 
with what the Apostle tells us was contained 
in that lost letter (lCor5 9 ); and they break 
the natural connexion between 6 13 and 7' 2 . 
But the case for eliminating the vv. can hardly 
be said to be proved. 

3. Synopsis of Contents. 

(A) Chs. 1-9. The thankful letter. 

Introduction 1 i-n. Salutation and thanksgiving. 
I 1 12_7 16. Thoughts suggested by the re- 
cent crisis. 

( a ) 1 12-2 2 . The sincerity of St. Paul's in- 

tention to visit the Church. 

(b) 23-13. The object and result of the 

1 severe ' letter. 

( c ) 2 14-5 19 . The glory, the comfort, and the 

inspiration of the ministry. 
(i) 2 14-3 6 . The Apostle's true 
letter of recommenda- 
tion. 

(ii)3 7 -4<\ The glory of the 
gospel. 

(iii) 4 7 -5 10 . The sources of his 
comfort. 

(iv) 5H- 19 . The love of Christ 
his inspiration. 

(d) 5 2°-7 1 . Appeal for purity of life. 



0) 7 2-I6. The Apostle's joy in the Cor- 

inthians' repentance. 
II. 8I-91 5 . The collection for the poor in 
Jerusalem. 

(a) 8I- 9 . The example of the Macedonian 

Churches. 

(b) 810-24. The principles of Christian 

liberality. 

(c) 9 1 ' 15 . Exhortations to generous giv- 

ing. 

(J?) Chs. 10-13. The 'severe' letter. St. 
Paul's defence of his ministry. 

(a) 10 1-18 . Answer to the charge of feeble- 

ness and cowardice. 

(b) 1 1 1-1 5 . Defence of his gospel and his 

independence. 

(c) 11 16 — 12 18 . The evidences of his apostle- 

ship in suffering and service. 

(d) 12i 9 -13i°. "Warnings against evil and ex- 

hortations to holiness. 

(e) 13H-14. Conclusion and benediction. 
4. Outline of the Epistle. 

Chs. 1-9. The Apostle sends his salutation 
to the Corinthian Church, and gives thanks for 
the comfort which comes through suffering and 
for the power of sympathy it confers (1 i-n). 
He then passes to the crisis through which the 
Church had passed, and gives some thoughts 
suggested by it. He asserts the sincerity 
of his intentions to pay the Corinthians 
another visit, although he has been obliged to 
change his plans ; and he shows that such 
changes of his plans as he had made, were made 
with a view to their benefit (1 12-2 2 ). He had, 
indeed, written them a severe letter which 
caused them pain ; but he could not regret it 
because it had brought them to repentance and 
secured the purity of the Church, and enabled 
him to forgive the now penitent offender 
(2 3 -i 3 ). Next he enlarges upon the joy attend- 
ing the successful preaching of the gospel 
(214-17). He sees in his converts his true 
letters of commendation — even, so to speak, 
letters of Christ Himself, bearing His signature 
and witnessing to His influence (31- 4 ). He 
remembers, indeed, the great responsibility of 
his work, but finds comfort in recalling the 
unfailing supply of strength from G-od ; and 
he contrasts the old ministry of the law with 
the new ministry of reconciliation through 
Christ (3 5 -46). The glory of the gospel 
reminds him of the weakness of those to whom 
its message is entrusted. In themselves they 
are feeble ; but their faith prevails over all 
difficulties as they look, not on the seen and 
temporal, but on the unseen and eternal (4 7 -i 8 ). 
They know too that death overtakes the mortal 
body, but they know that God has pro- 
vided them with an immortal body, and 
has given them the pledge of eternal life in 
the gift of His indwelling Spirit (5 1 ' 5 ). 



925 



INTRO. 



2 CORINTHIANS 



INTRO. 



They are therefore always faithful to the be manifest ' in his own life (4 10 ' H). This 



trust committed to them, being constrained by 
the love of Christ to plead with men to be 
reconciled to God and to become new creatures 
in Christ (5 6 " 21 ). The Apostle goes on to 
point to his own conduct as the proof of his 
claims to be a minister of God, and beseeches 
the Corinthians to live unspotted from the 
world (61-7 1 ). He appeals to them by his 
affection for them to be reconciled to him, 
and rejoices anew in their repentance (7 2 " 16 ). 

The Apostle then calls their attention to 
the collection for the poor in Jerusalem, 
telling them of the example set by the Churches 
of Macedonia (8 1_9 ), enunciating the principles 
of Christian liberality, and reminding them of 
the self-sacrifice of Christ (8 10 - 24 ), and finally 
exhorting them to generous and cheerful 
giving (91-15). 

Chs. 10-13. St. Paul defends his ministry 
from the attacks of enemies, and vindicates his 
apostleship. A charge of vacillation and 
cowardice had been made against him, and 
he assures the Corinthians that if strong 
measures are really necessary to bring them to 
a right way of thinking, he will not shrink 
from taking them (10 1' 18 ). He does not wish 
to boast of his position in reply to his enemies, 
but he points out that he had maintained his 
independence among them, and had never been 
a burden to them (11 !- 10 ). Those who speak 
against him and boast of their zeal are no true 
apostles ; in spite of their talk of righteousness 
they are as false as their master, Satan (11 u - 15 ). 
But seeing that boasting is the fashion, he also 
will boast — he will boast of his labours, his 
sufferings, his anxieties, his visions and revela- 
tions, nay, his very thorn in the flesh, in all 
which he rejoices for Christ's sake (11 i 6 -l 21°). 
He goes on to apologise for this boasting, and 
for his refusal to receive gifts from them. 
But he is glad he has maintained his independ- 
ence, because none can say that he made his 
converts a source of gain (12 12 " 21 ). He finally 
assures them of his approaching visit, warning 
them that if need be he will exercise his 
authority, but pleading rather for their repent- 
ance and submission (c. 13). 

5. Teaching of the Epistle. 

(a) Chs. 1-9. (1) The teaching of this 
Epistle is based, like the teaching of the First 
Epistle, on the great thought of the union of 
Christ and the believer. The sufferings of St. 
Paul which he endures for the gospel's sake 
are ' the Bufferings of ( 'ln-ist '( 1 ■"'). and the conso- 
lation he receives k aboundeth by Christ ' (1 5 ). 
Those whom he forgives,he forgives ' in ( hrist ' 
(21°) ; and the gospel he preaches, he preaches 
1 in the sight of God in Christ ' (2 17 ). He 
bears about in his body ' the dying of the Lord 
Jesus,' and he is ' delivered unto death for 
Jesus' sake, that the life also of Jesus might 



union with Christ, in which he lives himself, is 
the union he desires for others. ' If any man 
be in Christ he is a new creature ' (5 1 7 ), and 
they themselves are established with him ' in 
Christ ' (1 21). 

On the basis of this doctrine he urges them 
to forgiveness (2 10 ), encourages them to perse- 
verance (41 5 ), beseeches them to be reconciled 
to God (5 20 ), and exhorts them to a life of 
purity and holiness (7 1 ). 

(2) A considerable portion of the letter is 
occupied with the collection. This collection 
is mentioned first in 1 Cor 16. Its purpose 
was to provide assistance for the poor Chris- 
tians in Jerusalem, of whom there had been 
many from the beginning (Ac6i> 3 ). St. Paul 
regarded the Church at Jerusalem as the 
Mother- Church, and sought to interest his 
converts in the head-quarters of their faith. 
The collection also enabled the members of 
the Churches in Galatia (1 Cor 16 !), Macedonia 
(2 Cor 81), and Achaia, to realise their unity 
as members of one Church, as well as to 
give evidence of their sympathy with their 
brethren. The offerings were to be laid aside 
week by week upon the Lord's Day (1 Cor 16 2 ), 
and to be finished before the Apostle arrived. 
At the end of the time, under his own superin- 
tendence, they were to be dispatched to Jeru- 
salem by men chosen by the Church (1 Cor 16 3 ). 
In exhorting the Corinthians to liberality he 
quotes to them the example of the Macedonian 
Churches, which in this matter (8 2 > 3 ), as well 
as in others (Phil 4 10 " 17 ), were distinguished 
for generosity : and reminds them of the ex- 
ample of Christ (8 9 ), who 'though he was 
rich yet for your sakes became poor.' He 
urges them to give cheerfully (9 7 ) and liberally 
(9 6 ), according to their means (8i 3 > u ) ; not 
holding back through indifference or greed 
(8i°'H), nor feeling compelled to give in such 
a way as to make the offering a burden (8 1 3 ), 
but presenting their gifts out of a willing 
mind (8 12 ), and remembering that they may 
need some help themselves in their day of 
necessity, which would be gladly given (8 14 ). 
And he tells them that this offering has not 
only a material, but also a religious value ; for 
it causes the recipients of it to give thanks to 
God, recognising in it a gift from Him (9 12 ), 
and it is a powerful witness to the Christian 
faith and obedience of those who so freely 
bestow it (91 3 ). 

(6) Chs. 10-13. These chs. are wholly occu- 
pied with St. Paul's reply to his enemies' 
attack, and are chiefly interesting for the in- 
formation they give us about the doings of the 
troublers of the Church, and about the life of 
the Apostle himself. The former subject has 
already been touched upon (see I (&)) ; the 
latter may now be noticed. In 1 1 2233 St. Paul 



926 



INTRO. 



2 CORINTHIANS 



1.12 



mentions several incidents in his career which 
are not recorded in the sketch of his mission- 
ary career given in the Acts of the Apostles. 
He speaks of five floggings at the hands of the 
Jews, none of which are mentioned elsewhere. 
Of the three beatings with rods only one is re- 
corded (Ac 16 23 ). Of the shipwrecks we know 
nothing, as the events recorded in Ac 27 did 
not occur until a later date. It was evidently 
on the occasion of one of these that he spent 
a night and a day in the deep, probably on a 
raft or on wreckage. He tells us also of his 
escape from Damascus, which is also recorded 
in Acts (9 25 ), affording confirmation of the 
narrative there. These incidental hints sug- 
gest the intensely interesting career which full 
knowledge of the A.postle's travels would have 
revealed, and show us in some slight degree 
the privations and dangers and afflictions sum- 
med up in that phrase ' the sufferings of 
Christ' (15). 

CHAPTER 1 

Introductory Section 

i 1 * 11 . Salutation and Thanksgiving 

After the usual epistolary introduction, St. 

Paul makes pointed reference to a severe 

trouble he has lately endured, and gives thanks 

to God for deliverance from it. 

1. By the will of God] He asserts his divine 
call to office in presence of opposition : cp. 
1 Cor 1 1 Gal 1 \ and contrast Phil 1 > 1 Th 1 \ in 
cases where his relations to the Church were 
happy. Saints] A common designation of the 
Christian converts. It reminded them of the 
life to which they were consecrated at baptism. 
Achaia] probably used in a loose popular sense 
for the country around Corinth : cp. 1 Cor 1 2 . 

2. Grace . . and peace] i.e. all good wishes 
for spiritual blessings. 

3-7. Paraphrase. ' We give thanks to God, 
the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the 
Fount of all blessing and comfort, (4) for 
the comfort and courage He gives us in our 
trials, whereby we are enabled to comfort and 
encourage others. (5) For as we are brought 
into union with Christ by our sufferings for 
His sake, so are we brought into union with 
you by the comfort we receive from Christ. 
(6) And all our experiences both of ^trial and 
of comfort are for your spiritual benefit. (7) 
And we are confident that as ye now suffer as 
we did, so you will receive the blessing we 
received.' 

5. The sufferings of Christ] Because they 
are met in Christ's service and borne in Christ's 
spirit: cp. Phil3 10 . 6. And whether, etc.] 
RY ' But whether we be afflicted, it is for your 
comfort and salvation ; or whether we be com- 
forted, it is for your comfort, which worketh 
in the patient endurance of the same sufferings 
which we also suffer.' His sufferings caused 



them to repent (cp. 7 7 - 9 ), and his joy at their 
repentance gave them courage to persevere. 

8-1 1. Paraphrase. 'For it is right, my 
friends, that you should know that I had to 
undergo very severe suffering in Ephesus, and 
was even at death's door. (9) This great danger 
taught me that my life is in the hand of God, 
(10) for He saved me from the danger, as He 
saves me continually, (11) even while you 
prayed for me, that you and many might give 
thanks for my preservation.' 

8. Pressed, etc.] R Y ' weighed down exceed- 
ingly.' Our trouble . . life] The nature of this 
trouble is not exactly known. A serious illness 
in Ephesus, aggravated at a critical stage by 
the startling news of the defection at Corinth, 
seems best to explain the hints and allusions 
in this passage. 9. The sentence of death] RY 
' the answer of death.' When he wondered 
whether the issue would be life or death, his 
own heart answered, ' Death.' That we should 
not trust] His recovery taught him a stronger 
faith in God. 10. So great a death] i.e. death 
with the consciousness that his work in Corinth 
had been a failure. Doth deliver] RY l will 
deliver': i.e. in future dangers which he 
already foresaw. 

11. You also helping by prayer. St. Paul 
asks the prayers of the Corinthians, and tells 
them that they will thus help in his recovery. 
The Apostle always attached great importance 
to the prayers of others on his behalf (Ro 15 30 
lTh5 25 2Th3!), and made a practice himself 
of praying for others (1 Cor 1 3 Phil 1 * 1 Th 1 2). 
He knows, too, that, when praying for him, 
the Corinthians will be furthering the work 
he has at heart. 

Division I. i 12 -?™. Thoughts Suggested 

by the Recent Crisis 

(a) i 12 -2 2 . The Sincerity of St. Paul's 

Intention to visit the Church 

12-16. Paraphrase. ' The Apostle bases his 
expectation of receiving their prayers on the 
purity and sincerity of his conduct, especially 
in respect of his treatment of them. (13) He 
asserts that he writes nothing to them but 
what is common property, namely, that they 
mutually understand and glory in one another. 
(14) Some of them have acknowledged this all 
along, and he trusts that they will increasingly 
understand and sympathise with one another 
until their relations be perfected at the coming 
of Christ. (15) With this purpose in view he 
had planned at one time to make two visits to 
Corinth, (16) one on his way to Macedonia, 
and the other on his return to Asia by the 
same route.' 

12. Simplicity] RY 'holiness.' Fleshly 
wisdom] mere cunning. Had our conversa- 
tion] RY 'behaved ourselves.' 13. None 
other things] St. Paul seems to have been 



927 



1.15 



2 CORINTHIANS 



2.3 



suspected of writing to individual members of 
the Church that he was not so satisfied with 
their conduct and attitude as he professed to 
be in his public letters. Read or acknow- 
ledge] or, perhaps, 'acknowledge and even 
maintain,' i.e. that he was now perfectly 
satisfied with them, and they with him. 14. In 
part] Some had been faithful all the time. 

The day of the Lord Jesus] the second 
coming (cp. lCor3!3 lTh2i9), which the 
Christians believed to be at hand. 

15, 16. The Apostle after his second visit 
to Corinth (the visit in sorrow, 2 1 ) had in- 
tended to pay another visit to Europe from 
Ephesus, in the course of which he would come 
to Corinth twice. His plan had been to sail 
from Ephesus to Corinth, and from there to 
go N. to Macedonia, then to turn and retrace 
his steps back to Corinth, and sail thence to 
Palestine in charge of the collection in time 
for the Passover. The Corinthians would thus 
have received a second benefit, i.e. two visits 
in the same journey. 

17-24. Paraphrase. ' When you find me now 
writing from Macedonia before you have had 
a visit at all, you may think me changeable 
and capricious. (18) But I assure you solemnly 
I am not easily turned from my purposes. 
(19) You know that the Christ I preach is 
true and faithful, (20) for the promises of God 
which He brought to the world are unchange- 
able and sure. (21) Well, then, it is God 
who has appointed us to proclaim these 
promises (22), and has marked us for his own 
by the gift of His Spirit. (23) As He is 
steadfast in purpose, so are we His messengers. 
(24) For I have no desire to lord it over you, 
but only to help your Christian life.' 

17. Lightness] RV ' fickleness.' According 
to the flesh] deceitfully. Two charges had been 
brought against the Apostle : (1) that in 
changing his plans he showed himself fickle, 
and (2) that he had said one thing while he 
purposed another. 18, 19. His word was not 
deceitful, but was as trustworthy as his gospel. 

18. Yea and nay] i.e. the use of words with 
a double meaning. 19. He appeals to his 
solemn preaching of Christ as the pledge of 
his sincerity. Silvanus] Silas (Acl8 5 ). 

20. In him are yea and . . Amen] Christ is 
the affirmation (the yea) and the fulfilment 
(the Amen) of God's promises. Amen] For 
the general Amen see lCorl4 10 . By us] as 
the instruments. 

21. Paraphrase. 'Well, then, it is God 
who is continually strengthening the spiritual 
bond which unites both us and you to Christ, 
and who lias set us apart to declare His 
message. ' 

21. The fact that St. Paul (like the 
Corinthians) was consecrated to God was the 
guarantee that he would be faithful in all his 



dealings with them. Stablisheth us with you 
in Christ] The underlying thought is that of 
the union of Christ and the Christian : cp. 
Gal2 20 R06 3 - 5 , and Intro. Anointed] sacra - 
mentally set apart to office. 22. Sealed] 
marked us for His own. Given the earnest of 
the Spirit] bestowed the gift of the Spirit as 
the pledge and sample of all spiritual blessings 
to come : cp. R08 23 Ephl 1* 

23. Moreover . . Corinth] Another reason 
for the Apostle's change of plan was con- 
sideration for their feelings. Record] RV 
' witness.' To spare you] i.e. from censure. 
This refers to 13 2 , 'If I come again, I will 
not spare ' ; chs. 10-13 being the earlier severe 
letter (see Intro.). Came not as yet] RV 
' forbare to come.' 24. Dominion] probably 
refers to an accusation made by the Judaisers 
that St. Paul was lording it over them. By 
faith ye stand] A difficult phrase ; perhaps it 
means, ' You need no master over you, for 
you are grounded in the faith,' or, 'Your faith 
is a sufficient strength, security, and support.' 

C. 2. 1 , 2. Continuation of explanation re- 
garding his proposed visit. 

1, 2. Paraphrase. ' It was therefore because 
I desired to spare your feelings that I resolved 
not to pay you another visit. (2) For such a 
visit would be painful to us both, because 
my joy could only be attained through your 
sorrowful repentance.' 

1. Again . . in heaviness] a clear reference 
to a visit to Corinth, which gave him much 
pain, subsequent to his writing the First 
Epistle (see Intro.). 

CHAPTER 2 

(b) 2 3 - 13 . The Object and Results of 

THE SEVERE LETTER 

The Apostle reminds them that to produce 
this godly sorrow was the object of the letter 
he wrote before. He then speaks of one man 
who has caused him pain, asking them to 
remit the punishment inflicted already and for- 
give him, and telling them that he had written 
also to ascertain the extent of their obedience, 
and that if they were willing to forgive 
now, so was he. He then relates his anxious 
desire to hear what had occurred on their 
receipt of his letter — a desire so great that he 
had to push southwards to meet Titus and get 
the news. 

3, 4. Paraphrase. ' My reason for writing 
sternly rather than paying another painful visit 
was that I wished to have happiness and not 
Borrow when I came. (4) I wrote the severe 
rebukes and exhortations with suffering and 
tears, not that I wished wilfully to grieve you, 
but that I hoped you would realise the love I 
bear you.' 

3. I wrote] i.e. the painful letter of which 
chs. 10-13 of the Second Epistle are probably 



928 



a CORINTHIANS 



% 17 



a portion (see Intro.). In you all] He speaks 
thus generously now that he has found his 
confidence not misplaced. 

5-9. Paraphrase. ' Now with regard to the 
person who has been the occasion of this grief, 
he has grieved not me only, but to some ex- 
tent (not to be too harsh) the Church. (6) 
And the sentence pronounced by the majority 
is quite sufficient punishment for him. (7) 
Do not inflict any further punishment, but 
forgive and encourage him, lest he be driven 
to despair. (8) Show him that you are actu- 
ated by Christian love. (9) For the main pur- 
pose of my letter has been accomplished now 
that you have given proof of your readiness to 
obey me.' 

5. Any] A definite person is meant, but now 
that punishment has brought him to repent- 
ance the Apostle merely hints at him. The 
same person is indicated in 7 12 , where see 
note. 6. Punishment] probably excommuni- 
cation : cp. lCor5" i ' 5 (a different case). Of 
many] i.e. by the majority. 7. Overmuch 
sorrow] The offender had now realised the 
heinousness of his offence, and the continu- 
ance of punishment would serve no good pur- 
pose, and might even do harm. 8. Confirm 
your love] by restoring him to the Church. 

9. The Apostle valued the act of discipline 
as much for the proof it afforded of the Cor- 
inthians' loyalty as for its effect upon the 
offender. 

10-13. Paraphrase. ' I forgive any one whom 
you forgive ; for I have no personal feeling in 
the matter, and it is only for your sakes that I 
speak of forgiveness at all, and I forgive in 
the spirit of Christ. (11) I forgive this man 
lest he be tempted by Satan to deny the faith, 
for we know that the adversary seeks to pre- 
vail against us. (12) I was so anxious to hear 
what you had done while I was engaged in 
successful work for Christ in Troas, (13) that 
I could not remain there when Titus did not 
come, but pushed on to Macedonia to meet 
him.' 

10. In the person of Christ] either (1) as in 
His sight, or (2) as in His place, or (3) as hav- 
ing Christ living in me : cp. I 21 2 17 . 11. Get 
an advantage] by the man being lost to Christ, 
or by the estrangement of the Apostle and the 
Corinthians ; perhaps both. 

12, 13. St. Paul had gone from Ephesus to 
Troas on the coast of Asia Minor a short time 
after dispatching the severe letter to Corinth 
by Titus. He had expected Titus to meet 
him there with the news of the condition of 
the Church and of the way in which his letter 
had been received ; but not finding him he be- 
came anxious and hastened on to Macedonia, 
where, probably at Philippi, he met Titus 
bringing good news. Troas] for other visits 
there see Ac 1 6 8 - 10 20 6 - 12 . A door was opened] 



the preaching of the gospel found ready 
acceptance. 

(c) 2 14 -5 21 . The Glory, the Joy, the 
Comfort, and the Inspiration of his 
Ministry 

(c) i. 2 14 -3 6 . The Apostle's True Letter 
of Recommendation 

The return of Titus with joyful news sug- 
gests thanksgiving to G-od, who has made the 
Apostle the means of spreading abroad the 
gospel message. St. Paul and his fellow- 
workers proclaim the gospel both to those 
who accept and to those who reject it. To 
the former it is a message* of life ; to the 
latter, of death. And no one can bear such a 
burden of responsibility unless he preaches 
with a pure purpose, and under a deep sense 
of accountability to God. 

14. Causeth us to triumph] RV ' leadeth us 
in triumph.' The language is suggested by the 
triumphal procession of a Roman general. St. 
Paul thinks of himself as being a willing cap- 
tive in Christ's train (cp. 10 5 ), and as spreading 
abroad the knowledge of Him like the per- 
vading scent of the incense scattered as the 
procession moves onward. 16. The figure of 
the triumphal procession is continued. ' Some 
of the conquered enemies were put to death 
when the procession reached the Capitol ; to 
them the smell of the incense was " an odour 
of death unto death " ; to the rest, who were 
spared, " an odour of life unto life " ' (Cony- 
beare and Howson's ' Life of St. Paul '). For 
the thought suggested in these verses cp. 
j n 1 11, 12 9 39 1 Pet 2 ?> 8 Rev 22 u. Who is suf- 
ficient] the great responsibility of the preacher. 
The answer to the question is suggested 
in v. 17. 

17. Many] RY 'the many'; i.e. those 
Judaising preachers of whom they had ex- 
perience. These men had stirred up strife in 
the Church at Corinth by denying St. Paul's 
authority, accusing him of personal interest in 
the collection, and (what he resented most) 
impugning his doctrine. They insisted on the 
observance of the Jewish Law, and as St. Paul 
preached the gospel to the Gentiles without 
reference to the Law, they carried on a mission 
against him in the cities he visited, seeking to 
gain his converts over to their own narrow 
views and Jewish prejudices. It was a critical 
period for the Church both in Corinth and in 
other places (cp. Gal 16-9 31-4). 'The true 
question was no less than this : whether the 
Catholic Church should be dwarfed into a 
Jewish sect ; whether the religion of spirit 
and of truth should be supplanted by the 
worship of letter and of form ' (Conybeare and 
Howson). Corrupt] Make the gospel a means 
of personal gain. The opponents of St. Paul 
seem to have made personal profit out of the 



59 



929 



3. 1 



2 CORINTHIANS 



3. 10 



Corinthians (ll 20 ) ; and at the same time to 
have charged the Apostle with having a personal 
interest in the money he was raising for the 
poor at Jerusalem : cp. 8 20 12 17 » 18 . 

As of God] i.e. as G-od's true servants. In 
Christ] i.e. in union with Christ. St. Paul 
was so entirely submissive to Christ's influence 
and inspired by His spirit that he spoke of 
Christ living in him, and of himself as living 
in Christ : cp. 1 21 and ref . 

CHAPTER 3 

This c. is closely connected with what goes 
before, and carries on the vindication of the 
Apostle's conduct. 

1-6. Paraphrase. ' In speaking thus highly 
of my motives 1 am not writing a letter to 
commend myself, nor do I need (like these 
opponents of mine) letters of recommendation 
either to you or from you. (2) You, my con- 
verts, are my best recommendation, for I 
think of you with gratitude as do all who 
know your faith and works. (3) You are, 
indeed, a very letter of Christ who has used 
me as His amanuensis, and bear the writing 
of the Spirit on your hearts. (4) It is such a 
result of my work as I see in you that assures 
me that God is using me as an instrument of 
Christ, (5) not that I trust in my personal 
ability, but that I look to God for help ; (6) 
for it is He who has given me any ability I 
possess to proclaim the gospel of Christ. ' 

1. Again] probably refers to the passages 
in the severe letter (chs. 10-13) in which he 
defended himself and stated his claims to 
recognition : see especially ll 22 -33 121-5 I2ic-19 # 

As some] The Judaising leaders had pro- 
bably brought letters from Palestine and 
charged St. Paul with having no such recom- 
mendations. Epistles of commendation] Such 
Epistles were commonly used in the early 
Church to introduce strangers; for examples see 
RolG and Philemon, and cp. Acl5 23 " 27 18 27 . 

2. Our epistle] i.e. of commendation. 

Known and read] better, known and ac- 
knowledged : the Church was an unmistakable 
witness to the Apostle's labours. 3. Foras- 
much as ye are] omitted in RV. Ministered 
by us] The Apostle regards himself as the 
scribe of Christ who wrote Christ's words on 
their hearts. Not with ink, etc.] In this v. 
the figure is slightly changed ; the writing is 
now that of the Spirit of God on their own 
hearts. It is no mere matter of paper and 
ink, but the work of the finger of God ; it is 
written not like the old Law upon tables of 
stone, but upon living, human hearts. 4. Such 
trust] i.e. such confidence in you us our Utters 
of commendation. Through Christ to God- 
ward] my confidence is not in myself, but 
through Christ in God : i.e. I look to Him for 
strength and grace through Christ. 5. To 



think any thing as of ourselves] RV ' To 
account any thing as from ourselves.' 

6. Paraphrase. 'All my power in saving 
men comes from God, who has given me grace 
to proclaim a new covenant between Himself 
and His people — a covenant which is not a 
formal legal system, but an indwelling, spiritual 
power, for while the old covenant could only 
condemn the sinner to death owing to his 
inability to perform its demands, the new 
covenant inspires to faith and life.' 

Sufficiency] i.e. ability. The new testa- 
ment] not the book, but, as RY, ' a new cove- 
nant ' — a new arrangement made by God for 
man's welfare to which he must submit him- 
self. The letter killeth, etc.] The Law sets up 
an external standard, which, because we are 
unable to attain to it, puts us out of heart and 
makes us despair of success ; the Gospel of 
Christ proclaiming pardon, and bringing us 
under Christ's influence, calls forth our faith 
and love, and inspires us ever upward and 
onward : cp. Ro7, 8. The spirit is contrasted 
with the letter. It means the inward inspiring 
power of the Gospel. 

(c) ii. 3 7 ~4 6 . The Glory of the Gospel 

The mention of the new covenant suggests 
a contrast between it and the old. The Gospel 
is more glorious than the Law, for it is not a 
lifeless Law but a life-giving Spirit. Therefore 
its apostles are eager to proclaim it to all. 
Those who cling to the Law are blind to the 
truth. But those who receive the Gospel are 
changed into the likeness of Christ. 

7-1 1. Paraphrase. ' Now if the system which 
could only declare the sentence of death upon 
sin was glorious (and glorious it was, for at its 
giving the very face of Moses was transfigured), 
(8) the system which brings life and inspir- 
ation is more glorious still. (9) I repeat, if 
the Law was glorious, the Gospel is far more 
so. (10) For the glory of the Gospel puts the 
glory of the Law into shadow. (11) For if the 
transient be glorious, how much more glorious 
is the permanent ! ' 

7. The ministration of death] i.e. the Law of 
Moses. Engraven] Ex 32 ™ 34 2 «. The face 
of Moses] The transfiguration of Moses' face 
(Ex 34 20 ) is given as an example of the glory 
attending the giving of the Law. To be done 
away] The fading of the glory typified the 
transitoriness of the Law, which was to give 
place to the Gospel. 8. Rather glorious] The 
Gospel was more glorious than the Law because 
it was a message of forgiveness and not of 
condemnation, and because it was not a mere 
legal system, but an inspiring summons. 

9. Ministration of righteousness] better, 'of 
acquittal,' in contrast to ' of condemnation.' 
The gospel message is one of pardon and 
reconciliation. 10. That excelleth] The glory 



930 



a 12 



2 CORINTHIANS 



4.6 



of the Law is completely eclipsed by that of 
the Gospel, which offers forgiveness instead of 
condemnation. II. That which is done away, 
etc.] another aspect of the truth stated in v. 10. 

1 2-1 8. Paraphrase. ' Since our hopes of 
the future of the gospel are so great, we 
speak frankly and boldly. (13) We do not 
seek to conceal anything as Moses concealed 
his face with a veil lest the people should 
see the glory fading from it. (14) Those 
who looked upon the giving of the Law did 
not understand that it was a temporary 
measure to convince them of sin ; and even 
now their successors do not realise that it has 
been superseded by Christ, (15) but think that 
it still remains in force. (16) When, how- 
ever, they receive Christ into their hearts, they 
will know the truth. (17) For Christ is the 
life-giving Spirit who leads men to the truth 
and sets them free from bondage. (18) And 
all we who have received Him, gazing as into 
a mirror on the glorious Personality of the 
Lord, are transfigured into His likeness in 
spirit and character in ever-increasing degrees 
of perfection, through the influence of the 
Lord who is the Spirit.' 

12 f. The whole of this contrast between the 
glory of the new and the glory of the old dis- 
pensation seems aimed at the retrograde teach- 
ing of the Judaisers in Corinth. They sought 
to retain the rites and restrictions of the Law, 
and to conceal the full truth of the Gospel 
which does away with the old legal system. 

13. In this and the next two vv. we have a 
good example of St. Paul's habit of blending 
the allegorical with the historical interpretation 
of the OT. : see also Gal4 22 - 31 . The reference 
here is to Ex 34 33. Could not] RY 'should 
not.' The end of that which is abolished] i.e. 
the glory fading from his face. 14. Blinded] 
RV 'hardened.' The same vail] Note the 
quick transition from history to allegory. The 
veil with which Moses covered his face to keep 
the Israelites from seeing the glory fading is 
typical of the spiritual veil which keeps Jews 
and Judaising Christians from seeing that the 
Law is transitory. Done away in Christ] i.e. 
when they will truly come under Christ's 
influence and power they will see that He has 
made the Law unnecessary, because they will 
experience the new spirit He bestows. 

15. When Moses is read] i.e. when the 
Law is read: cp. Aclo 21 . 16. It] i.e. their 
heart. The Law is incomprehensible without 
Christ. 

17. The Lord is that Spirit] RV ' The Lord 
is the Spirit.' Christ is the life-giving Spirit. 
There is perhaps a reference to ' the ministra- 
tion of the Spirit' in v. 8. The Spirit is 
Christ's Spirit : cp. Ac 16 7 (RV)Ro8 9 1 Pet in. 

What is meant is that he who turns to Christ 
shall receive the illuminating and quickening 



Spirit. Liberty] freedom from the bondage of 
the Law is the primary meaning ; but perhaps 
freedom from sin is included : cp. Jn8 3 i> 32 . 

18. He who keeps the memory and the 
example of Christ ever before his mind's eye, 
and tries to follow Him in his life, will gradu- 
ally come to show in his own character and 
life an increasing likeness to his Lord. 

CHAPTER 4 

1-6. The messengers of this gospel are not 
afraid to proclaim it, for they preach Christ, 
who has revealed the glory of God. 

1, 2. Paraphrase. 'Having this glorious 
gospel to preach, we proclaim it boldly. (2) We 
have nothing to do with methods and practices 
which cannot bear the light (like those of your 
false teachers), for we neither seek to undo 
another's work by unscrupulous hints and dis- 
graceful insinuations, nor try to gain the favour 
of the Jewish Christians by false teaching about 
the relation of Christ and the Gospel to the 
Law of Moses. On the contrary, we proclaim 
the simple truth, and make our appeal to the 
conscience as in the sight of God.' 

1. As we have received mercy] in his conver- 
sion from the blindness of Judaism. 2. The 
hidden things of dishonesty] i.e. the disgraceful 
methods of gaining adherents used by the false 
teachers : see on 2 1 " 7 . 

3-6. Paraphrase. ' If our gospel is not 
understood by any, it is only by those (4) whose 
minds are dulled by sin. (5) For the subject 
of our preaching is not ourselves, but Christ. 
(6) As God at first created light, so has He 
created spiritual light in our hearts, that we 
might reflect His light, even the knowledge of 
His love revealed in Christ.' 

3. Are lost] RV ' are perishing.' If some 
will not let the light of the gospel shine into 
their hearts, it is their own fault. 4. The 
God of this world] cp. Jn 1231 1430. Worldly 
men make the devil their god by serving him, 
and thus serving him become even more 
worldly. Lest the light, etc.] For the thought, 
cp. Mt 13 13-15. Image of God] Christ is the 
expression of God's character of love and 
holiness. 5. Not ourselves] as do the false 
teachers. For Jesus' sake] Love to Jesus is 
his motive in seeking to serve the Corinthians. 

6. For God . . hath shined] RY ' Seeing it is 
God that said, Light shall shine out of dark- 
ness, who shined in our hearts.' The refer- 
ence is to Gn 1 3. He who gave natural light 
gave also spiritual light. 

(iii) 4 7 -5i°. The Sources of the Apostle's 
Comfort in the Ministry, and the 
Hopes that give him Courage 

7-18. This glorious gospel is entrusted 
indeed to frail and suffering messengers, but 
that is in order that the glory may be given 



U31 



4.7 



2 CORINTHIANS 



5.1 



not to man but to God. Life is a continual 
affliction and danger, but it enables the Apostle 
to learn how to comfort and edify the Cor- 
inthian converts, and he gladly suffers that 
many may learn the salvation of G-od and 
glorify His holy name, while he is upheld by 
the hope of the resurrection life. 

7. This treasure] i.e. the work of the 
ministry. In earthen vessels] i.e. in a weakly 
body. Herodotus tells us that Darius Hystas- 
pis melted his gold into earthen pots, which 
could be broken when it was wanted. 8. We 
are troubled, etc.] Images are heaped one 
upon another in picturesque accumulation to 
express the fact that, in spite of many great 
trials (cp. II 26 12 10 ), the Apostle has grace 
given him to persevere. 

10-12. Paraphrase. l In suffering for Christ's 
sake we are drawn into close communion with 
Him who suffered and died on our behalf ; 
and thus sharing His experience and " having 
this mind in us which was also in Him," we 
are enabled to show forth in our life the power 
of Christ, whose indwelling influence gives us 
the victory over the temptations which these 
trials bring. (11) Indeed, it is for this very 
purpose that we are constantly brought into 
peril and affliction ; (12) and the result is that, 
while we suffer and draw near even to death 
itself, your spiritual life is strengthened by 
the spectacle of our spiritual victory.' 

10. Bearing' about, etc.] He ' dies daily,' 
he ' stands in jeopardy every hour ' (1 Cor 
15 30 ' 31 ) for Christ's cause, and thus he has 
learnt ' the fellowship of his sufferings ' (Phil 
3 10 Col 1 24 ). In the body] cp. 1 5 Gal 6 W. 

11. Explaining and emphasising v. 10. 
13-15. Paraphrase. ' (13) Our faith is like 

that of the Psalmist, who spoke out of the 
depths of his inward conviction, and we speak 
what we verily believe. (14) For we are con- 
fident that God who raised Jesus our Lord 
from the dead will raise us also and unite us 
with you in the blessings of the resurrection 
life. (15) And all my experiences are a source 
of blessing to you, because as the grace of God 
enables me to overcome my difficulties, many 
of you are inspired by my testimony to rise 
to higher levels of Christian life, and to give 
thanks to God for so many mercies.' 

13. The reference is to Psll6 10 . 14. By 
Jesus] RV ' with Jesus.' 15. The AY is here 
inaccurate. RV • For all things are for your 
sakes, that the grace being multiplied through 
the many, may cause the thanksgiving to 
abound unto the glory of God.' 

16-18. St. Paul goes on to speak of the 
things that comfort him in the presence of 
his trials. These are the strengthening of his 
spirit, the thoughl that the temporal is tran- 
sient, and the assurance of a future life. 

16. Though our outward man perish, etc.] 



These afflictions may weaken the body, but 
through them the spirit is strengthened. Ex- 
perience shows us the truth of this in many 
cases ; e.g. bodily weakness often produces 
beauty of character, and grey hairs bring wis- 
dom : cp. for the thought, Jnl5 2 Hebl2 n . 

17. Our light affliction, etc.] The affliction 
is light, and vastly outweighed by the glory 
which it helps to secure ; seen in its true per- 
spective, too, it is but momentary, while the 
glory is eternal. 18. We look not] If we 
look at these afflictions they will loom so large 
in our view as to shut out the prospect be- 
yond ; therefore we look past them. The 
things which are seen] the material, including 
these afflictions. The things . . not seen] the 
spiritual, including the results of these afflic- 
tions in character and spiritual life. 

CHAPTER 5 

The subject of c. 4 is continued. St. Paul 
has been pointing out that amid bodily weak- 
ness and decay he is encouraged by the thought 
that the temporal is transient, while the spirit- 
ual is eternal. He now goes on to speak more 
particularly of the great prospect that sustains 
him — the replacement of the earthly material 
body by an eternal heavenly one. He hopes 
to survive till Christ's coming, and receive the 
heavenly body without passing through the 
experience of death : but, if it should be 
ordered otherwise, he has no fear of being left 
by death in the disembodied condition so re- 
pugnant to the Hebrew mind, for the eternal, 
spiritual body will still be given him, in which 
he will be presented to the Lord. 

1-5. Paraphrase. ' A further reason for my 
courage in presence of difficulty and affliction 
consists in my knowledge that if my body 
undergo the dissolution of death, I shall be 
endowed by God with an imperishable heavenly 
body. (2) My hope, however, and desire is 
that while still alive and in possession of this 
earthly body I may simply be transformed at 
the coming of the Lord, (3) since, if I receive 
it thus, I shall not be left a disembodied spirit 
in the state of death. (4) Our material body 
is a burden under which betimes we groan ; 
but, however we may be called to part with 
it, we may confidently cherish the expectation 
of being endued with something better in its 
place, i.e. we may hope to be clothed with the 
heavenly, resurrection body, and not left 
naked spirits. (5) It is for this very purpose 
God has wrought in us : besides, He has given 
us His Spirit as the pledge and instalment of 
the resurrection life.' 

1. For] introduces an additional reason for 
courage. Even if his earthly tent be taken 
down, if his body be broken up by death, God 
has prepared a heavenly mansion for him, a 
resurrection body which is eternal. Taber- 



932 



5.2 



2 CORINTHIANS 



5. 14 



nacle] rather, 'tent.' Building] contrasted 
with the temporary tent to which the earthly 
body is compared. Of God] RV ' from God.' 

2. In this] i.e. in this present body. Clothed 
upon] St. Paul's idea was that the heavenly 
body would be superimposed upon the earthly 
one, at the same time transforming it. Cony- 
beare and Howson render thus : ' Desiring to 
cover my earthly raiment with the robes of 
my heavenly mansion ' : cp. 1 Cor 15 51-54 . 

3. If so be, etc.] This is a parenthesis ex- 
plaining clothed upon in the previous verse. 
AY and RV are both rather obscure : better, 
' Since, once this heavenly body is assumed, 
we shall be in no danger of being found disem- 
bodied by death.' Naked] i.e. disembodied 
spirits. The shrinking of the ancients, both Jews 
and Greeks, from the disembodied state as they 
conceived it, is well known from its expres- 
sions in their literature. See, for example, 
the dreariness of the spirit-world portrayed 
in the eleventh book of the ' Odyssey.' 4. Bur- 
dened] by the anxiety of uncertainty. Not . . 
unclothed] The Apostle's desire was to gain 
the resurrection life without dying. He looked 
on Christ's coming as comparatively near at 
hand: cp. lCor4 5 lTh4 15 . 5. He that hath 
wrought us] St. Paul here argues for immor- 
tality and the resurrection life from the in- 
stinctive longings of the human heart. God 
has planted these longings there ; He has 
confirmed them by the pledge of His Spirit in 
conscience, aspiration, and all spiritual bless- 
ings ; and He will not in the end disappoint 
us : cp. ' Thou wilt not suffer thine Holy One 
to see corruption ' (Ps 1 6 10 ) — 

' Thou wilt not leave us in the dust : 

Thou madest man, he knows not why: 
He thinks he was not made to die ; 
And Thou hast made him : Thou art just.' 

(Tennyson. ) 

6-8. Paraphrase. ' With this hope in our 
hearts we are always courageous. We know 
that while we live in this mortal body we 
are away from the Lord, and that when we 
put off this body we shall be in His presence; 
(7) (for we live in anticipation, not yet having 
realised the vision of Christ.) (8) We are 
courageous, I repeat ; and are even ready to 
put off this mortal body and to be at home in 
the presence of the Lord.' 

8. Absent from the body] St. Paul here 
grapples with the possibility of death before 
the second coming of Christ. To die was 'to 
be with Christ which is far better ' (Phil 1 23). 
Even death could not separate him from the 
love of Christ. If he did not then gain the 
full resurrection life, he would still be in 
Christ's presence. Perhaps his idea is that 
suggested in Rev6 9 - n . 

9. Present or absent] i.e. living or dead. 
Accepted] RV 'well-pleasing.' 10. Appear] 

9: 



RV ' be made manifest ' ; our conduct and 
character being disclosed. Receive the things] 
i.e. the recompense of them: cp. Mtl6 27 
Rev 22 12. 

(iv) 5 11-19 . The Love of Christ the 
Apostle's Inspiration 

In the recollection of this judgment the 
Apostle preaches. His motive is wholly un- 
selfish. It is the love of Christ which con- 
strains him. For the love of Christ was shown 
in His dying for all men in order to transform 
them into a new life. If any man, therefore, 
be in Christ, he lives a new life through the 
mercy of God, who has reconciled us to Him- 
self by sending His Son to be our Saviour, 
and has given to His Apostles the message of 
reconciliation. 

11-15. Paraphrase. 'Seeing, then, that we 
realise the awe inspired by Christ our judge, 
we try to convince men of our faithfulness 
and unselfishness : to God, indeed, our sincerity 
is already manifest, and also, I trust, to you 
in your secret thoughts. (12) Do not think 
that this is mere self-commendation. Look 
upon it rather as suggesting the answer you 
may make to our enemies when they try to 
belittle our work and boast of their external 
advantages. (13) For if in our enthusiasm we 
are mad (as they say), it is for God's glory ; or, 
if we are sensible, it is for your benefit. (14) 
For the love of Christ to men is our incentive ; 
because we are convinced that in Christ's death 
for the sin of all we all received power to die to 
sin, (15) so that we should live a new and trans- 
formed life, thinking not of our own desires, 
but of His will who died for us and rose again.' 

11. Terror] the reverence or fear inspired 
by the thought that Christ is judge (v. 10). 

We persuade men] i.e. of our sincerity, with 
a view to winning them. In your consciences] 
The Corinthians as a Church believed in the 
Apostle. 12. Glory in appearance] The false 
teachers boasted of external advantages (per- 
haps of having seen the Lord), which were no 
evidence of character and spiritual life. 

13. Beside ourselves] His enemies declared 
that he was mad ; probably owing to his en- 
thusiasm and vehemence in preaching : cp. 
Ac 26 24. 

14. The love of Christ] i.e. the love Christ 
has shown towards us. Judge] i.e. have come 
to this conclusion. One died for all] i.e. as 
the head and representative of the race. ' In 
Christ's saving death the moral transforma- 
tion of all, which I may call death to sin, 
was included, and his saving death had this 
meaning and purpose ; namely, that they who 
are quickened into a holy life in Him should 
not live selfishly, but should give themselves 
up to His service who died and rose to save 
them ' (Stevens). 

3 



5. 16 



2 CORINTHIANS 



6.2 



16-19. Paraphrase. ' Since, therefore, it is 
holiness alone that is of importance, we, unlike 
our opponents, pay no attention to men's out- 
ward appearance and circumstances ; even in 
the case of Christ, though I once regarded Him 
as merely a man and a Jew, yet I look at Him 
in this way no longer, but rather as my Saviour 
and Risen Lord. (17) Whoever then knows 
Christ in this higher way is indeed a new man. 
He looks on life from a higher point of view. 
His ideals and aspirations have been trans- 
formed : all things are new to him. (18) And 
this change is due to G-od, who removed the 
barrier sin had made between Himself and us, 
and gave to us his Apostles the message of 
His saving grace. (19) And that message is 
this, that in Christ's life and work we see G-od 
casting down the barrier that divided us from 
Him, and proclaiming forgiveness and love 
to all mankind : and this is the message of 
reconciliation which He committed to us.' 

16. After the flesh] i.e. have regard to what 
is outward rather than to what is inward, to 
circumstances and position rather than to char- 
acter and personality. Known Christ after the 
flesh] St. Paul once looked for a Messiah as a 
Jewish conqueror, and in the light of this ex- 
pectation regarded Jesus as (at best) a prophet 
who had made claims which he was unable to 
substantiate, and whose career had terminated 
(perhaps deservedly) at Calvary ; but now he 
looks on Jesus in the light of His atoning 
death and glorious resurrection, and sees in 
Him the Christ of God. 

17. A new creature] or, as we would say, a 
new man. He looks on things from a different 
standpoint, tries them by a different standard, 
because he is united to Christ in such a way 
that he lives always under Christ's indwelling, 
purifying, and transforming influence. Are 
become new] A new world opens to the new 
man. 18. All things] i.e. all these changes. 

The ministry of reconciliation] the whole 
message of the gospel conveyed by preaching, 
teaching, the sacraments, and the example of 
Christians, assuring men of God's love and 
leading them to accept the will of God as 
revealed in Christ as their own. 19. God was 
in Christ, etc.] When we see Christ teaching, 
healing, forgiving, comforting, and dying for 
men, we are to see there the expression of 
God's love and deep desire. In this atoning 
work Christ was ' the express image of His 
Person.' Reconciling; the world unto himself] 
The desire for reconciliation came from God. 

(cl) s 20 ^ 1 . Appeal for Purity of Liu: 

As an ambassador of Christ St. Paul en- 
treats them to be reconciled to God. And not 
only does he make this entreaty in words ; he 
appeals to them by liis life and conduct in all 
the varied experiences through which he has 



to pass. He asks them for greater affection 
towards himself, and reminding them of God's 
promises to the pure, bids themkeep themselves 
' unspotted from the world.' 

20,21. Paraphrase. 'We, then, are ambassa- 
dors in Christ's place, conveying to you God's 
message and desire ; we ask you, speaking in 
Christ's name, to accept this great salvation. 
(21) It was to secure our salvation that God 
gave up His sinless Son to death, making Him 
bear the penalty of our guilt, that we might 
be made partakers of His divine nature by 
submitting ourselves wholly to Christ's trans- 
forming influence. 

20. Be ye reconciled to God] It is not God 
who needs to be reconciled to man, but man 
who needs to be reconciled to God. 21. Made 
him to be sin for us] Christ had to bear not 
the guilt, but the burden of sin. He bore its 
penalty not as a punishment, but as the inno- 
cent suffers for the guilty ; feeling all its shame 
and horror, but free from the sense of guilt 
and degradation. Hence St. Paul says not, 
' He hath made Him to be a sinner,' but ' He 
hath made Him to be sin.' The spectacle of 
Christ thus bearing our penalty touches the 
heart and conscience, and makes us respond 
to the love wherewith He hath loved us : cp. 
Ro8'3,4. 

CHAPTER 6 

1, 2. Paraphrase. 'Now it is as cooperators 
with God in this work that we exhort you not 
to make the grace of God fruitless in your life 
by continuing in sin. (2) For God has told 
us in Scripture of a time of grace and of a 
day of salvation ; and this is that blessed time 
of grace and that day of salvation.' 

1. Workers together with him] For the 
idea cp. lCor3 9 . In vain] i.e. by an unholy 
life. 

2. He (i.e. God) saith] The v. is a parenthe- 
sis. The reference is to Isa49 8 , God's words 
of comfort to His Suffering Servant. Behold, 
now, etc.] This is St. Paul's comment on the 
quotation. Accepted time] RV ' acceptable 
time.' 

3-10. Paraphrase. ' We avoid all conduct 
which might bring reproach upon our ministry ; 
(4) and try, on the contrary, to commend our- 
selves by acting as true ministers of God. (5) 
This is our aim in all the trials and persecu- 
tions we endure, (6, 7) for we seek to exhibit 
all the Christian graces both in our life 
and in our teaching. (8) Whether we are 
held in honour or defamed our object is 
the same : (0) we are looked upon as deceivers, 
but we remain true ; we are obscure, but 
known by our work ; we are often at death's 
door, but through God's grace we live ; (10) 
we are cast down, but are enabled to rejoice 
through Christ ; in our poverty we enrich 



934 



6. S 



2 CORINTHIANS 



7.4 



many with spiritual blessings ; though having 
nothing of ourselves we have all through Christ.' 
3. Giving no offence] The main sentence 
beginning in v. 1 is here resumed, these words 
being in apposition with ' we as workers to- 
gether with him.' 4. Approving ourselves] 
RY ' commending ourselves,' i.e. by our con- 
duct in the various circumstances detailed. 

In much patience, etc.] The Apostle's desire 
to commend himself is shown (a) in endurance 
of hardship and trouble (v. 4) ;. (b) in the 
persecutions and dangers incidental to a 
missionary life (v. 5) ; (c) in the purity and 
sincerity of his Christian life (vv. 6, 7) ; (d) 
by his conduct in presence of friends and 
enemies (v. 8) ; (e) by the manner in which 
he met the ordinary experiences of his life 
(vv.9,10). 5. Stripes] cp. Ac 16 23 2 Cor 11 23-35. 

Imprisonments] Ac 1 6 23 2 Cor 1 1 23 . Tumults] 
Ac 13 so 145,19 I812 1923. 

6. By] RV ' in.' The preposition ' in ' is 
unchanged until the last clause of v. 7, ' by 
the armour,' etc. 

The Holy Ghost] the translation, ' in a holy 
spirit,' is tempting, as it brings the clause into 
parallelism with the others. 7. By the word 
of truth] i.e. in the preaching of the gospel. 

By the power of God] i.e. in his exercise of 
all the powers entrusted to him by God. The 
armour of righteousness, etc.] The right-hand 
weapon was the sword for attack, the left the 
shield for defence. The Apostle's methods 
were fair and open, whether in attacking 
idolatry and vice or in defending himself 
against traducers. 8. As deceivers] probably 
refers to the charges of his opponents. 

10. Making many rich] i.e. with spiritual 
gifts. Possessing all things] i.e. all things of 
value for life and character in this world and 
a rich inheritance in the world to come : cp. 
lCor322,23 2Cor4i8 5 1 . 

11-13. The Apostle assures them of his 
deep affection for them before he lays upon 
them the strict injunctions which might prove 
unwelcome. 12. Ye are not straitened, etc.] 
i.e. there is abundant room in my heart for 
you, but too little hitherto in yours for me. 

Bowels] RY ' affections ' ; as frequently in 
Scripture. 13. A recompence in the same] A 
return for his affection. 

14-16. Paraphrase. ' Do not become en- 
tangled in alliances of any kind with unbelievers 
to your spiritual hurt. There is no relation 
possible between holiness and sin, between 
light and darkness, (15) between Christ and 
Satan, between the true and the untrue, (16) 
between the worship of God and the worship 
of idols : for we are indeed the very temple of 
the living God ; and it is of us that He speaks 
in His Word, promising to dwell in us and to 
commune with us, making us His peculiar 
people, and calling us to purify ourselves and 



become worthy children of our heavenly 
Father.' 

14. Unequally yoked together with unbe- 
lievers] The ever-present and ever-pressing 
temptation and danger was that they might be 
led into immorality through the abominable 
rites of idol-worship : cp. 1 Cor5 9 > n 6 is 8 10 . 11 
10 14 . Unequally] better, ' incongruously.' 

1 5. Christ with Belial] For the idea cp. Mt 6 24. 
Belial] Here used as a synonym for the 

devil. The meaning of this name is doubtful. 
There is no trace of the worship of any god 
under this name. It is used in the OT. in 
such expressions as 'sons of Belial,' 'men of 
Belial,' meaning ' wicked men ' : 1 S 2 12 25 17 > 25 
2 S 20 1 1 K 2 1 10. 1 6. The temple of the living 
God] cp. 1 Cor 3 !6. 17. Ye] RY l we,' according 
to the best Gk. MSS. God hath said] i.e. in 
the Scriptures : see on Lv26 12 . 17. Saith 
the Lord] The words quoted are from Isa52 n , 
freely rendered (v. 17), with echoes of other 
OT. passages (v. 18) like 2S7 8 Isa43 6 Hosli°. 

C. 7. 1. These promises] given in 6 16 " 18 . 

Filthiness] RY ' defilement.' Of the flesh 
and spirit] cp. Ps24 4 . Perfecting holiness] For 
the thought cp. 3 18 Heb6! 12 * 4 . 

CHAPTER 7 

(e) 7 2-16. The Apostle's Joy in the 
Corinthians' Repentance 

St. Paul goes on to ask them to give 
him their affection, and renews his assurance 
of purity of deed and motive. He tells 
them of the suspense in which he had 
awaited their response to his 'severe' letter, 
and his joy at the return of Titus with good 
news. He is now glad that he vexed them by 
that letter — though he was inclined to regret 
his action for a time — because of its happy 
results in their attitude and conduct ; and he 
concludes by expressing anew his affection for 
them, and his joy that mutual confidence has 
been restored. 

2-4. Paraphrase. ' Give us your affection ; 
we have done no man any injury either in influ- 
ence or in character or in pocket. (3) I am not 
returning to this subject to blame you again, 
for whether I live or die I have the deepest 
affection for you. (4) I speak freely to you 
as I boast of you freely to others ; I am 
greatly comforted, and rejoice exceedingly amid 
all my sufferings.' 

2. Receive us] RY ' Open your hearts to 
us.' We have wronged . . corrupted . . de- 
frauded no man] St. Paul is referring to 
charges that had been brought against him. 
For hints as to these, cp. 114,7,8,9 1214,16,17. 

4. Glorying of you] i.e. boasting about you : 
cp. 92,3. 

Paraphrase. ' (5) For when I came to Mace- 
donia looking for your answer to my letter, I 
was troubled both by conflicts with enemies 



935 



7. 5 



2 CORINTHIANS 



8. 5 



and by forebodings about you. (6) But God, 
who comforts those who are in trouble, com- 
forted me by the arrival of my friend Titus. 
(7) Not only was I cheered by his presence, 
but by the comfort he communicated to me, 
which he had derived from your sorrow for 
your faults and your affection for me ; so that 
my anxiety was transformed into joy.' 

5. ' When I came to Macedonia ' : see Intro. 

6. God, that comforteth] cp. l 3 > 4 .Titus] was 
the bearer of the letter to the Corinthians men- 
tioned in v. 8 : see Intro. 7. The conso- 
lation wherewith, etc.] Titus was comforted 
by their repentance, and this comfort he passed 
on to St, Paul when he gave him the good 
news. 

8. Though I did repent] The Apostle for a 
time feared his previous letter had been too 
severe. The letter was probably that of which 
chs. 10-13 of the Second Epistle form the 
chief part : see Intro. 10. Godly sorrow, etc.] 
The contrast is between repentance and re- 
morse, between sorrow for sin and sorrow for 
its consequences : cp. St. Peter and Judas. 

Repentance to salvation] cp. ' Heart-sorrow 
and a clear life ensuing ' (Shakespeare). The 
sorrow of the world] i.e. grief that regrets not 
the sin, but the fact of being found out. 

Death] Moral and spiritual ruin. 

11, 12. Paraphrase. ' Your own repentance 
is a case in point. Yours was a godly sorrow, as 
the results proclaim ; for it made you earnest 
to amend your ways, anxious to clear your- 
selves, indignant that you had been misled, 
afraid of the results of your conduct, anxious 
to see me, zealous for truth and justice, 
resolute in purifying the Church. In every 
respect you showed that you had no share in the 
offender's guilt, and no desire to shield him. 
(12) And this was the very purpose of that 
severe letter, not to secure the punishment of 
the offender, or to satisfy the resentment of 
the injured, but to cause you to recognise 
before God the feelings of affection and devo- 
tion with which you really regarded me.' 

12. For his cause that had done the wrong 
. . for his cause that suffered wrong] The re- 
ference, of course, was obvious fco the readers 
without particulars; but we are ignorant of 
some of the facts. It would seem that on the 
occasion of his brief visit St. Paul had been 
attacked and denounced by some leader of the 
disaffection in the Church, or else that Timothy 

on the occasion of his visit had been tile object 
of vituperation ; and that in either case St. 

Paul had insisted upon the punishmenl of the 
offender. This had now been done. The 
doer of the wrong here is this leader of re- 
hellion, and the Bufferer either St. Paul or 
Timothy. This seem bhe most probable soln 
tion of the problem from the knowledge we 
possess. Our care for you] RV ' your earnest 



care for us.' The reading of RV is best 
attested by the MSS, and is more in harmony 
with the train of thought in v. 11. His letter 
was written to let them see the real feelings 
they had towards him, which were concealed 
for the moment by their irritation. 

13-16. Paraphrase. ' Now that all has ended 
well, I am thankful ; and my joy is increased 
because Titus also rejoices at your attitude. 
(14) For all that I said to him in your praise 
has been justified, and I am not ashamed of my 
boasting ; (15) and the affection of Titus for 
you has increased since he visited you and saw 
your anxiety to do well. (16) I rejoice, there- 
fore, that I have every confidence in you.' 

14. Our boasting, etc.] Titus had evidently 
been rather despondent about the result of his 
mission with the letter when he started ; but 
St. Paul had encouraged him by confident 
forecasts of the Corinthians' repentance. 

15. With fear and trembling] not dread 
of punishment, but anxiety to fulfil their 
obedience : cp. Phil2' 12 . 

Division II. 8!-9 15 . The Collection 

for the Poor in Jerusalem 

CHAPTER 8 

(a) 8 1 ' 9 . The Example of Macedonia 

1-5. Paraphrase. ' I wish you to know 
how liberally and spontaneously the Churches 
of Macedonia have contributed to the relief 
of their fellow-disciples in Jerusalem, having 
first of all presented themselves to God's 
service.' 

1. Do you to wit] RV 'make known to 
you.' The grace of God] the inspiration to 
give liberally. The churches of Macedonia] 
i.e. Philippi, Bercea, and Thessalonica, with, 
perhaps, others unknown to us : cp. Ac 
16i2_i7i4 2O 4 . 2. Their deep poverty] The 
Christians of Macedonia were very poor, and 
so their liberality was all the more marked. 

3. Beyond their power . . of themselves] 
Their giving was bountiful and spontaneous. 

4. The RY gives a better meaning : ' Be- 
seeching us with much intreaty in regard of 
this grace and the fellowship in the minister- 
ing to the saints. 1 They desired the privi- 
leges (1) of being allowed to give, and (2) of 
making common cause in this ministry of 
kindness. 4. The ministering] On the collec- 
tion see Intro. 5. First gave, etc.] the 
best of all giving. They surrendered them- 
selves (not their money only) to God's will 
first, and then to the Apostle's guidance. 

6-9. Paraphrase. ' The collection prospered 
so well here that we asked Titus to complete 
this work of charity which he organised on his 
former visit. (7) See, therefore, that you 
manifest this gift in the same degree as the 
others in which you abound. (8) I am not 
laying commands upon you ; I am only telling 



936 



8.6 



2 CORINTHIANS 



9.1 



you what has been suggested by the liberality 
of others in order to give you the chance 
of proving your sincerity. (9) But let me 
remind you of the great love of Christ, who 
divested Himself of the riches of His glory 
and became poor for your sakes, that by His 
self-denial and humility you might inherit 
eternal salvation.' 

6. Titus] He organised the collection after 
the arrival of our First Epistle, which con- 
tained instructions about it: cp. lCorlG 1 
2Corl2 18 . 7. This grace also] Liberality is 
a Christian grace as much as these others. 

9. The grace of our Lord] the crowning 
example of liberality : cp. Phil 2 5 " 8 . 

(£) 8 10-24. The Principles of Christian 
Liberality 

The Apostle counsels them to complete 
their good work, tells them that the purpose 
of the collection is mutual sympathy and aid, 
and commends to their care Titus and two 
brethren who go with him. 

10-15. Paraphrase. ' In saying this I am not 
laying a command upon you, for you have 
already manifested the spirit and practised 
the duty of giving this twelvemonth past. 
(11) Complete the offering according to 
your means, (12) for the willing mind is 
shown by gifts in accordance with your 
ability, and not by foolish prodigality beyond 
it. (13) My purpose is not to make others a 
burden upon you, (14) but to get you to 
supply what they lack, and them to supply 
what you lack ; (15) thus acting on the prin- 
ciple of equality illustrated in the bestowal of 
the manna in bygone days, that none should 
have too much, and none too little.' 

10. Advice] or, ' opinion,' i.e. as opposed to 
' command.' A command was not needed in 
their case: cp. lCor7 6 > 25 . A year ago] A 
year had elapsed since they had first responded 
to the Apostle's suggestion of the collection. 

11. Perform] better, ' make perfect.' 

12. According to that a man hath] the true 
principle of Christian giving. The best com- 
mentary on it is Lk21!- 4 . 14. Their abund- 
ance, etc.] A time might come when the rela- 
tive positions of the Christians in the two 
cities would be reversed. 15. The reference 
is to Exl6 18 , but the meaning is somewhat 
different in the two cases. There the equality 
is the result of a miracle ; here it is the result 
of mutual love and generosity. 

16-24. Paraphrase. 'The zeal of Titus on 
your account causes us great thankfulness to 
God, (17) for he did not need my suggestion, 
but was eager to return to you. (18) With 
him we send our fellow-labourer, whose work 
in spreading the gospel is spoken of in all the 
Churches, (19) and who was chosen by those 
of Macedonia to accompany us in charge of 



this gift, to promote Christ's glory and to 
satisfy our own desire. (20) And his presence 
wards off all suspicion of our motives, and 
silences all criticism of the manner in which 
we distribute the funds collected ; (21) for 
we desire to do what is honourable both in 
the sight of God and in the sight of men. 
(22) We also send with Titus and his fellow- 
disciple another brother whom we have learned 
to trust from much experience, and who is more 
zealous than ever since he has heard of your 
enthusiasm. (23) If any one asks about Titus, 
speak of him as my fellow-labourer among 
you ; or if any one asks of the other brethren, 
they are sent by the Churches, and show forth 
in their lives the love of Christ. (24) Show, 
therefore, to them and through them to the 
Churches the proof of your love and the justi- 
fication of my boast of you.' 

18. The brother] His identity is uncertain, 
but we may look for him in the list given in 
Ac20 4 of those who accompanied St. Paul to 
Jerusalem, excluding the delegates from Asia 
and including St. Luke, who joined them at 
Troas (Ac 20 5 > 6 ). Sopater has been suggested, 
as he is mentioned first in that list, though 
the representative of the smallest Church. 

19. This grace] the collection. To the 
glory, etc.] The Apostle keeps in view that in 
aiding the poor he is furthering Christ's glory. 

Declaration of your ready mind] R Y ' to shew 
our readiness.' The meaning is, ' in accordance 
with our strongly expressed desire.' The 
reason of the desire is indicated in v. 20. 

20. That no man, etc.] Charges of this 
kind had already been made against St. Paul. 
He replied to them in 12 17 » 18 , which was 
written previous to this : see Intro. This 
abundance] RY ' the matter of this bounty.' 

21. Providing for honest things] RY 'For 
we take thought for things honourable.' 

22. Our brother] perhaps St. Luke, if he 
is not 'the brother' of v. 18. / have] RY 
' he hath.' 

CHAPTER 9 
(c) 9 1 - 15 . Exhortations to Generous 

Giving 
There is no need to write to you about the 
purpose and necessity of the collection, for 
your zeal in the matter is well known, and has 
been used by me as a stimulus to the Mace- 
donians. I send our friends to you only to 
make sure that our boast of you has not been 
vain. Remember that the blessing you receive 
will be in proportion to your giving, and that 
much spiritual benefit will come both to you 
and to them by this interchange of sympathy. 
1. The ministering] St. Paul had already 
written on the collection in general (1 Cor 1 G 1_4 ), 
and had sent instructions by Titus on his first 
visit (12 18 ). The saints] the Christians in 
17 



9.2 



2 CORINTHIANS 



10.1 



Jerusalem. 2. The forwardness of your 
mind] RV 'your readiness.' A year ago] 
see on 8 10 . Provoked] RV ' stirred up.' 

4. We (that we say not, ye)] He bids them 
realise how much he would be ashamed before 
the Macedonian delegates if they were unpre- 
pared : at the same time he suggests in passing 
that he is sure their own shame would not be 
less than his. 

5. Your bounty, whereof ye had notice be- 
fore] RV ' your aforepromised bounty.' 

Bounty, and not . . covetousness] He desired 
their gift to be ready before he came, that it 
might be evident to the delegates that they 
had given it of their own free-will, and did 
not need to have it dragged out of them 
through shame in his presence. 7. As he 
purposeth in his heart, so let him give, etc.] i.e. 
do not let a man give what he grudges or be- 
cause he feels that he must do as the others ; 
let the open hand correspond to the willing 
spirit. 

8-1 1. Paraphrase. ' And God has power to 
enrich you with all earthly blessings, that ye 
may have sufficient for yourselves and the 
means of helping those who need, (9) and so 
experience the fulfilment of the promise of 
God's Word. (10) Now God, who supplies 
seed to the sower and bread for food, will both 
provide for your wants and abundantly bless 
your charity and make it fruitful for good ; 
(11) for your willingness to give freely of 
what you have freely received will cause those 
to whom we bear your bounty to give thanks 
to God for your thoughtful love.' 

8. All grace] every earthly blessing that 
will give them opportunity of blessing others. 

That ye . . may abound] The purpose of 
God's gifts to them is that they may share 
them with others : cp. for the thought 1 4 . 

9. As it is written] Psll2 9 . His righteous- 
ness remaineth] In return for his generosity, 
God will give him continually the disposition 
to be generous ; the charitable man has his 
reward in becoming more charitable — a true 
spiritual blessing. 

12-15. Paraphrase. ' For this charity has a 
twofold benefit : it supplies the needs of the 
brethren in Jerusalem, and it makes them 
give thanks and praise to God. (13) They 
give glory to God because they see in this 
bounty the proof of your obedience to Christ, 
and they praise Him for your generous gift 
to them and to others, (14) while they express 
in prayer their fervent Longing that all bless- 
ings may be yours. (15) God be praised for 
this great boon, whose blessedness no tongue 
can tell.' 

12. The exercise of the gift of charity had 
both a material and a religions value. 

13. Whiles by the experiment of this minis 
tration] RV ' Seeing that through the proving 



of you by this ministration.' The reception 
of the collection would be proof to the 
Church in Jerusalem of the true Christianity 
of those who called themselves Christians in 
Corinth: cp. Un4 20 . 15. His unspeakable 
gift] The establishment of these happy rela- 
tions between the Churches, each giving thanks 
for the others and praying for their growth 
in all goodness, was a blessing from God 
beyond the power of words to express. 

(B) CHAPTERS 10-13 
St. Paul's Defence of his Ministry 
As explained in the Introduction, this sec- 
tion is regarded as part of the intermediate 
letter, referred to in 2 3 > 4 and 7 8 , in which 
the Apostle rebuked his converts, and sought 
to bring them to repentance. It is, therefore, 
to be taken as earlier in time than chs. 1-9, 
which were written as the result of the Corinth- 
ians' reception of the intermediate or ' severe ' 
letter. 

Here the Apostle answers the charges of 
weakness and cowardice that have been 
brought against him, defends his preaching 
and his independence, points to the proofs of 
his apostleship in suffering and service, and 
finally warns them against evil and exhorts 
them to live a pure and holy life. 

CHAPTER 10 
(a) io 118 . Answer to the Charge of 

Feebleness and Cowardice 
The Apostle beseeches the Corinthians to 
act in such a way that he will not need to 
resort to extreme measures on the occasion of 
his forthcoming visit. He points out that his 
purpose is to make exery man's thoughts sub- 
ject to the power of Christ, and that he will 
punish any who are rebellious when the Church 
as a whole shall have returned to its obedience. 
He goes on to say that those who have been 
accusing him of cowardice will soon find them- 
selves mistaken. He will make no boast that 
his record cannot justify, and he will boast 
chiefly of his success in converting the 
Corinthians themselves. This was a field of 
labour the Apostle had made peculiarly his 
own ; and he hoped for the assistance of the 
Church in carrying the gospel further west. 
But let them not forget that the only glorying 
that was safe was that which came through 
seeking the approval of the Lord. 

1. Now I Paul] If this is not the beginning 
of the 'severe' letter, it is evidently the 
beginning of a new subject. Possibly one 
leaf of the MS containing this letter was 
lost at an early date; and this loss led to 
the remaining portion being attached in 
course of time to the longer Epistle con- 
sisting of chs. 1-9. By the meekness and 
gentleness of Christ] cp. Phil 2 l . He invokes 
38 



.0. 2 



2 CORINTHIANS 



10. 16 



Christ's meekness to indicate the spirit in 
which he wishes to deal with his opponents. 
In presence am base, etc.] This was their 
story, by which they sought to prejudice him 
in the eyes of the Church. 

2. According to the flesh] i.e. in a worldly 
spirit. His enemies declared that he was one 
who sought his own advantage and tried to 
gain popularity by whatever methods seemed 
best at the moment. When he was at a dis- 
tance, he issued commands and declared his 
authority over the Church ; but when he 
came they found him a poor creature who 
was overawed by the firmness of the Church 
against him. 

3-6. Paraphrase. ' We live in the flesh, and 
are subject to its weaknesses and temptations, 
like others ; but we are not prompted by 
fleshly motives, such as dread of giving offence, 
or desire of popularity. (4) For we fight not 
in our own strength, but in the strength of 
God, and this reliance upon Him enables us 
to prevail against all opposition and prejudice, 
however strong or deep-rooted. (5) In this 
strength we shatter the false reasonings and 
assertions of our opponents, and bring back 
your rebellious thoughts into obedience to 
Christ, (6) while after we secure your sub- 
mission, we shall certainly punish any who may 
still resist His will.' 

4. Carnal] RV ' of the flesh.' Through 
God] RV ' before God.' 5. Imaginations] 
the false reasonings of his enemies. Every 
high thing] All the pride and self-satisfaction 
and self-delusion which made the Corinthians 
rebel against him. Bringing into captivity] 
The Apostle describes the Corinthians in a 
metaphor as rebels in possession of a castle 
(v. 4) with battlements and high towers, (v. 5) 
which he must attack in order to capture the 
defenders. 6. Disobedience] There may be 
some contumacious to the bitter end. 

7-10. Paraphrase. ' You are too much influ- 
enced by appearances. My opponents say 
that I do not act as an Apostle of Christ, do 
they ? Be sure that I am just as devoted a 
servant of Christ as any who assert their 
superiority. (8) Even if I boasted of my 
authority which Christ has given me, I should 
still be justified. (9) I write this to show 
that I am not seeking to terrify you by empty 
threats, (10) for, according to my opponents, 
my presence among you and my appeals were 
alike ineffective.' 

7. Do ye look, etc.] RV 'Ye look at the 
things that are before your face.' As he is 
Christ's, even so are we] St. Paul claims that 
his relation to Christ is as close as that of any 
of his opponents : cp. 13 3 > 4 . For the Christ 
party see Intro. 1 (b). Some think that the 
leaders of this party claimed to have known 
Christ during His earthly life. 10. His letters] 



They had at this date received at least two 
from St. Paul, (1) that mentioned in lCor5 9 , 
and (2) our First Epistle. His bodily presence 
is weak] i.e. his action is feeble when he is 
present. His speech contemptible] RV 'of 
no account ' ; i.e. produced no effect. Possibly 
the Apostle pleaded with them rather than 
asserted his authority. He was an eloquent 
speaker (Ac 14 12 ). 11. Will we be] RV 'are 
we.' 12. We dare not] RV 'we are not 
bold ' : cp. v. 2. His confidence was not 
based on comparison with his opponents. Not 
wise] RV 'without understanding.' Such a 
method of self-commendation is useless and 
foolish. 

13-18. Paraphrase. 'Others may boast with- 
out reason, but we will make no boast which 
cannot be justified by our work — a work which 
includes your conversion. (14) For in claim- 
ing you as our converts we are not making 
too great a boast. (15) And we are not taking 
credit for other men's labours as our opponents 
are for ours, but are rather hoping that as 
your faith increases so also will our influence, 

(16) that we may be aided to preach the 
gospel in districts beyond your city, and not 
seek, as some are doing, to claim credit for 
success where others have laboured before us. 

(17) The only safe rule about boasting of 
success is this : He that glorieth, let him glory 
in the Lord. (18) For self-praise is no attest- 
ation of the work that is done ; that attest- 
ation is only shown when God's blessing 
attends and prospers it.' 

13. Without our measure] outside our pro- 
vince. He will only boast of work done by 
himself, and that included preaching the 
gospel in Corinth. The measure of the rule, 
etc.] RV ' The measure of the province which 
God apportioned to us as a measure, to reach 
even unto you.' St. Paul's province was 
heathendom, and that included Corinth. 

14. We are come] He was the first to 
preach Christen Corinth. 15. Not boasting, 
etc.] RV ' not glorying beyond our measure, 
that is, in other men's labours ; but having 
hope that as your faith groweth, we shall be 
magnified in you according to our province 
unto further abundance.' Of other men's 
labours] The suggestion is that his opponents 
do so. We shall be enlarged] As their faith 
increased and their Christian life became 
more manifest, his name would become better 
known, his influence would increase, and his 
sphere of service would be much extended, 
according to his rule of making a Church the 
starting-point for further efforts. 

16. The regions beyond you] These chs. 
were written in Ephesus ; hence this would 
refer to Rome, and perhaps Spain. Rome 
was already in his mind (Acl9 21 ), and soon 
after this date he wrote of going to Spain 



939 



10. 17 



2 CORINTHIANS 



11. 14 



(Rol5 24 > 28 ). Not to boast in another man's 
line of things made ready] RV ' not to glory 
in another's province in regard of things 
ready.' 17. Cp. Jer 9 23 1 Cor 1 31 . In the Lord] 
The only boasting is to be of Him who gives 
the blessing. 18. Not he that commendeth 
himself] Contrast between himself and his 
accusers is implied. The true test is the 
success of the work, not the self-advertisement 
of the workers. 

CHAPTER 11 

(b) n 1 " 15 . Defence of his Gospel and 

of his Independence 
St. Paul says that he also will now boast a 
little, for he is as much an Apostle as those 
whom they prefer. If he refuses monetary 
support from them, it is in order to prevent 
these false teachers charging him with making 
gain of the ministry. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Bear with me a little if 

1 begin to boast foolishly ? Yes ; do bear with 
me. (2) My affection for you makes me 
apprehensive, even as I may say that G-od also 
is apprehensive regarding you ; for I have as it 
were betrothed you to Christ, and cannot endure 
that you should be unfaithful to your troth. 
(3) I fear lest these false teachers corrupt 
your minds, even as Satan with his smooth 
tongue corrupted Eve. ' 

1. In my folly] Spoken in irony. They bear 
with others ; why not with him ? Possibly 
they had spoken of his words when with them 
as folly. 2. Godly jealousy] lit. c the jealousy 
of God.' I have espoused you] cp. Eph5 25 ' 27 

2 Jn 1. is Rev 19 * 21 2 22 M. 3. The simplicity 
that is in Christ] i.e. the pure gospel that 
salvation is by faith in Christ alone. 

4-6. Paraphrase. ' And my fear is not with- 
out reason, for you are certainly very favour- 
ably inclined towards those who bring quite a 
different gospel from that which I preached. 
(5) But if you tolerate them, you can surely 
tolerate me, for I venture to think that I am 
quite as good in every way as these very 
eminent apostles of yours. (6) I may know 
little of the art of speaking (as they say), but 
at least I know something of divine truth, as 
is abundantly clear from my work among 
you.' 

4. He that cometh] i.e. any new arrival 
claiming to be an Apostle. Preacheth another 
Jesus] These preachers, who were hostile to 
St. Paul, proclaimed Jesus as a Jewish teacher 
who demanded strict adherence to the Law, 
and declared that those who became His 
followers must ohserve the rites of Judaism. 
This was their other gospel, which showed 
another spirit than that of St. Paul — the spirit 
of prejudice and exclusiveness. Ye might well 
bear] rather. l ye bear with him nobly.' The 
Apostle writes ironically. 5. The very chiefest 



apostles] EM ' those preeminent apostles ' ; 
i.e. of course not the members of the apostolic 
band like St. Peter and St. John, but the 
false teachers to whom he is constantly re- 
ferring. 6. Rude in speech] Evidently a stock 
charge of his enemies : cp. 10 10 . 

7-9. Paraphrase. ' Is it a fault in your eyes 
that I took nothing from you while labouring 
for your spiritual benefit, but gave you the 
gospel gratuitously ? (8) I took more than 
their due from others to promote my mission 
to you, (9) and anything I wanted when 
among you I received not from any of you, 
but from the brethren who came from Mace- 
donia. Hitherto I have been independent of 
your gifts, and so I intend to remain.' 

7. An offence] His very independence had 
been used against him. For his practice cp. 
1 Th 2 ^ 2 Th 3 8 . 8. Other churches] especially 
the Philippian Church (Phil 4 w, 16). 

9. Wanted] RV 'was in want.' His supplies 
gave out. The brethren] perhaps Silas and 
Timothy (Ac 18 L 5). 

10-15. Paraphrase. ' I assure you, by the 
truth of Christ within me, that I shall permit no 
one to interfere with the grounds of this boast in 
the district of Achaia. (1 1) And that, too, not 
because I despise you and contemn your gifts, 
(12) but because I am determined that my 
opponents shall have no occasion to charge me 
with selfishness, but that they may show them- 
selves as disinterested as I am. (13) For they 
are really hypocrites and deceivers, pretending 
to be apostles of Christ. (14) Their master, 
Satan, is accustomed to masquerade as an angel 
to further his base designs. (15) We cannot 
wonder, therefore, if his servants pretend to 
be servants of God ; but their punishment 
shall be suited to their actions.' 

10. As the truth of Christ is in me] an ad- 
juration calculated to impress them : cp. Ro9 J . 

This boasting] of preaching the gospel with- 
out cost to them. 1 1. Because I love you not ?] 
This was the reason his enemies gave for 
his independence of the Corinthians. God 
knoweth] that I love you. 12. That wherein 
they glory, they may be found even as we] The 
' false apostles,' or Judaisers, received support 
(v. 20) as due to their apostleship. Had St. 
Paul done so they would have charged him 
with greed ; but he is determined not to give 
them the opportunity. And by refusing sup- 
port he hopes to force them to refuse it also, 
and thus to cause their other charge — that 
he feared to take it because he doubted his 
apostleship — to recoil upon themselves. 

13. False apostles] He now exposes them 
in plain terms. Transforming themselves] RV 
1 fashioning themselves,' and so in next v. 

14. Satan himself. . into an angel of light] 
tempting men by making evil seem good, 
' making the worse appear the better reason.' 



940 



11.16 



% CORINTHIANS 



12. 



(c) n 16 -i2 18 . The Evidences of his Apo- 
stleship in Suffering and Service 

The Apostle goes on to show that if he 
begins to boast, he has far more to boast of 
than the Judaising teachers. In nationality 
he is their equal, in labours carried on and 
sufferings endured for the gospel he is far 
their superior ; he has had visions and revela- 
tions of the Lord which they cannot claim. 
The only thing in which they might find fault 
with him was his refusal of support from 
them. But in that lay his safety in dealing 
with his enemies : no one could say that either 
he, or any one sent by him, had made any 
profit out of the Church. 

Paraphrase. ' (16) Again I say, Do not 
think me a fool ; or, if you do think me a 
fool, let me indulge, like your other apostles, 
in a fool's boasting. (17) I am not speaking 
now under the inspiration of Christ ; I am 
only answering fools according to their folly. 

(18) Since many other teachers are boasting 
of their qualifications, I shall boast of mine. 

(19) For you who are so wise yourselves, have 
a great appreciation for fools. (20) You are 
very patient with people who delude and cheat 
you, and who insult and injure you.' 

1 6. A fool] The repetition of this word so 
frequently suggests that he had been jeered at 
as a fool among the members of the Church. 
This whole passage (vv. 16-20) is full of irony. 

17. Not after the Lord] entirely on his own 
responsibility. He is very jealous of Christ's 
honour. 18. After the flesh] i.e. of their worldly 
advantages : cp. w. 22, 23. 19. Suffer] RV 
k bear with.' 20. If a man] i.e. any of his 
Jewish opponents. Bring you into bondage] 
to the Ceremonial Law : cp. Gal2 4 . Devour] 
make money out of you : cp. Mkl2 40 Lk22 47 . 

Take of you] RV ' taketh you captive . ' Smite 
you] may be literal, but is more probably 
figurative, denoting the extreme of insult and 
impudence. 

21-29. Paraphrase. ' I confess to my shame 
I was far too weak, as they call it, to act in 
that way. But if there is to be boasting, I am 
a fool and can boast too. (22) Are they of the 
chosen race claiming Abraham as their ancestor? 
I am on an equal footing with them. (23) Do 
they boast of their missionary service ? I am 
ready to compare my service with theirs, and 
the comparison will not be in their favour 
(though, of course, all such boasting is mad- 
ness). I have been in far more trials and 
punishments and dangers than they. (24) How 
often have I been beaten, (25) scourged, stoned, 
in danger of my life by shipwreck ! (26) How 
many risks have I run in the course of my 
wanderings ! (27) How much suffering and 
privation have I endured ! (28) And do not 
forget my daily burden of anxiety in the over- 



sight of all the Churches ; (29) for I enter 
into the feelings of my tempted and sinning 
brethren.' 

21. As concerning reproach] RV ' by way of 
disparagement.' ' I admit to my own shame 
that I was incapable of acting as such an one.' 
The words are, of course, ironical. 22. He- 
brews] by descent. Israelites] in privilege. 

The seed of Abraham] in respect of pro- 
mised blessings. There is probably a climax 
in the order. 23. I am more] i.e. in a higher 
degree, as I can easily prove. In deaths] in 
danger of death : cp. Ac 14 19 . 24. Forty stripes 
save one] A Jewish punishment: cp. Dt25 3 . 
Only thirty-nine were given lest by a miscount 
the number were exceeded. None of the five 
cases is mentioned in Acts. 25. With rods] 
A Roman scourging, as at Philippi (Ac 1 6 22 ). 

Stoned] at Lystra (AcU^). Shipwreck] 
The only instance recorded in Acts was later 
than this. In the deep] floating on wreckage 
or on a raft. 28. Beside those things that are 
without] i.e. besides these exceptional troubles, 
there is the daily anxiety for the Churches. 
Or, as others suggest, 'besides all the rest 
which I do not mention.' 29. And I am not 
weak] The Apostle shares the sufferings of 
others by sympathy. Offended] RV ' made to 
stumble,' i.e. led into sin. Burn] i.e. with 
anger. 

30-33* Paraphrase. 'If, however, I must 
boast in self-defence, I shall boast about my 
weakness and helplessness ; for I shall thus make 
it plain what Christ has done by means of such 
a feeble servant. (31) And G-od is my witness 
that I speak the truth. (32) From the very out- 
set I have endured ignominy ; for in Damascus 
the governor sought my life, (33) and I had to 
make my escape through the window of a 
house built on the city wall, being lowered in 
a basket' by night.' 

32. Damascus] This event in his career hap- 
pened either immediately after his conversion, 
or after his return from his subsequent sojourn 
in Arabia: cp. Ac 19 9 and Gall 17 . Aretas] This 
king (Aretas IV) ruled Arabia Petraea from 
9 B.C. to 40 a.d. Damascus was taken by the 
Romans in 65 B.C., and was retained by them 
until about the time here mentioned, when it 
seems to have been restored to Aretas from 
motives of policy. 

CHAPTER 12 

His Privileges and Trials 
The Apostle unwillingly resumes his boast- 
ing and tells of a revelation he received from 
God ; but returns again to dwell on his weak- 
nesses, and especially on his bodily infirmity, 
through which Christ's grace was manifested. 
Paraphrase. ' (1) It is not expedient for me 
to boast again : I have really been compelled 
to do it. I will now mention my experiences 



941 



12.1 



2 CORINTHIANS 



12. 14 



of divine visions and revelations. (2) Four- 
teen years ago I experienced such a divine 
ecstasy that I knew not whether I was still in 
the flesh or whether I had been translated 
to another sphere. (3) I repeat, I did not 
know in what state of being I was ; (4) but I 
had a divine revelation which caused me un- 
speakable joy and taught me truths too deep 
for words to express.' 

I. It is not expedient, etc.] RY 'I must 
needs glory though it is not expedient ' ; i.e. 
in self-defence. 2. I knew (RY ' know ') a 
man] St. Paul is speaking of himself, of course, 
as v. 7 shows. In Christ] so much devoted to 
Christ and under His influence, that Christ 
completely dominated him and, as it were, 
lived in him. Whether in the body . . out of 
the body] The Apostle was in a trance or 
ecstatic state in which consciousness of the 
outer world was for the time suspended : sight, 
hearing, feeling were gone, and he was lost in 
contemplation of the divine. His reference to 
the experience is too vague for us to draw any 
conclusions from it : it must be remembered 
that he was not giving information about his 
revelations, but only mentioning the facts to 
prove that he was ' not a whit behind the very 
chiefest Apostles.' The third heaven] the 
highest state of bliss. 3. And I knew] re- 
petition of v. 2 for emphasis. 4. Into para- 
dise] Paradise is used as a synonym for the 
third heaven of v. 2. The word is used in the 
NT. for the abode of the blessed after death : 
cp. Lk 23 43 Rev 2 7. Lawful] better, ' possible.' 

5, 6. Paraphrase. ' I can boast of these ex- 
periences, for they were due to no labours or 
merits of my own ; but I will not boast of any- 
thing I have done myself, though I may speak 
of my weaknesses through which God's grace 
toward me has been manifested. (6) For even 
if I wanted to boast of all the privileges I 
have received, I should be justified, for my 
words would be true ; but I am unwilling that 
any one should be led to think of me more 
highly than my services warrant.' 

5. Of such an one] He can boast of these 
experiences because they do not glorify him as 
an individual. Of myself] He will not boast, 
as he might, of what he has done. 

7-10. Paraphrase. 'And lest I should be 
uplifted by spiritual pride as the result of these 
revelations, a painful bodily weakness — the 
very work of Satan — was inflicted upon me. 
(8) I prayed earnestly for the removal of this 
affliction ; (9) but the Lord answered me say- 
ing, " My grace is sufficient for thee, for my 
strength is made perfect in weakness." And 
therefore I rejoice in my sufferings, because it 
is in enduring them that I realise most clearly 
that Christ is helping me. (10) T am glad 
when trials ;in<l persecutions for Christ'B sake 
are my lot, for in my moments of greatest 

94 



weakness I am strengthened with power from 
on high.' 

7. A thorn in the flesh] some extremely 
painful bodily disease whose symptoms recur- 
red at intervals. Some, like Lightfoot, sug- 
gest epilepsy ; others, like Farrar, ophthalmia ; 
and Ramsay holds that it was malarial fever : 
cp. Gal4 1315 . The messenger of Satan] RY 
' a messenger of Satan.' For the idea, cp. Job 
25-7 Lk 13 is Ac 10 38. 

8. The Lord] Christ, as v. 9 shows. Thrice] 
He probably made this ' thorn ' the subject of 
earnest prayer on three special occasions : cp. 
Mt2644. 

9. My grace, etc.] ' It is enough for thee 
that thou hast my grace ; my power makes it- 
self felt when there is no other support ' 
(Stevens). For the thought, cp. Lk22 43 Pss 
20 6 138 3 . The best answer to prayer is the 
consciousness of the support of the unseen 
Hand. Rest upon] RY ' cover.' 

11, 12. Paraphrase. 'Well now, you have 
compelled me to boast like a fool. I should 
not have needed to do so, for you ought to have 
spoken in my defence ; but I think I have 
shown that insignificant though I be, I am at 
least on an equality with these preeminent 
apostles of yours. (12) You certainly had all 
the proofs of my true apostleship in the work 
I did and the conduct I exhibited among you. 
(13) For wherein did I treat you differently 
from other Churches except in my refusal of 
support from you? Pray forgive me this great 
injury.' 

11. I ought to have been commended] In- 
stead of listening to his detractors they should 
have vigorously defended him. Though I be 
nothing] i.e. as my enemies say. 12. Signs, 
and wonders, and mighty deeds] miracles in 
various aspects. That St. Paul claimed to 
have wrought miracles is evident also from 
Ro 1 5 18 > 19 : cp. Gal 3 5. 13. Forgive me] The 
verse is ironical. 

14-18. Paraphrase. ' I am now about to pay 
you a third visit, and, as on former occasions, 
I shall accept nothing for my support. It is 
not your possessions but your very selves 
that I want ; for you are my spiritual children, 
and it is not customary for children to lay by 
wealth for their parents, but rather for parents 
to lay by for their children. (15) And I am 
ready to give all I possess to win your souls. 
Are you going to continue indifferent to my 
love for you ? (16) But some have been saying 
that while I took nothing from you directly, I 
was cunning enough to rob you indirectly. 

(17) Well, I appeal to yourselves. Did any 
of the brethren I sent take anything from you ? 

(18) When Titus and his companion visited 
you, did they not live and act exactly as I had 
done '? ' 

14. The third time] His former visits were, 



12. 15 



2 CORINTHIANS 



IB. 



(1) the visit recorded in Ac 18, when he founded 
the Church, and (2) the short visit 'in sorrow,' 
not mentioned in Acts, but referred to in 2 1 : 
see Intro. 1 (c). I will not be burdensome] see 
on ll 7 " 12 . Not yours, but you] cp. 8 5 . The 
parents for the children] He wished to act 
towards them as a self-denying parent : cp. 
1 Cor 4 14 > 15 . 15. Though the more abundantly 
I love you, the less I be loved] R V r ' If I love 
you more abundantly, am I loved the less ? ' 

16. But be it so] He now meets another 
insinuation : this one is disposed of. 

18. I desired (RY 'exhorted') Titus] This 
visit of Titus must have been made at an earlier 
period than that referred to in 2 13 and 7 6 and 
that intimated in 8 6 > 17 as about to be made. 
There were evidently three visits of Titus to 
Corinth : (1) that here mentioned and referred 
to in 8 6 (' as he had begun '), during which he 
seems to have organised the collection ; (2) 
that referred to in 2 13 7 6 , when he went to 
quell the rebellion, bearing this very letter 
(chs. 10-13); (3) that referred to in 8M7, 
when he conveyed chs. 1-9. See Intro. 

(d) i2 19 -i3 10 . Warnings against Evil and 
Exhortations to Holiness 

The Apostle reminds them that he is not 
pleading his cause before them, but writing for 
their edification. 

Paraphrase. '(19) Do you think that all I 
have been writing is a defence of my conduct 
to satisfy you ? It is not you, but God, who 
will judge me. What I have written is for 
the purpose of helping you to strengthen 
character and raise the standard of Christian 
life. (20) I am afraid lest when I visit you I 
find you unrepentant and obstinate, and I 
have to use severity. I am afraid lest the 
dark passions and vices I reproved still dis- 
figure the Church, (21) and lest I be distressed 
and humiliated by the impenitence and shame - 
lessness of those who were given to sensual 
sins and still continue their evil habits.' 

19. Again, think ye] RY ' Ye think all this 
time that we are excusing ourselves,' i.e. plead- 
ing our cause. In Christ] as inspired by 
Christ's Spirit through living in union with 
him. For your edifying] He seeks not their 
favourable verdict, but their growth in good- 
ness. 21. When I come again] The 'again' 
should be joined with the next clause, ' God 
will again humble me.' He had been humbled 
at his last visit — the visit 'in heaviness' 
referred to in 2 1 . 

CHAPTER 13 

The Apostle announces a third visit, and 
exhorts them to repentance. He expresses 
his desire for their growth in grace. 

Paraphrase. '(1) This is the third visit I 
am about to pay you. On this occasion I shall 



proceed to punish these gross sinners aftei 
hearing all the evidence. (2) I repeat no^ 
what I said on my second visit, that thos* 
who persist in sin will find me stern in punish- 
ment. (3) And why am I thus severe ? Be- 
cause you demand proof that I possess Christ's 
authority, though that proof should be found 
in your own experience. (4) Christ indeed as 
a helpless man submitted to the death of the 
Cross, but in the power of God He still lives ; 
and in the same way, in the Spirit of Christ, 
we have shown a forbearance which you mis- 
took for weakness ; but in the power of God 
we shall exhibit our strength when we come.' 

1. The third time] see on 12 14 . Two or 
three witnesses] Quoted from Dtl9 5 . It 
seems to mean ' in accordance with the prin- 
ciples of justice I will act.' But some think 
the three witnesses mean the Apostle's three 
visits, and that he is interpreting the quotation 
allegorically, in accordance with his custom 
elsewhere: cp. 3 12 " 18 Gal 4 22-31. Thus Prof. 
Stevens paraphrases : ' I shall visit you a third 
time, and thus I shall have concerning you a 
threefold testimony, such as the Law requires 
to establish a cause.' 

2. Which heretofore have sinned] i.e. old 
offenders still impenitent. All other] RY 
' all the rest.' 3. Which to you- ward is not 
weak] Christ's power had already been made 
manifest among them : cp. 1 Cor 1 5_8 . 

4. Through weakness] i.e. in the human 
weakness he assumed of his own accord : cp. 
Phil 2 6-8. 

5. Paraphrase. ' Do not be so anxious to 
test me. Test yourselves. Do you not know 
that Christ's Spirit is in you, guiding your life, 
unless you are false disciples ? I hope, at 
any rate, that you will learn that I am no 
false Apostle.' 

5. Examine yourselves] i.e. not me. Repro- 
bates] counterfeits. 

7-10. Paraphrase. 'We pray to God that 
you may lead a pure and holy life, not to do us 
credit, but because it is right, even though we 
be like false apostles. (8) For our authority 
is given us to advance what is right, and not 
to hinder it. (9) We rejoice when we have 
no need to reprove you, for then your Chris- 
tian life is healthy ; and this is what we most 
earnestly wish, that you become more and 
more perfect in all Christian graces. (10) It 
is, believe me, for this reason that I have 
written to you these earnest remonstrances, 
because I do not wish to visit you in anger 
and severity. I have no desire to use the 
authority that Christ has given me in degrad- 
ing and punishing you ; for its true purpose 
is to strengthen my hands in helping you to 
become increasingly pure and holy in spirit 
and character.' 

7. As reprobates] i.e. as if we had no 



943 



13.8 



2 CORINTHIANS— GALATIANS 



INTRO. 



authority, because we shall not need to show 
it. 8. Against the truth] He has no pleasure 
in their evil-doing, although it gives him 
opportunity to exercise his authority. 

9. When we are weak] i.e. when our 
authority is in abeyance : cp. v. 4. 10. To 
edification, and not to destruction] RV ' for 
building up, and not for casting down.' 

(e) 13 u - u . Conclusion and Benediction 

The Apostle gives them his parting greeting, 
and bids them try to live a pure and holy life. 
He sends greetings from their Christian 
brethren, and invokes the blessing of God 
upon them. 

11. Farewell] EM 'rejoice.' A cheerful 



parting message. 12. An holy kiss] the 
token of brotherhood in the early Church : 
cp. Ro 161*5 1 Cor 1620 iTh5 2 <5 lPet5 14 . 

14. The grace, etc.] the fullest of St. 
Paul's benedictions. The grace of the Lord 
Jesus Christ] see 8 9 . The love of God] Per- 
haps including both the sense of His love for 
us and the love which He inspires in us. The 
communion of the Holy Ghost] the sense of 
His presence and guidance. Be with you all] 
The prayer is for all, those who rebelled as 
well as those who continued faithful. 

The subscription in AV, ' The second 
Epistle . . was written from Philippi,' etc., is 
of no authority whatever. For the places 
where the two parts were written see Intro. 



GALATIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Authenticity. The Epistle to the Gala- 
tians is almost universally recognised as a 
genuine letter of St. Paul. The few recent 
attempts to discredit it have met with little 
favour, and still leave it practically unchal- 
lenged. It belongs in spirit, and probably in 
time, to the great doctrinal or argumentative 
group of Pauline letters, which includes 1 and 
2 Corinthians and Romans. Internally it 
bears the stamp of the Apostle's personality, 
and fits in with the course of his life and 
thought. External evidence of its authen- 
ticity is to be found in Polycarp, Irenseus, 
Clemens Alexandrinus, and Justin Martyr. 
The first-named quotes 4 26 and 6 7 , though 
without mentioning the source ; the others 
definitely cite the Epistle as the work of St. 
Paul. 

2. The persons addressed. This question 
has given rise to considerable controversy, and 
is even yet being discussed to some extent. 
(1) Some scholars, taking Galatia to be the 
pre-Roman kingdom of that name, in the 
NE. of Asia Minor, maintain that the Epistle 
was written to Churches founded by St. 
Paul during his Second Missionary Journey 
(Ac 16°) in its chief cities, Ancyra, Tavium, 
and Pessinus. Something may be said for 
this theory, but it is open to many objections : 
for instance, there is no mention of any of 
these places in the account of St. Paul's 
travels in the Acts of the Apostles, and no 
record of the existence of Churches there 
until about a century and a half later. (2) It 



may be safer, therefore, to take the view of 
others, that Galatia is the Roman province of 
that name. In St. Paul's time it included, 
besides the former kingdom properly so called, 
Paphlagonia, Phrygia, Isauria, and parts of 
Lycaonia and Pontus. In the southern por- 
tion of that large province lay the cities of 
Pisidian Antioch. Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra. 
These cities had been visited by St. Paul, 
and Christian communities founded in them, 
during his First Missionary Journey (Ac 13 13 - 
14 25 ) ; at the beginning of his Second Jour- 
ney he had revisited them, and confirmed his 
converts in their faith. It is assumed, there- 
fore, that the Epistle to the Galatians was 
addressed to them. Confirmation of this view 
is given in 2 6 , where the Apostle says that he 
had contended against the false brethren ' that 
the truth of the gospel might continue with 
you.' The only part of Galatia in which we 
know him to have been before this time is 
that which contained the cities mentioned in 
Ac 13, 14 ; consequently the reference is 
believed to be to them. 

The population of these cities was almost 
entirely heathen (4 8 ), and consisted partly of 
natives of the country, and partly of Greek 
and Roman colonists. The proportion of Jews 
was small (Ac 1344-48 141). At Lystra, on the 
Apostle's first visit, Barnabas was taken for 
Jupiter, and Paul for Mercury (Acl4 n » 12 ). 
The heathen priests dominated the people, and 
bound them to the practices of a ceremonial 
law, as hard as that of the Jews. St. Paul 



944 



TNTRO. 



GALATIANS 



INTRO. 



refers to this in his Epistle (4 s ), and bids them 
take care not to be entangled again with the 
yoke of bondage (5 1 ). 

The history of the Galatian Churches is as 
follows. On his First Missionary Journey St. 
Paul, accompanied by Barnabas and John Mark 
(Ac 13 2 > 5 ), after visiting Cyprus, sailed to Perga 
in Pamphylia. At this point John left them, 
and during the rest of the tour they were 
alone. They did not preach in Pamphylia, as 
seems to have been their original intention 
(Acl3 12 ), but, owing to an illness which be- 
fell St. Paul (4 13 ), left the coast and went up 
to the higher ground in the interior, visiting 
in succession and founding Churches in Pisidian 
Antioch (Acl3 14 ), Iconium (Acl3 51 ), Lystra 
(Ac 1 4 6 ), and Derbe (Ac 1 4 20 ). On their return 
journey they visited these cities in the reverse 
order, giving some organisation to the infant 
Churches, appointing elders over them to watch 
over their interests and guide them (Ac 1 4 23 ), 
and exhorting the disciples to faithfulness and 
constancy, especially in presence of suffering 
and danger (Acl4 22 ). On his Second Journey 
St. Paul, accompanied this time by Silas, again 
visited these Churches. He had just come from 
the apostolic council at Jerusalem (Ac 1 5 6_29 ), 
which declared the Gentiles free from the 
obligations of the Jewish ceremonial Law. He 
conveyed the message of the council to the 
Galatian Churches, and infused new life and 
strength into their members (Ac 1 6 1_5 ). During 
this visit the Apostle saw reasons for anxiety 
about the future of these ardent but unstable 
Christians, and warned them carefully against 
their besetting dangers and the temptations 
which he foresaw would assail them (l 9 5 2 ). 
A third visit to Galatia is mentioned in a word 
in Acl8 23 , at the beginning of his third great 
journey. The First Epistle of St. Peter is 
addressed to the elect in Galatia, as well as in 
other parts of Asia Minor. 

3. Occasion of the Letter. Throughout the 
Church, the question was being keenly can- 
vassed as to whether or not the observance of 
the Jewish Law was binding upon the Gentiles 
who became disciples of Christ. For the most 
part, of course, discussion was confined to the 
necessity of circumcision ; for this rite was 
the outward sign of the adoption of Judaism, 
and the acceptance of it accordingly imposed 
the obligation of keeping the whole Law. The 
Churches of Galatia had early felt the stress 
of this controversy. There was trouble in 
them from the very beginning (Ac 13, 14). It 
became greatly accentuated, however, after 
either the second or third visit of St. Paul. 
Certain Jewish Christians, or Judaisers, as they 
are called, appeared amongst them, insisting 
upon the keeping of the Law, and especially 
upon circumcision, as necessary to salvation. 
These seem to have been men of importance, 



at least in the eyes of the Galatians (5 10 ), over 
whom they soon acquired considerable influ- 
ence (3 1 5 7 ). They disparaged the teaching 
and work of St. Paul (l 12 ), and asserted his 
dependence upon other Apostles for his know- 
ledge and authority (2 6 > 8 > 9 ). The Galatians 
yielded to their representations, and began to 
think of adopting circumcision (5 2 > 3 ), and ob- 
serving Jewish fasts and feasts (4 9 ' 10 ). To 
St. Paul this was a practical denial of the 
efficacy of faith in Christ, and the substitution 
of a doctrine of justification by the works of 
the Law for the great truth of justification by 
faith alone (2 16 > 21 3 5 5 4 > 6 ). Immediately upon 
the receipt of the news of the apostasy of the 
Galatians, the Apostle wrote his letter to them. 

4. Characteristics. In the writing of his 
letters St. Paul usually employed an amanuen- 
sis (R0I6 22 ), and wrote only the concluding 
salutation himself (1 Corl6 2 i Col 4 is 2Th3i?). 
The Epistle to the Galatians he penned with 
his own hand (6H RV). It is written with 
feeling and vehemence. The Apostle's anger 
at the seducers, and his anxiety for the seduced, 
stand out in every sentence. It is the most 
biographical of his letters, for the charges 
brought against his apostleship lead him to 
justify his authority by an account of his career 
as a Christian, and of his relations with the 
other Apostles (li 5 -2 14 ). Doctrinally, the 
Epistle is related most closely to Romans. In 
both, the great ideas of St. Paul's theology 
are prominent. The doctrine of justification 
by faith is the common corner-stone of their 
argument: cp. 21M1 3 2 . 5 >n with Bol 1 ? 5 1 - 9 
31,2 10 U' 12 . There is the same doctrine of 
adoption : cp. 4 6 with R08 15 . The strife of 
the flesh with the Spirit is referred to alike in 
517 and Ro7i4- 25 . The illustration of Abra- 
ham's faith is used both in c. 3 and Ro4. 

5. Time of Writing 1 . Various dates are given 
by different scholars. If it was after St. Paul's 
second visit that the trouble arose in the Gala- 
tian Churches, he may have heard of it on his 
arrival at Antioch at the close of that journey 
(Acl8 22 ), in which case the letter would be 
written from there, probably in 53 a.d. On 
the other hand, if it was not until after the 
third visit (Acl8 23 ) that the defection took 
place, the Apostle probably heard of it during 
his residence in Ephesus(Acl9!' 22 ), and wrote 
the letter from there, while Timothy was on 
the visit to Corinth which ended so disastrously, 
in 55 or 56. Either of these dates may be 
accepted. Some, however, place it as early as 
the close of St. Paul's first journey in 49, 50, 
and others after 2 Corinthians, or even after 
Romans, in 57, 58 ; but neither of these dates 
is so probable. 

6. Teaching. The great subject of the 
Epistle is the superiority of the Gospel to 
the Law. The Jewish teachers, who sought 



60 



945 



INTRO. 



GALATIANS 



1.1 



to pervert the Galatians, had themselves em- 
braced Christianity without slackening their 
grasp of their old religion. To their mind, 
Jesus was the Messiah and Saviour of the 
Jewish race, not of the world in general; hence 
the Gentiles must become Jewish proselytes 
before they could receive the blessings of 
Christ. St. Paul's teaching was developed in 
opposition to this doctrine. He shows that 
the Law (i.e. the Old Testament revelation 
with its rules and sanctions) failed to make 
men righteous (2 16 3 11 ), because it did not 
supply a principle of life (3 21 ), but rather 
paralysed men's hearts by its rigorous demands 
(3 10 ). At the same time it had its uses, and 
fulfilled a purpose. It educated and disciplined 
men for a better revelation (3 24 ) ; it made 
them realise their sin (3 10 ) ; it caused them to 
feel their bondage (4 3 ); and so prepared them 
to become sons of God (4 5 > 6 ). The Gospel of 
Christ, on the other hand, brought men a new 
principle of life. That principle is faith. 
Through it, the righteousness is obtained which 
the Law could not give (2 16 ). It unites a man 
to Christ, whose righteousness is thereby im- 
parted to him, for Christ lives in him. and he 
in Christ (2 20 ). He is justified by faith in 
Christ, as he could not be by the works of the 
Law ; indeed, the effort to live by the Law 
only weakens his spiritual life by slackening 
his hold upon Christ (5 2A ). The Gospel sup- 
plies the spiritual principle, even the moral 
motive power, lacking in the Law. The im- 
pulse derived from the indwelling Christ leads 
men to love their fellows (5 6 ) ; to renounce 
the works of the flesh (5 1(5 > 20,24). to bring 
forth the fruits of the Spirit (422,25). 

Besides justification by faith, other great 
truths of Christianity are mentioned incident- 
ally : the Incarnation in 4 4 ; the Crucifixion 
m g 12, 14 . the gift of the Holy Spirit, as the 
experience of the Galatians, in 3 2 ,3,5 525. 

7. Summary. The Epistle falls naturally 
into three divisions. (1) An apologetic section 
(1L-221), in which the Apostle defends the 
validity of his apostleship, by showing that 
his call was directly from Christ, and that he 
was absolutely independent of the other Apo- 
stles, both as to his teaching and commission. 
(2) A polemical section (3 1 -f) 12 ), in which he 
contrasts faith and works as means of salvation, 
and proves even from the Old Testament that 
faith is all-sufficient. (3) A hortatory section 
(5 I ■"'-('» '^), in which he applies the truth he has 
been establishing to the different relations and 
duties of life. 

The detailed sequence of thought is as 
follows : 
I. 11-5. Salutation. 

16-16. St. Paul's independence of other 
Apostles shown by the nature of 
his conversion. 



1 17 -2* . And by his movements thereafter, 

2 1- 10 . As well as by the action of the 
Judaean Apostles at Jerusalem 
on his second visit, 

2ii-2i # And by his reproof of the incon- 
sistent attitude of St. Peter at 
Antioch. 
11. 3 1 ' 5 . That the new principle of life in 
the Spirit comes through faith is 
proved by their own experience, 

36-10. And by the case of Abraham. 

3 11-14. The Law brings a curse, from which 
Christ redeems us. 

3 15_4 7. The temporary purpose of the Law 
shown and illustrated. 

4 8 " 20 . An appeal to the Galatians not to 
turn from liberty to bondage. 

4 21-31. The witness borne by the Law itself 

to the liberty of the Gospel: an 
allegory. 

5 1 ' 12 . A further appeal to them to keep 

their liberty. 
in. 5 13 -6 10 . The application of the principle of 
liberty to common duties. 
6 n - 18 . A final appeal for the liberty of 
faith. 

CHAPTER 1 

St. Paul maintains the Validity of 
his Apostleship and the Truth of 
his Gospel 

1-5. The Apostle sends greetings from 
himself and the brethren with him to the 
Churches of Galatia, reminding them at the 
same time that his apostolic authority was not 
of human but of divine origin. 

Paraphrase. '(1) I.Paul, — no self-consti- 
tuted or humanly appointed missionary, but 
an Apostle divinely called by Christ and by 
God, who raised Him from the dead — (2) send 
greetings to the Churches of Galatia, in which 
all the brethren who are with me join. (3) 
May all spiritual blessings be yours from God 
and from Christ, (4) who offered Himself a 
living sacrifice for our sins, in order to save us 
from the spiritual bondage of this world and 
its lusts. (5) May all praise and glory be 
ascribed to Him eternally. Amen.' 

1. An apostle] The title is used in the 
technical sense, and is introduced by St. Paul 
to assert his equality with the Twelve which 
had been challenged. It is always used by 
him in letters to Churches where his authority 
was questioned or to which he was unknown 
in person (Ro 1 1 1 Cor 1 1 2 Cor 1 » Eph 1 1 Col 
1 !) ; whereas in the cases where the Churches 
were thoroughly devoted to him he drops it 
altogether (Phil 1 1 1 Th 1 1 2 Th 1 1). Not of 
men, as source, neither by (R V ' through ') man, 
as medium. Sanday suggests the illuminative 
analogy of the Sovereign as the fount of 
honour, and the ministry as the channel through 



946 



1.S 



GALATIANS 



1.16 



which the honour is conferred. But by (RY 
' through ') Jesus Christ, and God the Father] 
Both his conversion (Ac 9 *' G Gal 1 15 ) and his 
call to missionary work (Acl3 2 ; cp. Ac22 21 ) 
were directly from God and Jesus Christ. 

Who raised him] It is the risen Christ from 
whom St. Paul derives his authority. 

2. All the brethren which are with me] Some 
think this refers to the Apostle's travelling 
companions. Others hold that it includes the 
whole Church. If the letter was written 
from Antioch, it would thus convey the greet- 
ing of the Church which was the Mother- 
Church of the Galatian communities, as from 
it St. Paul proceeded to them. If it was 
written from Ephesus, it would inform them 
of the interest of that Church in their welfare. 
Unto the churches] There is no commend- 
ation of them, as is usual in his letters (Ro 
lSlCorHPhill 3 ). 

4. Who gave himself up to death for our 
sins] cp. 1 Cor 1 5 3 ; on account of them, to 
atone for them, and to rescue us from their 
power. That he might deliver (recover) us 
from the evil which characterises this present 
evil world (age), according, etc.] connect 
with ' gave himself.' 5. (The) glory due to 
Him for His gracious action in salvation . Amen] 
= truly, may it be so. 

6-10. A sharp rebuke for their speedy 
departure from the truth (of salvation by 
grace) under the influence of false teaching. 
There is but one true gospel ; all rival teach- 
ings, whether proclaimed by man or angel, are 
false. Hence the Apostle's boldness and 
confidence. 

Paraphrase. ' (6) I am surprised that you 
should so soon have deserted the truth which 
I taught you for a spurious gospel. (7) This 
perversion is due to false teachers. (8, 9) But 
if we Apostles even — yes, if an angel from 
heaven — should proclaim any teaching con- 
trary to the doctrine of salvation by grace and 
faith, I pronounce a curse upon him. (10) I 
make this strong assertion — and I repeat it — 
in the knowledge that in my teaching I am 
not seeking man's favour, but obeying God's 
will in the service of Christ.' 

6. So soon] after their conversion ; or 
better, after the Apostle's last visit. Him 
that called] that is, God. Another gospel] 
RY ' a different gospel ' ; a (pretended) 
gospel of a different kind (from mine), 
that is, false. 7. Which is not another] i.e. 
in addition to the true one. since, in the 
nature of the case, there can be but one. But 
there be] RY ' Only there are ' ; these heralds 
of a different doctrine are Jewish Christians 
who believe that observance of the Mosaic 
Law is necessary to salvation, and are mislead- 
ing you through misconceiving and misrepre- 
senting the gospel. 8. Accursed] the strongest 

94 



possible form of condemnation : cp. Ac 23 u 
Ro 9 3 1 Cor 1 2 3 1 6 22 . 9. We] the epistolary 
plural, as also in v. 8 ; on repetition it becomes 
the emphatic ' I.' Said before] in his personal 
teaching when with them. Now again] em- 
phatic and solemn repetition. 

11-17. The gospel which St. Paul preached 
not of human origin. Twofold proof of the 
fact : (1) the Apostle's whole course of life 
until his conversion was intensely Jewish, and 
only by a divine revelation was he made a 
messenger of Christ ; and (2) after his conver- 
sion he remained aloof from the men from 
whom he might have been supposed to receive 
his message. 

Paraphrase. '(11, 12) I solemnly assure 
you that the doctrine which I have taught was 
not a human product or derived from any 
human source, but that it came to me by 
revelation from Christ Himself. (13, 14) In 
proof of this, consider how unlikely it is that 
I, an intense Jewish zealot and a fierce perse- 
cutor of the Church, should have been trans- 
formed into a preacher of Christ by any 
merely human means. (15, 16) But when 
God, who had chosen me from my birth and 
graciously called me, disclosed Christ to my 
heart and designated me as His messenger, I 
did not resort to human authorities in order 
to learn what my message was to be ; (17) I 
did not visit the primitive Apostles to learn 
anything from them, but went away into the 
seclusion of Arabia, and thence returned, not 
to Jerusalem, but to Damascus.' 

11. Certify] RY 'make known'; urge and 
impress upon you. The gospel] the doctrine 
of salvation by grace through faith. Not after 
man] not human, but divine, in origin and 
character. 12. I neither received it of man, 
any more than the original Twelve received 
it from man (but from Christ) ; but I received 
it through (RY) the revelation of Jesus Christ] 
His conversion was a disclosure to him of the 
Messiahship and Saviourhood of Christ. 

13. Ye have heard] a notorious fact. Be- 
yond measure] Saul killed, as well as disturbed 
(Acl924224). 14. Profited] RY' I advanced': 
cp. Ac22 3 . Saul was more devoted than 
most of his compeers to the customs and 
traditions of his people and his sect (the 
Pharisees). 

15. Who separated] God determined upon 
him as an Apostle from the time of his birth : 
cp. Isa49 x Jerl 5 . And called] in his experi- 
ence on the Damascus road. 16. To reveal, 
etc.] to disclose in my consciousness — to my 
soul — the real meaning and saving power of 
Christ. That I might, etc.] This revelation 
carried with it this result. St. Paul seems to 
have been absent from Jerusalem during the 
ministry of Christ, and to have had no direct 
knowledge of Him before the vision on the 



1. 17 



GALATIANS 



!. 1 






road to Damascus. 17. Neither went I, etc.] 
I did not visit the seat of apostolic influence, 
as might have been expected. Arabia] This 
is not mentioned in Acts, as St. Luke does not 
deal with St. Paul's private life except in so 
far as is necessary to explain movements in 
prosecution of his work. The Apostle retired 
to the wilderness in the neighbourhood of 
Damascus (which was at that time subject to 
the king of Arabia) for thought and prayer. 
Perhaps it was there that he saw some of 
those visions and revelations of the Lord to 
which he refers in 2 Cor 12. Damascus] see 
also Ac9 25 2Corll22,23 5 an d notes. 

18-24. It was a long time before St. Paul 
saw any of the original Apostles. When he 
did at length visit Jerusalem he saw only 
Peter and James. Then he departed to 
regions remote from Jerusalem. The Judaean 
Christians did not even know him by sight. 

Paraphrase. '(18, 19) After my conver- 
sion my course was such as to prove my inde- 
pendence of human teachers. It was three 
years before I visited Jerusalem ; then I went 
to interview Peter, and my stay was a short 
one. Of the other Apostles I saw only James. 
(20) I solemnly assert the truth of these state- 
ments. (21) I next travelled through Syria 
and Cilicia to my native province. (22-24) 
Up to this time I was personally quite un- 
known to the Judasan believers ; they had 
merely heard that I, the fierce persecutor, had 
now become a preacher of the gospel, and 
they gave thanks to God for my conversion.' 

18. After three years] a long time (though 
it probably does not mean, ' at the end of 
three years,' but rather, ' in the third year '), 
during which he could not have received in- 
struction from the original Apostles. To see] 
RY ' to visit Cephas ' (Peter) — to make his 
acquaintance and hear his story. Fifteen days] 
So short a sojourn could not have served for a 
course of instruction in the gospel. Ac9 26 ' 30 
must be read in the light of the first-hand 
information given here b}' St. Paul. 

19. James] here called an Apostle in the 
secondary sense: cp. lCorl5 7 . Barnabas 
(Acl4 14 ) and Paul were also Apostles, though 
not of the Twelve. 20. To this solemn itera- 
tion he is moved, no doubt, by the thought of 
the aspersions of his enemies. 21. St. Luke 
says (Ac9 30 ) that he went from Jerusalem to 
Cassarea (Roman capital of Judaea) and Tarsus 
— a more specific statement. By Syria and 
Cilicia is meant the Roman province of that 
name in which Tarsus was situated. 22. Un- 
known] though he had preached in and about 
Jerusalem (Ac9 28 ), since his labours there 
had been among the Greek-speaking Jews. 

The Churches . . which were in Christ] not 
merely 'the Christian Churches' as opposed 
to the Jewish ; but the Churches whose 



members were in a living relation to Christ, 
who fulfilled the command, ' Abide in me.' 

23. They had heard only] that was all the 
knowledge they had of me. Preacheth the 
faith] proclaims the necessity of trust in 
Christ as the sole essential to salvation. 

24. They glorified, etc.] They considered 
Saul's conversion not as a great gain to the 
Church, but as a great victory of grace. In 
me] in my case. 

CHAPTER 2 

His Authority recognised by the 
Apostles at Jerusalem and main- 
tained in his Conflict with St. Peter 

i-io. It was not until upon the occasion 
of a subsequent visit to Jerusalem fourteen 
years later that St. Paul had laid his gospel 
before the chief authorities there, and they 
had approved of all that he had done and 
taught. 

Paraphrase. '(1) It was fourteen years 
before I again visited Jerusalem, in company 
with Barnabas and Titus. (2) It was an 
impulse from the Spirit which led me to go 
and explain my teaching to the leaders there, 
that I might see whether they approved it. 
(3) That they did so was shown by the fact 
that they did not demand the circumcision 
of my companion, Titus, Gentile though 
he was. (4) Some, no doubt, desired it, but 
on account of the Judaisers, who were trying 
to bind the burdens of the Law upon us, (5) 
I utterly refused, because by allowing it I 
should have compromised the truth of the 
gospel. (6) But the most influential leaders 
of the Jerusalem Church — let their authority 
be what it may, that does not concern the 
truth or divine approval of my teaching — had 
no desire to correct or supplement my views, 
(7) but recognised that I had my sphere of 
labour among the Gentiles as truly as Peter 
had his among the Jews, (8) and that each 
was successful in his own sphere. (9) Not 
only so, but these leaders, James, Peter, and 
John, gave us the right hand of fellowship in 
token of their approval and sympathy, and 
bade us God-speed in our foreign mission, 
while they themselves sought to evangelise 
the Jews, (10) only asking us to send contri- 
butions for the poor at Jerusalem, which 
indeed we were eager to do.' 

1. Fourteen years after] i.e. after his con- 
version ( 1 16 ), from which the various subsequent 
events are dated: cp. 116,18,21. Again] There 
is much difference of opinion as to which of 
St. Paul's visits to Jerusalem, as recorded in 
the Acts, he here refers. Many scholars hold 
that this visit corresponds to that recorded in Ac 
1 5 it the close of the First Missionary Journey. 
Others, especially Ramsay, identify this visit 
with that recorded in Ac 11 27-30 a nd 12 25 . 



948 



2.2 



GALATIANS 



% 11 



Barnabas was his companion on both occasions. 
Certainly that mentioned in Ac 1127-30 — his 
second visit — was caused by a revelation — that 
to Agabus — but the third visit (Ac 15), the 
direct occasion of which was about the Mosaic 
Law, seems, from what follows, the one 
to which the Apostle alludes. Barnabas] cp. 
Ac4 36 > 3 7 ll 22 13 2 . Titus] was perhaps the 
most trusted of all St. Paul's companions and 
emissaries. When any specially delicate work 
had to be done requiring experience and tact, 
Titus was chosen for the purpose : cp. 2 Cor 
76 g6,rr,i8 5 and notes there. It is remarkable 
that his name is never mentioned in Acts. 

2. By revelation] in response to a prophetic 
inspiration. Them . . of reputation] cp. v. 9. 

Last, etc.] that it might be evident that 
even in their view he was not labouring in 
vain. 

3. But neither (RV ' not even ') Titus . . 
was compelled] This was a crucial instance of 
the application of the principle at stake. A 
demand was made by the rigid Judaists that 
Titus should be circumcised. The demand 
raised the whole question of the obligation of 
the Gentiles to observe the Jewish Law, and 
St. Paul peremptorily refused it. There is an 
apparent inconsistency between the Apostle's 
rejection of the demand in this case and his 
consent to the circumcision of Timothy at 
Lystra (Acl6 3 ) 'because of the Jews which 
were in these parts.' The inconsistency, how- 
ever, is only apparent. In the case of Titus 
St. Paul was opposing the principle that observ- 
ance of the Jewish Law (and circumcision as the 
sign of it) was necessary to salvation. This was 
the doctrine of the Jewish- Christian party, and 
St. Paul gave no place to them, ' no, not for 
an hour.' In the case of Timothy there was 
no such principle at stake. There were no 
Jewish Christians in question, only Jews, who 
evidently thought that Timothy, being of 
Jewish nationality on his mother's side, should 
bear the outward sign of his nationality. As 
the matter had only a racial, not a religious, 
significance, St. Paul circumcised Timothy on 
grounds of expediency. We may compare his 
own personal attitude in similar matters (Ac 
18 is 20 16 21 23 ) as showing that he continued 
to practise some of the Jewish customs, even 
in religious observances, though he did not re- 
gard them as necessary to salvation, or think 
of imposing them upon others. It is to be 
remembered also that while Timothy was half 
a Jew, Titus was a pure Gentile, and the 
question at issue involved the Christian liberty 
of the Gentiles. 4. Liberty] i.e. from the 
requirements of the Mosaic Law. 

5. We maintained our position firmly in 
order to preserve for you (and for all like you) 
the distinctive truth of the gospel, viz. that 
faith in Christ is the one condition of salvation. 



6. But of those, etc.] RV ' But from those 
who were reputed to be somewhat ' ; those 
to whom was accorded the greatest influence. 

Maketh no matter] does not affect the merits 
of my claim. In conference added (RV ' im- 
parted ') nothing] did not propose any correc- 
tion or addition to my teaching. 7. The re- 
ference is not to two different doctrines, but 
to two different spheres of the Gospel's opera- 
tion. 8. God gave to me success in my work, 
as He had given to Peter success in his. 

10. Only they would] they made this one 
stipulation. The poor] cp. Acll 2 9>30 24 ^ 
1 CorlG 3 . I also was forward] RV 'zealous' ; 
I was as eager to do this as they were to have 
me. 

11-16. Not only was St. Paul's independ- 
ence of the Twelve established by the circum- 
stances already mentioned, but on one memor- 
able occasion he had felt obliged to rebuke 
Peter for inconsistent action (thereby assert- 
ing his own independent authority), and at 
the same time to remind him that it was by 
faith they themselves had been saved. 

Paraphrase. '(11) On another occasion, at 
Antioch, I similarly maintained my independ- 
ence of the Judaean Apostles, for I testified 
against Peter's unworthy action there to his 
face. (12) When he came at first among the 
brethren there he joined freely in the love- 
feasts with the Gentile converts ; but on the 
arrival of some Jewish Christians from Jeru- 
salem he dissociated himself from the Gentiles 
owing to a weak dread of criticism. (13) 
Other Jews, including even Barnabas, were 
led away by his example. (14) In view of 
this inconsistency, I publicly challenged Peter 
thus : If hitherto you have been content to 
associate freely with the Gentiles and conform 
to their way of life, why do you now keep 
aloof as if these brethren ought to adopt the 
Mosaic Law before you can admit them to 
your company ? (15) You and I, Jews as we 
are, and not Gentile outcasts, (16) know from 
our own experience that it is by faith in 
Christ that men are saved, and not by works 
of Law.' 

11. Peter] RV ' Cephas.' To Antioch] Those 
who hold that the previous passage (vv. 1-10) 
refers to St. Paul's second visit to Jerusalem 
(Ac 11 2 9» 30), of course place this visit of Peter 
to Antioch after St. Paul's return there, i.e. 
between Acl2 25 and 13 1. Those who take 
l 1 " 10 as referring to the Apostle's third visit 
(Ac 15), for the most part date this occurrence 
after the council of Jerusalem, i.e. during the 
interval mentioned in Acl5 35 ; though some 
hold that St. Paul in this passage is not men- 
tioning a later instance of his independence, 
but merely another illustration of it which was 
earlier in time than that mentioned in vv. 1-10. 

Because he was to be blamed] RV ' because 



949 



% 12 



GALATIANS 



3.1 






he stood condemned,' i.e. by the very incon- 
sistency of his acts. 12. He did not eat with 
the Gentiles] He would thus be defiled accord- 
ing to the Jewish Law. Withdrew] i.e. refused 
any longer to sit with the Gentile Christians 
at the love-feasts, and perhaps also in their 
houses. Peter had evidently forgotten the 
lesson of his vision at Joppa (AclO 9-16 ), and 
if this action of his was done after the decision 
of the council at Jerusalem (Acl5 14-21 ), his 
conduct is placed in a still more unfavourable 
light. 13. Barnabas also] RV even Barnabas,' 
whom the Galatians knew as fellow-missionary 
with St. Paul. 

15. Sinners of the Gentiles] St. Paul is here 
adopting for argument's sake the rigid Jew's 
contemptuous description of the Gentiles. 

16. Even we] i.e. with all our Jewish privi- 
leges we are no better than the Gentiles we 
despise, but must equally with them seek 
salvation by faith in Christ. 

17-21. St. Paul seems here quite imper- 
ceptibly to pass from his rebuke to Peter to 
the broader question of the obligation of the 
Law and to the impassioned statement of his 
own living faith. 

Paraphrase. '(17) But some one says that 
in spite of their trust in Christ some have 
fallen into sin (and therefore require the 
guidance of the Law). Is Christ then, or 
the Gospel, the cause of their sin ? What- 
ever conclusion we may draw, that one is 
manifestly absurd. (18) But whoever goes back 
to the Law for guidance, after having left it and 
put his trust in Christ, is the real transgressor. 
(19) I was led by the Law to know my sin and 
put my trust in Christ, that I might live unto 
God ; delivered by Him from sin, I was done 
with the Law — as much so as if I had been 
dead. (20) Through the power of Christ's 
Cross I died to my old life ; and yet I live in a 
truer sense than before : rather I should say 
that it is no longer I who live, it is Christ who 
lives in me ; and if I can speak of living at all, 
it is in so far as I live by faith in the Son of 
God, who is the source and support of my life, 
the indwelling power of a new righteousness. 
(21) I do not thus make the grace of God of 
no effect, as I would if I clung to the Law ; 
for if we could be made righteous by the Law, 
Christ need not have died for our salvation.' 

17. But if, etc.] This is a difficult passage. 
It seems to state an objection of the Judaising 
party, that faith in Christ is insufficient to 
keep men from sin. Or possibly it deals with 
an argument put forth by tin- Galatians them- 
selves, that their faith in Christ was insufficient 
to enable them to withstand their temptations, 
and that adoption of the Law would be a help. 
In any case St. Paul pushes the argument to 
its logical conclusion, and shows its absurdity. 

God forbid] lit. • be it not so,' l far be it ' ; 



St. Paul's usual formula for rebutting an 
argument : cp. 3 21 Ro3 4 >Mi 6 2 > 15 , etc. 

19. Dead] ethically ; broke relations with 
the Law system as by a death. That I might 
live] I died to the old life and relations in 
order to live to the new. 

20. St. Paul passes from the inability of the 
Law to the ability of Christ to save him. 

Crucified with Christ] He identifies himself 
with Christ in His death. Christ's death 
means to him the cessation of the old life of 
sin as well as of legal justification : cp. 6 14 
Ro 6 1-" 2 Cor 5 14 Col 3 3. Nevertheless I live] 
RM ; and it is no longer I that live ' ; my real 
life is not this natural life, but the life of faith 
in union with Christ. By the faith of] RV 
' in faith, the faith which is in the Son of God.' 
St. Paul here enunciates his doctrine of mystic 
union with Christ. He is so entirely under 
the influence of Christ that he regards his 
thoughts and words and deeds as prompted by 
the Saviour. All that he is he owes to Christ 
who abides in Him. The spiritual relation 
between Christ and himself is so intimate that 
he can only describe it as Christ living in him : 
cp. RoGi-u. 

CHAPTER 3 

Justification is by Faith, not Works 
1-14. The Apostle upbraids the Galatians 
with their speedy change from faith to legal 
observances, reminding them of the fact that 
their reception of the Spirit had not been 
through the works of the Law, but through 
faith, and appealing both to the testimony of 
their own consciences and to the teaching of 
sacred history in the parallel case of Abraham. 
Paraphrase. ' (1) You thoughtless Galatians 
have surely been bewitched. I told you plainly 
of Christ dying for your sins, and you accepted 
this salvation for your own. Why have you 
turned away from the Saviour ? (2) Was it 
by obeying the Jewish Law, or by trusting in 
Christ, that you received those gifts of the 
Spirit which w r ere so manifest among you when 
you first believed ? (3) What folly, then, to 
desert the life of the Spirit for that of out- 
ward observance ! (4) Why endure persecu- 
tions for the Gospel if you so lightly esteem 
it ? (5) Have not all your spiritual gifts and 
the miraculous powers which are manifest 
among you been due entirely to your faith ? 
(ft) You read in the Scriptures that Abraham 
was accounted righteous on account of his faith, 
and your experience is an illustration of the 
same principle. (7) You want to be sons of 
Abraham. I tell you that his true spiritual 
children are those who have a faith like his. 
(8) In the promise made to him, because of his 
faith, you hear the principle of the Gospel an- 
nounced in advance. (9) Tt is, therefore, those 
who base their lives on faith who share the 



950 



GALATIANS 



L 15 



blessing assured to him. (10) The Law, on the 
other hand, has no power to bless, but only to 
curse ; for it pronounces a curse upon all 
who do not obey it in every detail. (11) How 
impossible salvation is on this principle the 
Scriptures plainly declare. (12) The Law does 
not rest on faith. It only justifies those who 
fulfil its works. (13) But Christ has come to 
redeem us from the curse which the Law pro- 
nounces ; and He has accomplished that by 
taking the curse upon Himself, as His cruci- 
fixion makes evident. (14) And the purpose 
of His saving death was to secure that the 
Gentiles might receive through their faith the 
blessing which Abraham received through his, 
and gain the gift of the Spirit.' 

i. Foolish] thoughtless, undiscerning, in- 
consistent. Bewitched] and so perverted you. 

Before whose eyes] Paul had vividly (evi- 
dently, RV ' openly ') portrayed the crucified 
Christ as Saviour. 2. This only] one ques- 
tion will reveal your error and inconsistency. 

Received ye, etc.] Of course the latter was 
the case. 3. Spirit and flesh denote the char- 
acteristics of Gospel and Law respectively — the 
spheres to which they belong : cp. 6 12 . The 
Galatians had begun by putting their trust in 
Christ, and living a new life under His abiding 
influence. To forget this beginning and to 
aim not at living according to the mind of 
Christ, but at fulfilling the demands of a law, 
was to forsake the spiritual for the merely 
human or carnal. 4. Have ye suffered . . in vain] 
It was all for naught, and might better not 
have been endured, unless the gospel is de- 
serving of their consistent adherence. If it be 
yet in vain] There was still hope that they 
might be reached and convinced by the appeal 
now made to them. 

5. He that, etc.] i.e. God. Miracles] cp. 
ICor 12. Doeth he it, etc.] Of course, in the 
latter way, or on the latter condition. 6. As 
Abraham] a typical case, which the Judaisers 
could not gainsay : cp. Gnl5 6 . St. Paul 
declares : Our Jewish sacred Scriptures teach 
salvation by faith. Abraham was blessed be- 
cause he trusted in God absolutely, and did 
His will, before the Law even existed. So men 
are now to trust in Christ the Son of God, 
living according to His will and having His 
life in them, now that He has made the Law 
unnecessary. 7. Sonship to Abraham, there- 
fore (in the spiritual sense), is determined by 
faith. 8. Preached before (RY ' beforehand')] 
proclaimed long in advance the central prin- 
ciple of the Christian gospel. 9. The con- 
clusion which follows from vv. 2, 5. 10. Why 
men cannot be saved by legal works of merit ; 
they must be perfect and complete, or they 
never can be: cp.Dt27 26 Ro2*3 32044,533 10 5. 

11, 12. Further scriptural confirmation : cp. 
Hab2 4 . Even under the Law a man was 



counted righteous not because he fulfilled the 
demands of the Law, but because he trusted in 
God, of whose will the Law was the imperfect 
expression. 

13. Redeemed] a figure drawn from the 
analogy of ransoming captives. Us] i.e. Jews. 

The curse] the condemnation pronounced by 
the Law upon sin. Being made] by submitting 
to the shame of being crucified : cp. Dt21 23 . 
The Law declared that any one who died a 
criminal's death upon a cross was accursed. 
Christ died thus, and so was accursed. St. 
Paul associates this curse arising from cere- 
monial defilement with the curse which rests 
upon man for sins, and regards Christ as thus 
bearing the curse on man's behalf. Christ's 
death in some way availed to ransom men 
from the curse of the Law. God for Christ's 
sake then bestowed the blessing of His Spirit 
on all who put their trust in His Son, and 
sought to live in union with Him. The Law 
was a mere outward command, seeking to gain 
man's obedience by promises of reward and 
threats of punishment. Christ substituted loy- 
alty to Himself for obedience to Law ; and by 
thus introducing the personal element of love 
brought a powerful influence to bear upon His 
people, and inspired them with a new power 
to overcome the sin that beset them. 

15-22. The principle of the Gospel — sal- 
vation by grace on condition of faith — ante- 
dates and underlies the Law. 

Paraphrase. ' (15) To take a familiar illus- 
tration : even a man's will, when ratified, 
no third party may annul or supplement. (16) 
Now God's gracious promise to Abraham and 
his descendants is realised only in and through 
Christ, in whom all believers are one. (17) 
The Law system, which arose long after the 
promise was made to Abraham, cannot change 
or nullify that promise ; (18) and as salvation 
(the promised inheritance) must be either by 
obedience to the Law or by grace, the case of 
Abraham proves that it is by grace. (19) If, 
then, the Law could not save, what purpose 
did it serve ? It had a temporary and educa- 
tional purpose. It was designed to excite in 
men's hearts the consciousness of sin, which 
shows men their need of salvation, and so to 
point them to Christ ; it was a system given 
not directly by God to the people, but indi- 
rectly through angels to Moses, who in his 
turn gave it to the nation. (20) Now when a 
mediator is employed, it means that there are 
two parties making a bargain ; but in the case 
of Abraham there was but one party — God — 
making a promise out of His own free-will. 
(21) It is evident, then, that the Law cannot 
affect God's promise. The Law is subordinate 
to the Gospel, but it serves the ends of the 
Gospel — otherwise it would have been suffi- 
cient of itself, and the Gospel need never 



951 



a 15 



GALATIANS 



3. 29 



have been given. (22) And the way in which 
it serves the ends of the Gospel is by convicting 
men of sin, and forcing them to realise that 
they can only be saved by God's mercy through 
faith in Christ.' 

15. Covenant] better as mg. ' testament,' 
or will. It is an ' inheritance ' that is in ques- 
tion (v. 18). According to Ramsay, this word 
' will ' as understood in the Galatian cities 
meant ' a provision to maintain the family 
with its religious obligations. . . The appoint- 
ment of an heir was the adoption of a son, 
and was final and irrevocable in the Galatian 
territory.' 16. Thy seed, which is Christ] 
St. Paul here argues from the fact that the 
singular number is used — 'seed,' not 'seeds' ; 
but the verbal reasoning does not affect the 
argument. The word is collective. He re- 
gards Christ as including all who are united 
to Him by faith, who are the true seed of 
Abraham. 17. The law . . cannot disannul] the 
will of God is irrevocable (as is seen even in 
the case of the wills of men) ; the Law, 
therefore, cannot be contrary to it, but must 
be explained in some other way. Four hun- 
dred and thirty years] The giving of the 
Law is dated 430 years after Abraham's so- 
journ in Canaan. According to another pas- 
sage (Ac7 6 ), the sojourn in Egypt alone was 
to be 400 years. But the length of the time 
which had elapsed is immaterial to the argu- 
ment. 18. The inheritance] the blessings 
promised to Abraham, here understood in the 
sense of the spiritual blessing of salvation 
through Christ. Of the law . . of promise] 
two contrasted dispensations ; salvation cannot 
be by both. Scripture is explicit in favour of 
the latter. It is better to depend upon a 
promise of God made unconditionally, and to 
read all subsequent happenings in the light of 
that promise, than to rest everything upon a 
contract made between God and man. 

19. Inferior character of the Law shown 
(1) by its aim to make transgressions abound, 
cp. Ro3 20 4 15 5 20 V ; and (2) by its mediation 
through the angels and Moses : cp. Dt33 2 
Ac 7 53 . Ordained by angels] an addition of the 
rabbis to Scripture. St. Paul is justified in 
bringing it into his argument, as he is dealing 
with those who accepted the addition. 

20. There is no place for a mediator where 
there is but one party to a transaction. Now, 
in issuing His promise to Abraham, God 
stands forth independent and alone. The 
point is the contrast between the conditions 
of the giving of the Law and of the promise. 
The former depends upon the fulfilling of a 
contract — and thai man failed to do; fche 
other is no contract, but the free gift of 
God. 21* It docs not follow lite; 1 use the Law 
and the promise are of different rank that 
they are contrary. 



22. Concluded all] RY ' shut up all things.' 
The OT. teaches what the Gospel teaches, 
that all need a gracious salvation. Both Law 
and Gospel contemplate the same ultimate end. 
' The connexion of the argument is, that if the 
Law could give men spiritual life, and so enable 
them to fulfil its precepts, it would give them 
righteousness ; but it does not pretend to do 
this ; on the contrary, it shows the impotence 
of their nature by the contrast of their re- 
quirements with their performance ' (Conybeare 
and Howson) : cp. Ro 1 1 32 . 

23-29. The Law had a preparatory and 
disciplinary office, but it was now being fulfilled 
in the Gospel. 

Paraphrase. ' (23) Before Christ's coming 
it was the office of the Law to imprison men 
by its condemnation of sin until they should 
be set free by believing on Him. (24) Thus 
the Law was like a stern disciplinarian who 
made us willing and eager to receive the grace 
of God in the Gospel. (25) But now, in the 
freedom of faith and of sonship to God, 
we are exempt from the Law's bondage and 
discipline. (26, 27) Through faith we are 
united to Christ and are become God's chil- 
dren, and this is symbolised by our baptism. 
(28) In Him distinctions of nationality and 
social condition disappear ; (29) in Him all 
believers alike become heirs of the gracious 
promise made to Abraham, the man of faith.' 

23. Faith] i.e. the Gospel, whose principle 
is faith. Both Faith and Law are here per- 
sonified. Kept] RV ' kept in ward,' impri- 
soned by the Law's verdict upon sin, awaiting 
the time of our deliverance through Christ. 

24. Schoolmaster] cp. Ro7 7f . Tutor, or 
trainer, who by his chastisement for our faults 
made us see our need of grace and pardon. 
St. Paul may have been thinking of the Jewish 
custom of fathers daily conducting their sons 
to school. 25. The Law is the stern jailer or 
disciplinarian ; Faith the liberator from bond- 
age and chastisement. We] i.e. the Jews. 

26. Ye . . all] whether Jews or Gentiles, 
are no longer bondsmen (cp. Ro8 14f ), but 
sons : see v. 16. Yv. 17-25 are a kind of 
parenthesis. 

27. Baptized into Christ] entered by bap- 
tism into the relation of fellowship with 
Christ. The argument is : Baptism means 
union with ( 'lirist . and union with Christ means 
the liberty of sonship to God. 28. Such dis- 
tinctions do not separate true believers. There 
is a unity in Christ which is deeper than 
differences of nationality, condition, or sex. 
The Greek is the Galatian. St. Paul shows 
his tact in using that name, as the more refined 
natives would probably like it. 29. Abraham's 
seed] his spiritual descendants. Not lineal 
descent from Abraham, but spiritual kinship 
to him through a faith like his, determines 



952 



4.1 



GALATIANS 



4. 12 



whether we are heirs of the promise made to eludes wins our love, and for His sake we 



him. 



CHAPTER 4 



The Bondage of the Law. Freedom 
in Christ 

1-7. Under the Law we were in bondage ; 
under the Gospel we have received the freedom 
of sons. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) The heir before he comes 
of age can no more enter upon his -inheritance 
than a servant in the family can possess him- 
self of it, (2) but must continue, until the set 
time, in a subordinate position, and under the 
authority and training of others. (3) So, when 
we were under the elementary Law system, we 
were in a position like that of the heir in his 
minority ; (4) but when the appointed time 
arrived, God sent His Son, subject not only to 
human conditions, but also to the Jewish Law, 
(5) in order that He might set free all who 
were in bondage to the Law and put them in 
possession of full liberty and all the rights of 
the sons of God. (6) And God also gave us 
the Spirit of His Son, and imparted to us the 
sense of sonship, (7) so that we now know our- 
selves as no longer bondmen to the Law, but 
freemen, and heirs of the salvation which is 
our rightful, destined possession.' 

1. The heir] is, of course, a son, as v. 2 
shows. A child] i.e. under age ; a minor. 

Differeth nothing] as respects the control of 
his destined possessions, though, in prospect, 
lord of all. 2. Tutors] RV ' guardians ' ; the 
regular term for the guardian of a minor. 

Governors] RV ' stewards,' who have the 
management of his prospective property. Time 
(RV ' term ') appointed] the time of reaching 
his majority. Ramsay points out that under 
the Syrian law, which prevailed in S. Galatia, 
a child was subject to a ' tutor ' until he was 
14, after that he could make a will and dis- 
pose of his property ; but the management of 
his estate was under a ' governor ' or curator 
until he reached the age of 25. 3. Children] 
in a state of tutelage under the Law. Ele- 
ments] RV 'rudiments' (cp. 4 9 Col2 8 ) ; ele- 
mentary religious observances belonging to 
the outward, visible world. 

4. Cp. 3 19 > 24 Ro 5 2 °. 21 . Made] RV ' born ' ; 
entering fully into our human lot. 5. Redeem] 
i.e. save las from our bondage in sin under the 
Law, and introduce us into full sonship to 
God. Under the law] and therefore bound to 
obey it, and yet guilty of infringing it. Adop- 
tion] Redemption is followed by the admission 
of the sinner among the children of grace. 

6. This emancipation being accomplished, a 
new sense of sonship fills the heart. Abba] 
an Aramaic word commonly used in prayer, 
meaning ' Father.' Christ's love for us ex- 
hibited in His incarnation and all that it in- 



overcome sin. 7. Thou art] application of 
the conclusion to the individual. An heir of 
God] RV ' an heir through ' (the adopting act 
of) ' God.' 

8-1 1. In the past the Galatians had been 
idolators, in bondage to gods that were ' no 
gods ' at all. Now they are going back again 
to a similar bondage. 

Paraphrase. ; (8) Before your conversion 
you Gentiles were victims of idol-worship ; (9) 
but now, since the true God has revealed Him- 
self to you in Christ, how can you desire to 
return again to a lower plane of religious 
knowledge and practice ? (10) This you are 
doing in taking up the observance of Jewish 
feast-days and ceremonies. (11) This action 
causes me to fear lest my labours on your 
behalf should prove to have been in vain.' 

8. Howbeit then] RV ' At that time,' when 
they were yet unconverted heathen. No 
gods] cp. 1 Cor8 5 10 20 ; the so-called divinities 
of the heathen. 9. Their lapse into Judaism 
is a return, not, indeed, into idolatry, but into 
an imperfect and rudimentary religion. In 
this point of view only does the Apostle class 
heathenism and Judaism together. The Law 
is weak, etc., as being powerless to justify and 
give the assurance of sonship. Known God, 
or rather are known of God] i.e. now that ye 
have come to know the nature and love of 
God, or rather that God has recognised you 
and bestowed upon you His gifts. 10. Days] 
Jewish feast- or fast-days. Months] new moons : 
cp. Col 2 16 . Times] R V ' seasons,' such as Pass- 
over, Pentecost, etc. Years] e.g. sabbatic years. 
These observances are l weak and beggarly 
elements' (v. 9), because they are matters 
of dry routine, customs which the Gentiles 
would adopt without understanding their 
meaning or catching anything of the spirit 
which lay behind them. They were of no 
avail for salvation. 11. Afraid] anxiously 
solicitous lest they should repudiate their 
Christian profession. 

12-20. The Apostle appeals to his readers 
to return to their former allegiance to the 
gospel. 

Paraphrase. '(12) I plead with you to 
come to my point of view, even as I in re- 
nouncing slavery to the Law, have become as a 
Gentile to you Gentiles. (13) I hope for this 
result on the ground of your former kindness 
to me ; you remember that it was in con- 
sequence of an illness that I was led to become 
your Christian teacher, (14) but you did not 
consider the care of me at that time burden- 
some, but received and treated me with the 
greatest honour and deference. (15) How 
great is the change in you since that time when 
you would have made any sacrifice for me ! 
(16) Do you now regard me as hostile to you 



953 



4. 12 



GALATIANS 



4.25 



because I urge you to loyalty to Christ ? (17) 
The Judaisers are courting your favour only 
that they may make you their partisans and 
supporters. (18) It is well to be the object 
of others' interest in a good cause — and that 
at all times and not merely when I am with 
you. (19, 20) I assure you my desire that you 
should be moulded after Christ's pattern is 
intense ; and I would fain visit you and adopt 
a less censorious tone in the hope of winning 
you back.' 

12. As I am] loyal to Christ : cp. 1 Cor ll 1 . 
I am as ye are] cp. 1 Cor 9 19 " 23 . RV puts a 

period after ' ye are,' and then reads ' Ye did 
me no wrong ; but ye know that because of an 
infirmity,' etc. Ye have not injured me] i.e. 
I am not personally offended. 

13. The first] lit. as EM ' the former time.' 
The Gk. word, accurately interpreted, indicates 
that St. Paul had paid the Galatians two visits 
before the date of this letter. This ' former ' 
visit is of course that recorded in Ac 13 14 -14 24 . 
St. Paul probably intended preaching at Perga 
when he landed there ; but being seized by 
illness was compelled to leave the low ground 
of Pamphylia and seek health and strength on 
the high plateau further inland. His journey 
brought him first to Pisidian Antioch, then to 
Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. On his return 
to Perga, on his way back to Antioch in Syria, 
he preached the gospel there, as he had not 
been able to do it on his outward way : cp. 
Ac 13 is. I* with 1425. 

14. My temptation which was in my flesh] 
RV ' That which was a temptation to you in 
my flesh.' The bodily infirmity which had 
attacked him had left such traces that they 
might have been excused for rejecting one whose 
' bodily presence was weak ' : see 2 Cor 12 7 and 
note there. As an angel] with even excessive 
reverence. This spirit had been exhibited 
towards him in Lystra, even by the heathen 
(Acl4 13 ); and, indeed, in all the cities of 
Galatia by those who had received his message 
and become followers of Christ. 

15. Blessedness] RV ' Gratulation,' your 
felicitation of yourselves in my teaching. 

Plucked . . eyes] made any sacrifice for me, 
so great was your former kindness. 17. RV 
' They zealously seek you in no good way ; 
nay, they desire to shut you out that ye may 
seek them.' They] the Jewish extremists. 

Not well] i.e. in a party spirit. Exclude 
you] from the influence of other teachers, 
especially from my own. Affect (RV 'seek') 
them] cling zealously to them as partisan 
adherents. 18. RV 'But it is good to be 
zealously sought in a good matter at all times.' 
I am glad that you are the objects of others' 
zeal and interest, whether I am present or 
absent, provided your favour is courted in a 
good cause. 19. I travail in birth again] RV 



' I am again in travail.' In his anxiety and 
distress he would reconvert them to Christ. 

20. Desire] RV ' could wish,' i.e. if such a 
thing were possible. Change my voice] i.e. 
change my tone, speak more mildly. 

21-31. This passage is an example of the 
rabbinical method of interpretation, which 
found a hidden sense, embodied and intended, 
in many parts of Scripture. Here a historical 
narrative is taken as revealing the truth that 
those who adhere to the Law are in bondage, 
and those living by faith in Christ, free. 

Paraphrase. ' (21) You who are so zealous 
for the Law will surely take a lesson from the 
Law itself. (22) You know the story of Abra- 
ham's two children, Ishmael and Isaac, (23) 
the former the child of the bondwoman, Hagar, 
the latter of Sarah, born in accordance with a 
divine promise. (24) These two women repre- 
sent, in the allegorical application, two cove- 
nants, the old and the new. Hagar represents 
the Law, whose symbol is Mt. Sinai, since her 
descendants, like the adherents of this old 
covenant, are born into a state of bondage. 
(25) Indeed, Hagar is a name of Mt. Sinai 
in Arabia, and corresponds to Jerusalem, the 
sacred seat of the Law system, which, again, 
is a symbol of bondage. (26) But the spiritual 
Jerusalem, answering to Sarah, is, like her, the 
mother of freemen. (27, 28) For our spirit- 
ual mother has fulfilled the promise of Scrip- 
ture to the childless, by making us like Isaac, 
the heirs of God's gracious promise. (29) But 
just as then, so now, the unspiritual per- 
secutes the spiritual. (30) And as then the 
Ishmaelites were rejected from the heirship 
of the promises, so now God will reject the 
slaves of the Law. (31) It is the Christian 
believers who are God's true freemen and 
heirs of His promises.' 

21. The very Law in which the Judaisers 
trust is shown to be against their contentions. 

22. One son, from the circumstances of his 
birth, typifies bondage ; the other, freedom : cp. 
Gn 16, 21. It is written] This does not intro- 
duce a quotation here, but simply indicates the 
facts as recorded in the Scripture history. 

23. One was born in a relation merely 
carnal, the other in fulfilment of a special 
promise of God: cp. Hebll 11 * 12 . 24. Are 
(RV ' contain ') an allegory] i.e. are spoken 
allegorically. An allegory is a narrative where 
the literal sense ' half reveals and half conceals' 
a spiritual meaning. The best example of alle- 
gory in the English language is Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's Progress.' Hagar and Sarah repre- 
sent, respectively, the Law and the Gospel — 
bondage and freedom. Of the former, Sinai, 
as the place where the Law was given, is the 
symbol. 

25. Hagar] Some MSS of the Epistle omit 
this word here, in which case we should render : 



954 



4. 26 



GALATIANS 



5. 8 



• Sinai is a mountain in Arabia ' (so RM) — the 
land of Hagar's descendants. Sinai and Jeru- 
salem mean the same thing — law and bondage ; 
Hagar typifies both. On St. Paul's use of 
allegorical interpretation, cp. 1 Cor 9 9 > 10 Gal 
3 16 2 Cor 3 13 > 14 . As Hagar corresponds to 
(Mount Sinai, which is now represented by) 
the earthly Jerusalem, so Sarah corresponds 
to the ideal Jerusalem which is in heaven, of 
which all true Christians are citizens. With 
the whole passage cp. Hebl2 18 " 24 . 

26. Jerusalem . . above] the spiritual com- 
monwealth or city of God, of which believers 
are citizens. The mother of us all] RV ' our 
mother,' prefigured by Sarah. 27. This v. in 
its original context (Isa 54 l ) had no reference 
to the Jerusalem above, only to the actual 
Jerusalem. It is quite in the rabbinical style 
for St. Paul to give it another, more spiritual 
application. 28. Conclusion and application. 
We believers stand in a relation to God's 
promise and favour analogous to the descend- 
ants of Sarah, while the Judaisers take the 
place of the Ishmaelites. 

29. Cp.Gn21 9 . The ' mocking ' there men- 
tioned hardly amounts to persecution. Per- 
haps the general hostility of Hagar's descend- 
ants to Israel is referred to : cp. Ps 83 6 1 Ch 
510,19. History was now repeating itself in 
the persecution of the Christians of Galatia by 
Jews and Judaisers. 30. Cast out] cp. Gn 
21 10 » 12 . Hagar's spiritual descendants are the 
Jews and the Judaisers, who are the natural 
descendants of Sarah ; while the heathen who 
have accepted Christ are the spiritual descend- 
ants of Sarah, and inherit the blessings pro- 
mised to her children. For similar ideas in 
the teaching of Jesus cp. JnS 31 - 43 . 31. So 
then] RV ' Wherefore ' ; since this rejection 
does not apply to us ; we belong to a higher 
lineage and order. And as we are thus spirit- 
ually free (5 *), let us take care to maintain our 
freedom. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Nature of Christian Liberty 
1-12. The futility of seeking justification 
by attempting to comply with the demands of 
the Mosaic Law ; the inconsistency of works 
and faith as methods of salvation. 

Paraphrase. ' (1) Since Christ has freed us 
from the necessity of obeying these legal de- 
mands and customs, let us consistently main- 
tain and use our liberty. (2) To receive 
circumcision as necessary to salvation is to 
renounce allegiance to Christ, (3) since sub- 
mission to this rite commits one to the ob- 
servance of the whole legal system. (4) In 
taking such a step you would be repudiating 
the free grace of God ; (5) for it is through 
the operation of the Holy Spirit, not through 
symbols in our flesh, and in consequence of 



our faith in Christ and not of works we per- 
form, that we hope for justification before 
God. (6) Circumcision is wholly unimport 
ant ; the only condition of salvation is a faith 
which evinces its vital power in love. (7) You 
were making good progress in the Christian 
life ; who has misled you into disloyalty to 
the gospel ? (8) This teaching by which 
you have been led astray is not of God ; 
(9) and though it has so far done only a little 
mischief, it will spread like leaven. (10) I 
have good hope, however, that you will now 
heed my exhortation ; but the leader of this 
sedition will receive a heavy punishment. 

(11) As for the accusation that I myself some- 
times commend circumcision, were that the 
case would the Jews still persecute me ? If 
that were true I should no longer be giving 
them offence through my preaching of the 
crucified Christ as the author of salvation. 

(12) But enough ! I wish that these men who 
are perverting your faith by insisting upon 
circumcision would mutilate themselves com- 
pletely.' 

1. Connected closely with preceding section. 

Bondage] to legal observances. Christ hath 
made us free] by fulfilling the Law, and so 
teaching us to obey it, not in the letter but in 
the spirit, which we shall do best by living by 
faith in Him, and having the same mind in us 
as was also in Him': cp. Mt5 17_48 . 2. Be cir- 
cumcised] R V ' Receive circumcision ' as essen- 
tial to salvation. Christ . . profit . . nothing] 
because you thereby reject Him as sole and 
sufficient Saviour. 3. Circumcision is the 
sign of the system of which it is a part, and 
its practice indicates that a complete observ- 
ance of all the Law's requirements is obliga- 
tory. 4. Christ is become, etc.] RV ' Ye are 
severed from Christ, ye who would be justi- 
fied,' etc. By resorting to the Law for salva- 
tion, as if Christ were not sufficient, you are 
no longer Christ's people. Fallen, etc.] fallen 
down from the higher plane of grace upon 
the lower plane of Law. To us now the 
bondage of the Law has little meaning ; but if 
we come into bondage to sin, we fall from 
grace as surely as did the Galatians. Christ 
has given us power to keep from the love 
of sin and to resist its power ; He has liber- 
ated us from its bondage and given us the 
liberty of the Spirit ; and it is ours to maintain 
that liberty, and not to return to the works of 
the flesh, which bring us to slavery. 

5. The true mode of salvation, viz. by the 
agency of the Spirit, on condition of faith 
alone. 6. Availeth] for salvation. Faith which 
worketh] an active, energetic faith : cp. Jas 
214-26. y m R un we ll] before the Judaisers 
misled you. Who did hinder] a rhetorical 
question. 8. Cometh'] RV ' came' This dis- 
suasion from loyalty to Christ to which you 



955 



5.9 



GALATIANS 



6. 



have yielded does not emanate from God, but 
is contrary to His will. 

9. A little leaven] It would seem that only 
a few of the Galatian converts were affected 
by the false teaching ; but their influence would 
soon prove far-reaching and pernicious : cp. 
1 Corl5 33 . Leaven is always used in NT. as 
a symbol of influence. Our Lord uses it to 
illustrate the influence of the kingdom of God 
(Mk8 15 and parallels). St. Paul uses it to de- 
scribe the penetrating and poisonous power of 
evil influence : cp. lCor5 6 > 7 > 8 . 

10. The Apostle now adopts a more hopeful 
tone, and turns from reproof to encourage- 
ment. None otherwise minded] than as I have 
taught you. 11. Then is the offence of the 
cross ceased] RV ' then has the stumbling- 
block of the cross been done away.' The Juda- 
isers who had ' troubled ' the Galatians had 
evidently brought against the Apostle the 
charge that he still preached circumcision him- 
self, although he had dispensed with it in the 
case of the Galatians. The accusation may 
have been based on the fact mentioned in Ac 
16 3 , that on his second visit to Galatia he had 
circumcised Timothy at Lystra : see on Gal2 3 . 
He shows that this accusation is inconsistent 
with the other charge of abolishing the Law, for 
which they constantly attacked him. If he 
preached circumcision, why did they persecute 
him? 12. Were even cut off] RV 'would 
even cut themselves off,' KM 'would even 
mutilate themselves ' ; i.e. would even go beyond 
circumcision, like the priests of Cybele, whom 
the Galatians had formerly worshipped. A 
bitterly satirical wish. The Apostle was evi- 
dently carried away by his righteous wrath at 
the bitterness of the Judaisers. 

13-15. Freedom from the requirements of 
the Law does not mean disobedience to its 
spirit, which is that of love to others. 

Paraphrase. ' (13) Cling, then, to your 
freedom from legal rules and customs ; but 
remember that freedom means not licence, but 
loving service. (14) For love is the essence 
of God's Law, (15) whereas mutual backbiting 
and hatred can only end in the destruction of 
one another's spiritual life.' 

13. A caution against an easy and common 
misunderstanding of Christian freedom: cp. 
R06 16 . 14. The real moral substance of the 
Mosaic Law was the gospel principle of love : 
cp. Mt22 40 Rol3 10 . 15. Bite and devour] in 
party strife. Consumed] as respects your per- 
sonal and collective Christian life. 

16-26. The spiritual and the carnal life con- 
trasted. 

Paraphrase. '(16) In the life which is 
fostered by the Spirit you will find your true 
safety against the evils of which I am warning 
you. (17) For between the pure aspirations of 
the Spirit and the sinful impulses of the flesh 



there is a sharp, irrepressible conflict. (18) If 
you live under the influence of the Spirit of 
God, you have no need to seek the guidance of 
law. (19-20) Contrast the sins which spring 
from the carnal impulses (21-24) with the 
virtues which spring from the Spirit's guidance. 
The former exclude from God's kingdom ; the 
Christian must abjure them ; but the latter are 
not condemned by any law. (25) If, then, we 
possess the Spirit in our hearts, let our out- 
ward action be under His guidance, and (26) let 
us avoid factious boasting and all attempts to 
incite others to rivalry and jealousy.' 

16. The Spirit] the sanctifying Spirit of 
God. Shall not fulfil] because the Spirit and 
the flesh are contrary principles. The flesh] a 
general name for the sinful impulses. 17. The 
carnal desires are opposed to the Spirit, and 
the impulses from the Spirit are contrary to 
these desires. 18. Not under the law] Those 
who live under the guidance of the Spirit of 
God are in no need of the Law. They do what 
is right not because the Law commands it, or 
because the Law penalises wrong- doing, but 
because they live under the influence of Christ 
and have His Spirit in them ; e.g. they refrain 
from injuring others not because the Law says 
' Thou shalt not kill,' but because they love 
their neighbours in the Spirit of Christ. And 
so, for the ideal Christian who is perfectly 
changed into Christ's likeness, the Law might 
just as well not exist, for he has no need 
of it. 

19-21. Works of the flesh include not merely 
carnal sins, such as the first three in the list, 
but evil passions like strife and jealousy and 
their social effects, such as factions and divisions. 

22, 23. Against such (virtues) there is no 
law] hence there can be no condemnation for 
those who possess them. But even the Law 
condemns the works of the flesh. 24. Have 
crucified] in the act of uniting themselves to 
Christ by faith: cp. Gal 2 20 R 6 2. 25. The 
inner life should rule the outer life. 26. Vain- 
glory] indulging in rivalry and jealousy. Pro- 
voking] to strifes of opinion. Envying] cherish- 
ing grudges. 

CHAPTER 6 

Practical Exhortations. The Apostle's 
Glorying 

1-5. The nature and requirements of the 
law of love. 

Paraphrase. '(1) If sin overcome one of 
your number, try to correct the fault in a 
temper of gentleness, remembering that you 
yourselves may some time need a similar for- 
giveness. (2) Share each other's cares and 
sorrows, and so fulfil Christ's law of love. 
(3) Shun the self-deception which springs 
from pride ; (4, 5) let each man test his 
actions on their own merits and not by 



956 



6.1 



GALATIANS 



6. 18 



comparison with other men, for each must bear 
his own load of responsibility.' 

i. Overtaken] as if pursued and caught. 

Fault] RV ' trespass,' or transgression, 
such as the error into which the readers 
had been beguiled. Spiritual] as opposed to 
'natural' or 'carnal' : cp. lCor2 14 3 1-4 . 

Spirit] i.e. temper. Lest thou, etc.] in 
similar circumstances need a similar sympathy. 

2. Cp. R0I5 1 . Bear] in sympathy. Law 
of Christ] cp. Mt8 17 . St. Paul has warned 
them against law ; but there is a law to 
which they owe obedience and devotion — the 
new commandment of Christ — the royal law 
of love : cp. Jas2 s . 3. The real greatness of 
the Christian is found in service : cp. Mt 20 26 . 

4. Prove] test, to see whether it is morally 
real and genuine. Work] life and conduct. 

Rejoicing] a ground of satisfaction. 

5. Burden] of accountability. The word is 
different from that used in v. 2. 

6-10. The principle of the spiritual harvest. 

Paraphrase. '(6) Share with your teach- 
ers. (7, 8) If you refuse to obey the law of 
love, the result will be a debased moral life ; its 
observance conducts to a blessed existence. 
(9, 10) Our reward is sure if we discharge the 
obligations of love to all men, especially to 
our Christian brethren.' 

6. Communicate] i.e. share, either in 
general sympathy and friendship, or, more 
specifically, in contributions to the support of 
the teacher. 7. None can escape the applica- 
tion of God's law of the spiritual harvest. 

8. He who tills the field of the carnal life 
or that of the spiritual life reaps, in each case, 
his appropriate fruitage. Corruption] ' a 
harvest doomed to perish ' (Conybeare and 
Howson). Life everlasting] the harvest of 
which the Spirit gives us the pledge in this 
life, and of which we shall receive the fruition 
in the life to come. 9. An encouragement to 
persistent spiritual sowing and cultivation. 

10. A conclusion from the certainty of 
reaping if we faint not. Of the household of 
faith] members of the Christian family whose 
bond of union is faith. 

11-18. The true ground of glorying. 

Paraphrase. '(11) Look at my own bold 
handwriting in which I have written this letter 
as the proof of my longing for your salva- 
tion. (12) To sum up : Those who are insist- 
ing on your circumcision are doing so in order 
to curry favour with the Jews, for (13) as 



Christians they do not themselves consistently 
observe the Law, but are making a show of 
zeal for it by inducing you to assume its 
burdens. (14) But the only true ground of 
glorying is the cross by which I have been 
put to death to the sinful world. (15) The 
question of circumcision is indifferent ; new 
life in Christ is the one important thing. (16) 
God's favour be upon all such as test their 
lives by this principle, thereby proving them- 
selves true Israelites. (17, 18) Let me hear 
no more accusations ! The proof that I am 
Christ's Apostle is found in the scars which I 
have received in His service. May blessings 
from Him fill your heart ! ' 

11. Ye see how large a letter] RV 'See 
with how large letters.' Have written] pro- 
bably an allusion to the writing of the fore- 
going letter. St. Paul usually dictated his 
letters, adding only the closing salutation in 
his own hand : cp. R0I6 22 lCorl6 21 2Th3!7. 

12. In the flesh] the sphere to which cir- 
cumcision belongs. Lest they should suffer, 
etc.] RV ' that they may not,' etc. — a pru- 
dential motive underlies their zeal. It must 
be borne in mind that St. Paul is writing to a 
Church composed chiefly of Gentiles. They 
were Christians, having been converted by 
the Apostle, but they had been influenced by 
teachers who had strong Jewish sympathies 
and maintained that the Law was obligatory 
on all Christians. 

14. St. Paul, on the contrary, will glory 
only in salvation through sacrifice and self- 
giving. By whom] RV ' through which,' etc.; 
because he died to sin with Christ on His 
cross : cp. Ro 6 2 > 8 Col 2 20 . 1 5. A new creature] 
RM ' a new creation.' Salvation is newness 
of life in Christ, and is in no way dependent 
upon the question of circumcision. 16. This 
rule] the test of acceptance with God men- 
tioned in the previous v. Israel] the true 
spiritual Israel : cp. 3 9 Ro4 13 " 16 . 17. Let no 
man, etc.] Let these annoying insinuations 
concerning my apostleship cease. I bear in 
my body, etc.] RY 'I bear branded on my 
body the marks of Jesus ' : cp. 2 Cor 1 1 23 ' 28 , 
evidences of the genuineness of his consecra- 
tion to Christ. 

18. The absence of commendation and the 
severe tone of the letter are noticeable ; 
yet, quite exceptionally, he adds to the bene- 
diction an appellation of personal affection 
(brethren). 



957 



EPHESIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



Four questions have to be considered in an 
Introduction to this Epistle : Author, Recipi- 
ents, Circumstances, and Contents. And it 
will be best to take the questions in that order. 
The answers respecting the recipients and the 
circumstances depend to a very great extent 
upon the answer respecting authorship. 

I. The Author of the Epistle. If the author- 
ship of this letter had not been disputed by 
competent scholars, it would not be necessary 
to spend much time upon this point. And the 
necessity for discussion depends much more 
upon the weight of the authority of the critics 
who question or deny the Pauline authorship 
than upon the weight of the arguments which 
they employ. Some consideration of their 
arguments is required : but the result of such 
consideration will be to confirm us in what 
was the unanimous belief of Christians for 
many centuries, that in this Epistle we have 
what perhaps may be called the richest and 
most glorious product of the active mind of 
St. Paul. The only other Epistle of which 
that might with reason be said is the Epistle 
to the Romans ; and the fifteenth chapter of 
that great letter is left incomplete until the 
Epistle to the Ephesians is added to it. Here 
we have a full statement of the unity of man- 
kind in Christ, as sons of Him who is their 
Father and His Father, and of God's purpose 
for the world through the Church. This com- 
pletion is worthy of ' Paul the Master-builder.' 
And it would seem that the objections to the 
Pauline authorship are being felt to be less 
serious than they were supposed to be ten or 
twenty years ago. The Epistle has fewer op- 
ponents and more defenders of the first rank 
than used to be the case : and it is remarkable 
that Dr. Armitage Robinson in his admirable 
commentary does not think it necessary to 
discuss the question of authorship, because he 
considers that the Epistle has already, by Dr. 
Hort and others, been sufficiently shown to be 
the work of St. Paul. One reason for the 
decrease in important objectors to the Epistle 
lies very near the surface. It has been found 
more and more difficult to accept the other 
Epistles to which Ephesians is inseparably 
linked as writings of St. Paul and yet deny 



the Pauline authorship of Ephesians. Philip- 
pians, Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians 
form a closely connected group. To doubt 
that the Apostle wrote the exquisite and purely 
personal letter to Philemon is generally recog- 
nised as irrational scepticism ; and most of the 
critics who doubt or deny the Apostolic author- 
ship of some of the Pauline Epistles, admit 
Philippians also to be genuine. If Philippians 
and Philemon are accepted as St. Paul's, some 
violent hypotheses are needed in order to make 
it tenable that Colossians is not by him.* And 
if Philippians, Philemon, and Colossians are 
all allowed to be his, then the difficulty of 
excluding Ephesians becomes very great indeed. 

The external evidence in favour of Ephe- 
sians is very strong. As Renan says, among 
the Pauline Epistles it ' is perhaps the one of 
which there are most early quotations as the 
composition of the Apostle of the Gentiles.' 
Not only the witnesses between 170 and 220 
(Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, 
Muratorian Canon) treat it as unquestionably 
Pauline, but also those who wrote about a 
century earlier. Marcion (circ. 130) included it 
in his collection of St. Paul's writings. It is 
quoted in the Second Epistle of Clement, which 
may be later than Marcion, and in the ' Shep- 
herd of Hennas,' which may be earlier. It is 
quoted by Poly carp (circ. 120) and almost cer- 
tainly by Ignatius, who is a little earlier. 
Clement of Rome evidently knew the Epistle, 
and he takes us into the first century (95), 
within the lifetime of St. John. Above all, 
it seems to have been known to St. Peter and 
to St. John, for there are striking parallels 
between Ephesians and 1 Peter, and between 
Ephesians and the Revelation. This constitutes 
a very strong case. 

It is the internal evidence which has been 
supposed to tell against the Epistle, and that 
mainly on two grounds: (1) the resemblance 
to Colossians; one Epistle is suspected of being 
copied from the other by some unknown writer: 
(2) the form of doctrine. (1) Not much can 
be made out of the first point. That two letters 
carried by the same messenger (Tychicus). to 
Churches in the same part of the world, should 
often have the same thoughts, and not seldom 



* For instance, Holtzmann has suggested that some parts of Colossians are genuine ; and he puts together what he 
supposes to have been the original letter. Some forger took this little letter and expanded it into our Epistle to the 
Ephesians. Then he was so pleased with the result, that he worked similar additions here and there into the original 
letter to the Colossians. This patchwork was thought so very superior that it passed at once as St. Paul's, and the 
genulnfl h'tter whs lost. 

958 



INT110. 



EPHESIANS 



INTRO. 



the same language, is just what we might ex- 
pect ; the salutations, the structure, and the 
subjects of the two Epistles are very similar ; 
and there are nearly 80 coincidences of expres- 
sion in the 155 vv. Compare Huxley's letters 
written about the same time to different cor- 
respondents. On the other hand, assume that 
only one of the two Epistles is genuine, and 
that the other is made up from it, and it is 
impossible to determine which is the original 
and which is the copy; for in one place Ephe- 
sians, and in another place Colossians appears 
clearly to be original. If both are original, 
there is no difficulty. (2) Nor is much serious 
difficulty to be found in the second point. We 
are told that the kind of Pauline teaching 
which we find in Ephesians is of a more de- 
veloped character than the teaching of St. 
Paul, and therefore belongs to a later age : it 
reveals a doctrinal standpoint which a disciple 
of the Apostle might reach, but not St. Paul 
himself. The doctrine of all Christians mak- 
ing one Church of which Christ is the Head, 
and of its being through the Spirit (2 22 ) that 
Christ abides and works in the Church, is 
thought to be beyond the earlier teaching of 
the Apostle. This attempt to put a limit to 
the amount of growth that would be possible 
for such a mind as that of St. Paul is arbitrary 
and uncritical. The advance, as compared with 
Romans, is not so extraordinary. The equality 
of Gentiles with Jews in the Church is main- 
tained in both Epistles (Ro 21-29 Epulis), 
and in both the universality of the previous 
corruption is made an argument for the univer- 
sality of salvation (Ro3 9 " 31 Eph2!- 22 ). An 
advance is made in Ephesians, in that here for 
the first time all Christians are regarded as 
forming one Ecclesia, or Assembly of Cod, or 
Church, of which Christ is the Head (43, 4, 12, 
13, 15) # This development was very natural in 
one who was writing from Rome, the centre of 
the civilised world. It does not imply that 
there are a number of local Churches which 
all make up one universal Church: that idea 
might be evidence of a later age: but that, 
throughout the world, there are many Christian 
individuals, who are members of a Body, whose 
Head is Jesus Christ. 

2. The Recipients of the Epistle. There 
is little doubt that Beza was right in supposing 
that this letter was addressed, not to the 
Ephesians alone, but to other Churches of Asia 
also ; and that Archbishop Ussher got still 
nearer to the truth in regarding it as an en- 
cyclical letter, which Tychicus was to take first 
to Ephesus and then to other Churches, of 
which Laodicea was one. Our Epistle to the 
Ephesians is probably ' the Epistle from Lao- 
dicea,' which the Colossians were to read, while 
their own Epistle was to be read at Laodicea 
(Col4 16 ). Our two best MSS (N, B) and the 



well-informed corrector of another (67) omit 
1 at Ephesus ' in Eph 1 1 . Origen shows that 
his text did not contain l at Ephesus ' ; and 
St. Basil states that ' at Ephesus ' was omitted 
both by predecessors of his and in the older 
MSS. Marcion cannot have had the words. 
Evidently, from early in the second century, 
there were copies of the Epistle in which there 
was a blank after l to the saints which are,' 
and the bearer of the letter would fill in the 
blank according to the place in which he was 
at the time. Probably each Church made a 
copy of the letter for its own use before it 
was sent on, and so large a Church as that of 
Ephesus would multiply copies, each of them 
with the words 'at Ephesus ' filled in. This 
explanation of the omission of ' at Ephesus ' in 
such very early authorities is strongly confirmed 
by the character of the Epistle itself. It has no 
local colour, no allusions to special difficulties 
or dangers, no mention of individuals other 
than the bearer of the letter. When we con- 
sider that St. Paul had lived for three years at 
Ephesus (Ac20 31 ), that he must have been 
most intimate with the Christians there and 
their needs, and that not only in earlier letters 
(as Thessalonians and Corinthians), but also in 
letters written at the same time as Ephesians 
(as Colossians and Philemon), he exhibits the 
keenest interest in local requirements and 
persons, then the omission of all such things in 
this Epistle would be inexplicable, if it were 
addressed to the Ephesians only. If it is ad- 
dressed to Ephesus and several other Churches, 
in some of which there were persons who were 
unknown to him, then the absence of local 
features is not only natural but necessary. 
In 1 15 3 2 4 21 he seems to be thinking of people 
who have not seen him, and perhaps do not 
know much about him. 

3. The Circumstances of the Epistle. St. Paul 
wrote it when he was ' the prisoner of Christ 
Jesus ' (3 !), ' the prisoner in the Lord ' (4 *). 
Does this refer to the two years' imprisonment 
at Caesar ea, the civil capital of Palestine, or 
to the two years' imprisonment (which began 
soon afterwards) at Rome, the capital of the 
empire ? Such evidence as we have decides 
for the latter. (1) At Caesarea the Apostle 
was in rather close confinement, and strangers 
would not be likely to come in contact with 
him. At Rome he lived ' in a hired lodging 
of his own and received all that went in unto 
him, preaching the gospel of God . . with all 
boldness, none forbidding him' (Ac28 30 > 31 ). 
Here Onesimus could easily hear him and be 
won over to Christianity. Moreover, a run- 
away slave would be more likely to take refuge 
in Rome than at Caesarea. And the imprison- 
ment in which St. Paul converted Onesimus is 
the imprisonment in which he wrote our Epistle. 
(2) The whole tone of the Epistle is imperial. 



959 



INTRO. 



EPHESIANS 



IXTKO. 



Christ is the Kuler of a world-wide empire, in 
which every Christian, Jew or Gentile, has 
equal rights and duties. Such a conception 
of the Christian commonwealth would arise 
much more readily in the metropolis of the 
world, and close to the palace of the Caesars, 
than in a provincial town like Caesarea. The 
providential purpose of the Roman empire 
suggests the providential purpose of the Chris- 
tian Revelation. And thus he writes, not 
merely to one Christian, as Philemon, and to 
one particular Church, as Colossae, but also 
urbi et orbl, to the whole body of Christians ; 
and one and the same messenger (probably in 
63 a.d.) carries these three proofs of the ver- 
satility of the Apostle to the Churches of the 
East. 

4. The Contents of the Epistle. After the 
usual Salutation (1 l > 2 ), Thanksgiving (1 3 " 14 ), we 
have a corresponding Prayer (l 15 -2 10 ), and a 
Contrast between the unconverted and the 
converted Gentiles (2U- 22 ). The Apostle's 
special interest in the Conversion of the Gen- 
tiles (3 1 * 13 ) leads to a return to Prayer for 
them and a Doxology (3 14 " 21 ), and then to Ex- 
hortations respecting the Unity of the Catholic 
Church (4 1 " 6 ) and the Duties of its Members 
(4 7 -6 9 ), who must be Spiritual Warriors ar- 
rayed in the armour of God (6i°- 2 °). The 
Mission of Tychicus (6 21 > 22 ) and the Benedic- 
tion (6 23 > 24 ) form the conclusion. Let us look 
at these subjects more closely. 

While Colossians sets forth Christ's glory as 
Head of the Church and of the Universe, 
Ephesians sets forth the glory of the Church 
itself, and draws practical conclusions from it. 
The main idea is the unity of Christians as 
forming one body with Christ as its unseen 
Head. All men, whether Jews or Gentiles, 
are one in the Church, which is the holy 
Temple of God (2 2 °- 22 ) and the spotless Bride 
of Christ (5 25 - 28 ). The existing Church has 
many imperfections, but the full measure of 
perfection will at last be realised (4 13 ). And 
each Christian must labour for this, especially 
through purified family life (5 M> 9 ); for the 
life of the family is a symbol of the life of the 
Church. Each individual member must have 
this ideal before him — the perfecting of the 
unity of the whole body : unless the unity is 
realised, perfection is impossible. This is 
what is meant by saying that in this Epistle 
1 St. Paul has given to his teaching a new 
centre,' viz. the existence of the Church. 
Round this the teaching in the Epistle revolves. 
This new centre is all the more appropriate, 
when we remember thai the Epistle was not 
addressed to the Ephesians only, but was an 
open Letter to be sent to several Churches in 
succession. 

The Epistle opens with the grand idea of 
the unity of Creation, which was in God's 



mind from the first (1 4 > 9 > 10 ). And this idea is 
emphasised by the wonderful fact, that the 
two divisions of the human race, the Jews and 
the Gentiles, who had hitherto been so bitterly 
opposed, are henceforth to be blended into one 
body, with one Head, and one God and Father 
of all (2 n ' 22 ). The gospel is not for any one 
favoured race, but for all mankind. This 
mystery of the universality of the gospel and 
of salvation has been revealed to the Apostle 
(3 1 - 13 ), who prays that those who accept it may 
be able to understand it (3 14 ' 19 ). The very 
thought of such a consummation causes the 
Apostle to burst out into fervent praise of 
God, whose glory in the Church and in Christ 
will continue to grow in successive generations 
through countless ages (3 20 > 21 ). 

To this magnificent idea of unity the Chris- 
tian life must correspond, by the rightly 
proportioned and harmonious development of 
the members of the Christian community, in 
the body of which Christ is the Head (4 3 - 16 ). 
It was not always thus harmonious : the old 
heathen life (4 1 ' i '- 19 ) was very different from 
the new Christian life (4 20 " 24 ). Just consider 
these particular marks of change for the 
better ; they are a revolution. There is 
truthfulness (4 2 &), control of temper (4 2 6.27) ? 
honest and generous labour (4 28 ), avoidance 
of bad language and bitterness (4 29-32) } loving- 
kindness (5 1 ' 2 ), horror of impurity in act or 
word (5 3(5 ). In short, Christians must be at 
home, not in darkness and deeds of shame, 
but in the light which is shed by the presence 
of Christ (5 7-14 ). This will produce a wise 
sobriety, in a spirit of thankfulness to God, 
and of good feeling towards one another 

(515-21). 

Let us come down to the details of family 
life ; for the family is the unit of society. 
Out of families, rather than out of individuals, 
the Church is built up. There is the duty of 
wives to husbands and of husband to wives, 
symbolising the relation between Christ and 
the Church, just as the family symbolises the 
Church (5 22 " 33 ). There is the duty of children 
to parents and of parents to children (6 1 * 4 ). 
And there is the duty of servants to masters 
and of masters to servants (6 5 " 9 ). In all these 
three elements of family life the idea of unity 
is found once more. Husband and wife, in a 
mysterious way, are ' one flesh.' The relation- 
ship of parent and child, with affectionate 
education on the one side and affectionate 
obedience on the other, is 'in the Lord'; 
each is a member of Christ. Both servants 
and masters have one and the same Master in 
heaven, And in all three cases there is ' one 
Q-od and Father of all, who is over all, and 
through all, and in all.' 

But the peacefulness of the family gives 
only one side of the Christian life ; on another 



960 






INTRO. 



side it is a perpetual warfare against great 
and unseen powers. Against these spiritual 
hosts of wickedness the Christian must always 
be fully armed with weapons equal to the 
conflict ; and there is a divine equipment of 
truth and righteousness, faith and salvation 
the gospel and the word of God, always at 
his disposal (610-17). But he must not be 
absorbed m his own contest ; he must remem- 
ber to pray for all other Christians. Especially 
let him remember the prisoner ■ that writes 
this letter, and pray, not that he may be set 
tree, but that even in chains he may have 
courage to preach the gospel. Tychicus will 
tell you all about him ; and may God give all 
of you His grace and love, together with faith 
to accept these gifts (6 i 8 - 2 *). 

The earliest form of the title is ' To the 
Ephesians'; but even this is not original. 
Whoever first placed it at the head of the 
Epistle either made a good guess as to its 
destination or had ' at Ephesus ' (1 1) i n his 
copy. Marcion called it ' To the Laodicenes.' 

CHAPTER 1 

Thanksgiving for Blessings and 
Prayer for Wisdom 

* IC'n T , he salutation - I- In the Salutations 
to the Colossians and to Philemon, written at 
the same time, ' Timothy the brother ' is 
coupled with St. Paul. He is omitted here 
because of the general character of the letter 
At Ephesus was omitted for the same 
reason (see Intro.). The Apostle takes the 
whole responsibility of instructing Christians at 
C\ ge r J s P ectin g ' the whole counsel of God ' 

2. This is the usual salutation in the 
Pauline, as in the Petrine Epistles ; 1 and 2 
limothy are exceptions. 

3-14; This doxology or thanksgiving 
should be compared with that in 2 Cor 1 8-if 
That is for a special deliverance ; this is for 
God s general mercy in revealing His purpose 
to sum up all things in Christ. ' We Jews 
have long had this promise ; but ye Gentiles 
also have been sealed with the Holy Spirit as 
an earnest of the inheritance.' The long sen- 
tence, with its accumulated richness of lan- 
guage, shows how difficult St. Paul finds it to 
express m words the majestic thoughts of 
which his mind is so full. « I bless God, who 
has blessed us with the best of blessings, in 
virtue of our union with Christ. For this 
end He selected us from all eternity to live 
m His presence in holiness and love All 
along He destined us to be His sons through 
the work of Jesus Christ. He did this simply 
out of His good-will, and to call forth our 
adoring gratitude. This was His grace to us 
in Him who is the Beloved, who redeemed us 
by His death, and freed us from our sins 



EPHESIANS 



Gl 



961 



1. 14 

What a wealth of grace is this ! It conveys 
wisdom and understanding ; for He han W 
us know His secret purpose" wh"h directs and 

bo?hT J. course f ages ' to brin ^ a11 thin ^, 

both in heaven and on earth, into harmony 
in Christ. In Christ, I say, in'whom we W 
been chosen as God's portion ; for all along 
He destined us, according to His all-wise will 
that we Jews who had fixed our hopes on 
Christ, should live to His glory. And with 

by faith in the gospel, and have received the 
TA a : S ^- pledge that ^n are His portion 
and that His work of redemption is complete 
and redounds to His glory.' 

3- With the God of our Lord Tesus Christ 
cp. 1 W Heb 1 9 Jn 20 17 Re v j 6 J I ^ " wTthTl 
spiritual blessings] RV < with every spiritual 
blessing.' Something much higher" than the 
material, temporal blessings promised in the 

/ ' > ^T Ven } y plaCe8 ^ R V ' in the heavenly 
plates. The phrase is found in four other- 
places in Ephesians (1 20 2 6 3 io 6 i 2)?and nowhere 
else. There is no substantive in the Gk., and 
we may render, 'among the heavenly things' • 
the unseen world, in which lie the spiritual 
forces which oppose us and which help us 
Here are the true realities. 

t I D h il t0r ^ G ° d selecte <* the Dews first 
and then the Gentiles; but the selection of 
both was made in eternity, independently of 
time, and through Christ. In love] man's love 

Coi?°?2™\c h ^ ellOW *' not God ' s love t0 nian 
(317 42,15,1652) 5 . An are God , g ch . ldren 

by creation -but He adopted first the Jews 
(Ko 9 4), and then believers (Ro 8 15 Gal 4 5) into 
a special sonship. St. Paul is the only NT 
writer who uses this metaphor of adoption,' 
taken from Roman law. 6. To the praise 
of the glory] This phrase comes thrice, as a 
sort of refrain : cp. vv. 12, 14. God's amazing 
bounty is a glory to be ceaselessly praised 

7- Israel had beenredeemed by Jehovahfrom 
bondage ; Israelites and Gentiles are redeemed 
by Christ from sin: 8. Wisdom and prudence] 
These are the fruits of God's grace in us ; in- 
sight into His counselsand consequent wise con- 

T C l :1 ^r 7u mgivingUSall ' etc - °. Mystery] 
In the NT. this means a secret that has been 

fT™ Ai/^T^ 6 W ° rd With St Paul 
( d ' ' 9 532 6 19 , etc.) : cp. 2Esdrl236. 

io. ' For carrying out a dispensation which 
was carried out in the fulness of the seasons, 
so as to gather up in one all things in Christ.' 
When all the seasons had run out, the final 
revelation came : cp. 2Esdr437. Dispensation] 
- (1) office of steward, (2) household manage- 
ment, (o) any provision or arrangement 
t I3 \ Y t als °] l y e Gentiles as well as we 
Jews. Sealed with] < received the Holy Spirit 
as a pledge that your deliverance should be 
complete. 14. An earnest = Scotch 'arles,' 



L 15 



EPHESIANS 



3. % 



is more than a ' pledge ' ; it is an instalment 
handed over in advance, as a guarantee that 
the remainder will follow (2 Cor 1 '-- 5*). It is 
part of the whole to be delivered. Redemption 
of the purchased possession] ' the emancipa- 
tion of all that God has made His own.' 

15-C. 2 10 . The doxology shades off into 
prayer that his readers may have wisdom to 
understand the glory of their inheritance and 
the great power of God. a power manifested in 
raising and exalting Christ (w. 20-23), and in 
raising and exalting us (2 1 ' 10 ). How great it 
must be ! 

15. Heard] This looks as if there were 
some whom St. Paul had not seen, i.e. others 
besides Ephesians. 17. Cp. 2Esdrl4--- 5 . 

21. The Apostle partly adopts and partly 
rejects Jewish phraseology about unseen 
powers. " Call them what you please. Christ 
is above them all.' 22. An echo of Ps8 5_s . If 
that could be said of man. how much more of 
Christ ! 23. Cp. the Tine and the branches 
(Jnl5 5 ) ; Christ is the source of the life and 
completeness of the Church. But St. Paul 
seems to mean that Christ is. in a sense, in- 
complete without the Church. The very idea 
of Head implies a body. It is doubtful whether 
the Gk. can mean ' that hlleth all in all." 
Rather, ' who all in all is being fulfilled, made 
complete': cp. Coll- 4 . 

CHAPTER 2 

Gentiles and Jews are now One 
in Christ 

i-io. Further illustration of God's power. 
He raised both Gentiles and Jews from the 
death of sin and exalted them to Christ's side. 

2. The prince of the power of the air] Jewish 
phraseology, as in 1 - 1 . The air is regarded as 
full of evil powers, with Satan as their prince 
ihi- Lk22 53 A.c26 18 Coll 13 ). 3. Also we] 
• we Jews were as dead in sins as you Gentiles, 
and were thus objects of God's wrath' (5°). 

Had our conversation] RV ' lived.' 

5. Quickened us . . with Christ] ' made us, 
who were morally dead, to share the life of 
Christ.' 6, 8, 9. l No merit of our own has 
saved us; it is all God's free gift.' 10. Created 
in Christ Jesus] He means the new creation, 
by which the whole human race, reunited in 
Christ, makes a fresh start (2 M 4- 4 GalO 1 '')- 
Mankind began as one race ; it was split in 
two ; it is now one again. 

n-22. 'Ye Gentiles were formerly cut off 
from brae] and from God's promises. But 
new Christ's death has broken down the 
barrier between Gentile and Jew, and reconciled 

DOtfa as one body t«> God. There are now no 
strangers : all are fellow-citizens ; all are parts 
<>f a spiritual temple, in which God, in His 
Spirit, dwells.' 

11. In the flesh] repeated for emphasis; 

9G 



it was in the flesh that the difference between 
Jew and Gentile was marked. Called] not 
contemptuous in either place ; not ' so-called.' 
The distinction was real enough, but it has 
been done away. 12. WithoutGod] 'Atheists'; 
the only place where the word occurs in the 
Bible: the heathen were 'godless.' 13. But 
now] The blessed contrast is enlarged upon at 
four times the length (w. 13-22) of the original 
sad condition (vv. 11, 12). 

14. He is our peace] emphatic pronoun ; 
1 it is He who is our peace.' The middle wall of 
partition is perhaps an allusion to the warning 
barrier which marked off the Court of the 
Gentiles from the higher level of the Court of 
the Women in the Temple. It was death for 
a Gentile to pass the barrier. 15. The Fall 
of man introduced discord between God and 
man. and between man and man. The Law 
revealed this discord. Christ in His humanity 
fulfilled the Law for man. and set an example 
of perfect obedience. His humanity united 
all mankind ; His obedience united mankind 
to God. 16. A paradox : the Slain slays, and 
a bloody death, which commonly provokes 
enmity, slays it. 17. Exulting repetition of 
•peace.' four times in four vv. : cp. IsaoT 19 . 

18. Quite incidentally the recognition of Son, 
Spirit, and Father, comes to the surface : 
cp. 4« lCorl2« 2 Cor 13 14. The Apostle 
habitually thinks of the Godhead as three- 
fold. 

19. From the idea of 'Father' he easily 
passes to that of ' household,' and thence to 
that of ' a house.' 20. They are not merely 
members of the family : they are stones in the 
structure of the home, in which God Himself 
dwells : see on 3 6 , 21. All the building] This 
is the right meaning : only one building is in 
the Apostle's mind, as the preceding vv. show. 
The RVs accuracy is here misleading : cp. 
'all' in 18 Col4W. 22. Through the Spirit] 
RV 'in the Spirit.' It is in the Spirit's 
dwelling in us that God dwells in us. 

CHAPTER 3 

Rf.asons foe renewing the Prayer for 

Wisdom 

1-13. A digression, which, however, could 
not be spared. As in 1 '"'. lie begins to speak of 
himself, and this time he explains his unique 
interest in the conversion of the Gentiles, 
' Many of his readers had not seen him. but 
tluy must have heard of the special work 
assigned to him by God. of making known to 
all the mystery of the ages, so that even 
angelic- powers learn through the Church the 
manysidedness of the Divine counsels.' 

1. ' It was worth while becoming a prisoner 
in Mich a cause ' (Philemon v. 9, 2 Tim! s ). 

2. Again the sentence is broken : cp. 1 13 
4 4 » 5 . I lis being a prisoner on their behalf 



EPHESIANS 



4. 11 



suggests a fresh train of thought. If he had 
been writing to Ephesiana only, he could not 
have said 'if.' Ephesiana had heard himself: 

cp. Col 1 2 ~ J . 3. Afore in few words] in the 
first two chs. 5. ' The revelation is quite 
new ; it has been hidden for many generations.' 
The Apostles and prophets are holy, as the 
readers are saints (1 l ), as being set apart lor 
Grod'fl Bervice ; they had accepted St. Paul's 
doctrine of salvation for the Gentiles. The 
prophets are the NT. prophets, as in 2 20 4 11 
1 Corl.2 28 " 81 . 6. This is the mystery that has 
been revealed. 

7. The Apostle of the Gentiles enlarges on 
the greatness of his special mission. Thrice 
here he calls it a grace given to him : cp. Gal 
2™ Coll 2 - 1 . 8. Unsearchable] inexplorable ; 
that cannot be traced out. Riches] the com- 
prehensiveness and power of the gospel. 

9. • That which for ages has been kept secret 
from the wisest and holiest is now brought to 
light for all to see.' 10. It is an amazing 
thought that, by means of the Church. God's 
varied wisdom in the scheme of redemption i# 
made known to heavenly beings. ' Angels 
de-ire to look into ' ' the manifold grace of 
God' (IPetl 12 4 10 ). 11, 12. God's eternal 
purpose accomplished in Christ, through faith 
in whom we have courage to draw near to 
God. 12. A repetition of 2" : C p. Ro8 38 » ae . 

13. That ye faint not] It might mean ' that 
i" may not faint.' But St. Paul is not afraid 
of losing heart : he rejoiced in tribulations 
(R05 3 ), and took pleasure in weaknesses 
(2Corl2 lf J). He is afraid that the Gentiles 
may lose heart, when they see him persecuted 
for helping them : they ought rather to glory 
in this. 

Now he returns to v. 1 after his magnificent 
digression, and at last gives in fulness the 
prayer for their enlightenment which he 
began 1 17 . It is a very bold intercession. 

14-21. Prayer and doxology. 'May they 
have great spiritual power, may Christ dwell 
in their hearts, may they know His incompre- 
hensible love, and be filled up to the measure 
of God's fulness. To Him. who can give in 
abundance blessings which we cannot even 
imagine, be glory for ever.' 

14. For this cause" because of their union 
with the Jews in Christ (2 13 " 22 J. The Jews stood 
to pray (Mt6 5 LklS 11 " 13 ;. prostration being 
exceptional : but Christians are said to kneel 
(Ac7S° 9 40 20 36 21 5), perhaps after Lk22 41 . 

15. 'All fatherhood, whether earthly or 
celestial, derives its name from the Fatherhood 
of God.' 16. The inner man] is the immaterial 
part of man's nature, the soul and spirit ; ' the 
outward man' (2Cor4 1(5 ) being the flesh. 

18. May be ablej ' may have/;/// strength to 
comprehend what is really incomprehensible.' 
The four dimensions represent the vastness of 



the love of Christ towards us. 19. An auda- 
cious paradox : ' that ye may be filled up to 
all the fulness of God.' i.e. to the perfection of 
the Divine attributes (Mto'j. 

20. The doxology explains the audacity of 
the prayer. God can give superabundantly 
quite inconceivable boons. 21. In the Church 
by Christ Jesus] RV ' in the Church and in 
Christ Jesus/ in the Body and in the Head. 
The Church in this Epistle is always the 
Church universal, never a local Church. This 
Church completes the Christ (1 t '- j ). reveals 
God's wisdom to the angels (3 10 ), is, with 
Christ, the sphere in which God is glorified. 
It is indeed a glorious Church (5 Al ). 

CHAPTER 4 

Unity of the New Life. Rules for 

the New Life 

The Apostle passes, as usual, from doctrinal 
statements to practical exhortations ; but 
doctrine is here and there introduced to 
support exhortation. 

1-6. ' Live in humility, in loving forbear- 
ance, and in unity, for we have one Body, one 
Head, and one Heavenly Father.' 1. Prisoner] 
This looks back to 3 1 . 'He can no longer 
superintend them : they must walk alone. 
He lost his liberty in their service : they will 
do what he asks.' 2. To a Greek, meekness 
was a second-rate virtue, and lowliness no 
virtue at all. The gospel gives both qualities 
their true position. The nearer man comes to 
God. the more he feels his own worthlessnes-. 
and the member of a vast Church knows his 
own insignificance. 4. ' One Body, animated 
by one Spirit, and cheered by one Hope.' 

5. • One Head, to which each member is 
united by one Faith and one Baptism.' 

6. ' One God. the supreme Source and Sus- 
tainer.' In you all] RV ' in all.' Throughout 
the v. the ' all ' is vague and may be neuter : 
we must leave it vague. Note the Trinitarian 
background : Spirit. Lord, Father. 

7-16. "But the various members have 
various gifts and functions.' 

8. He saith] There is no pronoun in the 
Greek, and the nominative may be ; it.' ' the 
Scripture.' viz. PsG8 18 . The important parts 
of the quotation are ' He ascended ' and ; gave 
gifts.' Led captivity captive] i.e. led many 
captives in His train. These He used as 
ministers. 9, 10. The meaning of this obscure 
passage seems to be this. ' Christ ascended, 
not to leave His Church an orphan (Jn 14 : '-;. 
but in order to return- to it with the rich gifts 
of His spiritual presence. The ascent without 
this subsequent descent would be incompre- 
hensible.' The descent is placed after the 
ascent, and can hardly refer to either the burial 
or the descent into Hades. RY omits first. 

11. He gave] ' He ' is emphatic ; ' He it is 



9G3 



4. 12 



EPHESIANS 



5. 13 



who gave.' Some, apostles] RV ' some to be 
apostles ' ; ' some as Apostles.' ' Some ' is accu- 
sative, not dative. St. Paul is speaking of the 
Church as a whole, and does not mention 
bishops, presbyters, or deacons, which were 
local ministers : cp. 1 Cor 12 28 R 126-8. 

12. For . . for . . for] There is a change of 
preposition, which should be marked in English 
—for . . unto . . unto; and there should be no 
comma after ' saints.' The saints are per- 
fected with a view to their ministering, to their 
building up of the Church. 13. Come in the 
unity] RV ' attain unto the unity.' A more 
mature and perfect unity than the Church had 
at first (2 15 ), an ideal to work for, resulting in 
a mature and perfect humanity, endowed with 
the fulness which Christ, in union with the 
Church (1 2 3), has. 

14. 'In order to reach this united manhood, 
we must cease to be a number of unstable 
children, at the mercy of every scheming 
teacher.' 15. Speaking the truth in love] 
upholding truth without bitterness. 

16. Language cannot express the full truth. 
Christ is the Head. He is also the whole 
organism. He is also the source of its unity, 
growth, and energy. Consistency of thought 
and language is lost in this divine physiology. 

17-24. ' How different are the believing 
Gentiles from the unbelieving ! Believers 
must beware of retaining anything of the 
vanity, ignorance, or impurity of the old 
heathen life.' 

17. Walk] He returns from the lofty pane- 
gyric of Christian unity to the lower but neces- 
sary topic of the Christian ' walk.' He began 
with ' do ' (4 1 ) ; here it is nearly all ' do not.' 

18. Pagans, k being darkened in their under- 
standing,' must be alienated from Him in 
whom is no darkness (Un 1 5 ). RV substitutes 
' hardening ' for blindness ; perhaps wrongly. 

19. Being past feeling] they ceased to 
notice the pricks of conscience, and became 
reckless. In Hoi-' 1 -- 1 we have the same se- 
qnenoe : vanity, darkness, uncleanness. 

21. Heard him] Be is not. thinking of the 
possibility that sonic of t hem had heard Christ 
be&ch: they ' heard Him' in listening to the 
gospel ; heard what Be taught on earth. 

In Jesus] St. Paul rarely uses this name by 
itself : wh«n he -Iocs, he is thinking of the 

earthly life, 'hath, and rising again. T<> him 
Christ ia the glorified Christ, 'Jesus Christ.' 
■ Ghrisl Jesus,' ' the Lord .Ions." <>r l the Lord 
Christ. 1 22. Put off ] Like filthy, worn 

out eh. ihrs. the Old Self had to be put awav. 
Conversation has the old meaning <>f ' 111:111- 
oer of Life ' (Shakespeare, ' 2 Ben. IV,' v. 5) : 
op. 1 Pet3 8 2 Pel "J 7 . 24. The new man which 
after God hath been created is that fresh 
form of humanity, after the Brsl divine pat- 
tern, which redemption has produced. In 



righteousness and true holiness] RV ' in right- 
eousness and holiness of truth.' ' Of truth ' 
belongs to both substantives. 

25-32. Illustrations of the old man : false- 
hood, vindictiveness, theft, bad language, bad 
temper ; and, by contrast, of the new. 

25. From Zech 8 16 . ' How monstrous that 
members of the same body should deceive one 
another ! and members of Christ ! ' 26. From 
Ps 4 4 . ' Anger may be righteous, but beware 
of nursing it.' 27. Give place to means ' give 
him an opening.' 28. ' Instead of robbing 
others, earn something to share with others.' 

29. Corrupt communication] bad language 
of any kind. To the use of edifying-] RV ' for 
edifying as the need may be,' i.e. for building 
up the social fabric as occasion may require, 
that it may benefit them that hear. 30. ' The 
Spirit, who sealed us as His own, is pained 
when our tongues rebel.' 32. ' The merciful- 
ness of God forbids our being unmerciful to 
our brethren : become kind.' 

CHAPTER 5 
1 The old Darkness and new Light. 
Rules for the Married 

I, 2. In close connexion with what precedes. 
' It is the mark of beloved children to become 
imitators of a loving Father ; practise the 
self-sacrifice of Christ, which shows how He 
loved us and the Father.' 

3-14. Special exhortation against covetous- 
ness and impurity. 

3. But] The five sins mentioned in 4 25 ' 32 
are to be put away ; these two are not even 
to be mentioned : ' saints ' are set apart from 
such subjects, being consecrated to God. 4. ' Do 
not get near these topics for the sake of being 
amusing.' ' Thanksgiving ' is not an obvious 
contrast to ' jesting,' but in Gk. there is an 
alliteration ; not //joughtlessness, but fAanks- 
giving. Convenient] RY 'befitting.' 5. ' Those 
who do these things can have no inheritance 
in Christ's kingdom.' 6. ' Sophists tell you 
that these things are " natural," " venial," 
" peccadillos." It is just these sins which 
incur God's wrath.' 

7, 8. ' Do not return to your old darkness 
(4 18 ) : ye are now light to illuminate others.' 

9. Fruit of the Spirit] This comes from 
Gal 5 22 : ' fruit of the light ' is right here 
(RV). 10. ' Those who walk as children of 
light find out by experience what God's will 
is : light is always a test.' 11. Li:;ht has 
' fruit ' (v. 9), but darkness has only ' fruitless 
works': cp. Gal :') '" '-. Rather reprove 
thrm'] ' rather even expose them,' as light is 
sure to do. 'Reprove them' is hardly con- 
sistent with the context. In Jn 3 20 ' reproved ' 
should be 'exposed' : cp. ICorU-h Things 
so shameful ought not to he passed over. 

13. ' But all things when they are exposed 



%4 



5. 14 



EPHESIANS 



6.9 



by the light are made manifest ; for whatso- 
ever is made manifest is light.' Light turns 
darkness into light : this had happened to his 
readers (v. 8). 14. He saith] rather, ' it saith ' 
= "• it is said.' The quotation is probably 
from a Christian hymn, based on IsaSO 1 : cp. 
1 Tim 3 1«3. 

15-21. ' Be most careful then in conduct. 
Beware of folly ; in particular of drunkenness. 
Prefer spiritual exaltation and an orderly life, 
each in his own place.' 

15. Then or "therefore' marks the return 
to exhortation, and walk refers back to vv. 
2, 8. RV is everywhere better : ' Look there- 
fore carefully how ye walk, not as unwise, but 
as wise.' 16. Redeeming] 'buying up for 
yourselves the opportunity.' 17. 'Wherefore 
do not show yourselves fook, but understand.' 

18. Excess] RV ' riot ' (as Tit 1 6 1 Pet 4 4 ), 
and 'riotous living' (Lkl5 13 ). With the 
Spirit] RM ' in spirit ' ; ' not your bodies, but 
your souls should be full.' 19. The primitive 
Church was emphatically a Church of enthu- 
siasm and spiritual emotion (AC2 43 - 47 8 8 16 25 : 
cp. Col3 16 ). 21. But everything is to 'be 
done decently and in order ' : enthusiasm is 
not to lead to anarchy. St. Paul ceaselessly 
preaches ' submission ' or ' subjection ' to 
authority (Rol3i-7 lCorU 32 , 3 * iqw Tit3i). 

22-33. First illustration of orderly subor- 
dination ; the relation between wives and 
husbands. 

22. As unto the Lord] with 'the fear of 
Christ' (v. 21) as their motive. 23. Once 
more (3 15 ) a mystical connexion between 
heavenly and earthly relationships is traced. 
The forethought of the head preserves the 
body : control implies obligation to protect. 

24. Accepting protection implies submission. 
25-33. The love of husbands to their wives 

corresponds to Christ's love to His Church, 
for which He sacrificed Himself, to hallow it, 
to present it to Himself, and to keep it holy. 
Christ and the Church are one in body ; hus- 
band and wife are one in body ; hence Christ's 
love for His Church is that of husband for 
bride. Of marriage it is wonderfully said 
that two become one. This is true of Christ 
and the Church. And as the Church responds 
to Christ's love with reverential fear, so let 
the wife have reverential fear of her husband. 

25. Government must be unselfish — for the 
good of the governed : cp. v. 2. 26. Washing 
of water] Christian baptism, with perhaps a 
reference to the bride's bath before marriage. 

By the word] RV ' with the word,' to be 
taken with ' the washing of water ' and mean- 
ing the baptismal formula. 27. ' That He 
might Himself to Himself present the Church 
all-glorious' : cp. 2 Cor ll 2 , of St. Paul's pre- 
senting the Corinthian Church to Christ. 

28. RV ' Even so ought husbands also to 



love their own wives as [being] their own 
bodies.' Not ' as much as,' or ' as if they 
were ' : their wives are their own bodies. 

29. The change from ' body ' to ' flesh' pre- 
pares for what is coming. 30. ' Christ cher- 
ishes the Church, because its members are His.' 
The words ' of His flesh and of His bones ' 
are an interpolation from Gn2 23 . 

32. This is a great mystery] RV ' This 
mystery is great.' ' It has a deep, wide-reach- 
ing meaning ; but I am employing it of Christ 
and the Church.' 33. Reverence] RV ' fear.' 
He returns to the motive stated at the outset, 
' the fear of Christ' (v. 21). Reverential fear, 
as that of the Church to her Lord, is meant. 
Subjection without reverence would be servile. 

CHAPTER 6 

Rules for the Family. The Christian's 
Armour 

1-4. Second illustration of orderly subor- 
dination : the relation between children and 
parents. 

1. As before, those who have to obey and 
submit are taken first. Cp. in the Lord 
here with ' unto the Lord ' (5 22 ) and ' unto 
Christ ' (v. 5). Right] both nature and the 
express Law of God enjoin it. 2. With pro- 
mise] the first which is accompanied with a 
promise : cp. ' with the word ' (5 26 ). We 
might punctuate, ' the first commandment, 
with promise that it may be well,' etc. 3. On 
the other hand, disobedience to parents is 
very heinous (Ro 1 30 2 Tim 3 2 ). 4. And] 'Pa- 
rents also have their obligations : they must (1) 
not be unreasonable in their demands on their 
children ; (2) give godly discipline.' He says 
' fathers,' because mothers would be less likely 
to be too severe or to control the education. 

Nurture] RV ' chastening ' (Hebl2 5 .7,s,ii) : 
in 2 Tim 3 16 , 'instruction.' Of the Lord means 
'such as God would provide': cp. ' of God,' v.ll. 

5-9. Third illustration : the relation be- 
tween servants and masters. 

5. Servants] All servants then were slaves ; 
and St. Paul says ' slaves ' : ' be obedient to ' 
might be ' obey,' as in v. 1 : ' according to the 
flesh ' = earthly. With fear and trembling] 
' very anxious to do well ' : it does not imply 
a harsh master (2 Cor 7 15 Phil 2 12 ). 6. Chris- 
tianity gives no sanction to rebellion : it elevates 
and intensifies the duty of obedience. From 
the heart] These words may be taken with 
what follows ; ' from the soul with good-will 
doing service.' 7. ' Obedience must be not 
only thorough, but hearty : temper is all- 
important.' 8. ' Good conduct, whether of 
slave or lord, will be fully requited by Him 
who is Lord of both.' 9. ' Masters, like hus- 
bands and parents, have their obligations ; 
they also must have good-temper and good- 
will, and be God-fearing.' St. Paul does not 



965 



6. 10 



EPHESIANS 



6. 24 



tell them to emancipate their slaves ; but he 
tells them to love them as brethren (Philemon 
v. 16). This does not free the slave, but it 
frees slavery of its evils. 

10-20. The final charge is, ' Be strong, and 
find your strength in the Lord. Be armed 
with God's armour ; for we have to contend, 
not with earthly foes, but with spiritual 
powers of great wickedness. Watch and pray 
ceaselessly for the whole Church and for me, 
that I may be a courageous missionary, even 
in prison.' 

io. My brethren] an insertion from Phil 
3 l : cp. 2 Cor 1 3 " Phil 3 * 2 Th 3 1 . Be strong] 
lit. 'be strengthened' (Ro4 20 ). n. Whole 
armour] ' Nothing must be missing of the full 
provision which God makes for our safety.' 
St. Paul omits the spear or pike and the 
greaves of the Roman soldier, yet mentions 
being girded and shod, which most men are, 
but soldiers must be. 12. The malignant 
powers, by which the wiles or stratagems of 
the devil are carried out, are specified. The 
passage is tinged by Jewish ideas about the 
unseen world. The rulers of the darkness of 
this world] This fairly represents the Gk., 
which means powers of darkness, that are 
rulers of this world, but not rulers of the 
universe: cp. 121 310 Col 1*6 2^. In the 
heavenly places (R V)] ' In the spiritual world ' : 
but the Jews contemplated the possibility of 
evil in some of their seven heavens. 

13. 'Against these superhuman powers no- 
thing less than the whole armour of God will 
suffice ; but with that the Christian warrior 
is safe.' 14. The Septuagint of Isall 5 and 
59 17 is in the Apostle's mind : there it is Je- 
hovah who wears the panoply. 15. The pre- 
paration] ' readiness ' to preach the good- 
bidinga of peace: cp. Isa52 7 . The Christian 
warrior fights to bring peace. 16. ' Fire-tipt 
darts' is a metaphor for fierce temptations 
coming from the outside. Faith in God is a 
sure protection against them. 17. Take] 
• Receive from God who supplies the panoply, 
and whose Spirit furnishes the sword, the 
helmet that is salvation.' He is thinking of 
Is.tll': cp. II. •!» I 1 -. 18. The thought of 
the sword furnished by the Spirit, 'who 



maketh intercession for us ' (Ro 8 26 ), naturally 
leads on to the thought of prayer : ' receive 
this sword, with all prayer and supplication 
praying in every season (lTh5 17 ) in the 
Spirit.' Watching] as a trusty warrior should 
(Lk2136). I0 . For me] RV 'on my behalf,' 
there being a change of preposition in the 
Gk. : cp. Col42,3. Boldly] This probably be- 
longs to what follows, as RV ' that utterance 
may be given unto me in opening my mouth, 
to make known with boldness,' etc. l Pray 
that all this may be granted to me.' 20. Am 
an ambassador in bonds] RV ' in chains ' : mg. 
' in a chain.' The singular may refer to the 
coupling-chain by which he could be attached 
to the soldier that guarded him. In any case, 
that an ambassador, whose person was invio- 
late, should be chained, was a paradox. 

21, 22. The Mission of Tychicus f almost 
verbatim as Col4 7 > 8 . Tychicus is the bearer 
of both letters, and of that to Philemon : cp. 
Ac 20 4 2 Tim 4 12 Tit3 12 . By long service he 
well earned the title of 'faithful minister.' 

23, 24. Concluding Benediction. 

Note the omission of all personal saluta- 
tions and similar details, of which we have 
eight vv. in the Epistle to the Colossians. 
This is a circular letter to several Churches, 
and hence no individuals are mentioned. Note 
also the change to the third person, ' to the 
brethren . . all them that love our Lord.' In 
Colossians, as elsewhere, he says ' you.' In 
two other points this benediction differs from 
that in other letters. It is twofold, not single ; 
Peace be to, Grace be with ; and • Peace ' is 
placed before, not after 'Grace.' Contrast 
Rol 7 lCorl3 2Corl2Gall3 Coll 2 , etc. An 
imitator would have copied other Epistles. 

24. Sincerity] It is doubtful whether the 
Gk. can mean this ; better, ' incorruption ' 
(1 Cor 15 42,50,53,54) or ' incorruptibility.' It is 
those who love with an imperishable love that 
are meant : there must be neither decrease 
nor decay. ' Those who were " chosen in Him 
before the foundation of the world" (l 4 ) re- 
tain their love for Him undiminished after 
the world itself has passed away.' 

A worthy conclusion to this immortal 
Epistle 1 



966 



PHILIPPIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Writer and Readers. The community 
of ' the saints in Christ Jesus ' at Philippi had 
existed ten years or more when this letter 
was addressed to them, in 61 or 62 a.d. It 
was founded by the two ' servants of Christ 
Jesus ' whose names head the letter, along with 
St. Silas (Silvanus, lThH, etc.), St. Paul's 
colleague on the second of his great missionary 
journeys (49-53 a.d. : see Acl5 36 -18 21 ). 

The graphic story of the coming of the gospel 
to Philippi in Ac 16 is from the pen of an eye- 
witness ; from v. 10 to v. 16 the narrative runs 
in the first person plural, which reappears in 
20 5 > 6 at a point six years later, when St. Luke, 
presumably, re-joined the Apostle at Philippi. 

Philippi (in form a Gk. plural) — earlier 
Crenides — bore the name of Philip, father of 
Alexander the Great, who gave the place im- 
portance. It guarded the eastern frontier of 
Macedonia, and commanded the pass leading 
from the interior plains to the JEgean Sea at 
Xeapolis (Acl6 n ). This was the first station 
for a traveller from the E. along the Via 
Egnatia, the Roman highway across the Balkan 
peninsula; here St. Paul first halted in his 
invasion of Europe, and the Philippian Church 
was the earliest fruit of his labours in our 
continent. The town had given its name to 
the famous battle, fought in 42 B.C., in which 
Antony and Octavian crushed the Republicans 
of Rome under Brutus and Cassius. In com- 
memoration of that victory Philippi was raised 
to the rank of a military ' colony ' ; a body of 
discharged soldiers being settled there. The 
colonists were free citizens, enjoying exemp- 
tion from poll-tax and tribute, and the right 
of holding the land in full ownership. Such 
communities were regarded as detached por- 
tions of the Roman State, and took no little 
pride in their connexion with the imperial 
city. The Philippian officials are designated, 
in Roman style, ' praetors ' and ' lictors ' in 
Ac 16 (AY 'magistrates' and ' Serjeants ') ; 
they beat the prisoners with the Roman ' rods.' 
' Being Romans,' the people of Philippi resent 
the introduction of ' unlawful ' Jewish ' cus- 
toms ' (Acl6 20 ' 21 ). Hence also the emphasis 
and effect with which the Apostle and his com- 
panion assert here their Roman citizenship. 
Though but a fraction of the Church may have 
belonged to the privileged class holding the 
Italian franchise, the civil status of the ' colony ' 
affected all its inhabitants ; the meanest Philip- 



pian was sensible of the dignity of his city. 
Twice in this letter St. Paul describes the 
Christian status as a 'citizenship' (1 2 73 20 : 
see RV, and mg.). The ' colonial ' sentiment 
of Philippi doubtless heightened the interest 
with which the readers watched the course of 
their Apostle's trial and entered into his ex- 
periences at Rome. 

Behind the offended civic pride of Philippi 
there lay the vulgar motive of ' gain ' (Ac 16 19 ), 
which in the first instance awakened hostility 
to the Christian teaching in this place. Wherever 
the gospel won heathen converts, it injured the 
vested interests of paganism. In Philippi St. 
Paul silenced a soothsaying slave-girl, and 
her masters, seeing their unholy property 
spoilt, dragged the offenders before the 
rulers and roused the populace against them. 
The indignities which SS. Paul and Silas suf- 
fered under this attack (cp. 1 Th 2 2 with Ac 16), 
were the beginning of a persecution that has 
continued to the time of writing ; in such 
experience the Church is identified with its 
Apostle : see Phil 1 5, 29, so 2 15, and cp. 2 Cor 8 L 2 . 
From the first it has had to ' struggle for the 
faith of the gospel ' (1 2 ?). 

Judaism counted for little in Philippi. In- 
stead of a synagogue, there was only a proseucha 
(' praying-place ') — probably a retired open- 
air resort — by the river-banks outside the town, 
where the missionaries found a company of 
women assembled on the sabbath (Acl6 13 ). 
Out of this band the first Christian disciple, 
Lydia of Thyatira, was gained, and probably 
the women named in 4 2 » 3 (see note). The 
circle, it may be presumed, was Jewish only 
in part. St. Paul gathered his converts and 
helpers largely from the constituency of intel- 
ligent and pious Gentiles (more often women 
than men) who frequented Jewish worship as 
' proselytes ' or ' fearers of God,' and had been 
grounded in the OT. Women took a leading 
part in the Philippian Church at the outset ; 
Macedonia was distinguished in Greek society 
by the greater freedom and influence allowed 
to their sex. 

Since the events of Ac 16 and 17, St. Paul had 
twice traversed Macedonia, and accordingly 
visited Philippi : first on his way from Ephesus, 
through Troas, to Corinth toward the end of 
the Third Missionary Tour in the spring of 
the year 56 (lCorl6 5 ); and again on leaving 
Corinth in the following spring, when he kept 



967 



IXTRO. 



PHILIPPIANS 



INTRO. 






Easter there (Ac 20 1-6). From 2 Cor 1 8-n 2 12, i? 
74-12 we gather that the Apostle was at the 
period of the former of these two visits in 
great trouble, suffering from prostrating bodily 
sickness and from anxiety about the Corinthian 
and (probably) the Galatian Churches, whose 
loyalty at that juncture hung in doubt : see 
Gall 6 " 9 3M> 20 5 2 ; cp. 2 Cor ll 28 . Arriving 
in such a plight in Macedonia, Philippi would 
be his harbour of refuge ; there, we imagine, 
he passed the crisis of his illness, under St. 
Luke's skilful care (see par. 2 above). These 
intervening visits, though not recalled in the 
Epistle, help to account for the intimacy it 
reveals between writer and readers ; they serve 
to justify the words of l 5 implying a con- 
tinuous intercourse, and give a fuller meaning 
to the language of 2 x , which speaks of mutual 
' consolation ' and ' compassions.' 

Although ' Timothy ' figures along with ' Paul ' 
in the Address — for the former is with the 
Apostle at the time of writing and is well 
known to the readers (2 22 ), and therefore shares 
in the Salutation — the letter proceeds from 
St. Paul alone, running in the first person 
singular throughout (otherwise than in ITh 
and 2 Cor 1-7) ; St. Timothy is referred to in 
the course of the letter (2 19 " 23 ), just like 
Epaphroditus, in the third person. 

The writer is a prisoner awaiting trial, and 
at Kome ; he is in sight of the end of his cap- 
tivity there, which extended o ;r er two years 
(62 a.d. : see Ac28 30 > 31 ). His 'appeal to 
Caesar' is at last to be decided (l 29 2 23 , 2 4). 
The Apostle has been long enough in Rome, 
and free enough despite his 'bonds' (as Ac 
2815,16,30,31 intimates), to make his influence 
widely felt in various directions (li 2 -ie 4 22 ). 
If ' in the praetorium ' (1 13 ; see note) means 
' amongst the praetorian troops,' the impression 
made on the army is accounted for by the suc- 
cession of guards put in charge of the prisoner 
at his lodging ; if it means, as Sir W. M. Ramsay 
suggests, 'in the praetorian court,' then the 
judicial trial is proceeding, and the accused 
has been removed to prison-quarters. 

2. Occasion of the Letter. Beyond others, 
the Philippians were grateful and devoted to 
the Apostle Paul (l 5 4 15 ). Lydia's insistent 
hospitality at the beginning (Acl6 15 ) was 
typical of this Church's character: cp. 2 Cor 
K'-t. Twice it had sent aid to St. Paul in 
Thessalonica Oil his firsl departure, ami subse- 
quently When he left Macedonia for Aehaia ; 
now their care for him has • blossomed anew ' ; 

Epaphroditua had Keen dispatched with a sum 

of money for hi- necessities, under instructions 
to stav and assisl the Apostle in Rome (2 26 . 80 

110-18), The _ r <»<)d man fell dangerously ill 
upon his errand, and alter his recovery is long- 
ing for home ; St. Pan! sends him hack there- 
fore, ami this h tier with him. Epaphroditus 



brought tidings from the Philippians in con- 
veying their gift ; and further communications 
had taken place since his arrival, for the Philip- 
pians have heard of the illness of their deputy 
and he is informed of their grief over this 
(2 26 ). They seem to have written quite re- 
cently to St. Paul, expressing their anxiety 
about his trial, betraying also — to judge from 
the tone of his reply — some despondency under 
the protracted afflictions falling on themselves, 
and some concern about the manner in which 
their present had been received : see on 4 10 . 
We must bear in mind that the extant Epistles 
are extracts from a larger correspondence ; to 
read them properly, we need to hear the other 
side and to reproduce by imagination, between 
the lines, the messages and requests to which 
the writer is replying. 

There was no error of doctrine, no grave 
faultiness of life to reprove in this Church — 
only a certain want of harmony amongst its 
leading members (4 2 > 3 ) ; the removal of this 
defect will 'fill up' the Apostle's 'joy' (2 2 ' 5 ). 
The prayer of 1 9 > 10 and the exhortation of 
4 8 (see notes) hint at a deficiency in moral 
enlightenment and appreciation, such as not 
unfrequently accompanies religious zeal and 
lively affections. The warning against Jewish 
intriguers in 3 2_11 was prompted by the writer's 
present experience and by the general peril 
from this cause, rather than by any Judaising 
tendency on the part of the readers : see 
on 3i b . 

3. Contents of the Letter. The Epistle to 
the Philippians was strictly a letter, the un- 
constrained outflow of St. .Paul's heart. Hence 
its delightful desultoriness. It has no burning 
controversy, no absorbing doctrinal theme, no 
difficult moral problems to deal with. The 
recent communications from Philippi supply 
the starting-point, and are glanced at as occa- 
sion serves ; but they scarcely control the com- 
position. The Epistle does not admit therefore 
of formal analysis ; its links of association are 
those of feeling and of memory, not of logic. 

The opening phrase of c. 3 divides the writing 
into its two parts — principal (chs. 1, 2) and 
supplementary (chs. 3, 4). The latter section 
runs, beyond the writer's intention, to a length 
equalling- that of the former : the repetition 
of the 'Finally' of 3 1 in 4 8 indicates that his 
thought has made an excursion. 

The division of the first and main half of 
the letter falls at v. 26 of c. 1. After the pre- 
fatory thanksgiving and prayer (I 3 - 11 ), the 
Apostle begins by reassuring the Philippians 
ahout his own situation (vv. 12-26); with v. 
27 he turns from himself to them, exhorting 
them to the behaviour that will cheer him, and 
ensure their victory in the common conflict. 
The above three divisions— 1 3-n 1 12-26 1 27_ 
2 W — are linked by the thought of 'the gospel,' 



968 



INTRO. 



PHILIPPIANS 



INTRO* 



which is the ground of union between writer 
and readers : see 1 5 > 12 > 27 2 16 (' word of life '). 

Having told the Philippians what they wish 
to hear about him (1 12-26^ and what he wishes 
to see in them (1 27 -2 1S ), the Apostle further 
states what he intends to do for them, by send- 
ing Epaphroditus, and then Timothy, hoping 
himself to come ere long, so that their hearts 
and his may be mutually refreshed (2 i9-30) # 

At 3 1 the Epistle seems to be concluding. 
Had the writer proceeded at once from this 
point to c. 4, 3 2-21 would never have been 
missed. This long passage is an unpremedi- 
tated outburst — by a few critics mistakenly 
regarded as an editorial interpolation from 
another letter, by others attributed to some 
provocation that interrupted the Apostle in 
the act of writing. Three distinct classes of 
errorists appear to be stigmatised in c. 3 — the 
first and last being of a virulent type. Yv. 2, 3 
denounce St. Paul's old enemies, the zealots 
for Jewish Law ; vv. 17-21 combat the Gen- 
tile tendency to sensual licence. The common 
reference to the writer's personal example 
binds these denunciatory paragraphs together 
(see also 4 9 ) : against legalist pretensions he 
sets forth his experience as a Jewish Christian 
believer (vv. 4-11) ; the sensualists are shamed 
by the purity and loftiness of the Christian 
life exhibited in himself and those like-minded 
(vv. 17-21). The bearing of the intervening 
paragraph (vv. 12-16) is more difficult to seize : 
the Judaists are, seemingly, forgotten, the 
Antinomians not yet in sight ; the Apostle at 
this point is contrasting himself with pre- 
tenders to perfection, with Christians who 
deem themselves already at the goal, denying 
the future resurrection (v. 11), and renouncing 
the aspirations after the heavenly state that 
were so strongly cherished by St. Paul : see on 
vv. 3, 12, 15. Nothing could show more affect- 
ingly the Apostle's deep communion with the 
readers and the ascendency of his character, 
than this frank unlocking of his heart to them 
and the use he makes for their benefit of his 
most sacred experiences. So the after-thought 
forms the most precious part of this Epistle. 

The actual conclusion in c. 4 consists of a 
brief homily, partly personal, partly general in 
scope (vv. 4-9) ; followed by an acknowledg- 
ment of the Philippian bounty (vv. 10-20) 
— probably the chief subject in the writer's 
mind when he intended finishing the letter at 
3 1 ; and the final good wishes (vv. 21-23). 
The scheme of the Epistle on which this ex- 
position is based is as follows : — 

§ 1. Address and Salutation (l 1 ' 2 ). 
i. Act of Praise and Prayer. 

§ 2. Thanksgiving for Fellowship in the 
Gospel (3-8). § 3. Prayer for the perfecting 
of Love in Knowledge (9-11). 



II. About Paul's Affairs. 
§ 4. The Gospel furthered by his Troubles 
(12-18*). § 5. The Twofold Issue confront- 
ing him (18 b -26). 

in. How Paul's Comrades may support 
Him. 
§ 6. By brave Loyalty in face of Persecu- 
tion (27-30). §7. By a self-effacing Love to 
each other, fashioned after that of Christ 
(21-U). § 3 4 By working out in his Absence 
their Salvation, so that his Ministry may be 
crowned with Joy (12-18). 

iv. The Approaching Visits. 

§ 9. The speedy Coming of Timothy — pro- 
bably of Paul himself after a while (19-24). 
§ 10. The immediate Return of Epaphroditus 
(25-30). 

v. Interjected Warnings. 

§ 11. St. Paul and his Jewish Rivals (31-6). 
§ 12. Losing all, to win Christ (7-11). § 13. 
The Christian Goal (12-16). § 14. The earth- 
ward and the heavenward-bent Mind (17-21). 

vi. Closing Exhortations. 
§ 15. Personal Differences in the Church 
(41-3). §16. The Christian Temper (4-7). 
§ 17. The Largeness of Christiau Ethics (8, 9). 

vn. Acknowledgment of the Contribu- 
tion from Philippe 

§ 18. A Bounty welcome to the Apostle, 
notwithstanding his Independence (10-16). 
§ 19. St. Paul's Reflexions upon the Gift 
(17-20). § 20. Salutations from Rome, and 
Benediction (21-23). 

4. Character of the Letter, and its place 
among St. Paul's Writings. This Epistle is 
a letter of friendship, full of affection, confi- 
dence, good counsel and good cheer. It is 
the happiest of St. Paul's writings, for the 
Philippians were the dearest of his children in 
the faith : ' Summa epistolge,' writes Bengel, 
' Gaudeo, gaudete ' (One word sums up the 
Epistle : I rejoice ; do you rejoice ! ). ' From 
the first day until now ' the communion be- 
tween the writer and his l beloved and longed- 
for ' has been unbroken and unclouded. 

The letter is, therefore, one of self -revela- 
tion ; it is a classic of spiritual autobiography. 
St. Paul writes here at his ease ; he makes 
those spontaneous disclosures of the inner self 
which only the tenderest sympathy can elicit. 
While 2 Corinthians displays the agitations 
which rent the Apostle's heart in the crucial 
conflict of his ministry, Philippians reveals the 
spring of his inward peace and strength. It 
admits us to St. Paul's prison meditations and 
communings with his Master. We watch his 
spirit ripening through the autumn hours when 
patience fulfilled in him its perfect work. This 
Epistle holds a cardinal place in the history of 



969 



INTRO. 



PHILIPPIANS 



1.1 



St. Paul's character, such as Galatians holds in and 2 Corinthians, Galatians) as amongst the 



the history of his doctrine. It exhibits an un- 
surpassed picture of selfless devotion, manly 
fortitude, and joyous Christian hope ; well 
may the writer say, ' I can do all things in 
Him that enables me ! ' 

"While kindred in language and thought to 
the other Letters of the First Roman Captivity 
— Ephesians,Colossians,andPhilemon — Philip- 
pians stands somewhat apart from these three ; 
the question of priority as between it and them 
is disputed. From the fact that it was written 
toward the close of the imprisonment when 
the Apostle had been for a considerable time 
in Rome (see last par. of I above), and from 
other indications, we judge that Philippians 
was the latest of the group. The opening 
prayer recalls those of Ephesians and Colos- 
sians, which also turn on the connexion of 
knov;ledge and love; vv. 12-16 of ch. 3 (see 
notes) are best understood as alluding to 
notions kindred to the Colossian error. The 
Christological passage of Phil 2 5 - n comes from 
a mind full of the grand conception of the 
glory of Christ that St. Paul has developed in 
Colossians. This paragraph, and the sentence 
concerning Justification by Faith in 3 9 , go to 
show that the characteristic doctrines of St. 
Paul's Epistles were as far as possible from 
being abstract theorems or passing phases of 
thought due to controversial exigencies. The 
ideas they express present themselves in a 
spontaneous, unstudied fashion ; for they be- 
longed to the staple of the writer's thought, 
and were the outcome of his vital experience 
of salvation through Christ. 

C. 3 reminds us rather of the Letters of the 
Second Group: vv. 14, 17, 18, 21 of 1 Cor; vv. 
4-6 of 2 Cor; vv. 2, 16 of Gal; and, above all, 
vv. 9-1 1 of Ro. It is for this reason chiefly 
that some leading scholars place Philippians 
first in the Third Group of the Epistles, 
nearest to those just mentioned. The resem- 
blance is explained by the consideration that 
when touching upon Judaistic questions St. 
Paul's mind inevitably fell into the vein of 
Romans and Galatians. 

The expressions of l 23 and 2 10 > 17 , anticipat- 
ing the writer's death, are in the vein of 
2 Tim, the Apostle's farewell letter ; while 
the simplicity and cordiality pervading Philip- 
pians recall the strain of his earliest, the 
First bo the (Macedonian) Thessalomans. 
Thus Philippians combines traits of most of 

the other Epistles ; it mirrors the whole I'm/!. 
At one- it touches the summits of his loftiest 
doctrine, and sounds the depths of his mystic 
oonscionsB 

The writing and the man are inseparably one. 
By a consent in which the severest criticism 
shares, Philippians is ranged with the great 
quaternion of th- Second Group (Romans, l 



things most certainly genuine and Pauline. 
Erasmus' sentence is a sufficient verdict on 
opinions to the contrary : ' Nemo potest Pau- 
linum pectus effingere ' (One cannot feign a 
heart like Paul's ! ). 

5. St. Polycarp and St. Paul. Some fifty 
years later the Philippian Church received a 
letter, that it has preserved, from Polycarp, 
the martyr-bishop of Smyrna, in which this re- 
markable testimony is found (3 2 ) : ' Neither 
I nor any one like me can follow up the 
wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul, 
who when he was amongst you, confronting 
the men of that day, taught with exactness 
and sureness the doctrine concerning truth ; 
who also when absent wrote [a] letter[s] to 
you, by the close study of which you will be 
able to build yourselves up in the faith that 
was given you.' St. Polycarp seems to refer, 
in speaking of letters, to more than one Epistle 
of St. Paul as then extant and used at Philippi 
— though it is possible, grammatically, that 
the Gk. plural bore (like litterce in Latin) a 
singular sense. It is more than likely that the 
Apostle wrote repeatedly to the Philippians ; 
and if so, several of his letters may well have 
survived into the 2nd cent., though but one 
of these found a place in the canonical collec- 
tion. More important is it to observe the 
reverence paid to St. Paul by one whom 
tradition associates with the school of the 
Apostle John, and whose cast of mind was 
far from Pauline, and the sense diffused 
through the Church in the generation following 
St. Paul of the unique inspiration and authority 
that attached to his written word: cp. 2 Pet 
3 15 > 16 ; also the Epistle of Clement to the Cor- 
inthians, chs. 5 and 47 ; of Ignatius to the 
Ephesians, 12. 2, and to the Romans, 4. 3. 
Polycarp's gracious Epistle to the Philippians 
reads like an echo of the NT. ; Paul's Epistle 
to the Philippians breathes in every line the 
freshness and power of the original Christian 
inspiration. 

[Note. The writer comments usually on 
the revised Text, which is accordingly printed 
in heavy type.] 

CHAPTER 1 
The Prisoner Apostle in Rome 

§ 1. Address and Salutation (l 1 - 2 ). 

I 1 * 2 . The form of greeting in l 1 - 2 is that 
common to the Epistles of the third group. 

1. To all the saints] holy persons — conse- 
crated to God as all Christian believers are. 
This and similar emphatic expressions (in vv. 
3, 4, 7, 8, 25, c. 4 2 ) show that the entire Church, 
despite differences between its members (2 2 > 3 
1 ). has the Apostle's confidence. Only in this 
Epistle art the Church officers singled out in 
the address ; probably because they figured in 



970 



1. 1 



PHILIPPIANS 



1.14 



the letter of the Church, to which St. Paul is 
replying : see Intro. Bishops and deacons] 
' overseers ' and ' attendants ' — associated here 
for the first time in NT. — are the superior and 
subordinate officers of the local Church. 
1 Bishops ' appear to be the same as the ' presi- 
dents ' (' those that are over you ') of 1 Th$ 12 , 
the ' pastors ' of Eph4 n (cp. 1 Pet 2 2 ^), and the 
more familiar 'elders' of Ac 1423 lTim5 17 " 19 
Tit 1 5*, etc. : see Ac 20 !7> 28 (E V), and 1 Pet 5 i-*, 
for the identity. The same persons might 
be called ' elders ' in respect of status, and 
' overseers ' in respect of duty. At this early 
stage of development, there was no strict 
uniformity of title or function in the offices 
held in various Churches. Epishopos (bishop) 
was a name for persons charged with adminis- 
trative or financial responsibility in Greek 
communities ; and this title may have been 
adopted by the Hellenic Churches. ' Deacon ' 
(diahonos) represents the every-day word for 
1 servant,' ' attendant,' as in Mt 20 26 Eo 13 4 , etc. 
For further elucidation, see notes on these 
words in the Pastoral Epistles. 2. Grace] is 
God's forgiving and redeeming love to men : 
see Eo 4 24-5 2, 17-21 Ephl<3,7 2?> 8 , etc. 

i. Act of Praise and Prayer (l 3 " 11 ) 

§ 2. i 3 ' 8 . The characteristically Pauline 
Thanksgiving, vv. 3-6, runs into a chain of 
participial sentences loaded with adverbial 
clauses, the connexion of which is not always 
certain. V. 5 accounts for the joy attend- 
ing St. Paul's supplications for his readers as 
due to their unbroken fellowship with him ; 
and v. 6 declares the assurance of complete 
success that animates his prayers. The render- 
ing of this very thing, in v. 6, is difficult to 
justify ; say rather, ' being confident on this 
very account — viz. because of your steadfast 
fellowship with me — that God will consum- 
mate in you what He has so signally begun.' 

7. The assurance above expressed is sup- 
ported by the reflexion that it is right to 
cherish these thoughts — of thankfulness, joy, 
trust — about you all, since I hold you in my 
heart . . as being all of you fellow-partakers 
with me in grace: i.e. the Philippians are so 
entirely bound up with the Apostle in the cause 
of the gospel, that it would be wrong and an ill- 
requital of their devotion to entertain any other 
thoughts of them. He is conscious of their com- 
munion both in his bonds, which they share by 
sympathy and by the presence of Epaphroditus 
(225,30)^ an d in the defence and confirmation of 
the gospel — the negative and positive sides of 
his ministry in Eome, where he both vindicates 
the cause of Christ and demonstrates its saving 
power : cp. Eph 6 19 > 20 . 8. A solemn attesta- 
tion of the heart-union just declared. To 
yearn over one in the heart of Christ Jesus 
is to love him with the depth and tenderness 



of His affection: cp. Jnl3 34 , and on 4 1 . 
Bowels] EV l tender mercies.' 

§3. I 9 " 11 . The Prayer of vv. 9-11 recog- 
nises the love exhibited in the ' fellowship ' 
of the readers with St. Paul (v. 5), desiring that 
it may be enriched by intelligence and moral 
tact. The Gk. term here used for knowledge, 
characteristic of the letters of this group, signi- 
fies ' advanced, thorough knowledge ' ; the word 
rendered discernment (EY) — here only in 
NT. — containingthe root of 'aesthetics,' belongs 
to the region of taste, rather than judgment 
(AY). Strong in affection and zeal, the Philip- 
pians needed a more enlightened conscience 
(see on 4 8 ), in order to prove the things that 
differ (EM : cp. lTh5 2 i Heb5 12 ). 

Sincere] ( = clear, translucent) implies 
purity of disposition ; void of offence, f aultless- 
ness of conduct : for attaining such perfection, 
approved at the day of Christ, a fine moral 
intelligence, as well as a right intention, is 
needful. The emphasis of v. 11 rests on filled 
(made complete) ; and fruit of righteousness 
embraces all the moral issues of the right- 
eousness of faith (see 3 9 ), abounding to the 
glory . . of God (cp. Jnl5 8 ). 

11. About Paul's Affairs (1 12 - 26 ) 
§ 4. 1 12-18 a # The supreme interest of writer 
and readers alike (cp. vv. 5-7) lies in ' the 
progress of the gospel.' The news from 
Eome about St. Paul troubled the Philippians 
on this account, and their alarm had been 
expressed in their recent letter: see Intro. 
He hastens to reassure them : the things that 
have befallen me have turned out rather to the 
progress of the gospel. 13. My bonds have 
become manifest in Christ] means that the 
writer, instead of being thrust out of sight, 
as the Philippians fear, is conspicuous at 
Eome as Christ's messenger : cp. Eph6 20 . 
His prison-lodging has become a vantage- 
ground : see Ac 28 30 > 31 ; his trial is favourably 
advertising tfye gospel. The whole Praetorian 
guard] (' all the palace,' wrongly, AY ; EM 
' the whole Praetorium ') the corps of troops 
attached to the imperial head-quarters — had 
heard of it, presumably through the men told 
off in turn to guard the prisoner, who was 
chained by the wrist to his keeper night 
and day ; all the rest signifies the Eoman 
public, who freely visited the distinguished 
prisoner. 

Yv. 14-18 describe the effect of this turn 
of events on the Eoman Church. Some of 
its members may have been discouraged ; but 
most of the brethren in the Lord . . are more 
abundantly bold, etc. St. Paul's cheerful 
confidence, at the same time the respect 
shown to him in his captivity and the likeli- 
hood of his acquittal, encouraged the majority; 
his trial, so far, went to clear Christianity of 



971 



1. 15 



PHILIPPIANS 



1. 28 



anything criminal in the eyes of the State. 
Hence the Roman Christians, beyond expect- 
ation, have gained confidence by his bonds. 

St. Paul's presence stimulates Christian 
work at Rome in two opposite ways. 15. Some 
in their bolder testimony are actuated by 
envy and strife ; some by good will — he rejoices 
in the activity of both parties! (v. 18 a ). Both, 
it is clear, are proclaiming a true gospel, 
and the Apostle's ill-wishers cannot have been 
preaching the k other ( Judaising) gospel ' con- 
demned in Gall 6 . Personal dislike actuated 
the latter ; they were jealous of St. Paul's 
ascendency, and regarded him as an interloper 
— a disposition only too natural in a Church of 
which he was not the founder: cp. Rol5 15-18 . 
These rivals meanly think to add affliction 
to his bonds — supposing that he would be 
chagrined by their success ! They proclaim 
Christ therefore not sincerely (not in a pure 
spirit), but in pretence (vv. 16, 18) ; and St. 
Paul, though glad that their work is making 
Christ's name more widely known, censures 
its motives. The better sort preach of love 
and in truth (with consistent motives), recog- 
nising in the prisoner-apostle the champion of 
the gospel. Observe the reversal in vv. 16, 
17, according to RV, of the order of the two 
parties distinguished in v. 15. 

§ 5. ii8b-26. With the last clause of v. 18 
(before which it is better to place a full stop) 
St. Paul turns from the present to the future: 
Yes, and I will rejoice ; for I know, etc. 
This (v. 19), like therein (v. 18), embraces 
the whole situation described in vv. 12-18, 
which while furthering the gospel (v. 12) 
will turn to St. Paul's final salvation : cp. 
lCor9 23 2Tim4!8. In his humility, the 
Apostle regards this issue as depending on 
your supplication and ministry of the Spirit of 
Jesus Christ (cp. Gral3 5 ), of whose influence 
his friends' prayers bring him richer supplies: 
cp. 2Th3 u . 20. The above result accords 
with the writer's eager expectation and hope, 
thai in anyeveni Christ will be magnified in his 
person as hitherto : he lives, and will die, for 
this alone. Whatever happens to my body, 
tli.' essential interests are safe. 

Vv. 21 26 weigh the alternatives of life or 
death (v. 20) depending on the verdid awaited 
;it Caesar's bar. 21. To live] as distinguished 
Prom to live in the flesh (v. 22), means ' life 
; ial ' : cp. I Tim »'» ''■'. Col 3 '"' is the tine 
commentary on \ . 2 1 i : ' Your life is hid with 
( 'In i-a in Q-od * — ' Christ, who is our life.' 

For to me, to live is Christ] i.e. life consists 
of and is rooted in Bim : I lal220. 

Hence, to die is gaiu ; for dying would bring 
the A j . ' - - 1 le Qi arer t<> ( Ihrisl : see \ . 23 and 2Cor 
5 6 - 8 . (How the expectation of being with 
Christ immediately after death agrees with the 
conception of an intermediate state, indicated 



in 1 Th4i4,i6 and 1 Cor 15 51 . 52 , is not evident ; 
our best notions of the other world are dim 
and confused: see lCorl3 12 .) 

22. There is gain also on the opposite side : 
If to live in the flesh be my lot (KM ; the 
Gk. is highly elliptical, as Paul's language 
often becomes under excitement), this means 
for me fruit of work, i.e. continued labour and 
a richer reward. The writer knows not which 
he shall choose ; advantages are balanced. 

23, 24. His heart prompts the wish to go ; his 
judgment, guided by his friends' need, advises 
staying ; that he will so abide in the flesh for 
their progress and joy in the faith, St. Paul 
is persuaded (vv. 25, 26). This outcome of 
the pending trial will bring exceeding joy, 
as well as spiritual benefit, to the Philippians. 
The peculiar Gk. word for depart (v. 23), also 
used in 2 Tim 4 6 , means ' loosing the tent-peg ' : 
cp. the metaphor of 2 Cor 5 1 . The glorying 
(AY ' rejoicing ') anticipated in v.26 is the exult- 
ation of the Philippians in the Apostle's escape 
and the resulting gain to the Christian cause. 

in. Hoav Paul's Comrades may support 
Him (127-218) 

§ 6. 1 27-30. with v. 27 the Apostle turns 
upon his readers, as much as to say, ' I have 
told you how it fares with me ; what about 
yourselves? My happiness depends on you.' 

The transitional Only implies a possible 
qualification — a cloud that might darken the 
bright prospect of vv. 25, 26 : cp. lTh3 8 . 

The manner of life (AV ' conversation ') 
expected is defined by a Gk. term familiar to 
' colonials ' (see Intro.), which recurs in 3 21 : 
hold your citizenship in a manner worthy of the 
gospel of Christ : cp. Eph 2 19. ' The gospel ' 
supplies in itself the motives for a worthy life ; 
the Apostle's presence or absence should not 
affect his fellow-believers' loyalty. Steadfast- 
ness is the chief quality desired in them, that 
ye stand fast — a characteristic of the citizen- 
soldier. In one spirit signifies unity of religious 
principles and purpose ; with one soul (BV), 
unity of feeling and effort. The faith of the 
gospel does not mean Christian doctrine the 
contents of faith, but faith as a conscious power 
in the soul, ' striving like one man to main tain 
and carry into effect your faith in the gospel ' : 
cp. Jude v. 3. 

28. Steadfastness meant, especially for this 
Church, not to be daunted by persecution. 
Tiny an- Paul's comrades in the conflict which 
he underwent at Philippi formerly, and now 
endures in Rome (v. 30). Let them understand 
that their courage is itself a token of tlnir ad- 
versaries' perdition (ruin) and their salvation— 
a sign that God is with them (cp. w. 1!), 20. in 
this connexion) ; for indeed (v. 29) their suffer- 
ings are a 



972 



bounty of divine grace (cp. Mti 
) shared with their Apostle (cp. v. 7 



5. 1 



PHILIPPIANS 



% 10 



also Col 1 2i Eph 3 *> 13 ) — a favour directly con- 
sequent on their believing in Christ. To suffer 
in His behalf, as representing Christ amid an 
evil world (cp. Jn 15 1S_2 °), is indeed an honour. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Mutual Service of Paul and the 
Philippian Church 

§ 7. 2 1 " 11 . In view of what has just been 
said, therefore the Apostle entreats his readers, 
under all the obligations arising from past 
fellowship (v. 1), to make his joy complete 
by a thorough concord (v. 2). This will be 
attained through self-effacing regard for each 
other (vv. 3, 4), of which Christ is the ground 
and example (vv. 5-8). 

i. St. Paul invokes four bonds of friend- 
ship : exhortation (i.e. encouragement) in 
Christ, given on his part ; consolation of love, 
fellowship in the Spirit (cp. 1 19 ) ; tender mercies 
and compassions, mutually exhibited ; if there 
be any such thing's — or if they count for any- 
thing as between us (the sentence is elliptical, 
and the text a little doubtful) — this entreaty 
will prevail. 

2. That ye be of the same mind (v. 2) imports 
oneness of sentiment and aim, to be realised in 
having the same love — i.e. cherishing a uniform 
reciprocal affection — as men conjoined in soul 
Q of one accord,' RY ; cp. 1 27 , ' with one soul '), 
minding the one thing (cp. Col3 2 RY). In 
rendering the last clause of one mind, AY 
ignores the Gk. definite article : St. Paul's ' one 
thing needful' (cp. LklO 42 ) is nothing else 
than ' the gospel ' (see 1 5 > 8 > 27 ) ; concentration 
upon this is the guarantee of unity. 

3, 4. Such oneness of soul means doing 
nothing in a factious or vainglorious way, each 
man in lowliness of mind counting the other 
better than himself, and keeping an eye not for 
his own interests but for those of his neighbour. 
In short, love and humility together overcome 
all divisive influences, and bring about the 
perfect socialism of the Spirit. 

Y. 5 goes on to say that this altruism is the 
proper Christian way of thinking : Have this 
mind in you, which is indeed (the mind) in 
Christ Jesus — i.e. the mind grounded in Him. 
The Pauline phrase ' in Christ Jesus ' signifies 
the mystical union : not the Jesus Christ 
who ' was ' (the verb of AY is wanting in the 
Gk.), but the Christ Jesus who ' is,' inspires 
this way of thinking. 

Yv. 6-8 lead back from the present to the 
past, exhibiting the Christian altruistic mind 
as it wrought first in the Founder ; St. Paul 
relates the experience of the Head to teach 
the members a lowly, self -renouncing love. 
For this purpose he must show how much 
Christ had to forgo and to what lengths His 
abnegation went. The difficult expressions 
of this profound passage are, especially, the 



synonymous connected phrases form (of God, 
of a bondman), on an equality (with God), 
likeness (of men), in fashion (as a man), which 
denote resemblance in different aspects or 
degrees. The first signifies essential form, 
the mode of existence proper to the person in 
question ; the second, the footing on which 
he stands, or might stand ; the third, his 
visible features ; the fourth, the guise, or 
habit of life, in which he moves. The verbs of 
vv. 7, 8 — emptied (RY), and humbled Himself 
— affirm respectively a negative self -depriva- 
tion or depotentiation, and a positive self- 
humiliation based upon the former ; the latter 
act has its antithesis in the exalting of Christ 
by God spoken of in v. 9, and the former in 
the granting to Him of the name above every 
name. The rare verbal noun of v. 6, (counted 
it not) a prize (R Y ; AY ' robbery '), meant first 
' the act of grasping ' or k clutching,' and then 
' a thing to be clutched.' We take the sense 
of the passage to be, that Christ, while divine 
in His proper nature, did not, when the call 
came to serve others, hold fast in self-asser- 
tion His God-like state, but divested Himself 
of this by assuming a servant's form (adding 
to His divine a human being, which eclipsed 
the Godhead in Him) and leading an earthly 
life such as our own (vv. 6, 7 a ). But He 
went lower still ; having stooped from His 
Godhead to man's condition, He traversed 
all the stages of obedience down to the 
humiliation of death (cp. 3 21 ), and of death 
in its uttermost shame (vv. 7 b , 8). Such was 
the devotion of the Son of God to men ; and 
every man who is in Christ Jesus shares this 
mind. 

The verb ' emptied ' in v. 7 supplies the 
theological term henosis for the deprivation of 
divine attributes or powers involved in the 
incarnation of our Lord. However far this 
diminution went — and we cannot pretend to 
define its limits — since it was a .se(/"-emptying, 
an act of our Lord's sovereignty, it involved 
no forfeiture of intrinsic Deity. 

At v. 8 the illustration properly ends ; but 
St. Paul cannot leave his Master on the cross, 
nor have it supposed that self-abnegation is 
real loss: cp. MtlO 39 Jnl2 2 4. By a divine 
recompense, Christ was lifted up from the 
death of the cross to the Messianic dominion, 
with glory added to His primal glory (vv. 
9-11) : Wherefore indeed God more highly 
exalted him, and granted to him the name 
that is above every name : cp. Eph 1 20 " 22 . This 
' name ' is the completed title, The Lord 
Jesus Christ, under which our Saviour will 
be adored throughout the universe. Things 
under the earth was a Gk. euphemism for the 
dead: cp. Rol49 Eph 4 9. 

Yv. 10, 1 1 appropriate for Jesus the language 
of Isa 45 23 , which foretold the worship to be 



973 



% 12 



PHILIPPIANS 



paid to Israel's God by all mankind. The 
glory of the Father will be realised in the 
universal acknowledgment of the Lordship of 
the Son whom He enthroned : cp. 1 Cor 15 24 " 28 . 

§ 8. 2 12 " 18 . The connexion of the third 
exhortation, to thoroughness in the pursuit of 
salvation (vv. 12-18). with the two foregoing 
paragraphs may be brought out thus : And so, 
my beloved — since Christ's triumph, won by 
self -forgetting love, is sure (§ 7), and since you 
are my fellow-soldiers in His war (§ 6) — as you 
have always answered to my challenge, I 
expect that now in my absence — when you 
depend on yourselves — much more than in 
my presence, with fear and trembling you 
will prosecute the work of your salvation ; 
for God is he that worketh in you both the 
willing and the working* (contrast Ro7 18 ), 
for his good-pleasure's sake (v. 13). God's 
working in the Philippians is alleged not to 
enforce the fear and trembling (which St. Paul 
assumes and approves in them), but as a strong 
encouragement : ' Whatever human aid is want- 
ing, God is with you — in you ! ' cp. 1 6 > 28 ; also 
Eph3 2 o Col 129 Ac 20 32. That God is thus 
working in the readers in the interests of His 
good pleasure, implies that their life-work is 
taken into God's plan for the kingdom of His 
Son; see vv. 9-11,1 ™\ also Lk 12 32 2Thl".» 

14. The consciousness of God's sovereign 
grace operating in the Philippian Christians 
will prevent their work being marred by mur- 
murings and reasonings against their lot (cp. 
129 46; a l so lPet4 12 - 14 ); in this confidence 
they will bear themselves as God's children 
(vv. 1T>,16 a )amid an evil world, where they are 
set to shine as luminaries, holding forth in 
its lustre the word of life: cp. lThl 8 * 10 ; also 
Mt5 14 " 16 Jnl 6 " 8 5 35 . For salvation-seeking 
is not egoism ; Christian excellence is that of a 
lamp, the more radiant as it is better trimmed. 

i6 b . The writer, too, will gain much by the 
advancing salvation and luminous witness of 
his converts : this will be for a glorying to 
myself against the day of Christ, as showing 
that I have not run in vain nor toiled in 
vain: op. 1 Th3 5 Gal2 2 . 

17, 18. Supposing the worst fears of the 
Philippians realised by his condemnation to 
death, their faith will turn this into a glad 
offering on the Apostle's pari to God. Even 
in this issue, he joys and rejoices with them, 
and calls on them to joy and rejoice with 
him! While lie :m<l they are true to Christ, 
nothing can take away their common joy : cp. 
1 •-'" 1;, St. Paul represents his' death 

urnler the figure <>f a libation, or drink-offering 
(ItMi : hia blood, shed for the salvation of the 
Gen tiles (Bo 1 6 16 Coll 8 *, etc.), would be poured 
ont over the sacrifice and service rendered to 
God by the faith of his Churches — a shower 
that will feed the sacrificial flame. 



iv. The Approaching Visits (2 19 - 30 ) 

§ 9. 2 19 - 24 . The Apostle hopes however 
in the Lord Jesus (under His sovereign direc- 
tion) that events will take a different course ; 
he will send Timothy forthwith to Philippi, so 
soon as the outlook is clear, purposing him- 
self to follow when free (vv. 23, 24) : cp. 1 25, 26. 
The motive for sending is, that I too (as 
well as you) may be of good cheer through 
learning the news about you (as you through 
hearing abo.ut me) ; and the reasons for send- 
ing Timothy are, on the one hand, his genuine 
care for the Philippians and the absence of 
any one else like-minded (lit. ' equal-souled '), 
and on the other hand the knowledge the 
Philippians have of his character and intimacy 
with his master (v. 22). In the hard saying, 
they all seek their own, not the things of Jesus 
Christ (RV), ' all ' is limited by the context, 
and by the Gk. definite article, to St. Paul's 
available helpers. Some of his companions 
were busy elsewhere ; others decline the 
errand through motives that he regards as 
selfish (vv. 20, 21). 

§ 10. 2 25 - 30 . Epaphroditus returns forthwith, 
carrying this letter (v. 25) ; see Intro. The 
Apostle heaps commendation upon him, appre- 
hending seemingly that he might have a cool 
reception (see vv. 29, 30), since he is going 
home prematurely and without having ren- 
dered all the service expected. To St. Paul 
he has proved my brother and fellow-worker 
and fellow-soldier, having shared the Apostle's 
toils and labours to the best of his power ; 
on behalf of the Philippians, your apostle 
(deputy-messenger) and minister (minister-in- 
sacred-things : this word is repeated in the 
service of v. 30) to my need. The Apostle 
sends him back thus early because of his home- 
sickness, which was aggravated by news of the 
grief of his friends at his recent illness (v. 26) — 
an illness threatening death, which God had 
averted in mercy both to himself and to Paul ; 
his immediate return, under these circumstances, 
is happier for all parties (vv. 27, 28) : Epaphro- 
ditus, it seems, had fallen into sickness through 
some venture, beyond the common risks of 
travel, in which he had hazarded (the rare 
Gk. verb means 'gambling with') his life — 
'setting his life upon a cast' — to serve the 
Apostle on behalf of the Philippians in pro- 
moting the work of Christ (v. 30). How this 
came about, it is idle to conjecture. 

CHAPTER 3 

Dangers and Hopes of the Present 

Situation 

v. Interjected Warnings (.V- 21 ) 

§11. 3K Finally (lit. 'For the rest'), my 
brethren, brings the close of the letter in 
sight (see Intro.) ; the Apostle has only a few 



974 



3. 2 



PHILIPPIANS 



3. 10 



supplementary counsels to give — prefaced by 
the Rejoice in the Lord, which is the preva- 
lent note of the Epistle (1 4 > 1S . 26 2 2 , W> 18 )— and 
to make acknowledgment of the contribution 
sent through Epaphroditus. But the admoni- 
tion of v. 2 strikes a chord of feeling in his 
breast which vibrates too strongly to be soon 
arrested. From v. 4 onwards, c. 3 is a diver- 
sion in the Epistle, but such as answers its 
underlying purpose, since it opens St. Paul's 
heart to his readers and makes, them more 
than ever 'partakers of his 'grace' (l 7 ). 

The observation of v. l b relates to vv. 2, 3 ; 
St. Paul is writing the same things about the 
seductions of Judaism that he has said or 
written before : this was a chronic danger to 
his Churches. Though Philippi contained few 
Jewish settlers, its situation (see Intro.) ex- 
posed this Church to the visits of Jewish emis- 
saries. The dogs, the evil workers, the con- 
cision (mutilation) form one class of adversaries, 
who receive the last epithet by way of scornful 
play upon the boasted name of ' the circum- 
cision.' The Abrahamic covenant-seal has 
become null and void for rejecters of Christ, and 
no better than any other ' cutting ' of the body ; 
so the Apostle transfers its name to the Church, 
upon which the OT. inheritance devolves : see 
Ro 2 25-29 412 11 17 Gal 37 616 Eph2U-i9 36 Col 
2 n - 13 ; also Mt 21 43 . These same men are dogs, 
raging against and ready to devour the Apostle 
of the Gentiles (cp. Ps 22 16,20) . ill-workers, 
because of their mischievous and unscrupulous 
activity : cp. 2 Cor 1 1 is. As in 1 Th 2 14-16, un- 
believing Jews are here intended, radically 
opposed to the gospel ; not, as in Galatians and 
2 Corinthians, Christian Jews who pervert it. 
Jewish hostility was violent beyond measure 
in Macedonia : see Ac 17. 

3. By contrast with anti- Christian Jews, we 
are the circumcision, who worship by the Spirit 
of God (whose worship is inspired by the Holy 
Spirit), and glory in Christ Jesus (not in Moses, 
the Temple, etc.), and have no confidence in 
flesh (in any external privilege or perform- 
ance). Here the Apostle strikes into the cur- 
rent of his own experience, which carries him 
away for the rest of the c. 4. Though I (one 
of the emphasised ' we ' of v. 3) might have 
confidence indeed in the flesh — who had a better 
right to presume upon outward prerogative ? 
Amongst the seven points of superiority enu- 
merated in vv. 5, 6, four came to Saul by birth, 
three by acquisition. The eighth day was the 
proper date for the infant's circumcision (Gn 
17 i2 ) ; Israel, the covenant-name of Jehovah's 
people ; Benjamin, the tribe eminent as supply- 
ing the first king of Israel, and subsequently 
remaining faithful to the throne of David ; 
a Hebrew sprung from Hebrews, one whose 
family preserved the home-language : see Ac 
2140. The fact that he had been a persecutor 



of the Church, combined with his Pharisaic 
professions and legal blamelessness, raised 
Saul's reputation to the highest pitch : cp. 
2 Cor 11 22 Gal lis, 14 Ac 22 3-5. 

§ 12. 3^ n . The treasured gains of Saul 
of Tarsus, Paul the Apostle has counted loss 
because of the Christ, content to lose them if 
he might gain Christ (cp. Gal 6 14 ) ; there is no 
treasure that he would not hold cheap in this 
exchange — I count all things to be loss for the 
surpassing worth of the knowledge of Christ 
Jesus my Lord (v. 8). And this is no untried 
vaunt : For whose sake I have suffered the 
loss of all things — home, ease, honour, every- 
thing that men count dear (cp. Ac 20 24) — and 
count them refuse 1 So contemptible had the 
world's wealth become to him through know- 
ing Christ ; he wins infinite riches in exchange 
for dross ! 

The last clause of v. 8 is completed by v. 9, 
which unfolds St. Paul's distinctive conception 
of the believer's relation to his Saviour : that 
I may gain Christ and be found in him, not 
having a righteousness of my own, that which 
comes of law, but that which comes through 
faith in Christ, the righteousness which is of 
God, resting upon faith. These words sum up 
the doctrine of salvation taught in Romans 
and Galatians : the Apostle has not ' gained 
Christ ' as an outward possession, but so as to 
be planted in Him and recognised as one with 
Him ; so that even his ' righteousness ' — the 
moral worth that gives value to his existence 
— is not claimed for his own, as though it had 
been won by law-keeping, for it accrues to 
him through faith in Christ, and thus has its 
fountain in God ; it is built not, like the Phari- 
see's righteousness, upon human efforts and 
strivings, but upon faith in God and Christ. 

Vv. 10, 11 are parallel to v. 9, setting forth 
objectively, as that defined subjectively, the 
Apostle's ' gain ' in Christ. As v. 9 expanded 
the for whom of v. 8, so vv. 10, 11 take up 
and enlarge upon the foregoing phrase, the 
knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord ; the 
entire sentence (vv. 8-11) is symmetrical: 

I count all things to be loss, for the excellency of 
the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord, 

For whom I suffered the loss of all things, etc., 
That I may gain Christ, and be found in Him, 
etc., 
So that I may know Him, and the power of His 
resurrection, etc. 

10, 11. Three points are specified in St. 
Paul's 'knowledge of Christ': (a) The power of 
His resurrection, which came on Saul in the Da- 
mascus revelation. The resurrection of Jesus 
Christ which manifested Him as the Son of 
God, at the same time revealed in Him ' the 
power of God ' working ' unto salvation ' : see 
Ro 1 4, 16 4 24, 25 Eph 1 19. 20. The whole faith of 
the gospel turned upon Christ's resurrection 



975 



3. 11 



PHILIPPIANS 



3.20 



(see 1 Corl 5 1- 4 . 12-25 RolO*>); the new life of 
the believer Bprings from His opened grave 
( lj (1( ;i-n i Corl ■:>-"■ -'-'-'•'). (b) In contrasl 
with the power of the Lord's resurrection-life 
stands the fellowship of His sufferings (2 Cor 
13*), to which St. Paul was admitted from the 
outset : Bee Vc'.' 1 ". The present situation sets 
his ministry in this lighi : see Col 1 24 Kj>li :> 1:i 
2Cor4*° 2 Tim 2 ii. 12, ^d C p. Mt L6 24 20 22,2s. 
This fellowship goes to the Length of being 
conformed to His death (a continued process); 
for the disciple is following his cross-bearing 
Master (Mt 10 88 , etc.), and his daily course is 
as a march to Calvary: cp, LCorl5 8 2Cor4 10 
Gal2i»»20 ,;n. ( c ) St. Paul's knowledge of 
Christ will culminate in his attaining unto 
(arriving at) the full (or final) resurrection from 
the dead ; hitherto he ' knows in part,' thru he 
will 'know as' he ' is known' (lCorl.3 9 " 11 ). 
If by any means bespeaks humility rather than 
misgiving; St. Paul cannot look with steady 
eye on the dazzling prospect: cp. 3 20 Un3 2 , 
Pot • resurrection ' a unique intensive Gk. 
compound is here used, signifying complete- 
ness, finality — a resurrection that leaves 
mortality for ever behind : cp. 2Cor5 4 . 

§ 13. 3 '-"'". The goal of the Apostle's career 
lies beyond this world; hence he proceeds: 
Not that I have already obtained the 'gain' 
Becured to me in Christ (cp. 1 '-'), or am already 
made perfect ; but I am pressing on, if so be 
that I may apprehend (lay fast hold of) that for 
which I was apprehended (laid fast hold of) by 
Christ Jesus. In this disclaimer, emphatically 
resumed in v. 13, St. Paul contrasts himself 

with Christians holding mistaken notions of 

perfection similar, probably, to those attributed 

to ' 1 1 \ nienaus and PhiletuS ' in 2Tim2 16 - 18 , 

who taugtrl that 'tin resurrection is already 

past ' (seil. in tin 1 regeneration <>r the soul) and 

denied ' the redemption of the body ' with all 

that this implies: see Ro8 18 * M ■ cp. ] Corl5 12 . 
Challenging these perfectionists, who imagined 

that Christ in their present state had reached 
Oal of His work of redemption, St. Caul 
its : Brethren, for my part I do not reckon 
myself as yet to have apprehended ; but one 
thing ! (v. I:;) Sere he breaks oil"; 'one 
thing I do* (AV) supplies the aposiopesis : for- 
getting the things behind and straining out unto 
the things before, I press on towards the mark, 
to reach the prize of the upward calling of 
God in Christ Jesus ( \ . II): op. I leb ."> ' I Th 
■ The prize ' is the heai enlj Life of I he 

11. d (W. II. 20, 21 ). " OUT perl'ert eon 

summation and bliss both in bod} and bou! 
' God calls' men to this in Christ Jesus, since 
Chrisl conveys the call and supplies in His 
n 11- mark (v. _ 1 : ep I The 

Apostle depicts himself as a racer Btraining 
11. rvt to reach the goal and wast ing not 
an instanl is Looking bat sward. 



The Gk. adjective perfect (i.e. 'full-grown/ 
'mature' : seel Cor 14 ' 20 Eph 4 18 ) appearing in 
vv. 12 and 15, was used of initiates into the 
religious ' mysteries ' of the time, at the final 
stage of qualification ; the party in view 
claimed, under this designation, to have 
acquired an esoteric 'knowledge' of Chris- 
tianity going deeper than simple k faith ' : see 
Col 2*.8 1 Tim G 2°>2i. This Gnosticising tend- 
ency, so strongly evidenced by the Colossian 
heresy, was widespread and manifold in form ; 
it greatly exercised the Apostle's mind at this 
time. 15. Let us, so many as be perfect (the 
true ' initiates,' in contrast with those alluded 
to in v. 12), be thus minded — as much as to say, 
c Those really deep in Christian knowledge will 
think in this way' (vv. 10-14). The perfect 
recognise tin' distance of the goal ; they are 
the last to count themselves perfect : cp. 
the treatment of Gk. conceit of wisdom in 
lCor2«-i« 8 1 ' 2 1437,3s. 

I5 b , 16. Some members of this Chinch are 
otherwise minded — unable to follow what St. 
Paul has just said; knowing their loyalty, he 
can wait confidently for their enlightenment — 
God will reveal this also unto you (cp. 1 Cor 
210-15) — provided that they faithfully practise 
the truth already grasped : whereunto we have 
attained, by that same rule let us walk ( K V ) : cp. 
(Jal(') 1,; Jn7 17 . Omit 'let us mind,' etc. (AV). 

§ 14. 3 17 -- 1 . Againsl the third class of op- 
ponents (see Intro.) — in some instances identical 
with the second, for spiritual conceit and 
moral depravity may be found together (see 
lTimb 3 " 5 ) — St. Paul adduces his example and 
that i)\' others of like behaviour, as against 
the two former he cited his religious expe- 
rience. 18, 19. Their character is notorious : 
the Apostle has spoken of them often, and weeps 
Over them as he writes now. These are pecu- 
liars the enemies of the cross of Christ — not 
.lews who 'stumble at" the cross ((ialli 1 '-' 
I Corl"'), but professed Christians whose 
walk tends to its subversion ; men whose 
end is perdition — like that of ' the adversaries ' 
of 128 ( 8ee 2Corll '■ •_' IVt •_"-<) - for their 

god is the belly (they honour sensual appetite 
likeagod: see Roi'.ii-n 16" 2 Tim 3 4 ), and 
their glory is in their shame (they pride them- 
selves on sensuality : see Eph 4 '" Rol M 2 Pet 
218,14). wno mind earthly things! (cp. Eto 
8 ; "'-")-- the delineation ends in amazement. 
These nun are Antinomians. accepting Paul's 
gospel only to 'continue in sin that grace may 
abound, 1 and 'using liberty for an occasion to 

the flesh' (see RoB^GalS 18 Judev. I). They 

were the reproach and grief of the Apostle's 

ministry. One hardly supposes thai the writer 

has such enemies amongsl the Philippians (see 

i»ut Libertine Christians were numerous, 

and mighl tra\ el that way. 

20,21. Againsl the earthly is set the heavenly 






8. 20 



PHILIPPIANS 



■k 8 



mind and walk, described by a word appealing 
bo the Philippian civic consciousness (see Intro., 
and op. l ! '): our citizenship (AY ' con versa 

bion') is in heaven! (cp. KevJI"). As tin- 
distant Philippian ' oolonus' belonged bo Rome, 
so bhe Christian sojourning or. earth is a oitizen 
of heaven; his home lies 'where Christ is' 
(Col3 ] :; Eph2 18 2Cor5 1 -* Eeb I I l:; "'■ Mm; ' 
J ii i \ ■■•• l ). From this region, ours already by 
affinity, we await a Saviour (set- I Th I l0 I 1,; < IV 
I ( Jor 1 ' 1 ."> 28 ) . . who will re-fashion the body of 
our humiliation ( w vile body, 1 A V, is a mistransla 
bion), that it may be conformable to the body 
of his glory. The G-k. adjective rendered 
'conformable' appeared in Ro 8 ^ — 'con- 
formed bo the image of God's Sou': con 
formity of bodily stair oompletes oonformity 
(A' character. Upon this metamorphosis, sec 
I Cor 15 •'' ■''• and rrhl"" 1 '. The Apostle 

keenly fell the 'humiliation 1 of man's mortal 
state : see 2Gor l ' 5 '. The idea of ' bhe body 
of glory' was given him by fehe form of 

heavenly splendour in which he had seen the 
Lord JeSUS On bhe Damascus road : cp. -J Cor 

4 '-'■■, also Rev 1 1:!17 . 
This transformation of the saints will be 

bhe supreme act of that mighty working in 
which Jesus displays His power, as Lord of 
God's Iringdom, bo subjugate all bhings onto 

Himself: Cp. 2 '"■" and Mt28 18 The human 
body is, from first to last-, the object of His 
miracles. Read 1 ( ;Or I .">-' ' s in this connexion. 

CHAPTEB i 

Pinal Chabge. Acknowledgment op 

Philipp] \n Bounty 

vi. Closing Exhoetation8 (4 '■'•') 

§ 15. 4 I:; . With heightened feeling St. Paul 

resumes the vein of exhortation coinineneed 
in .'I I : Wherefore (in \ iew of bhe grand hope 
of our calling) . . so stand fast in the Lord (see 
1 27) — i S (i,' i.e. in 'imitating' bhe Apostle and 
'marking those' of- like 'walk' (3 17 ); this 

appeal sums up the foregoing homily. For 

bhe endearing epithets accumulated here, op. 
13-8 2 i'M«, a i 80 LTh2W.20. 

2. The entreaty bo Euodia and Syntyche to 
be of one mind in the Lord, is a pointed appli- 
cation Of l'-' 7 and 'J 1 -'; tlo-y have a serious 

difference of judgmenl in carrying out bhe will 
of Christ. These ladies bear good Greek names; 

one of them is, possibly, the same as (lit- Lvdia 

of A.cl6, bhe latter name in that case being 

an ethnic appellation ('the L\dian'). As at 
Thessalonica (Ac 17'), women were conspicu- 
ous amongsl tin' earliest converts in Philippi : 
see Intro. 

3. The Gk. ' SynzygOS ' (yoke-fellow) is bet- 
tor read as a proper name, on which the A p< > 

stle plays, as upon 'Onesimus' (serviceable) 
in Philemon v.ll : Yea, I ask also thee, true 
Synzygos — worthy of thy name — help them 



(Euodifl and Syntyche) to come to an under 

standing. Others suppose ESpaphroditus bo be 
addressed as ' yokefellow ' ; op. '-'"'. The dis 
agreeing women had shared St. Paul's struggles 

(this Gk. veih is rendered striving together in 
I ' ) in the gospel,- -a tact wlueli makes Inm 
specially anxious tor t heir reconciliation. With 

these former comrades St. Taill associates a 

certain Clement otherwise unknown (hardly 
the Clement <>f Rome, famous a generation 

later), and the rest of my fellow-workers, whose 
names are in the book of life (see Rev3 fl , etc, 
Lk 10 80 Mel, 1228), and therefore need not 

be enumerated here. 

§ 16. 4 IV . Joy in the Lord, and the peace of 
God, are the sovereign factors 111 bhe Christian 
bemper (w. 4, 7); these manifest, themselves 

in gentleness (KI\ I ; A V 'moderation') toward 
men, and serenity (In nothing be anxious, l\,V) 

in all events, maintained l>\ oontinual prayer 

and thanksgiving. V. I repeals, with resolute 

emphasis, bhe command <>f .'C : Bee note. 

5. Gentleness (ascribed, under bhe same word, 
to Christ in 2Corl0^) is bhe opposite of self 

assert ion and rivalry. Like l patience ' in Jas5 8 , 
it is enforced by the nearness of the Lord's 

advent, bhe prospect of which quenches worldly 
passions: cp. I Cor7'' ,:;1 Lk L2 ' ! '-' "'. Though 

we may not think of bhe second coining of 
Christ, as at hand in the sense in which bhe 
first ( IhristianS did, our appearance at 1 1 is J iid- 

ment-seat is qo Less certain, and bhe thought 

Of it should alVecl us in the same way. 

6. Anxiety is precluded by the direction, let 
your requests be made known unto God since 
'he oareth for you ' ( 1 Pel ■>' ; op. Mt6 81 » 8a ). 
Prayer is devout address to Cod in general, 
supplication bhe specific appeal for help, and 
request bhe particular petition made. Iii every- 
thing includes temporal with spiritual needs, 

covering all occasions of anxiety. 

7. The peace of God is that- which ensues on 
reconciliation through < 'hrisl and the bestow 
ment Of bhe Soly Spirit, who breathes the 
father's love into tin- heart: see Ro5 '.-. N -n 
Eph2 18 " 18 . The consciousness of this fortifies 
bhe mind against trouble: it shall guard (or 
garrison ) your hearts and your thoughts in Christ 
Jesus. Cod's peace surpasses (A V 'passes': 

bhe Same WOrd was rendered ' better than ' in 

2 8 , and 'excellency' in 8 8 ) all reason (G-k. ?ww«) 
in its fortifying power. Greek philosophy 
Boughl in Reason bhe prophylactic againsl care 

and fear; bhe true remedy is found in Christ. 

§ 17. 4 K ' ;| . The real Finally is now reached: 

See on 3 1 . 'The list, of virtues here com- 

mended is unique in St. Paul's writings, 
resembling bhe catalogues of Greek moralists; 

its items belong to natural ethics. These 
things, St. Paul says, take account of (EM); 
i.e. reckon and allow for (the verb of 8 18 

I Cor I 1 13 8 , etc.): he desiderates in bhe readers 



62 



<)77 



4.9 



PHILIPPIANS 



4. 20 



a larger appreciation of goodness, a catholic 
moral taste — mark the reiterated whatsoever. 
This Church was intensely devoted, but in- 
tellectually narrow (see on l 9 ), — a defect 
naturally aggravated by persecution. Hence 
the stress laid on ' gentleness ' in y. 5, and 
on the amenities of life in v. 8. Things true 
and honourable (to be revered) constitute the 
integrities of personal character ; things pure 
and just represent the moralities, and things 
amiable and winning the graces, of social life. 
The further expressions, if there be any virtue 
and if there be any praise (aught to be praised), 
bring in every conceivable form and instance 
of moral excellence. Virtue — the ruling cate- 
gory of heathen ethics — figures only in this 
passage of St. Paul ; the Apostle is seeking com- 
mon ethical ground as between the Church 
and Gentile society. The Christian man 
must prize every fragment of human worth, 
claiming it for God. 

9. So much for reflexion and appreciation f f or 
practice, the writer points once more, as in c. 
5, to himself, — to his personal teaching (what 
things you both learned and received) and be- 
haviour (and heard of and saw in me). The God 
of peace shall be with you is a virtual repetition of 
v. 7 : men of large-hearted charity and steadfast 
loyalty dwell in God's peace amidst all storms. 

vii. Acknowledgment of the Contri- 
bution FROM PHILIPPI ( 4 10 - 20 ) 

§ 18. 4 10 - 16 . With the Benediction of v. 
9 (cp. Rolo 33 ) the letter might have ended ; 
but St. Paul in sending back Epaphroditus 
(9 25-30) d es j res to make ample recognition of 
the gift conveyed by him, and has reserved 
this matter to the last. The remittance had 
surely been acknowledged earlier; communica- 
tions had been exchanged since Epaphroditus' 
arrival in Rome : see Intro. It looks as 
though the Philippians had been grieved in 
some way over the reception of their con- 
tribution. Perhaps the Apostle's former 
acknowledgment through its brevity was open 
to misconstruction. With care and earnest- 
ness he now endeavours to set himself right 
with his friends : — 

1 Greatly was I gladdened,' he writes, ' that 
now once again you have blossomed out in your 
thoughtfulness for me ; indeed, you were think- 
ing of me in this way before, but you lacked 
opportunity to show it.' The recenl gift was 
ih.- revival of the care for the Apostle's wants 
shown by the Philippians at an earlier time ; 
no other Church had so markedly proved its 
gratitude in fchis kind (v. L5). The readers 
are awan- of this fact (Moreover ye your- 
selves know, ye Philippians): they had proba- 
bly referred to it. in their Church Letter, with 
pardonable pride. In the beginning of the 
gospel means at the time of its coming to 



these regions (cp. 1 5 ) ; in the matter of giving 
and receiving (R V) might be rendered k by way 
of credit and debit account ' (cp. 1 Cor 9 n Gal 6 6 
Philemon vv. 18, 19) — a mercantile idiom. 
When I went out from Macedonia refers to 
contributions sent to the writer at Athens or 
Corinth (see 2 Cor 1 1 "- 10 ) ; even before this, 
during the short time he stayed in Thessalo- 
nica, they had helped him once and again (v. 1 6). 

In the intervening passage (vv. 11-14) St. 
Paul explains his attitude. He does not 
speak as though in want and dependent 
on such support ; he has learned to be self- 
sufficient (content) under all conditions. I 
know, he continues, how to be abased (by 
poverty: see lCor4H 2 Cor 11 9, 27 Ac20 34 ), 
and I know also how to be in affluence ; in 
every variety of state and circumstance, I have 
become versed (lit. "initiated ') both in feasting 
and hungering, both in affluence and destitution. 
Thrice St. Paul speaks of his k abundance ' 
(vv. 12 and 18) ; and this bears out the con- 
jecture of Sir W. M. Ramsay, suggested by the 
heavy cost entailed in the l appeal to Caesar ' 
(AC25 11 ' 12 ) and the unlikelihood of his taxing 
the Churches for this purpose, that he had by 
this time come into the inheritance of property 
and is no longer a poor man. If this was so, 
then St. Paul is thinking of the trials of both 
estates when he says. I am equal to every- 
thing, in him that enables me (v. 13): cp. 2 Cor 
12 9> 10 Eph 3 20 Col 1 2 9. He rejoices, therefore, 
in the gift of the Philippians for their sake 
rather than his own (v. 14): Howbeityedidwell, 
that ye had fellowship with my affliction (showed 
sympathy with my persecuted condition) — not, 
as l in Thessalonica,' w T ith 'my need' (v. 16). 

§ 19. 4 17 - 20 . Hence the Apostle was not 
eager for the gift (as a boon to himself), but 
for the evidence it afforded of God's grace in 
the givers (cp. 1 ii2Cor9 611 Eph 5 9 )— the fruit 
that increaseth to your account. But I have 
enough and to spare ; I am filled full — in satis- 
faction of mind as of bodily wants (cp. 2- 
2 Cor 7 4 ) — now that I have received from Epa- 
phroditus what you have sent, — a fragrant 
savour, an acceptable sacrifice, ■well-pleasing to 
God (cp. Heb 1 3 ■' '): the religious, not the mate- 
rial value of the gift weighs with its receiver. 

19. Since the offering is a sacrifice to God, 
He will recompense it (cp. Heb6 10 Provl9 17 ) : 
my God will fill up every need of yours — as \ on 
have striven to meet His servant's need — 
according to his riches. Temporal and spirit- 
ual needs are together included in the promise: 
Cod's 'wealth' contains all kinds of treasure. 
In glory points to the heavenly consummation 
(cp. Ro2V Eph L 7 » 18 ), in Christ Jesus to the 
ground and channel of divine supplies. 

20. Th< Doxology (cp. 2 Cor "J 10 , in relation 
to its context) magnifies the bountiful Giver 
as our Father: see MtG 6 > 3 -. 



978 



4. 21 



PHILIPPIANS— COLOSSIANS 



§ 20. 421-23. i n conclusion, the Apostle bids 
a greeting to every saint in Christ Jesus— his 
good will knows no exception: see 1 M. 7,8. 
With his own he sends greetings from his 
companions, from the whole Roman Church, 
and particularly from those of Caesar's house- 
hold (to think of Christians in Nero's house ! ) 
— the latter singled out because their saluta- 



INTRO. 

tion would peculiarly touch the Philippians : see 
Intro. The circumstances of his captivity and 
trial brought the Apostle into contact with the 
palace and the imperial attendants ; friends in 
that quarter were specially serviceable to him. 
23. The Benediction (RV) is nearly identi- 
cal with that of Galatians, Philemon, and 
2 Timothy. 



COLOSSIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Colossi was a town of Phrygia in Asia 
Minor, situated upon the S. bank of the 
Lycus, a tributary of the Mseander. Laodicea 
( 2 i 418,15,16 Rev in 314) and Hierapolis (413) 
were' distant from it eleven and thirteen miles 
respectively. As these cities grew, Colossge 
seems to have declined ; for, though Herodotus 
speaks of it as 'a city of great size,' and 
Xenophon as ' a populous city, prosperous and 
great.' about the beginning of the Christian 
era it is mentioned by Strabo as 'a small 
town.' In St. Paul's time, Pliny classes it 
among the 'most famous towns' of the district ; 
but he was probably thinking mostly of its past 
consequence. It is to the Christians in this 
town that the present Epistle is addressed ; 
and some discussion has arisen as to St. Paul's 
previous relations with them. He seems to 
have written an earlier letter to them (4 i0 ) to 
which Epaphras had brought a reply (17); but 
whether he had himself actually visited Colossse 
at any time is a matter of doubt. He may 
have done so on his Third Missionary Journey, 
when ' he went over all the country of Galatia 
and Phrygia in order ' (Ac 18 23), or even during 
his three years' stay at Ephesus, when 'all 
they which dwelt in Asia heard the word ' 
(Acl9 10 ), but it is tolerably clear that he had 
never made a prolonged stay in Colossae, and 
was not directly the founder of its Church 
(1 4 2 1). Christianity was probably introduced 
into Colossae by one of his converts, and 
Epaphras (l 7 412,13) generally has the honour 
accorded to him. 

2. Occasion of the Epistle. The present 
letter, which was taken by Tychicus, who was 
accompanied by Onesimus, Philemon's runaway 
slave (4 7, 9), was called forth by a serious dan- 
ger that threatened the faith of the Colossian 
Church. The danger arose from a type of 
false teaching, essentially Jewish in character. 
It emphasised the importance of sacred sea- 
sons, the sabbath, the new moon, the feast 



979 



day ; it laid down certain restrictions as to 
meats and drinks, made much of circumcision 
and the Law, and gave an important place to 
the tradition of men. It insisted on severity 
to the body, and perhaps claimed to rest upon 
vision. By its worship of the angels it de- 
graded Christ from His true position as the 
Head of the body. While the teachers thought 
too meanly of themselves to seek fellowship 
with Cod, and therefore worshipped the angels 
they were puffed up with conceit towards men' 
professing to put a philosophical view of re- 
ligion in place of the elementary teaching the 
Colossians had received (2 16-23). 

The modern reader will find the Epistle 
easier to understand if he gains some acquaint- 
ance with the doctrine of angels current in the 
Judaism of St. Paul's time. This doctrine had 
received a great development in the centuries 
immediately preceding the birth of Christ 
The world was imagined to be full of angels 
and demons, who presided over all the opera- 
tions of nature and entered into the closest 
relations with the life of man. Every blade of 
grass had its angel, much more the mightier 
forces and elements of nature. Each nation 
had its angel, who guided its destiny and fought 
its battles. The common view that the angels 
are sinless was unknown, and even the best 
were not regarded as free from moral imper- 
fections. Owing to the distance which later 
Jewish theology set between God and the 
world, it was natural that many should turn 
for help to the angels, who were ever close at 
hand and were the actual controllers of the 
ordinary course of nature and human affairs 
It w probable that by 'the elements of the 
world (2 8, 20 RV) g t< Paul meang the elemental 

spirits, and he considers the whole race of 
man, both Jewish and Gentile, to have been in 
subjection to these 'elements,' 'which by nature 
were no gods' (Gal43-i0). This angelic rule 
ind one expression in the life of Israel 



INTRO. 



COLOSSIANS 



1. 1 



which is of great importance for our purpose. 
It was a tenet of Judaism, endorsed also in 
the New Testament (Ac7 53 ; cp.Ac7 38 Gal 
3 19 Heb2 2 ), that the Law had been given 
through the angels ; accordingly subjection to 
it meant subjection to them. 

A large section of Epaphras' converts at 
Colossae had given their adhesion to the false 
teaching, and no doubt the sounder portion 
had written for advice to Epaphras or even to 
St. Paul, and hence the Epistle before us. 

St. Paul does not meet the Colossian heresy 
by an appeal to the Old Testament, which 
might have been set aside by allegorical inter- 
pretation. He meets it by an appeal to their 
own experience, and by a statement of the 
Person and work of Christ, the Son of God and 
all-sufficient Saviour, and he dwells on them as 
contradictory to and incompatible with the 
conceptions entertained by the false teachers. 
In the Son, who had condescended to become 
man, there resides, he says, the totality of the 
divine qualities and powers. Of Himself He 
is sufficient to form the link uniting God and 
man together. Where, then, is there room for 
angelic and other mediators intruding between 
the lowliness of man and the majesty of God ? 
Christ suffices to bridge the chasm. And how 
insufficient are angelic beings for such an end ! 
Christ, acting for His Father, has created the 
universe and is its Head — not any angel. The 
angels were indeed His creatures. Christ — 
not any angel — is also the Head of the Church. 
The Old Dispensation, indeed, had been ' or- 
dained by angels ' (Gal 3 19 ), and was under their 
supervision. But their Dispensation, with its 
ordinances and rules and observances, was done 
away with (Eph2 15 ). Christ had taken the 
bond of the Old Dispensation (and of every 
other religion which founds itself on outward 
observances) and had nailed it to His Cross, 
superseding by His own operation the inferior 
work which had been entrusted to the agency 
of angels. How can it be right to descend to 
the adoration of angels from the worship of 
the Lord and Creator of angels, who had shown 
His superiority to their ' principalities and 
powers,' and had ' openly triumphed ' over the 
Dispensation which they had been allowed to 
superintend, by the Dispensation inaugurated 
by the Cross (2 14 > 15 ). Such an adoration is 
no sign of humility, but a superstition dishon- 
ouring to the gospel and arising from an in- 
ability to realise the true relation between God 
and num. as man is reconciled and adopted in 
Christ (~ ls ). As to the rules of outward ob- 
servances in which Judaism delighted, and the 
injunctions of asceticism which perhaps fol- 
lowed from tli<' misapprehension of the nature 
of matter, they are of no use as restraints to 
the flesh, and only lead to a self-conceit which 
applauds itself for its humility. 



The overmastering idea of the greatness of 
Christ gives their form to some of the practical 
exhortations which succeed to the argument — 
' Christ sitteth upon the right hand of God ' : 
' your life is hid with Christ in God ' : ' Christ 
our life ' : ' Christ is all in all ' : ' as is fit in 
the Lord ' : 'as to the Lord, and not unto 
men ' : ' the Lord Christ ' : ' the mystery of 
Christ ' : ' Epaphras, a servant of Christ ' (3 x > 3 > 

4,11,18,23,24 43,12) # 

3. Authorship. There need be no misgiving 
in accepting the Pauline authorship of the 
Epistle. The doubts formerly entertained by 
critics have largely disappeared, and the num- 
ber continually increases of those who fully 
admit its genuineness. The time is probably 
not far distant when this will be regarded as 
settled by common consent. It used to be 
said that the false teaching alluded to by St. 
Paul was a form of that large class of beliefs 
grouped together under the name of Gnos- 
ticism, and therefore that it could not be earlier 
than the second century. The present writer 
is convinced that there is not a trace of specific 
Gnosticism in the Epistle, but even if there 
were we have good reason to believe that the 
Gnostic systems of the second century struck 
their roots into a much earlier time. He also 
believes that the Essene features found by 
many scholars in the false teaching are quite 
imaginary. There is absolutely nothing in 
that teaching which could not have been given 
in Colossse by 59 a.d. or even earlier. Nor is 
there anything in the writer's own exposition 
that contradicts Pauline authorship. His doc- 
trine of Christ and the angels can be matched 
in nearly every point from St. Paul's generally 
accepted Epistles. The style, it is true, differs 
from that of Galatians, Corinthians, and 
Romans, but a letter written in the meditative 
seclusion of a prison is not likely to have the 
same rapidity of movement or passionate 
intensity as a letter like Galatians, dashed off 
at white heat by a missionary immersed in the 
most distracting activities and fighting with 
his back to the wall in defence of the gospel. 
The Epistle was written at the same time as 
Ephesians and Philemon, possibly during the 
Apostle's imprisonment at Caesarea, but much 
more probably at Rome. It was in the earlier 
part of his imprisonment, and also, we may say 
with tolerable confidence, before the compo- 
sition of Philippians. The precise date is 
uncertain, probably 59 a.d. is not far from the 
mark. 

CHAPTER 1 

The Supremacy wi> All-Sufficiency of 
Christ 
1-8. Salutation to the Colossian Christians, 
and thanksgiving for the news of their spiritual 
state. 



080 



1. 1 



COLOSSIANS 



1. 16 



Paraphrase. ' (1, 2) Paul and Timothy 
salute the saints and believers in Colossse. 
(3-5) We always thank God, when we pray 
for you, on account of your faith and the love 
you display in hope of the heavenly reward, of 
which you heard when the gospel was first 
proclaimed to you. (6-8) This gospel is the 
word of truth which approves itself by its 
universal diffusion and success, and has from 
the very first achieved a similar success among 
yourselves, taught you as it has been in its 
genuine reality by Epaphras, who has minis- 
tered to you in my place and has made known 
your love to me.' 

2. Faithful] better, ' believing.' And the 
Lord Jesus Christ] RY rightly omits. 

3. Better, ' We always give thanks to God 
the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ when we 
pray for you.' 5. For the hope] i.e. based on 
the hope. 6, 7. It is the gospel as Epaphras 
taught it them, not that urged on them by the 
false teachers, which is exercising this world- 
wide influence. The universal corrects the 
local. 7 b . RY ' who is a faithful minister of 
Christ on our behalf ' is probably right. The 
Apostle of the G-entiles could not himself visit 
Colossae. Epaphras has done this part of his 
work for him. Epaphras is not to be identi- 
fied with Epaphroditus (Phil2 2 5-30 418). 

9-14. St. Paul's prayer that the Colossians 
may be filled with wisdom, strength, and 
thanksgiving. 

Paraphrase. ' (9) Since we heard the glad 
report, as you pray for us so we pray without 
ceasing for you, that you may be filled with a 
knowledge of God's will touching your conduct, 
a knowledge characterised by wisdom and in- 
sight. (10) Such knowledge is not indeed an 
end in itself. It must lead to a life well 
pleasing to Christ ; you must bear fruit and 
increase in every good work by means of your 
knowledge of God. (11) This you can do 
only as God Himself strengthens you, and this 
He will do not simply according to your need, 
but in the measure of His own power. Thus 
you will be strengthened for the supreme test, 
the trial of steadfastness and forbearance, 
which you will meet with joy. (12-14) Give 
thanks also to the Father, who qualified you 
to share in the lot of the saints which is situ- 
ated in the realm of light, by rescuing you 
from the dominion of darkness and translating 
you into the kingdom of that Son on whom 
His love rests, in whom we possess deliverance, 
the forgiveness of our sins.' 

9. In all wisdom, etc.] RY ' in all spiritual 
wisdom and understanding.' 10. RM ' by the 
knowledge.' 12. Made us meet] better, 
' qualified you.' Usually the saints in light is 
taken as a single phrase meaning ' saints in 
heaven.' But ' in light ' should be connected 
with ' the lot.' It defines its situation. ' The 



lot' (AY inheritance) 'of the saints' is the 
blessedness awaiting them. 13. His dear Son] 
RY 'the Son of his love.' 14. Redemption] 
The view that the word means ransom is very 
dubious. ' Deliverance ' is the best translation. 
Omit through his blood. 

15-23. The supremacy of the Son in the 
universe and the Church. 

Paraphrase. ' (15) This Son of God's love, 
in whom we have our deliverance, the pardon 
of our sins, is the exact image of God, so that 
while God is the invisible, He is manifested 
to us in His Son. (16) The Son also possesses 
the first-born's dominion over every creature 
in virtue of the fact that the creation of all 
things depended on Him, whether in heaven 
or on earth, whether visible or invisible. Let 
it be specially observed that in the ' all things ' 
thus created must be included the Angelic 
powers of the loftiest orders. All things I 
say have come into existence by His agency, 
and He is the goal for which they have been 
created. (17) He is before all things and the 
principle of their cohesion. (18) And this 
preeminence in the universe is matched by His 
preeminence in the Church. He is the Head 
of the body, inasmuch as He is the ruler who 
has passed to His dominion from the dead, in 
order that He who is from the first supreme 
in the universe may become supreme in the 
Church, and thus be supreme in every sphere. 
(19, 20) This position He attained because 
God was well pleased that all the fulness of 
His Grace should dwell in His Son, and thus 
reconcile through Him all things to Himself. 
It was through the blood shed on His Cross 
that peace was thus made. And the scope of 
this reconciliation was universal, it embraced 
not things in earth alone, but those in the 
heavens ; (21) aye, and you Colossians, too, 
once estranged from God and hostile to Him 
though you were. (22, 23) Now you have 
been reconciled in the Son's fleshly body 
through His death, to present yourselves 
blameless before God, if you stand unshaken 
in the Gospel.' 

The aim of this great exposition of the 
nature and work of the Son is to accord to 
Him the supreme position alike in the world 
and the Church, and sweep away the false 
teaching which assigned to angelic mediators 
the position and functions of the Son. He 
and not they created, sustains, and rules the 
universe ; they, even the loftiest, are merely 
His creatures. He, and not they, is the 
Redeemer, they are among the redeemed. 

15. The image perfectly resembles and 
reveals the original. First born] The word 
expresses priority to and then supremacy over. 
Probably the latter only is meant here. Every 
creature] better than RY ' all creation.' 

16. By him] RY ' in him.' Thrones, etc.] 



981 



1. 17 



COLOSSIANS 



2.4 



various ranks of higher angels. 17. Consist] 
KM 'That is, hold together.' The Son is 
the centre of unity for the universe. 19. RV 
' For it was the good pleasure of the Father 
that in him should all the fulness dwell.' A 
very difficult v., but probably this is more 
correct than RM, ' For the whole fulness of 
God was pleased to dwell in him.' The ful- 
ness is not as in 2 9 , the fulness of G-odhead, 
but the fulness of grace possessed by the Son 
in His incarnate state. 20. The Son's atoning 
death availed for the whole angelic world, as 
well as for the world of men, since the Son is 
Head of both. 

20-22. Yery difficult, but probably a full 
stop should be placed at the end of v. 21. We 
may translate, ' And through him to reconcile 
all things unto himself, having made peace 
through the blood of his Cross, through him, 
whether the things on earth or the things in the 
heavens, you also who once were alienated and 
enemies in mind in evil works. But now ye 
have been reconciled in the body of his flesh,' 
etc. 22. Body of his flesh] as against the 
false teachers who thought non-incarnate 
angels could redeem. 

24 — C. 2 3 . Paul's sufferings, labours, and 
anxieties for the Church. 

Paraphrase. ' (24-26) I rejoice in the suffer- 
ings I endure for your sake, and fill up the 
measure of afflictions Christ has still to endure 
in my flesh on behalf of His body, the Church, 
which I serve in my office of stewardship en- 
trusted to me by God, to set forth the gospel 
in its universal scope, that secret hidden from 
eternity but now revealed to His saints. (27) 
To them God has willed to make known how 
rich is the glory of this mystery among the 
Gentiles which is none other than the in- 
dwelling Christ, the pledge of your participa- 
tion in the heavenly glory. (28, 29) This 
Christ we proclaim to all, that we may present 
each perfect in Him — an end to which I 
devote all the energy which He has made to 
work so mightily in me. (C. 2. 1-3) For let 
me assure you how intense is my inward 
struggle for you and the Laodiceans, personally 
unknown to me though you are, that you may 
be strengthened and knit together in love to 
attain all rich fulness of insight, a full know- 
ledge of Christ the divine mystery, in whom 
exisl all the treasures of wisdom and know- 
ledge, not on the surface, but concealed where 
they must be discovered by earnest search.' 

24. Christ Buffers in His members in virtue 
of their union with Him, and the afflictions 
Paul undergoes in prison are filling up the 
measure of Buffering Christ has still to endure 
in him. 

25. Dispensation] RM 'stewardship. 1 

26. Mystery] truth not to be discovered by 
man's unaided power, and therefore known 



only through divine revelation. This mystery 
was concealed from the ages before the world 
and the generations of mankind, in other words 
from angels and from men. 

C. 2. 1 . Paul was personally unknown both 
to the Colossians and the Laodiceans. 

2. Full assurance] RM 'fulness.' To the 
acknowledgement, etc.] RV, better, ' that they 
may know the mystery of God, even Christ.' 
The wealth of full understanding consists in 
knowledge of the mystery of God, and this 
mystery of God is no other than Christ Himself, 
since in Him God's eternal purpose is realised 
and revealed. They need not go to other 
sources as the false teachers advise, all is 
contained in Christ. 

CHAPTER 2 
The False Teaching and its Refutation 

4-15. Hold fast to Christ the All-sufficient 
Saviour. 

Paraphrase. '(4) I emphasise these truths 
about Christ lest you should be beguiled by 
plausible persuasions. (5) While I am physi- 
cally absent from you, I am with you in spirit, 
rejoicing with you and beholding your order 
and the firm foundation of your faith in Christ. 
(6, 7) Let your moral life in Christ Jesus be 
in harmony with the teaching through which 
you received Him as Lord ; be firmly rooted 
and built up in Him, established in faith as 
you were taught, abounding in thankfulness. 
(8) Let no one lead you away as his prey by 
any empty sham that he may recommend as 
' philosophy ' drawn from human tradition, 
with the elemental spirits of the world and 
not Christ for its content. (9, 10) For it is 
in Christ, not in them, that all the fulness of 
Godhead dwells, and dwells as an organic 
whole ; and it is in Him that you find every 
spiritual need completely met, in Him the 
Head of the angelic powers. (11) You need 
no physical circumcision, for in your conversion 
you received a spiritual circumcision, not the 
mere cutting away of a fragment of the body, 
but the removal of the whole carnal nature. 
Really this went back to the death of Christ 
in which He underwent this spiritual circum- 
cision ; (12) and you have not only shared 
Christ's burial in baptism, but also His resur- 
rection through faith in ihe working of God 
who raised Him from the dead. (13) You 
too, though spiritually dead by reason of 
your trespasses with your carnal nature 
unremoved by spiritual circumcision ; you 
did God quicken along with Christ, forgiv- 
ing us all our trespasses (I say ' us,' not 
' you,' for I cannot be silent about God's for- 
giving love to me), because He had cancelled 
fche bond which was against ns by its ordinances, 
the Law which was hostile to us. (14) And 
He has taken it out of the way, annulling it 



982 



2.8 



COLOSSIANS 



% 20 



by nailing it to Christ's Cross that it might be 
put to death with Him. (15) He despoiled 
the angelic forces, and showed them frankly in 
their true position as givers of an abrogated 
Law, and rulers of elements to which Christians 
have died, triumphing over them on the Cross.' 

8. Paul is not condemning philosophy 
properly so called, but the empty doctrines 
which the false teachers dignified by that 
name. Spoil] RY ' maketh spoil of you ' ; the 
word means to lead away as prey. The 
rudiments of the world] better, as mg., ' the 
elements of the world.' This cannot be the 
first principles of religion, which could not be 
well called ' weak and beggarly ' (Gal 4 9 ), were 
not strictly common to Jews and heathen, nor 
an apt description of the false teaching which 
was something very different. Here they are 
contrasted with Christ ; in G-al4 8 > 9 they are 
identified with those who by nature are not 
gods ; and in Gal 4 3 compared with ' guardians 
and stewards. 1 They must then be personal 
beings, not however the spirits of the stars, 
but the elemental spirits that animate the 
material world. The false l philosophy ' had 
these angels not Christ for its subject-matter. 

9. The reference is to the exalted Christ. 
Bodily] usually explained to mean in bodily 

fashion. Probably we should render ' in the 
form of a body,' and explain it to mean as an 
organic whole. The fulness of the Godhead is 
not distributed among the angels, but exists in 
all its completeness in Christ. 11. The body 
of the sins of the flesh] RY ' the body of the 
flesh.' The carnal nature, the old self, is 
meant. The circumcision of Christ] prob- 
ably an expression for the death of Christ, 
in which the Christian ideally died to sin. 

12. RY ' Through faith in the working of 
God.' 13. The uncircumcision of your flesh] not 
physical, as if he meant, ' because you were un- 
circumcised Gentiles,' for the circumcised Jews 
also were, in Paul's judgment, spiritually dead. 
He means the spiritual uncircumcision, which 
consisted in the possession of a carnal nature. 

Forgiven you] RY ' forgiven us.' Paul 
cannot leave himself out. 14. Handwriting of 
ordinances, that was against us] RM ' the bond 
that was against us by its ordinances.' 

15. Principalities and power] mean here 
precisely what they mean elsewhere in this 
Epistle. They are not evil spirits, but the 
angels who gave the Law that brought Christ 
to His death, and that rule over the material 
elements. God is the subject throughout the 
passage. 

16-23. Hold fast the treasure of which the 
false teachers would rob you. 

Paraphrase. '(16) Since then the Law no 
longer exists for you, and the angels have 
been deposed from their rule, let no one pass 
judgment on you in the matter of food or 



sacred seasons. (17) These things are a mere 
shadow ; it is Christ who possesses the substance. 
(18) Let no one give judgment against you in 
the matter of gratuitous humility and angel 
worship, vainly speculating and inflated with 
fleshly pride. (19) Such a man has no firm 
grasp of Christ the Head, from whom the 
whole body of the Church draws and maintains 
its unity by the joints and ligaments and 
grows with such growth as God requires. 
(20) If your conversion meant that in union 
with Christ you died to the elemental spirits 
that ruled the old order, why do you act as if you 
still belonged to it and were subject to them, 
and permit yourselves to be dictated to in 
such terms as these, (21) ' You must not handle 
nor taste nor even touch ' ? (22) What folly, 
when every one of the things prohibited is so 
unimportant that we annihilate it in the very 
act of use ! These prohibitions have their 
source not in divine, but in human precepts 
and teachings. (23) They confer, it is true, a 
reputation for wisdom in respect of gratuitous 
worship of the angels and humility and ascetic 
severity to the body, but confer no true honour, 
and tend to the indulgence of the flesh.' 

16. The Jewish character of the false 
teaching comes very plainly into view here. 

1 7. In Christ they have all in reality which 
they think they have in Judaism. This v. 
might almost serve as a text for the Epistle to 
the Hebrews, which sees in Christianity the 
religion of eternity realised in time in the 
person and work of Jesus, but casting its 
shadow before it into the world in the form 
of Judaism. 

18. Text and translation are alike very 
uncertain. We should probably correct the 
text and render : ' Let no one give judgment 
against you in voluntary humility and worship 
of the angels, treading the void of air, ground- 
lessly puffed up by the mind of his flesh.' 

Intruding into] If the text is right, ' inves- 
tigating' would be a better rendering. Which 
he hath not seen] The negative should certainly 
be omitted with the best MSS. If the text is 
right, the meaning of the clause seems to be, 
' investigating his visions,' but the text is 
probably incorrect, and we should read with a 
very slight alteration of the Gk., ' treading the 
void of air.' They leave the solid ground 
of fact and experience for the insubstantial 
bubbles of speculation. Fleshly mind] a sharp 
warning to men who fancied they were achiev- 
ing the destruction of the flesh by worshipping 
angels and severity to the body ; these prac- 
tices had their origin in the flesh, which domi- 
nated their whole nature, mind and all. 

19. Severance from the Head cuts off the 
supply of spiritual life. 20. Death with 
Christ is death to the old order of things, to 
the world and the Law and the angels who 



983 



% 21 



COLOSSIANS 



4. 18 



ruled them both. The false teachers would 
have them revert to a stage they have left 
below them. 21. Precepts of the false teachers. 
23. Shew of wisdom] better, ' reputation for 
wisdom.' Will worship] a worship not required 
of them, the worship of angels. Neglecting 
of] RV ' severity to.' Not in any honour, etc.] 
This clause is extremely difficult, and no satis- 
factory explanation has been given. The RV 
rendering, ' but are not of any value against 
the indulgence of the flesh,' is highly question- 
able. Hort, our chief textual critic, and 
Haupt, the best commentator on the Epistle, 
are agreed that the text is corrupt. Perhaps 
some words have been accidentally omitted. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Christian's Risen Life and the 
Duties it entails 

1-4. Resurrection with Christ and the 
heavenly life. 

Paraphrase] ' (1) Seeing then that at your 
conversion you snared not Christ's death only, 
but His resurrection, go on to participate in 
His heavenly life, in that heaven where He is, 
and where He sits at God's right hand. (2) 
Let your whole thought be set on heavenly, 
not on earthly things. (3) For you died with 
Christ, and your life in union with Him is a 
hidden life in God. (4) It is not always to 
remain hidden, for at Christ's second coming 
it will be revealed ; for Christ is our very life, 
so that His manifestation involves ours.' 

2. Affection] RV 'mind.' 3. For ye are 
dead] RV ' Ye died,' i.e. at conversion. 

5-16. The moral life of the Christian. 

Paraphrase. '(5,6) Since you died and rose 
with Christ and your life is hidden with Him 
in God, realise these experiences already ideally 
yours in putting your sins to death, impurity 
and covetousness, (7) those heathen vices which 
draw down God's wrath, which you also once 
practised. (8) Put away anger, malice, abusive 
speech, (9) lying, for the old self has been dis- 
carded, (10) and the new self has been put on, 
which is being renewed with a view to deeper 
knowledge in conformity to the Creator's 
image. (11) Where there is such a new nature, 
all distinctions of race, social position, and 
religion arc annulled, and Christ is all and in 
all the relations of life. (12-14) Be kind, 
forbearing, and forgiving ;is Christ forgave 



you, and let love, which binds all Christians in 
one, do its perfect work. (15) Let the peace 
of Christ control your life, do nothing to 
ruffle it, and be thankful. (16) Let the gospel 
dwell within you, wisely teach and warn each 
other in songs of praise, let all your life be 
lived in Christ's name, and express through 
Him your thankfulness to God.' 

8. Blasphemy] RV ' railing.' Filthy com- 
munication] rather, ' abusive speech.' 10. In 
knowledge] RV 'unto knowledge.' 11. Is] 
RV ' cannot be.' Scythian] the extreme bar- 
barian. 14. Charity] RV 'love.' Bond of 
perfectness] the bond in which perfection con- 
sists. Love is the bond, in the sense that it 
binds Christians together (not the virtues). 

18-C. 4 1 . Reciprocal duties of wives and 
husbands, children and fathers, slaves and 
masters. 

22. The case of slaves is treated more fully, 
since the case of Onesimus was engaging Paul's 
attention. But he wished to keep the gospel 
clear of any attempt to revolutionise society. 
It was to be leaven, not dynamite. Eye- 
service] i.e. service most zealously performed 
when the slave is under observation. 25. The 
meaning is probably that the Christian slave 
must not suppose, because he is a Christian, 
that God will deal leniently with his mis- 
conduct. 

CHAPTER 4 

Exhortation and Greeting 

2-6. Exhortation to prayer and wisdom in 
dealing with heathen. 

6. Grace, not divine grace, but graciousness. 
Their speech must be winning and wise, sea- 
soned with salt. 

7-18. Commendation of bearers of the 
letter, and salutations. 

8. I have sent] i.e. I am (now) sending. 

He might know your estate] RV k that ye 
may know our estate.' 10. Sister's son] RV 
' cousin.' They must have received these 
commands at an earlier time. 14. From this 
v., compared with v. 11, it is clear that Luke 
was a Gentile. 15. Probably we should sub- 
stitute ' Nymphas ' and ' her house.' 16. The 
epistle from Laodicea] perhaps our Epistle to 
the Ephesians. 

18. Paul dictated the letter, as was his 
custom, and signed it with his chained hand. 

Remember] in your prayers. 



984 



1 AND 2 THESSALONIANS 



INTRODUCTION 



The Epistles of St. Paul fall naturally into 
four groups, each divided from the others by 
a considerable interval of time. In the earliest 
of these groups, written during the Second 
Missionary Journey, the great central thought 
is the coming of Christ to judge the world. The 
second group (1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 
Romans), written during the Third Missionary 
Journey, has for its leading theme the recon- 
ciliation of man with God and with his fellow- 
man by means of the Cross of Christ. The 
third group (Philippians, Colossians, Ephe- 
sians, Philemon), written during the first 
Roman captivity, dwells on the thought of 
Christ as the great King and Head of the 
Church. The fourth group (1 and 2 Timothy, 
Titus), written at the close of the Apostle's 
life, deals with practical questions of Church 
organisation. The two Epistles to the Thes- 
salonians together form the first group. In 
them we have the earliest of St. Paul's 
writings, and, with the probable exception of 
the Epistle of St. James, the earliest books of 
the New Testament. 

i. The Persons Addressed. The Thes- 
salonians inhabited the chief city of Mace- 
donia. Macedonia was the first European 
country in which St. Paul preached, and he 
always regarded it with peculiar affection. In 
Ac 16, 17 we have St. Luke's wonderfully 
vivid narrative of the bringing of the G-ospel 
to Macedonia. After some stay at Philippi 
the Apostle went through Amphipolis and 
Apollonia to Thessalonica, where he stayed for 
some six months (AcH 1 " 9 ), preaching first to 
the Jews as usual, and afterwards winning many 
converts among Gentile proselytes and women 
as well as among the heathen. Jewish intrigue 
at length drove him away. This famous city 
of Thessalonica, originally called Therma, had 
been re-founded by Cassander about 315 B.C., 
and, owing to its natural advantages, had 
grown and flourished. After the Roman con- 
quest the great military road, the Yia Egnatia, 
connected it with Italy and the East, while its 
fine harbour made it a great commercial 
centre. It was made a Free City by Augustus, 
with the privilege of self-government (Acl7 6 ). 
At the present time, under the slightly altered 
name of Saloniki, it is the second city of the 
Turkish empire, with a population of 70,000. 
It contained (and still contains) a consider- 
able number of Jews, and had a large native 



population. It was from this latter class that 
St. Paul's converts were chiefly drawn (cp. 
lThl 9 2 14 , and observe the absence of OT. 
quotations), and it is plain that they had the 
characteristic virtues, as well as some of the 
characteristic defects, of their race, which was 
brave, independent, persevering, and liberty- 
loving. But the Thessalonian converts some- 
times allowed their independence to degenerate 
into undue self-assertion and disregard of 
authority (lTh5 14 2Th36,7). Yet, on the 
whole, St. Paul was proud and fond of them. 
Notwithstanding terrible persecution, they 
had remained firm (lThl^ 2M4 2Thl4-7). 
Though poor they were generous (2 Cor 8 1_5 ). 
Their influence was felt throughout Mace- 
donia and Greece (IThlS). Their faith, 
hope, and love filled the Apostle's heart with 
joy (1 This, 3). 

2. Time and Place of Writing. The First 
Epistle was written towards the close of the 
Second Missionary Journey (? 51 A.D.), some 
time about the middle of the eighteen months' 
stay at Corinth (Ac 18). St. Paul had not 
long left Thessalonica (1 Th2i7), but had had 
time to visit Athens (lTh3!). Timothy had 
been to Macedonia and back (lTh3 6 ), and 
Silas (Silvanus) who is never mentioned after 
the Second Missionary Journey, is now the 
Apostle's companion (lThl 1 ). There had 
been time for the influence of the Thessalonian 
Church to make itself felt (1 Th 1 ?> 8). Some 
members of the Christian community had died 
(lTh4i3). The Second Epistle must have 
been written towards the close of the same 
Corinthian stay, when St. Paul had received 
news that the teaching of his first letter had 
been misrepresented and misunderstood (2 Th 
2 2 ). Silvanus and Timothy were still with 
him (2Thl 1 ). Persecution was still raging 
(2 Th 1 4 ), and there was much excitement and 
increasing disorder on account of expectation 
of an immediate coming of Christ (2 Th 2 2 > 3 ). 

3. Reception in the Church. These Epistles 
are quoted or alluded to from very early times. 
Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, 
and Tertullian refer to them. They are in- 
cluded in Marcion's Canon (circ. 140 A.D.), and 
are found in the early list of the books of the 
NT. known as the Muratorian Canon (circ. 
190 a.d.). The internal evidence is also 
strong. Passages like lThl 5 - 9 21- 12 415 5 27 
2Th3 8 ' 9 , and the style and language, the per- 



985 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 THESSALONIANS 



INTRO. 



sonal touches, the intercessions and requests 
for the prayers of the Thessalonians, are 
characteristically Pauline. The only serious 
objections to the genuineness of the Epistles 
are connected with the section about the Man 
of Sin (2 Th 2 1 " 12 ), which is said by some to be 
un-Pauline and founded on the Revelation of 
St. John. But when we remember the large 
place occupied by Apocalyptic questions in 
Jewish and early Christian thought, the evident 
interest which they had for the Thessalonians, 
and the great prophecy of His coming uttered 
by our Lord Himself, we shall have no diffi- 
culty in coming to the conclusion that St. Paul 
would naturally deal with the subject quite 
independently of St. John or any other NT. 
writer. 

4. Value and Importance. These earliest of 
St. Paul's Epistles, short as they are, contain 
much of extreme interest to Bible students. 
They show us how St. Paul presented the 
gospel to heathen converts. They give us a 
vivid picture of Christian life in the first days 
before dissensions and false beliefs had vexed 
the peace of the Church, when teachers and 
taught loved each other, and faith and zeal 
were yet glowing. Incidentally they reveal to 
us much of the writer's mind and character 
(ITh 3 5-io, 11-13 2Th3'-i 2 ). But, most im- 
portant of all, they tell us what were the 
doctrines held and taught some twenty years 
after the Ascension, (a) Christ is frequently 
called ' the Lord,' ' our Lord.' He is addressed 
in prayer (1 Th3 n 2 Th 2 W. 1?). He died (1 Th 
2 i5 ), rose again (lThli°), is in Heaven 
(lTh4i 6 ), and shall come to judge the world 
( 1 Th 4 14-18). He is the Redeemer and Deliverer 
(1 Th5 9 ' 10 ). (b) The Holy Spirit is given to 
Christians (1 Th 1 5, 6 4 8 5 19). ( c ) The Church 
is already organised. The Apostles have au- 
thority ( 1 Th 5 27 2 Th 3 1 4 ). There is a regular 
ministry (1 Tho i' 2 > 13 ). Baptism may be alluded 
to in lTh4 8 . There were already meetings, 
probably for communion, where the ' holy kiss' 
was used (lTh5 26 > 27 , Justin's 'Apology,' I. 
65). The local Church was united in bonds of 
brotherhood with other Churches (lThl 8 2 14 
4 10 ).aii«l with the faithful departed(lTh4i3,l7). 

Thus, these Epistles, besides giving a picture 
of Church life in early days, testify to the 
main articles of the Creed. 

5. Analysis. First Epistle. Two main divi- 
sions : (o) Personal, H-3 18 ; (b) Hortatory, 
4i_528. 11-u^ Salutation and thanksgiving for 
their conversion and progress, 2 M '-\ Sketch 
of the Apostle's own work at Thessalonioa : cp. 
Acl7 Mu . 2 l:! -" ; , A second thanksgiving, with 
special reference to their persecutions, 2i 7 -3 10 , 

lli^ anxiety ;il>out the Thessalonians. and the 
joy with which he had received the good news 
about them brought by Timothy. 3 11 ' 13 , A 
solemn prayer for them to Christ as God. 



4 i- i2 , Exhortations to purity of life, brotherly 
love, quietness and industry. 4 13 -5 n , The 
chief subject of the Epistle (alluded to in 1 10 
and 31 3 ), the Second Advent. The faithful 
departed, about whom the Thessalonians were 
anxious, shall rise by virtue of their union 
with Christ, and shall rise before those who 
are now alive. But the time is uncertain 
('Watch, therefore, and be sober'). 5 i2 - 22 , 
Practical exhortation : (a) vv. 12-15', Social 
duties ; (6) vv. 16-22, Spiritual duties (joy, 
prayer, thanksgiving, etc.). 5 23 " 28 , Concluding 
prayer, injunctions, and benediction. 

Second Epistle. 1 1- 4 , Salutation and thanks- 
giving. l 5 -2i 4 , The Second Advent. 'You 
have suffered persecution, but God is just, and 
will requite both you and your enemies at the 
coming of Christ. I pray you may be found ready 
for it. But this coming will not be till after the 
great Apostasy and the revelation and destruc- 
tion of the Man of Sin and all those whom he 
has deceived. I thank God you have been saved 
from this fate.' 215-17, 'Hold fast the Faith. 
I pray Christ and God the Father to comfort 
and strengthen you.' 31-1 5 , Exhortation to 
intercessory prayer (cp. 1 Th5 25 ), hopes for their 
progress, rebukes to the idle and disorderly. 
3 16 " 18 , Concluding prayer and benediction. 

The Second Epistle presupposes the First : 
cp. 2 Th 2 is 3 6 with 1 Th 4 1-8, u . and there is a 
great similarity in structure between the two 
(lThlL 2 311 5 23 2Thli- 3 216 316). 

6. The chief subject of the Epistle is, as 
has been said, the Coming (or, as St. Paul calls 
it, the Presence) of Christ — the Second Ad- 
vent. And although he nowhere speaks defi- 
nitely as to the time of this Coming (which no 
man knows, Mt 24 36 ), he certainly uses language 
which suggests that ' there was a reasonable 
expectation of the Lord's appearing soon.' 
The expectation is doubtless based on our 
Lord's great prophecy of the destruction of 
Jerusalem and of Judaism found in Ml 24 and 
elsewhere. In the Second Epistle especially 
the language used often recalls that of our 
Lord (2 Th 2 1-4, 7,9 Mt 24 6, 10-13, is, 24) ? a nd 
the final Coming seems to be closely connected 
in St. Paul's mind with the overthrow of 
Judaism. In so far as he expected that these 
two events would happen together, or that the 
Final Coming would be soon after the over- 
throw of Judaism, he was doubtless mistaken. 
But it is to be observed that (a) the overthrow 
of Judaism by the destruction of Jerusalem 
and the Temple was in very truth a Coming 
of Christ to Judgment. 'The destruction 
of Jerusalem was an event which has no 
parallel in history. It was the outward and 
visible sign of a great epoch in the divine 
government of the world. It marked the 
inauguration of a new order of things. The 
Messianic kingdom was now fully come. The 






li 



INTRO. 



1 and 2 THESSALONIANS— 1 THESSALONIANS 



% 19 



final act of the King was to sit upon the 
throne of His glory and judge His people.' 
(J)) St. Paul's mistake, if mistake it be, does 
not in the least affect the value of his ethical 
teaching on the subject. For he points 
out to the Thessalonians the true way of 
preparing for the Final Advent which Christ 



meant His Church to expect. They were 
to make ready for it, not by feverish excite- 
ment and restlessness, but by the quiet, steady 
performance of everyday duty as in His sight, 
with the assurance that His followers, whether 
living or asleep in Him, were in His safe 
keeping. 



1 THESSALONIANS 



CHAPTER 1 

Salutation and Thanksgiving 

i. Salutation. For Silvanus (Silas) see 
Acl5 22 16 2 o. 37,3s. Timothy was one of St. 
Paul's most constant companions (AclG 1 
R0I621 1 Cor 4 u-17 2 Cor 119 Philli 219-24 
2 Tim 1^3 1 4 ). The church . . lohicli is in God, 
etc.] a phrase peculiar to this Epistle. The 
Church is in living union with God and Christ 
(Col 2 19). 

2-io. Fervent thanksgiving for their con- 
version and growth in grace. 

4. Better, ' Knowing, brethren beloved of 
God, your election, how that,' etc. 'Elec- 
tion,' i.e. to Christian and Church privileges 
(2 Tim 2i°). 5. Assurance] RVmg. 'fulness.' 
They preached with deep conviction of the 
truth and power of the message entrusted 
to them. 6. Affliction] referring to the per- 
secution and suffering recorded in Acl7i°-i 3 . 

Joy of] i.e. joy inspired by the Holy Ghost. 

7. In Macedonia] of which Thessalonica 
was the capital. And Achaia] of which 
Corinth, where the Apostle was, was capital. 

Achaia, the Roman province (= Greece). 

8. To speak anything] i.e. to recount their 
faith. 9. They themselves] i.e. the dwellers 
in all the places the Apostle and his com- 
panions had visited or heard from. The living 
and true God] better, ' a living and true God.' 
The Thessalonian converts had, as a rule, been 
heathens, though some were proselytes (i.e. 
Jews by religion), Acl7 4 . 10. To wait] to 
look for the Second Coming. Jesus, which 
delivered us from the wrath to come] better, 
'delivereth us from the wrath which is 
approaching.' 

CHAPTER 2 

The natuee of St. Paul's Life and 
Work at Thessalonica 

2. The persecution at the Roman garrison- 
town of Philippi made a deep impression on 
St. Paul the Roman citizen (Ac 1619-40 Phil 
1 30 ). It was the indignity that hurt him. 

Contention] better, ' conflict.' 3. It would 
seem that St. Paul was at first looked upon 



by some as an impostor, seeking his own ends. 
He declares that he came with a sincere desire 
for their salvation only. Deceit] better, 
' error.' Uncleanness] Impurity was often 
associated with heathen worship, and this 
was especially the case at Thessalonica and 
Corinth. 

4. Allowed] better, ' approved.' 5. Cloke 
of covetousness] i.e. covering to conceal avarice. 

6-1 1. St. Paul says that he might have 
made a display of apostolic authority and have 
demanded pecuniary support: see lCor9. 
But he was like a babe (better than ' gentle '), 
or like a mother who nurses her own children, 
or a father who guides and directs his son. 
At the same time he supported himself by 
tentmaking (Acl8 3 20 34 ). 

13-16. A second thanksgiving for their 
faith and patience under persecution. 

14. The (Gentile) Thessalonian Church had 
suffered much at the hands of their fellow- 
countrymen, just as the Jewish Church had 
suffered from the unbelieving Jews. Here was 
a bond of union and sympathy between the 
two. 15, 16. A characteristic outburst. The 
Jews had followed St. Paul with unceasing 
hostility in Europe as well as in Asia. They 
have driven him from Thessalonica and Bercea; 
and were doing their utmost against him at 
Corinth. Their narrow exclusiveness (for- 
bidding us to speak to the Gentiles) and hatred 
of other nations (contrary to all men) were a 
bitter trial to a patriot like St. Paul. To the 
uttermost] i.e. there was no longer any hope 
of their repentance or escape from their doom 
(Mt2332). The end was close at hand. 

17-C. 3 16 . ' Till Timothy's good report of 
you reached us, we were anxious about you, 
but now we rejoice and bless God for the 
news he brings, that you have stood firm 
under persecution.' 18. St. Paul generally 
uses the 1st person plural in these Epistles, 
including Silvanus and Timothy with himself. 
Here, however, he speaks for himself. The 
hindrance may have been an illness — probably 
malarial fever (2Corl2 7 ), or Jewish hostility. 
To St. Paul Satan is a real person (R0I6 20 
2 Cor 11 14 1 Tim 120). ig . The prospect of 



987 



1 THESSALONIANS 



5. 8 



presenting his converts to Christ fills the 
Apostle with joy. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Apostle's Anxiety about his 
Converts 

1. Forbear] better, 'endure the suspense.' 

2. Our fellow-labourer] better, ' God's fel- 
low-worker ' or ' minister,' RV. 3. Should 
be moved] better, ' led astray.' Afflictions] at 
the hands of Jews and Gentiles : see Acl7 5f . 

6. Now when] better, ' as soon as.' Char- 
ity] RV l love.' 8. We live] it puts new life 
in us. If ye stand fast] better, k if only ye 
stand fast.' The Gk. expresses some doubt 
and anxiety. 10. 'I pray unceasingly and 
urgently to the end that I may see you again 
and correct your shortcomings.' The prayer 
was answered after some years (AC20 1 ' 2 ). 

11-13. A prayer to Christ as co-equal with 
the Father, with which the first section of the 
Epistle ends : cp. 2Th2!6. 

11. The verb is in the singular, empha- 
sising the reference to Christ, who is also 
called 'the Lord' in v. 12. The key-note of 
these Epistles is again struck at the concluding 
words of the prayer, ' at the coming ' (lit. ' pres- 
ence ') ' of our Lord Jesus Christ with all His 
saints ' (cp. 2 19 ). 

CHAPTER 4 

Exhortation to Purity and Brotherly 

Love. The Second Advent 

1. 'You are already walking in the right 
path. I want you to advance in it more 
and more.' 

3, 4. Translate, 'For this is a thing willed 
by God, even your sanctification, that ye shall 
abstain from fornication (cp. Acl5 20 ), that 
each one of you should learn to win his body 
to a state of purity and honour.' Vessel] i.e. 
body. Some think the word means 'wife,' 
but this is not so likely. 5. Lust of con- 
cupiscence] RY ' passion of lust.' 6. Go be- 
yond and defraud] RY ' overreach (mg.). and 
wrong ' (i.e. by his sin). Any] should certainly 
be ' this.' 7. Better, ' For God called us not 
f or uncleanness, but to be in a state of purity.' 

Who hath also given] better, 'who is ever 
giving ' ( present tense). 

This passage (w. 3-8) contains in brief a 
statement of the Christian doctrine of purity. 
Impurity is, (1) (from the point of view of 
the man himself) a dishonouring of the temple 
of the Boly Ghosl (1 Cor3 w ) : since He takes 
up His abode in it. and rince Chrisl lias !.« come 
incarnate, and the body is to rise again, we 
must honour the body, nol defile it: (2)(from 
the point of view of our brothers and sisters) 

a violation of the law of lovi — a fraud and a 

cheat. Sins of the flesh were very Lightly 
regarded by the heathen world. 



9. Brotherly love] better, ' love of the 
brethren ' ; i.e. the special love to be shown 
towards all the members of the Church. 

10. In all Macedonia] These words imply 
that there were other Churches there besides 
those of which we read in the Acts. They 
also show that these Churches were not iso- 
lated. The idea of a Catholic Church is grow- 
ing. 11. Study] better, 'strive earnestly.' 
Religious excitement, especially in view of the 
expected coming of Christ, was a danger to 
the Thessalonian Church (2 Th 3 12 ). It caused 
neglect of 'the duty of every day.' 12. Work 
would give them, (1) respect in the eyes of 
their heathen neighbours (them that are with- 
out) ; (2) independence (Eph4 28 ). Honestly] 
or, as we should now say, ' honourably.' 

4 13-5 n The Second Advent. The dead 
in Christ will rise before the living, and both 
alike will share in the life everlasting. But 
the time of the Advent is uncertain. Let us 
therefore watch and be sober. 

13. Are asleep] better, 'are lying asleep.' 
The Thessalonians were anxious as to the 
part which those who had died in the Faith 
would take in the Second Advent, which was 
believed to be near at hand. Others] better, 
' all the rest,' i.e. the heathen who, even if 
they believed in some sort of an existence 
after death, had no hope of immortality. 

14. Which sleep in Jesus] better, l that are 
fallen asleep through Jesus,' i.e. in communion 
with Him. 15. Prevent] better, ' be before,' 
i.e. the dead, about whom you are anxious, 
will be at no disadvantage at the Advent, so 
far as its blessedness is concerned. 

16. Cp. Mt2430,3i. At the Resurrection of 
the Just the dead will rise before the living : 
see lCorl5 51 > 52 regarding the spiritual body. 

CHAPTER 5 

The Need of Watchfulness. Final 
Injunctions 

1. Times and seasons] St. Paul always lavs 
stress on the uncertaintv as to the time of the 
Advent (2 Th 22; cp. 2Pet3M). 3. When 
they shall say] i.e. when people are saying. 

4, 5. Thief] better, ' as thieves.' Thieves 
work in darkness. You are all children of light. 
Live up to your birthright. 6. Let us not 
sleep] i.e. in carelessness and sin. Others] 
better, ' the others.' 

8-10. Mason paraphrases, ' Lei us arm 
ourselves with a brave hope of our salvation. 
for it will be against God's will if we perish, 
lie means us to save ourselves by union with 
Him who put an end to death for us by dying, 
and made all who wait for His coming to live, 
whether they be in the world's sense dead or 
alive.' 

8. A new metaphor (cp. Eph6 18 " 17 Isa59 17 ), 
!>ut suggested by the idea of watchfulness. 






5.9 



1 THESSALONIANS— 2 THESSALONIANS 



g. To obtain salvation] (Phil 2 12 > 13 ) or, per- 
haps, ' for the adoption which consists in salva- 
tion' : cp. 2Th2 14 . io. Whether we wake 
or sleep] i.e. whether we are alive or dead at 
the Advent. 

1 1 . Edify] better, ' build up. ' As also ye 
do] St. Paul always praises and encourages 
where he can. 

12-28. Exhortations to respect for their 
clergy, orderly living, prayer and other spirit- 
ual duties, and conclusion. 

12. Know] better, ' value.' The probable 
reference is to the presbyters sometimes called 
(in allusion to their duties) ' overseers' (1 Tim 
5 17 ). 14. Feebleminded] better, 'fainthearted.' 

The weak] i.e. in faith, Ro Id 1 . 15. Cp. Mt 
5 39 lPet3 s ' 9 . 16. Evermore] better, 'always.' 
Joy is a necessary part of the Christian char- 
acter (RoU 1 - Phil2 is 3 1 4 4 ), and a Christian 
duty. 18. Cp. Eph5 20 , Prayer is put be- 
tween joy and thanksgiving, because it is only 
by constant prayer that we are enabled to feel 
true joy or gratitude. God's will towards us 
is that we should be always joyful, prayerful, 
grateful, and (3 3 ) pure in life. 

20. The Christian prophets were an order 
of men specially inspired to reveal the will of 
God to others (' mission-preachers '), who might 



sometimes (Acll 27 > 28 21 10 > n ) be charged to 
foretell the future : see ICorll 4 . 5 14 5 Eph 
4 11 3 5 1 Tim lis 414. 'Prophets' are also 
mentioned in the early Christian tract known 
as the ' Didache,' or ' Teaching of the Twelve 
Apostles.' The Thessalonians seem to have 
been disposed to check enthusiasm. 21. Prove] 
better, ' test.' You must test all these thoughts 
by spiritual standards, since there is an inspir- 
ation which is false (Uni 1 ). 22. All appear- 
ance] better, ' every form.' Good is one ; 
evil is manifold. 

23. May your spirit (by which man maintains 
communion with God) and soul (the feelings 
and emotions) and body (which is to rise again) 
be preserved entire and without blame, and be 
so found at the Advent. 24. Will do it] i.e. 
will preserve your spirit, soul, and body. 

25, 26. The duty of intercessory prayer 
(V especially at the Eucharist, where the holy 
kiss was a part of the rites from very early 
times). 27. I charge] better, ' I adjure.' 
The reading was probably to be at the 
Eucharist (Justin Martyr, 'Apol.' 1. 65-67). 
St. Paul wishes his earliest letter to be read to 
all without any suppression or omissions, 
otherwise a wrong use might be made of his 
authority. 



2 THESSALONIANS 



CHAPTER 1 

Salutations. The Second Advent 

1-4. Greeting and thanksgiving for their 
constant faith and love and patience under 
persecution : cp. 1 Th 1 3 . 

5-C. 2 17 . The Coming of Christ to judg- 
ment. Much is to happen before Christ comes. 

5. A manifest token] The words refer to 
their sufferings and their patience. If God 
is righteous there must come a time when 
wrongs such as theirs shall be righted, and 
patience like theirs be rewarded. Thus the 
sufferings and patience of the Thessalonians 
become a proof that there is a judgment to 
come (Phil 1 8 ). 7. Rest] better, 'relief.' The 
true rest and relief comes to the faithful when 
Christ comes. 

8. Taking vengeance] better, 'awarding 
retribution.' Them that know not God, and 
that obey not] better, (1) 'them that know 
not, and (2) them that obey not.' Possibly 
(1) Gentiles and (2) Jews. 

9. The everlasting destruction (only here) 
consists in exclusion from God's presence. 

11. Calling] cp. Phil 3 14 , Heb3!. All the 
good pleasure of his goodness] better, 'all 
delight in well-doing.' 



CHAPTER 2 

The Geeat Apostasy 
2. Spirit] i.e. a pretended revelation uttered 
by a false prophet. Letter as from us] perhaps 
a forged letter (the probable meaning), cp. 3 17 , 
or a misunderstanding of the First Epistle. 

3-10. It will be convenient to treat this 
difficult passage as a whole. Literally trans- 
lated, it runs thus : ' Let no man deceive you 
in any wise : for [the Final Presence of our 
Lord shall not be] except (or till) the falling 
away come first and the Man of Lawlessness 
be revealed, the son of perdition, he that op- 
poseth and exalted himself against all that is 
called God or an object of worship, so that he 
sitteth in the Sanctuary of God, setting him- 
self forth as God (Do ye not remember that, 
when I was yet with you, I told you these 
things ?) And now ye know about that (power) 
which restraineth, to the end that he may be 
revealed to his own season. For the mystery 
of lawlessness is already working, only there 
is one that restraineth now till he be taken 
out of the way. And then shall the Lawless 
one be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus shall 
slay with the breath of His mouth, and bring 
to naught by the Epiphany of His Presence — 



989 



2.3 



2 THESSALONIANS 



3. 17 



even him whose presence is according to the 
working of Satan, in all power and signs and 
wonders of falsehood, and in every deceit of 
unrighteousness for the ruin of those who are 
perishing because they received not the love of 
the truth, that they might be saved.' 

In the first place, we must remember that 
St. Paul is here speaking of something which 
is already at work, and the overthrow of which 
is to precede that Final Presence of the Lord 
which the Thessalonians thought to be immedi- 
ately impending. Realising this, we shall at 
once reject all those interpretations which 
see in the Man of Sin (Lawlessness) some 
historical character (e.g. one of the Popes, or 
of Napoleon I) who lived after St. Paul's time. 
We must also remember that the Thessalonians 
had the key to the interpretation of the pas- 
sage which we do not possess, since they had 
been orally instructed by St. Paul on the sub- 
ject. But, though certainty is now impossible, 
we may be guided to a probable solution by 
studying the passage in connexion with the 
Revelation of St. John, and (especially) our 
Lord's great prophecy recorded in Mt24 Mk 13 
and Lk21. When, further, we remember how 
bitterly St. Paul felt the opposition of his 
fellow-countrymen to Christ (lTh2 15 > 16 ), and 
how full the Gospels are of denunciation of 
Jewish sins, we shall be led to the conclusion 
that ' the Apostasy ' is the Jewish apostasy, and 
that the ' Man of Sin (Lawlessness) ' is either 
some false Christ (Mt24 24 ), many of whom 
appeared among the Jews about this time, or 
(more probably) the spirit of Judaism personi- 
fied. (A somewhat similar personification may 
be found in Rev 2, 3, where ' the angel ' of each 
of the seven churches seems to denote, not 
any official, but the Church itself.) The Jews 
had been chosen of God to bear witness to 
Him, and they had betrayed their trust. Their 
worship was a lie (Mt 23 16-22), They were ' a 
synagogue of Satan ' (Rev 2 9 3 9 ). They had 
made the Temple a den of robbers (Mt21 13 ). 
Some of them could perform lying wonders 
(Mt 1 2 2 7 Mk 1 3 22 Ac 1 9 13 ) . They were perse- 
cuting the Church of Christ and opposing the 
truth (Acl3M 5 1419 17 5 "i3 18 i2 22 22 2312). 
And so their apostasy was to be revealed and 
punished by the utter (but not final, Ro 1 1 25-27) 
overthrow of Judaism, and the destruction of 
the Holy City and the Temple in 70 a.d. by 
the Romans. This great event would come 
before the final advent, which the Thessalonians 
were expecting immediately. The further 
question who, or what, is the Person or Power 
that restrains the Man of Lawlessness, is one 
of considerable difficulty. The usual answer is 
1 the authority of the Roman empire, or perhaps 
the reigning Roman Emperor Claudius' (41- 
54 a.d.). In the very earliest days of Chris- 
tianity the Romans did protect the Chris- 



tians from Jewish violence (Acl8 14 > 15 23 23, 24 
2514-21). But soon, under the Emperor Nero, 
this attitude was exchanged for oneof hostility, 
after the fire at Rome in 64 a.d. And it is 
hard to see how the words l until he be taken 
out of the way' can apply to a Roman 
emperor or to the Roman empire in its deal- 
ings with Judaism. It is possible that by 
the Restrainer St. Paul means the Christian 
Church in Jerusalem — the Mother-Church 
of which the Thessalonians ' became imitators ' 
(1 Th 2 1*). We know that St. James, the head 
of that Church, had great influence over his 
unbelieving fellow-countrymen, and may well 
have exercised a restraining power over them. 
Some Jews even appear to have seen in the 
siege of Jerusalem the punishment for his 
murder by the high priest Ananus. It is to 
be noted that the Jerusalem Church, obeying 
the Lord's command (Mt 2415.16), left the 
doomed city on the approach of the Roman 
army and fled to Pella. Thus she might be 
said to be ' taken out of the way ' of the evil 
to come. 

3. Falling away] Gk. ' apostasy.' 

4. The reference is to the pretensions of a 
false Messiah. 

7. Mystery] This word in NT. always de- 
notes something once hidden, but now revealed, 
or soon to be revealed (lCor4i Col2 2 4 3 
Eph6 19 ). 8. Brightness, etc.] rather, 'mani- 
festation of His presence.' 11. Strong delu- 
sion] better, ' inner working of error.' Those 
who obstinately refuse the truth at last become 
incapable of receiving it. 12. Damned] RY 
' judged.' 13. From the beginning] perhaps 
(with the oldest MS), ' as firstfruits.' 15. The 
traditions] i.e. the truths taught, whether orally 
or by writing. 

CHAPTER 3 

Exhortations, Rebukes, and Benediction 
2. Unreasonable] almost 'outrageous.' Faith] 
better, ' the Faith.' 3. Evil] RV ' the evil 
one.' 5. Patient waiting for] better, 'the 
patience of.' 6. Evidently disorder in the 
Church had increased since the First Epistle was 
written. Withdraw yourselves] or, ' shun.' 

8. Cp. lTh2^. 9. Power] better, 'the right.' 
We have the right to be supported, but for 
the sake of example we waived it in your case 
(1 Cor 9 3 - i8 ). 1 1. Working not at all . . busy- 
bodies] i.e. neglecting their own work (in view 
of a supposed immediate Advent), but interfer- 
ing with that of others. 16. By all means] 
better, ' in all places,' or, ' in all ways.' 17. St. 
Paul wrote the body of his letters through a 
secretary, but he added a few words in his own 
large handwriting, in order that his corre- 
spondents might know them to be genuine (1 
Cor 1 G 21 2 Th 2 2 Col 4 18). So I write] better, 
' this is my handwriting.' 






990 



THE PASTOKAL EPISTLES 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 



The two Epistles to Timothy and the 
Epistle to Titus constitute a group by them- 
selves, and are usually called ' The Pastoral 
Epistles,' because they deal to a large extent 
with matters of Church organisation and 
government. That they were all written by 
one author is generally agreed, not only by 
those who accept the tradition that St. Paul 
was the writer, but also by those who reject it. 
It will be convenient, therefore, to discuss the 
points common to all three, before dealing 
with each in detail. 

i. Authorship. The authorship of these 
Epistles is one of the questions of NT. 
criticism upon which scholars are sharply 
divided. The objections urged against the 
Pauline authorship are of different kinds and 
varying degrees of weight, and may be briefly 
enumerated as follows : (a) Historical diffi- 
culties ; (b) References to heresies ; (c) Church 
organisation ; (d) The description of St. Paul 
in the salutations ; (e) Language and style. 

(a) Historical Difficulties. It is impossible 
to find a place for these Epistles in the scheme 
of St. Paul's life, which is derived from 
the narrative in Acts and the references in 
the acknowledged Epistles. The journeys to 
which the Apostle makes reference are incon- 
sistent with his movements as recorded in 
Acts. According to lTiml 3 , Timothy had 
been left at Ephesus while Paul proceeded to 
Macedonia ; but in Ac 19 22 20 1 Timothy was 
sent from Ephesus to Macedonia in advance 
of St. Paul. In lTim3 14 the Apostle in- 
tended to return to Timothy at Ephesus ; 
but in Ac20 4 Timothy was with him in 
Greece, and in 20 14 > 17 St. Paul did not 
go to Ephesus, but sent for the Ephesian 
elders to meet him at Miletus. So in 2 Tim 
4 20 the reference to Trophimus cannot relate 
to the journey recorded in Ac20 17 -21 8 , for 
Trophimus accompanied the Apostle to Jeru- 
salem (Ac21 29 ). Again, the references in 
Tit 1 5 3 12 , where St. Paul speaks of leaving 
Titus in Crete and asks hkn to meet him at 
Nicopolis, cannot be connected with the only 
occasion on which the Apostle visited Crete 
according to Acts (27 s ), viz. when he was 
a prisoner en route for Rome, where Acts 
leaves him still under arrest. 

These difficulties, however, are obviated 
when the tradition is accepted that St. Paul 
after his first imprisonment (Ac 28 30 Phil 1 13 ) 



was set free in 62 or 63 a.d., and arrested 
again in 66 or 67. In the First Epistle of 
Clement of Rome to the Corinthians (about 
97 A.D.) the writer speaks of St. Paul having 
' gone to the extreme limit of the west.' This 
expression in a letter written at Rome seems 
to point to Spain. St. Paul had once hoped 
to visit that country (Ro 1 5 24 ) ; and in the 
' Muratorian Fragment,' a document of date 
about 200 a.d., it is indicated that he had 
done so : a tradition which is mentioned later 
by Eusebius in the 4th cent., and Chrysostom in 
the 5th cent. If the genuineness of the Pastoral 
Epistles is established on other grounds, they 
give powerful testimony to St. Paul's activity 
during the period after Acts. 

(b) References to Heresies. Many critics 
see in these Epistles, and especially in 1 Tim 
(1> 41-3 g20) 5 references to heresies which pre- 
vailed widely in the Church during the 2nd 
cent., and are classed under the name of 
Gnosticism. These heresies dealt with solu- 
tions of the problem of evil ; they combined 
ideas from Jewish and heathen sources with 
Christian truth ; they tended to represent 
Christ's earthly career and sufferings as only 
seeming, not real (Docetism) ; and they exalted 
knowledge (gnosis, whence the name) as a 
special privilege of the few, and superior to 
faith, the possession of the many. 

The references to heresies in the Pastoral 
Epistles, however, are extremely vague and 
indefinite. There is no reference to Docetism, 
such as we find in 1 John (4 1 - 3 ), supposed to 
have been written at Ephesus before 100 a.d. ; 
and the references to false doctrines in 1 Tim 
4 !- 4 6 20 do not seem to require a 2nd-cent. date, 
or to conflict with the Pauline authorship any 
more than the references to heresies in Col 
2 8,18,23 require that Epistle to be denied to St. 
Paul, and assigned to the 2nd cent. In the early 
Church, composed, as almost every congrega- 
tion was, of elements diverse in race, education, 
and religion, it is not surprising to find the germs 
of false doctrine from the beginning, showing 
themselves sometimes in tendencies towards 
Jewish legalism (lTiml? Titl 14 3 9 ), as was 
the case among the Galatians at an earlier date ; 
sometimes in philosophical speculations drawn 
from heathen sources (lTim4 7 6 20 ), as was 
previously the case among the Colossians. The 
heresies indicated in the Pastoral Epistles seem 
largely Jewish in origin. They are specula- 



991 



GEN. INTRO. 



THE PASTORAL EPISTLES 



GEN. INTRO. 



tions about the Law (1 Tim 1 7 - 10 ; cp. 2 Tim 
3U-17), about genealogies (1 Tim 14 Tit 3 9), 
about Jewish fables (Tit 1 14 , and probably also 
1 Tim 1 4 4 7 ) ; and while the ascetic practices 
(lTim4 1 " 4 ) which some taught may have had 
some heathen elements, they are quite as likely 
to have been suggested by exaggerations of 
Jewish ceremonialism: see Rol4 3 lCor8 
Col2!<\ and cp. lTim4 4 with AclO 11 " 15 . 

(c) Church Organisation. It has been 
objected to St. Paul's authorship of these 
letters that the indications of Church organisa- 
sion are such as point to a time later than that 
of St. Paul. Titus was appointed to ' ordain 
elders in every city' (l 5 ) in Crete ; and both 
he and Timothy were instructed as to the 
qualifications of ' the bishop ' (Tit 1 7_9 1 Tim 
3 1-7 ). Timothy was also given instructions 
regarding the deacons (lTim3 8 - 10 ). The 
organisation, however, does not seem when 
examined to be more developed than was 
necessary in the Churches almost from the 
beginning. Deacons had to be appointed at a 
very early date in the Church at Jerusalem — 
although the name was not then given them, 
the corresponding verb is used of their work 
— (Ac6 4 ) ; and elders were appointed by 
St. Paul in every Church in Galatia on his 
first missionary journey (Acl4 23 ); while at 
Ephesus, at the end of his third journey, they 
were evidently a recognised body (Ac20 17 ) 
entrusted with the duties of overseeing and 
teaching the flock (20 28 ). Nor is the term 
'the bishop' (lTim3 2 Titl 7 ) necessarily an 
indication of a post-apostolic date. For (1) 
it is largely held that the terms ' bishop ' 
(episcopos) and ' elder ' (presbuteros) are 
used synonymously in these Epistles, as they 
undoubtedly were at an earlier period (Ac 
2028 . cp . Phil 1 1) ; and (2) even if, as is also 
influentially maintained, ' the bishop ' here 
means the principal minister of the Church, 
it would still be hazardous to pronounce the 
Epistles non-Pauline. Many good authorities 
trace back the beginnings of episcopacy to the 
apostolic age, and so it is by no means impos- 
sible that in an apostolic Epistle, written as 
late as 66-67 a.d., the term 'bishop' might 
occur in its later sense. 

{(I) Paul an Apostle. Another objection has 
been found in the fact that, in letters written 
to intimate friends and disciples, the writer 
should emphatically assert his apostleship. 
Thifl trait, it is said, indicates that they were 
written by some one who was using the 
Apostle's name at a Later time, as the Apostle 
himself <li<l not mention his apostleship in 
Letters written to those with whom he was on 
friendly terms, whether churches or individuals 

(Phil f 1 Philemon v. 1). Bui these Pastoral 

Epistles are not, properly speaking, private 
letters. They were probably intended to be 



read to the Churches : ' the author is writing 
with his eye on the community ' ; and the fact 
that heresy and incipient faction were to 
be guarded against, sufficiently explains the 
assertion of apostolic dignity. 

(e) Language and Style. The difference in 
language and style which exists between these 
Epistles and the undoubted letters of the 
Apostle is felt by many to be a serious objection 
to their genuineness. It is impossible here to 
enter into details ; but there are a great many 
words and phrases found in these books, which 
are absent from the other writings of St. 
Paul, and there are over a hundred and seventy 
words used which are not elsewhere present 
in NT. A number of these words are, of 
course, necessitated by the fact that new sub- 
jects are here discussed ; but there are many 
which cannot be thus explained. And on 
this ground alone many refer the Epistles to 
a later writer, who, according to some, has 
incorporated in them (especially in 2 Tim) 
fragments of genuine lost letters of St. Paul. 

The argument from language, however, is 
by no means conclusive. The differences 
from the other Pauline Epistles in language 
and style may be the consequence of lapse 
of time. As the Apostle became older and 
travelled over new ground, meeting with new 
experiences, and making new converts, it 
would not be wonderful if he gained a wider 
command of language, and adopted a different 
mode of expression, according to the neces- 
sities of the case. As Farrar points out (' St. 
Paul' : Excursus 27), 4 St. Paul was the main 
creator of theological language.' He 4 had 
to find the correct and adequate expression 
for conceptions which as yet were extremely 
unfamiliar. Every year would add to the 
vocabulary, and the harvest of new expres- 
sions would always be most rich where truths 
already familiar were brought into collision 
with heresies altogether new.' 

It has recently been ascertained by an ex- 
amination in detail of about two hundred 
words which are not elsewhere found in the 
NT. that none of them had its origin later 
than St. Paul, that nearly half of them are 
found in the Septuagint, that over fifty 
are found in classical writers and writers 
who flourished not later than St. Paul, and 
that almost all the rest can be explained as 
necessitated by new subjects, or formed from 
Pauline or biblical words, or as otherwise 
consistent with the apostolic authorship. The 
argument from language would be valid and 
conclusive had it been shown that a number 
of words used in these Epistles did not come 
into use until after St. Paul's day. The fact 
thai none can he shown to be of later date, 
lint that almost all can he proved to be con- 
temporaneous with the Apostle, indicates that 



992 



GEN. INTRO. 



THE PASTORAL EPISTLES 



liKN. INTRO. 



there is nothing in the language of the Pas- 
torals to conflict with their claims to be St. 
Paul's. It may be added that even critics 
adverse to the Pauline authorship recognise in 
these letters the reflexions of thoughts and 
ideas characteristic of the Apostle. Many 
think they see incorporated in them reminis- 
cences of the Apostle and private notes he 
had written to companions and friends (e.g. 
2 Tim 115-18 46-22 Tit 3 i 2 .^), and describe them 
as Pauline, though not by the Apostle him- 
self. Advocates of a 2nd-cent. date admit 
that a detailed comparison of the Pastorals 
with the letters of Clement of Rome, Ignatius, 
and Polycarp, exhibits the former as ' astonish- 
ingly superior ' : and acknowledge that the 
writer was saturated with the contents of the 
genuine Epistles of St. Paul. Apart, there- 
fore, from the historical and internal difficulties 
which have been dealt with, the Epistles sug- 
gest the apostolic authorship, and bear the 
marks of St. Paul's personality ; and as these 
difficulties seem all to be capable of explana- 
tion, we need have little hesitation in receiving 
them for what they profess to be. 

2. The External Evidence for the Pastorals 
is both early and good. They were probably 
made use of in the Epistles of Ignatius and 
Polycarp in the first quarter of the 2nd 
cent. ; Irenaeus (circ. 180) quotes from 1 Tim 
as a genuine letter of St. Paul ; and they 
seemed to have been known to the writer of 
the letter from Yienne and Lyons about the 
same date. Tertullian and Clement of Alex- 
andria, the African contemporaries of Irenaeus, 
also speak of them as St. Paul's. Clement of 
Rome, who flourished in the end of the 1st 
and beginning of the 2nd cent., has many 
parallels to passages in the Pastorals ; and, 
though some scholars think that this arises 
from their origin in a similar atmosphere, and 
amid a common phraseology, it is quite as 
likely that the similarities are due to Clement's 
acquaintance with the contents of these letters. 
Marcion, the Gnostic of the 2nd cent., 
omits these Epistles from his collection of 
authoritative Christian writings, and that, too, 
although he was ' a Pauline enthusiast,' accept- 
ing only St. Luke's G-ospel, and the other ten 
Epistles of St. Paul. But Marcion was bound 
to reject these letters, if be was to save his 
doctrine, which they condemned by implication, 
root and branch ; and no argument against 
their genuineness can be based upon the 
evidence of so interested and so prejudiced a 
witness. The external evidence therefore 
goes to support the view that St. Paul was the 
author. 

3. Date. Accepting the Pauline authorship, 
we may conclude that these Epistles were 
written during the interval between the first 
and the second imprisonment of St. Paul at 



Rome. The Apostle arrived in Rome (Ac 28 16 ) 
probably early in the year 59. He was a 
prisoner there, dwelling in his own hired 
house (Ac 28 16 > 30 ) for two years. There the 
Acts of the Apostles leaves him. His appeal, 
however, seems to have been sustained and 
himself afterwards set at liberty. If he 
visited Spain, it must have been immediately 
after his release. Subsequently he revisited 
the scene of his earlier labours in Macedonia, 
and possibly in Ephesus (1 Tim 1 3 ). Timothy 
had been in Ephesus for some time, and the 
Apostle asked him to remain there for a longer 
period. To instruct him further regarding his 
action in the difficult situation he had to face, 
St. Paul wrote the First Epistle to him from 
Macedonia, perhaps in 65 or 66. About 
the same time, or very soon after, he wrote 
the Epistle to Titus. From it we learn that 
Titus was in Crete, where he had been left by 
the Apostle (l 5 ), who had visited the island 
probably on his way to Macedonia. St. Paul 
asked him to join him in the winter of the 
same year at Nicopolis. From Nicopolis St. 
Paul returned to Rome, whether under arrest 
or of his own will we cannot tell ; but if he 
arrived a free man he was very soon a prisoner. 
From prison he wrote the Second Epistle to 
Timothy asking him to come to him (4 9 ). 
Where Timothy was at that time does not 
appear. He seems to have left Ephesus, other- 
wise he would have known of Trophimus 
having been invalided at Miletus, which was 
close by, and also of the visit of Tychicus 
(2 Tim 4 12, 20). The Apostle felt that he was 
nearing his end (4 6 > 7 ) ; he had already appeared 
before his judges (4 16 ), but he evidently 
expected to be condemned. The Second 
Epistle to Timothy was thus written shortly 
before the Apostle's martyrdom in 67 or 68. 

4. Church Organisation. The state of Church 
organisation exhibited in these Epistles is 
exactly what might be expected to have existed 
in the later years of St. Paul's life. When 
the Apostle in his first missionary operations 
had made a number of converts in any town 
or district sufficient to constitute a congrega- 
tion, he appointed presbyters to minister and 
rule in it (Acl4 23 ), perhaps also, as many 
maintain, a leading or presiding presbyter 
(episcopos) with special authority — all of 
them looking to the Apostle as their superior. 
When he, however, was no longer able himself 
to visit and control the various presbyters, and 
set in order the things that might be amiss, he 
selected one of his companions and assistants 
to act in his stead. This was the state of 
things in Ephesus (lTiml 3 ) and Crete 
(Tit 1 5 ). St. Paul had appointed Timothy and 
Titus to be his delegates in these places, 
though their duty in that capacity may only 
have been temporary (2 Tim 4 9. 21 Tit3 12 ). 



63 



993 



GEN. INTRO. 



THE PASTORAL EPISTLES— 1 TIMOTHY 



TNTRO. 



One of their duties was to appoint presbyters 
(elders) and (if presiding presbyters had been 
already introduced) bishops in these Churches 
(lTimS 1-7 Titl 3-9 ), who were to bear rule 
over the brethren (lTim5 17 ), and to teach 
and preach (1 Tim 5 ir Tit 1 9). The functions 
of these officers, however, are not minutely 
detailed : it is their character upon which the 
Apostle dwells. The qualities in which they 
are to be preeminent are moral qualities, and 
they are to be held in honour in proportion to 
their diligence in duty and faithfulness in 
teaching (1 Tim 5 17 ). 

Besides them, there were to be deacons 
appointed, whose duties would be much the 
same as those of the deacons appointed in 
Jerusalem in the earliest days of the Church 
(AC6 1 - 6 ). They would have charge of the 
temporal affairs of the Church, but might, like 
Stephen, also have part in purely spiritual 
work. The Apostle in their case also dwells 
not upon their functions, but upon their 
character (1 Tim 3 8 ). Perhaps also deaconesses 
were appointed, charged with the care of the 
women in the Church and with the duty of 
commending the gospel to! women outside its 
pale (lTim3 n , where many translate 'their 
wives,' RV ' women,' as ' deaconesses ' : see 
note there). 

5. Christian Doctrine. Much stress is laid 
by the Apostle upon the proclamation of the 
true faith. Exception has been taken to the 
genuineness of the Epistle on the ground of 
the Apostle's insistence upon sound doctrine. 



But nothing could be more natural, as nothing 
was more necessary, than that emphasis should 
be laid upon doctrine, when heresy was rampant, 
and that the importance of the truth should be 
asserted in presence of false teaching. In any 
case, the doctrines taught are doctrines which 
St. Paul was continually insisting upon : God's 
desire that all men should be saved (cp. 
1 Tim 2 4 with Ro3 2 9 10 12 ) ; Christ's manifest- 
ation as our Saviour, and His giving Himself 
as a ransom (lTim2 6 ); His death and 
resurrection (2Tim2 8 > n 4 8 ) ; our spiritual 
union with Him (2 Tim 2 u> 12 3 11 ) ; salvation 
not of works, but of free grace (Tit3 5 ), etc. 
So in characteristically Pauline fashion prac- 
tical teaching is closely connected with 
doctrinal, and the moral aspect of faith in 
Christ is impressed upon the recipients of the 
letters. It is doubtless important to l hold 
fast the form of sound words,' but it is because 
the results of ' sound doctrine ' are manifest 
in life and conduct (1 Tim 19, 10 2 Tim 4 3 
Tit2!> 2 ). A feature of the Epistles is the 
recurrence of the phrase l Faithful is the 
saying,' used to introduce maxims of truth or 
duty. This expression occurs five times, viz. 
ITimlis 31 49 2Tim2H Tit3 8 . It would 
seem to point to the fact that favourite sayings or 
watchwords were current among the Christians 
by this time — perhaps extracts from manuals 
of instruction, which had already begun to be 
prepared for the use of the presbyters in 
preparing converts for baptism — which were 
quoted by the Apostle. 



1 TIMOTHY 



INTRODUCTION 




1. Authenticity. The First Epistle to Timo- 
thy is the first letter of the group called the 
Pastoral Epistles. Until the beginning of 
the 19th cent, no doubt was ever expressed 
as to the Epistle being written by St. Paul, 
except by the Gnostics ; who, as is stated by 
Tertullian ('Adv. Marc,' v. 21), Clement of 
Alexandria (' Strom.' ii, 11), and Jerome ('Prol. 
ad Titum '), rejected all the Pastoral Epistles 
simply because the teaching contained in them 
was opposed to their peculiar doctrines. The 
external evidence, therefore, may be regarded 
as perfectly satisfactory, passages being quoted 
from it or alluded to by Clement of Rome, 
Hegesippus, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and 
the Pauline authorship directly declared by 
Irenaeus, Clementof Alexandria, and Tertullian, 



and accepted without demur till a hundred 
years ago, when T. E. C. Schmid for the first 
time ( 1 804), followed by Schleiermacher (1807), 
Eichhorn (1812), De Witte (182G), Baur (1835), 
denied its genuineness, arguing entirely from 
internal evidence. 

The internal evidence to which the opponents 
of the authenticity of the Epistles have ap- 
pealed is the character of the heresies contro- 
verted in them, which, they say, were of a later 
date than St. Paul, and the use of a number of 
words and phrases not employed by St. Paul 
in his other Epistles. The answer to these 
objections is that the writers in question are 
mistaken in identifying the heresies denounced 
by St. Paul with the full-grown Gnostic system 
of the 2nd cent. ; and that it is natural that 



994 



INTRO. 



1 TIMOTHY 



1.1 



a man writing a letter or letters many years 
after his earlier letters, and on a different 
subject, should use words which do not occur 
in those earlier letters. 

2. Reader. Timothy, or Timotheus. Timo- 
thy was possibly converted to Christianity by 
St. Paul in his First Missionary Journey, when 
he visited Lystra, 47 a.d. He was the son of a 
Jewess named Eunice (Acl.6 1 2Timl 5 ), who 
was married to a Greek husband, and was her- 
self also a convert to Christianity together 
with her mother Lois. We first hear of him 
at Lystra on St. Paul's Second Missionary 
Journey, when he is described as already a 
disciple (AC16 1 ). St. Paul took him as his 
companion from Lystra as far as Bercea, where 
he remained with Silas for a short time after 
St. Paul's departure (Acl7 14 ), and later on 
rejoined the Apostle at Corinth (Acl8 5 ). It 
is probable that he accompanied St. Paul on 
his return journey as far as Ephesus, where we 
find him ' ministering ' to St. Paul in his Third 
Missionary Journey, 55 a.d. From thence he 
was sent forward by St. Paul to Macedonia (Ac 
19 22 ), where the Apostle joined him shortly 
afterwards ; and he was one of those who 
accompanied his master on his last visit to 
Jerusalem (Ac20 4 ). Later he was with St. 
Paul in Rome during his imprisonment, and 
is associated with him in the Epistles to the 
Colossians and Philippians. According to this 
Epistle, St. Paul seems to have paid another 
visit to Ephesus, 65 a.d., and on his departure 
left Timothy in charge of the Church of 
Ephesus as his deputy (lTiml 3 ), and soon 
afterwards wrote to him the First Epistle to 
instruct him fully in his duties. In the follow- 
ing year he addressed to him the pathetic letter 
known as the Second Epistle, begging him to 
come and be with him in his last imprisonment. 
Whether he was able to fulfil this longing of 
his master we do not know. Tradition says 
that the rest of his life was spent at Ephesus 
as its bishop, subject to the apostolic authority 
of St. John exercised throughout proconsular 
Asia. We find from the book of the Revelation 
that the Church of Ephesus had striven man- 
fully against those ' which say that they are 
apostles and are not' in fulfilment of St. Paul's 
last injunctions, but had now ' left its first love ' 
(Rev 2 4 ). We may well suppose that Timothy's 
ministry was marked by the first characteristic, 
and that it was on his death that the Ephesian 
Christians fell from their first love. We learn 
from the two Epistles that Timothy was or- 
dained by the laying on of hands of St. Paul 
and some presbyters, but when this occurred 
we do not know. 

3. Date and Place of Composition. It was 
either written from Macedonia or some other 
point in the Apostle's last journey, 65 or 66 a.d. 
(1 Tim 13). 



4. Contents and Purpose. The Epistle may 
be regarded as an Apostolic Charge. Its 
chief purpose is to instruct Timothy as to his 
attitude to the forms of heresy which were 
prevalent, and to direct him in his choice of 
presbyters. The immediate assailants of the 
faith were a sect, the growth of which we can 
trace through St. Paul's Epistles. When he 
wrote the Epistle to the G-alatians, 55 a.d., his 
adversaries were Jews proper, who had em- 
braced Christianity but desired to combine 
with the gospel the practices and tenets of 
Judaism. When he wrote to the Colossians, 
60 a.d., the sect had imbibed a number of 
speculative opinions, known later as Gnostic, 
which were derogatory to Christ, and added 
them to their previous tenets. When we reach 
the date of the Pastoral Epistles, 67 a.d., the 
Jewish basis still remained, but the most 
prominent feature of the belief was a more 
developed form of the Colossi an heresy, which 
departed from faith in Christ and attached 
importance to 'knowledge falsely so called.' 
After the fall of Jerusalem, 70 a.d., the Jewish 
element grew weaker and weaker till it was either 
eliminated or merged in pure Gnosticism (from 
Gk. gnosis, ' knowledge '), which was a philo- 
sophy which attempted to explain the existence 
of evil by declaring evil to be a necessary 
quality of matter, denied the reality of Christ's 
sufferings, and too often found excuses for and 
was associated with a low state of morality. 
St. Paul here instructs Timothy to be bold in 
his opposition to the false teachers, whose 
doctrine at this time was evidently destructive 
of both faith and morals. 

A secondary object of the Epistle is to give 
Timothy instructions as to the organisation of 
the Church, and as to the kind of men whom 
he should ordain as presbyters and deacons. 

Its contents are nine charges to Timothy, 
interspersed with exhortations to him. 

CHAPTER 1 

Timothy reminded of his Commission, 

and exhorted to earnestness 
I, 2. Salutation. An apostle] St. Peter 
and St. John, with regard to whose position 
no question was raised, are content to call 
themselves presbyters (2 and 3 John, 1 Pet 5 *), 
but St. Paul usually designates himself as an 
Apostle owing to the peculiarity of his call to 
the apostleship which led his adversaries to 
deny him the title ; and for the same reason 
he claims that he holds his apostleship by the 
commandment of God the Father and the 
Lord Jesus Christ. God our Saviour] The full 
force that the Apostle assigned to the ex- 
pression is shown in 2 3 : ' God our Saviour, 
who willeth that all men should be saved and 
come to the knowledge of the truth.' Christ, 
which is our hope] so designated because it is 



995 



1. 3 



1 TIMOTHY 



1. 20 




through Christ that we have the hope of future 
salvation. 2. My own son in the faith] see 
3 13 and Titl 4 . St. Paul speaks of Onesimus 
in like terms as ' my son whom I have begotten 
in my bonds' (Philemon v. 10). 

3-20. The first charge to Timothy. To re- 
member and act upon the instructions already 
given him by St. Paul, which were to be firm 
in resisting the heterodox teachers in Ephesus, 
as the Apostle had been himself, and to pro- 
mote love, purity, uprightness, and faith. 

3. As I besought thee] The words 'so do ' 
(i.e. remember and act upon my instructions), 
or ' so I do now,' RV, i.e. ' I repeat my charge 
to you,' must be supplied. When I went] 
RV k when I was going.' It is probable that 
the charge was given to Timothy by St. Paul 
in Ephesus when he left that city himself. 
This journey he took in the interval between 
his first and second imprisonment. That they 
teach no other doctrine] RV ' not to teach a 
different doctrine ' ; better, ' not to teach 
heterodox doctrine.' 4. Fables and endless 
genealogies] not the Gnostic stories of emana- 
tions and aeons, but idle Jewish legends and 
genealogical claims, as is shown by Tit 1 14 3 9 . 
Minister questions, rather than godly edifica- 
tion] RV ' minister questions rather than a 
dispensation of God.' This would mean one 
of two things, either that the heterodox teach- 
ing led to futile speculation and not to the 
spread of the knowledge of the dispensation 
of the gospel, or that it made men idle dis- 
putants instead of faithful dispensers of God's 
truth. 

5-7. The end of the commandment] RV ' the 
end of the charge,' i.e. the aim of all true teaching 
as contrasted with ' fables and endless genealo- 
gies.' The gospel which Timothy had to 
preach consists of charity or 'love,' RV, spring- 
ing from purity of heart, an enlightened con- 
science, and a sure faith. This was not the 
gospel preached by the heterodox teachers, 
whose doctrine consisted in quibbling subtle- 
ties, like those of the rabbis, and misrepre- 
sentations of the Law, the meaning of which 
they did not understand. 

8-1 1. St. Paul guards himself against seem- 
ing to minimise the value of the Law. Pro- 
perly understood, it was of the utmost use as 
a restraint of evil-doers. This he preached 
1 according to the gospel committed to his 
trust.' i.e. as a part of Christian teaching. 

12-17. Thai the preaching of the gospel 
had been committed to him, leads him to offer 
a fervent thanksgiving for the grace so be- 
stowed upon him, unworthy as lie was. 

12. Putting me into the ministry] RV 
'appointing me to his service. 1 13. I did /'/ 
ignorantly] St. Paul's is an instance of that 
form <>f ignorance wrhich excuses act- done 
through it. i.e. ignorance of fact, not of a 



moral principle. 14. Grace . . was . . abun- 
dant with faith and love] The act of God 
(grace) is accompanied and supplemented by 
man's loving acceptance of it in faith. 

15. This is a faithful saying] For this for- 
mula, peculiar to the Pastoral Epistles (cp. 1 Tim 
49 31 2 Tim 2 11 Tit 3 8), see General Intro. 
St. Paul's case is covered by the general prin- 
ciple that Christ came to save sinners. 

16. First] St. Paul was in his own estima- 
tion first in sinfulness (v. 15), and first for- 
given, as an example to other sinners to hope 
for pardon. 17. A doxology of thanks to 
God for what He had done for him : cp. Ro 
16 25 . King] This title is applied to God only 
here and in lTim6 15 and Mt5 35 . Eternal] 
lit. ' of the ages,' but meaning ' eternal.' The 
original has ' king of the aeons.' Had the 
doctrine of the G nostic 330ns been in existence 
when the Epistle was written, this expression 
would not have been used without some con- 
tradiction of that theory or explanation of the 
words. This is an incidental proof of the 
early date of the Epistle. 

18-20. He returns from the digression re- 
specting himself to the subject of the charge 
previously given to Timothy, to resist heresy 
(v. 3), and to promote charity, purity, upright- 
ness, and faith (v. 5). 

18. I commit unto thee] The duty of main- 
taining the truth whereby to resist heresy is a 
trust committed to Timothy : see 1 Tim 6 20 
2 Tim 1 u . According to the prophecies] This 
trust he would fulfil in pursuance of declara- 
tions made respecting him by the ' prophets ' 
of the Church at the time of his ordination. 
The ' prophets ' are very prominent in the 
Apostolic Age : see Ac 13 l 1 Cor 12. By them] 
in accordance with the anticipation of the 
' prophets.' 19. Which] the guidance of their 
conscience. Concerning faith, etc.] RV. ' made 
shipwreck concerning the faith'; not their 
own belief, but the substance of the revealed 
truth. 

20. There are two instances of excommuni- 
cation in Scripture, (1) that of the Corinthian 
for immorality (lCor5), (2) of Hymenaeus 
and Alexander for heresy. We learn from 
2 Tim 2 19 that Philetus was one of Hymenaeus' 
associates, but whether Timothy followed St. 
Paul's example and excommunicated him, we 
do not know. It is probable that the Alex- 
ander here mentioned is the same as 'Alex- 
ander the coppersmith ' of 2Tim4 14 , who may 
have ' done ' St. Paul ' much evil ' at Rome 
during his trial, in consequence of the excom- 
munication pronounced upon him by the 
Apostle at Ephesus. He may also have been 
the Alexander of Acl9 33 . Delivered unto 
Satan] because relegated Prom the Church to 
the world, from the kingdom of God on earth 
to the empire of Satan (Ac26 18 ). 



99G 



2.1 



1 TIMOTHY 



3.2 



CHAPTER 2 

Concerning Prayer, Thanksgiving, and 
the Place of Women 

1-8. The second charge to Timothy — to 
teach those over whom he was set to use 
public prayer and intercession. 

i. Therefore] in the sense of ' well then.' 

First of all] His first exhortation as to 
Christian men is that they should pray. Sup- 
plications, prayers, intercessions, thanksgiv- 
ings] The duty of the Christian Church in 
the matter of intercession is to offer prayers 
for others, and to give thanks for good things 
happening to others, and for events relating 
to others which may be a blessing to herself. 

For all men] Christian charity and good-will 
excludes none. 2. For kings] Nero was at 
this time emperor. The Apostle's instruction, 
therefore, shows that the prayers of the 
Church are to be offered for bad rulers as 
well as good. For all that are in authority] 
that they may be so directed as to further the 
peace and prosperity of Christ's Church. 

That we may lead a quiet and peaceable life 
in all godliness] cp. the Prayer for the Church 
Militant, ' that under him we may be godly 
and quietly governed.' 3. This is good] that 
is, the public offering of intercessory prayers. 

God our Saviour] see l 1 . 4. Will have, 
etc.] RV k willeth that all men should.' 

5-7. A summary statement of the gospel 
which St. Paul preached. It is introduced 
in connexion with the doctrine of G-od's will 
that all men should be saved. Surely that is 
His will, is the Apostle's argument, for He is 
the God of all (there is no other), and Christ, 
Himself Man, is the Mediator of all (there is 
no other), and He is the Redeemer of all, 
as was shown to be the case, when the due 
time came, by the means appointed by God, 
one of which means was St. Paul's own preach- 
ing and his apostleship of the Gentiles. 7. I 
speak the truth] St. Paul does not forget that 
his apostleship had been denied, and takes 
occasion to reaffirm it : see 1 Cor 9 } 2 Cor 1 2 12 . 

Teacher of the Gentiles] Gal 2 9. In faith 
and verity] The faith, which was also the 
truth, was the subject of his teaching to the 
Gentiles. 

8. As to men (contrasted with women, about 
whom he is about to give a different charge), 
they are not to quarrel and dispute, but, 
wherever they are, they are to pray. Men] 
RV L the men,' that is, the male members of 
the Church. Doubting] RV ' disputing.' Lift- 
ing up holy hands] the gesture of the early 
Christians, and perhaps the most natural ges- 
ture in very earnest prayer. 

9-15. The third charge to Timothy, as to 
the comely behaviour of women, and their 
place in the Church. 



9, 10. In like manner] rather, ' so also ' ; 
there is no likeness in the conduct enjoined 
on women to what has gone before. The first 
rule is, that their ornament is not to be braid- 
ing of hair or wearing of jewels or fine dresses, 
but good works and modesty and serenity of 
life. There is no prohibition of women wear- 
ing jewels and head-dresses and handsome 
gowns here, but they are not to regard them 
as their real ornaments in comparison with 
good life. 11, 12. The second rule is, that 
they are not to teach in the congregation, and 
are to be submissive. 13, 14. Two reasons 
which show, not cause, inferiority on the part 
of the woman. Man was created before 
woman, who was formed to be a helpmeet for 
him ; and woman was the first transgressor, 
showing that her weakness more readily yielded 
to temptation. 15. In childbearing] i.e. by 
keeping faithfully and simply to her allotted 
sphere as wife and mother. 

CHAPTER 3 
Concerning the Officers of the Church 
1-7. The fourth charge to Timothy, in re- 
spect to presbyters. 

1. Desireth a good work] i.e. a noble occu- 
pation. 

2. A bishop] RV ' the bishop,' RM ' over- 
seer.' Some think (see General Intro.) that 
the terms ' bishop ' and ' elder ' are used inter- 
changeably in these Epistles, as they seem to 
have been at an earlier date (Ac 20 28 Phil 1 l ). 
Others, however, think that, at the close of 
the apostolic age, to which these Epistles be- 
long, the term ' bishop ' was coming into use 
in the sense of a chief ruler of the Church, or 
presiding elder, and that that is the meaning 
here. In favour of the latter view it is urged 
that ' bishop ' in these Epistles occurs only in 
the singular, and always with the definite article 
(' the bishop ' : see RV Tit 1 7 ), whereas 'elder ' 
is found in the plural, and where it occurs in 
the singular has no article (1 Tim 5 i' 17 ' 19 Tit 
l 5 ). The question, however, requires to be 
handled with caution, owing to the limited and 
imperfect knowledge we have of the develop- 
ment of Church organisation in the first 
century. 

The husband of one wife] lit. ' a man of one 
woman.' Four meanings have been attached to 
the words : (a) The presbyter is not to be a 
Christianised Jew, who, in accordance with the 
Law of Moses, had previously taken two wives. 
(5) He is not to take a second wife after the 
death of the first, (c) He is not to marry 
again while his divorced wife lives, (d) He is 
to be faithful to his wife, ' a man of one 
woman,' and ' keep himself only unto her so 
long as they both should live,' whether it were 
a first wife or a second wife. The last is pro- 
bably the right exposition, as set forth by 



997 



3. 4 



1 TIMOTHY 



4.9 



Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodoret. In 
any case the presbyter or bishop is contem- 
plated as a married man. Given to hospitality] 
This injunction was most necessary for the 
sake of travellers when inns in the modern 
sense did not exist : see 3 Jn v. 5. 

4. Having his children in subjection] more 
exactly, ' having children (who are) in subjec- 
tion.' 6. Novice] i.e. a recent convert. A 
' bishop ' or ' presbyter ' must have Christian 
experience. Lifted up] The young presbyter's 
danger is the pride which led to the condemna- 
tion of the devil, and is the snare laid for him 
by the devil. 

8-13. Fifth charge to Timothy — as to deacons 
and deaconesses. 

8. Greedy of filthy lucre] Part of the office 
of the deacon was to ' serve tables ' and ad- 
minister relief to the poor, so that he had 
opportunity for peculation and base gains. 

9. The mystery of the faith] the Christian 
faith, which, having once been hidden, is now 
revealed : cp. v. 16. 

11. Their wives] RV 'women': but in- 
structions about women in general would not 
be thus parenthetically inserted. Both Light- 
foot and Ellicott translate ' deaconesses.' 
Such an order, which, it is certain, came 
into existence at a very early date, was 
especially necessary in the East owing to 
the strict seclusion of the female sex, who 
were thus debarred from the ministrations 
of men. Deaconesses were admitted to their 
order by the laying on of the bishop's hands 
(' Apost. Const.' iii. 15, viii. 19). They were 
not allowed to marry (Can. 15 of Chalcedon). 
Their duties were to minister generally to 
women, to assist at the baptism of women, to 
stand at the women's door of the church, to 
act as go-between between the clergy and 
women ('Apost. Const.' iii. 15, ii. 26, ii. 
57, ii. 26). There were 40 deaconesses at- 
tached to the great Church of Constantinople 
in the time of St. Chrysostom. The order prac- 
tically became extinct in the West, perhaps 
very gradually, after the tenth century, and 
lingered on rather longer in the East. But in 
the West it never completely died out in the 
Church of France, where to this day Benedic- 
tine abbesses receive the ordination of a deacon- 
ess. Both in England and Scotland it is now 
revived, and forms a most wholesome and 
scriptural channel through which organised 
women's work can be carried on. 

12. Husbands of one wife] see on v. 2. 

13. Purchase] RV l gain.' A good degree] 
RV 'standing/ a high position in estimation 
and influence. 

14-16. Importance of the above charges, 
for the purpose of instructing Timothy how 
to act as a minister of God's Church — an 
institution which God has established to hold 



up the truth as a pillar supports a roof, and 
to keep it unshaken as a firm foundation gives 
security to a building. Were it not for the 
support and steadiness given to truth by the 
society of faithful men which maintains it, it 
would ere now have vanished from the earth. 
16. Without controversy] rather, ' as we 
confess ' ; and then the Apostle quotes some 
words of an early confession of the Christian 
faith : ' He who was incarnate ; whose righteous- 
ness was made manifest ; who was an object of 
open vision to angels ; whom the Apostles 
preached to the world ; whom the faithful 
believed in ; who at the end of His ministry 
was taken up into heaven.' The reading is 
apparently not God was manifest (AY), but 
' He who was manifest ' (RV). Mystery] The 
hidden secret now revealed in Christ, which is 
the basis of holiness : cp. v. 9. 

CHAPTER 4 

Yakious Directions and Exhortations 

i-io. A return to, and emphatic reiteration 
of, the first charge to Timothy (1 3 " 20 ) against 
heterodoxy and in favour of true godliness. 
This form of heterodoxy which he would have 
to oppose was an asceticism which taught that 
there was merit in abstaining from meats, and 
forbade conjugal intercourse as on a lower 
moral level than celibacy. 

1. The Spirit speaketh (RV ' saith ')] possibly 
in some definite prophecy of OT., or of our 
Lord, or of the Apostles, but more probably in 
the general prophetic testimony of the Church, 
and particularly in the present and former 
words of St. Paul himself (cp. Ac 20 29). In the 
latter times] RV 'in later times.' 2. Seared] 
RV 'branded.' Their consciences were not 
made incapable of feeling, but false principles 
were burnt into them. 3. From meats] cp. 
Col 2 16 . 4. If we partake of food and accept 
other such blessings with gratitude to the 
Giver, which naturally shows itself in words 
of thanksgiving, that food and those blessings 
are thereby hallowed to us ; so that it is not 
only a mistake, but a sin, to refuse them. 

6. Minister] The word diaconw is still used 
in its general sense (cp. Eph3 7 ) as well as 
specifically (3 s ). 7. Old wives' fables] such 
as those which are recorded in the apocryphal 
books of the 2nd cent., and became the 
mythology of the Middle Ages. 

8. We are to train the body and exercise 
self-denial, which will help us to control our 
lower nature, and is often necessary to be prac- 
tised that we may help others. It is ' profit- 
able for a little ' (RV)— that is, up to a certain 
point — as it is a help towards, and a part of, 
piety ; but it does not lay up merit for us, and 
it does not procure for us the blessedness which 
is the promised result of piety in this and in 
the future life. 9. This v. is parenthetical. 



998 



4. 10 



1 TIMOTHY 



5.21 



There was a Christian ' saying, the Apostle 
reminds Timothy, to the same effect as what 
he had written in the last verse, io. For] This 
word refers us back to the promise of the 
future life in v. 8 : ' For,' says the Apostle, 
'it is in hope of the future salvation, offered 
by God to all and attained by believers, that 
we bear toil and suffering.' 

11-16. Sixth charge to Timothy — personal 
to himself. 

12. Thy youth] Timothy was probably at 
this time between 35 and 40 — an early age to 
be placed over other presbyters, all of whom 
were comparatively elderly men, as St. Paul's 
deputy. St. Paul was called a young man 
when his age was about the same (Ac 7 5S ). 

13. Reading . . exhortation . . doctrine] i.e. 
the public reading of Scripture in church 
and sermons hortative and doctrinal. 14. By 
prophecy] through the medium of prophecy : 
cp. AC13 1 ' 2 for a parallel. This is a second 
reference to Timothy's ordination, and we see 
that in it the s prophets ' (preachers), presby- 
ters, and St. Paul took part (lis 2 Tim 16). 
It is probably owing to this precedent that 
the presbytery alone, or in association with the 
bishop, according to the form of Church polity 
in use, has to do with laying hands on a presby- 
ter at his ordination. 16. Thou shalt . . save] 
i.e. be the salvation of, or the means of, saving. 

CHAPTER 5 

Regakding "Widows and Accusations 
against Elders 

1. Rebuke] This shows the authority which 
Timothy exercised. An elder] i.e. an elderly 
man, not one officially so named. 

3-16. The seventh charge to Timothy — as 
to widows. 

3. Widows indeed] Each local Church kept 
a list of the widows belonging to the congrega- 
tion, who were supported by the alms of the 
faithful if they were widows indeed, that is. 
if they had none to help them (vv. 4, 5). In 
return, they did what services they could to 
the brethren. 4. Nephews] RY 'grand- 
children,' whose duty it was to take charge of 
their relations. Them] i.e. the children or 
nephews. 7. Blameless] R V ' without reproach,' 
that the Church widows may not be spoken ill 
of as women whom their relatives ought to 
support. 9, 10. The qualifications for being 
put on the widows' list, besides being destitute, 
are, (1) to be 60 years of age ; (2) to have 
been faithful to her husband or husbands (a 
1 woman of one man ') ; (3) to be of good 
reputation ; (4) to have brought up her chil- 
dren well ; (5) to have shown hospitality to 
strangers (cp. 3 Jn v. 5) ; (6) to have' washed 
the saints' feet (i.e. humbly ministered to her 
fellow- Christians ; (7) helped any in distress ; 
(8) to be fruitful of good works. 



11-15. Reasons against admitting younger 
widows. After devoting themselves to the 
service of Christ in their first grief, they may 
afterwards marry and give up their work, in 
spite of the promise they made at the begin- 
ning, and if not that, they may become gossips 
and scandal-mongers. It is better that they 
should marry again, and occupy themselves 
with the cares of a household. From this we 
see that St. Paul was no enemy to second mar- 
riages, and he would not, therefore, have ex- 
cluded elderly women from the widows' 
company because they had been twice married. 
This view confirms the meaning already given 
to ' wife of one man ' (v. 9). 

12. Having damnation] or, 'condemnation'; 
rather, ' incurring severe judgment.' 

15. Some] i.e. some widows. The enthusiasm 
with which they had embraced Christianity and 
received St. Paul's gospel had already worn off. 
With some temperaments it takes but a short 
time for this to occur — a shorter time gener- 
ally in women than in men. They had turned 
aside out of the right path, and were, there- 
fore, going after Satan. 16. Any man or woman 
that believeth] RY ' any woman that belie veth.' 
Not only children and grandchildren, but other 
relatives likewise, are to support aged widows, 
and so spare the Church's fund. The in- 
junction must apply to men as well as women, 
though the RY reading stands on the better 
authority of MSS. 

17-25. Resumption of charge to Timothy as 
to presbyters. (1) Presbyters distinguished 
by their zeal, specially those distinguished 
in preaching and catechising, are to have 
higher honour and a larger stipend than the 
rest. (2) An accusation against presbyters is 
not to be entertained by their superior officer 
(apostolic deputy, possibly bishop) sitting by 
himself and listening to reports, but only 
before (AY), ' at the mouth of ' (RY), two or 
three witnesses, who would confirm each 
other's statements (Dtl9 i5 ), and also make 
the case to be publicly known to the Church. 
(3) Presbyters must not be appointed hastily, 
or those who admit them into the ministry 
will be answerable for their ill-doing. 

17. Elders] In v. 1 this word had meant 
elderly men ; here it means presbyters. This 
order of the ministry consisted at the time of 
elderly men, whence they had the name of 
elders or presbyters. 18. Thou shalt not 
muzzle the ox] Dt25 4 lCor9 9 And, The 
labourer is worthy of his hire] read, ' And the,' 
etc. The words seem St. Paul's, not a quota- 
tion. 20. Them that sin] Their punishment 
is to be public, not kept secret for fear of 
scandal. 

21. The solemnity of St. Paul's words em- 
phasises the responsibility of imposing penal- 
ties on a presbyter. The elect angels] not a 



999 



5. 22 



1 TIMOTHY 



6. 19 



particular class of angels, but the angels who 
are chosen by God as His ministers. 22. Lay 
hands] It was Timothy's office now, as it had 
been St. Paul's previously (2 Tim 1 6 ), and that 
of the presbytery or bishops (at least after- 
wards), to appoint presbyters by the laying on 
of hands. Some find here a reference to the 
absolution of offenders or heretics. 

23. A continuation of the personal charge 
to Timothy. St. Paul seems to have been re- 
minded to give the present injunction by the 
evident necessity of Timothy's taking care of 
his bodily health, if he is to carry out the 
work of his office satisfactorily. He, there- 
fore, inserts it parenthetically. It teaches us 
that if the body needs the stimulant of wine, 
it is right to take it in moderation. 

24, 25. Some men's sins] Return to the 
subject of laying on of hands. Some can- 
didates for ordination have characters so evi- 
dently bad that their unfitness is plain before 
probation ; in others it comes out later. And 
the same may be said of worthy candidates ; 
some are plainly fit at first sight, others will 
be found fit on looking below the surface. So 
that Timothy must exercise his judicial func- 
tions on presbyters and candidates for orders 
very cautiously. 25. They that are otherwise] 
The character of those who differ from the 
class just mentioned by their goodness not 
being self-evident, will yet certainly come out 
in a short time. 

CHAPTER 6 

Concerning Servants, the Rich, and 

corrupt Teachers 

1, 2. The eighth charge to Timothy, as to 
bondservants or slaves. We have here an 
indication of the way in which Christianity 
abolished slavery — not by denouncing it, but 
by implanting the idea of Christian brother- 
hood, which was incompatible with it : see 
Intro, to Philemon. If a Christian were the 
slave of an unbeliever, his submissiveness 
was to be such as to earn credit for his pro- 
fession. If he had a Christian master, he was 
to be the more zealous in his service, inasmuch 
as his master, who derived benefit from it, was 
a believer like himself, and therefore an object 
of love. 

2. Because they are faithful and beloved, 
partakers of the benefit] RV ' because they 
linn partake of the benefit of their service 
arc believing and beloved.' 

3-10. Resumption of the charge against 
heterodox teachers. They had all the faults 
already mentioned, and in addition they made 
use of religion as a means of getting money, 
or, as they expressed it. of 'gain.' Reproving 
them, St. Paul points out in what sense re- 
ligion is a 'gain,' namely, that it produces 
resignation and COntentmenl of mind, which 



prevent the disquieting effects of covetous- 
ness, whereas the desire of ' gain,' in the sense 
of money-getting, leads to every kind of 
evil-doing. 

3. Wholesome words] RV ' sound words.' 
Even the words of our Lord Jesus Christ] His 
teaching in the Gospels. 5. Supposing that 
gain is godliness] RV ' supposing that god- 
liness is a way of gain.' 8. Raiment] RV 
' covering.' Houses may be included as well 
as clothes. 9, 10. Similarly Seneca, 'Ep.' 87, 
' While we wish to gain riches we fall into 
many evils.' 

1 1 -1 6. Resumption of personal charge to 
Timothy. Timothy's conduct was to be in 
absolute contrast with that of the heterodox 
teachers, who valued religion as a source of 
gain. He must be faithful, as he had promised 
when he made his confession of faith, and as 
Christ faithfully made His confession before 
Pontius Pilate. This faithfulness Timothy 
was especially to show in keeping safe the 
truth committed to him by St. Paul, which he 
was to do his part in maintaining uncorrupted 
till the Second Coming of Christ, which God 
would manifest at His own time. 

11. Oman of God] cp. 1 S2 2U K12 22. 

12. Art . . called] RV ' wast called.' A good 
confession] RV ' the good confession,' made 
when he was admitted into the Church, or 
possibly when he was brought before a Roman 
magistrate to answer for his faith (Hebl3 2 3). 

14. This commandment] i.e. the sum of the 
charges contained in the Epistle. Without 
spot, unrebukeable] Timothy's faith is to be 
without spot, so that he should be without 
reproach. Until the appearing] These words 
do not necessarily indicate a belief on St. 
Paul's part th t the Coming of the Lord would 
be in Timothy's lifetime. It might be, and 
then Timothy would have kept his deposit to 
the end if he were faithful; it might be later, 
and then he would have done his part in keep- 
ing it in his generation. The Return of the 
Lord is to take place in God's time, which ' He 
hath placed in His own power ' (Ac 1 7 ). 

15, 16. Probably an ascription of praise in 
use in the Apostolic Church. 

17-19. The ninth charge to Timothy, arising 
out of vv. 6-10, respecting the rich. He is to 
instruct them not to trust in their riches and 
grow conceited, but to be ready to give to 
others, so laying up for themselves a treasure 
in heaven. The right use of wealth, as of all 
other of God's gifts, while it will not earn 
eternal life, will yet conduce to our attainment 
of it, good works not being the cause, but being 
nevertheless, in adults, a condition of salvation. 

18. Ready., to communicate] i.e. to con- 
tribute generously of their substance. 

19. Laying up in store] see Mt6 19 Lkl6 9 . 
Eternal life] RV 'life indeed; following a 



to- 1 



6.20 



1 TIMOTHY— 2 TIMOTHY 



INTRO. 



reading which has slightly the better authority 
of the two. 

20-22. Final and impassioned appeal to 
Timothy. The faith is a l deposit ' (R Y) which 
St. Paul has committed to Timothy (2 Tim 
1 13 > 14 ), and which it is his office, as it is now 
the office of the Church, to keep safe and un- 
corrupted for the salvation of the world in 
spite of gnostic or agnostic speculations and 
theories. ' Who at this day,' says Yincentius 
Lerinensis, ' is Timothy but either generally 
the whole Church, or especially the whole 
body of prelates, who ought either themselves 
to have a sound knowledge of divine religion, 
or to infuse it into others ? What is meant 
by keeping the deposition ? Keep it, quoth 
he, for fear of thieves, for danger of enemies, 
lest when men be asleep they oversow cockle 
among that good seed of wheat which the Son 
of man hath sowed in His field. Keep, 
quoth he, the deposition. What is meant by 
this deposition ? It is that which is committed 
to them, not that which is invented by thee ; 
that which thou hast received, not that which 
thou hast devised ; a thing not of wit, but of 



learning ; not of private assumption, but of 
public tradition ; a thing brought to thee, not 
brought forth of thee ; wherein thou must 
not be an author, but a keeper ; not a founder, 
but an observer ; not a leader, but a follower. 
Keep the deposition, quoth he ; preserve the 
talent of the Catholic Faith safe and undi- 
minished ; that which is committed to thee, 
let that remain with thee, and that deliver. 
Thou hast received gold, render thou gold ; 
I will not have one thing for another. 
Timothy, Priest, O Teacher, O Doctor, if 
God's gift hath made thee meet and suffi- 
cient, for thy wit, exercise, and learning . . 
let them that come after you rejoice at ar- 
riving at the understanding of that, by thy 
means, which antiquity, without that under- 
standing, had in veneration. Yet for all 
this, in such sort deliver the same things 
which thou hast learnt, that albeit thou 
teachest after a new manner, yet thou never 
teach new things ' (c. 22). No one has 
better grasped and expressed the underlying 
thought and purpose of St. Paul's appeal to 
Timothy than Yincentius. 



2 TIMOTHY 

INTRODUCTION 



, 



1. Authorship. There can be no doubt that 
the author of 1 Timothy is the author of 
2 Timothy. The evidence, external and inter- 
nal, is almost the same for each, and the 
similarity of style and subject is unmistak- 
able. If, therefore, St. Paul is the author of 
1 Timothy, he is the author of 2 Timothy. 

2. Reader. Undoubtedly the same as in 
the case of 1 Timothy. 

3. Date and place of composition. It was 
written shortly before the Apostle's martyr- 
dom from his prison in Rome, probably in the 
early part of 67 or 68 a.d. 

4. Contents and purpose. The Apostle's 
primary object in the Epistle is to beg Timothy 
to come to him, as he was in prison and for- 
lorn, most of his ordinary companions being 
gone elsewhere, and he needed the human 
comfort of a friend. The secondary purpose 
of the Epistle is to urge Timothy, once again, 
to maintain the faith entrusted to him for safe 
custody. It may be argued that the teaching 
of the two Epistles is compatible with a theory 
of legitimate development, but it certainly is 
not with any theory which would justify 
external additions to the once for all delivered 



faith, or subtractions from it, or any re- 
arrangement of it which should throw the 
truths insisted upon by the Apostles into the 
background, and open the way for new dogmas. 
A third object of the Epistle is to give 
further instructions as to Church organisation, 
similar in kind to those already given in the 
earlier letter. The position of Timothy and 
Titus was such as peculiarly to demand these 
apostolic instructions. They are the link be- 
tween the Apostles and the local Church officers, 
and their appointment may be regarded as 
indicating a transition stage between govern- 
ment by Apostles and government by diocesan 
bishops. Episcopacy seems to have arisen in 
two ways : (1) From within the body of 
presbyters, by the appointment of a permanent 
president, to whom the title of ' bishop ' or 
' overseer,' originally shared by all the pres- 
byters (Ac 20 28 Phil 1 !), was gradually re- 
stricted. Whether this development took 
place within the apostolic age, or a little later, 
is a disputed question. It was, at any rate, 
well advanced by the beginning of the second 
century. (2) By the gradual settlement in 
local Churches of apostles, prophets, evan- 



1001 



INTRO. 



2 TIMOTHY 



1. 15 



gelists, and other apostolic men, naturally more 
highly regarded than presbyters. Thus St. 
John is said to have settled in Asia, St. Mark 
at Alexandria, Titus in Crete. The l Didache,' 
which belongs to the first, or early part of the 
second, century, contemplates the possibility of 
the settlement of a ' prophet ' in a local Church, 
where he was honoured as a ' chief priest,' 
and received the first-fruits of all produce 
(ch. xiii). If this dual origin of the episcopate 
be admitted, it furnishes an explanation of the 
fact that there was some hesitation in the 
early Church as to whether bishops were an 
order completely distinct from presbyters. In 
those Churches in which the episcopate had its 
origin within the presbyterate, there would be 
a tendency to regard the bishop as of one 
order with the presbyters, and of comparatively 
limited authority ; but in those Churches in 
which the episcopate had originated in the 
settlement of an apostle or apostolic man such 
as Timothy or Titus, there would be a tendency 
to regard the bishop as of a higher order than 
the presbyters, and to assign to him a distinctive 
position and authority. 

CHAPTEE 1 

Expressions of Affection and Exhorta- 
tions to Faithfulness 

i, 2. Salutation. According to the promise 
of life] St. Paul declares himself appointed an 
Apostle with the view of his spreading the 
knowledge of the life which had been pro- 
mised and was now being enjoyed by Christians 
adopted in Christ. 

3-5. The happy assurance of Timothy's 
faithfulness which St. Paul's recollections of 
past years supply him with. 3. I thank God] 
The construction is involved. What St. Paul 
thanks God for is Timothy's unfeigned faith 
which he remembers night and day, thinking 
of their last sad parting and hoping to see him 
again. 5. Eunice] is simply described in Ac 
16 l as 'a woman that was a Jewess.' She was 
Lois' daughter. Timothy's father was a Greek. 

6-14. Exhortation to firmness in his glorious 
calling. 

6. Stir up] as a fire that is beginning to 
die down. The gift of God] which he received 
at his ordination by the laying on of the hands 
of St. Paul and the presbyters of Ephesus 
(lTim4 14 ). 7. Fear] indicating a certain 
timidity in Timothy, like the 'Be not ashamed' 
of v. 8. A sound mind] RV ' discipline.' It 
means self-discipline, self-control. 8. His 
prisoner] St. Paul was now undergoing his last 
imprisonment in Rome. He refers in like 
manner t<> his firsi imprisonmenl in Eph3 ] I ' 
Philemon v. !*. Partaker of the afflictions of 
the gospel] RV 'suffer hardship with the 
gospel ' ; better, ' suffer hardship with me for 
the gospeL' 



9. Hath saved] RV, more exactly, 'saved.' 
God by His free grace and mercy called, and 
still calls us into a state of salvation, not for 
our work's sake (which is a false view of 
justification), but according to His own pur- 
pose and by the grace of adoption given us in 
Christ in eternity. How can the grace of our 
adoption be said to have been given us in 
eternity ? Because what God determines is 
regarded as done. That grace and purpose, 
resolved on in eternity, was first exhibited to 
the world at the manifestation of Christ in 
the flesh, who by His death and resurrection 
made death as a power of no effect, and threw 
new light upon life and immortality by His 
gospel. 10. Abolished death] The resur- 
rection of Christ showed that death was 
under control, and delivered believers from 
its fear. 12. I . . suffer these things] this im- 
prisonment, etc. Whom I have believed] i.e. 
trusted. That which I have committed unto 
him] himself and all his hopes. 

13, 14. As God will keep safe that which 
is committed to Him, so Timothy is by the 
help of the Holy Ghost to keep the good thing 
committed unto thee, and that good thing is 
the form of sound words, which thou hast 
heard of (from) me. There is nothing so near 
the heart of the aged Apostle, who knew 
that he was himself about to depart from the 
world, as that the faith which he had himself 
received and preached should be regarded and 
treasured as a sacred deposit, left in charge of 
the Church for the salvation of mankind. The 
First Epistle ends with an earnest appeal to 
keep the deposit, and the Second Epistle begins 
with the same charge. For it is one of the 
chief duties of bishops and rulers of the 
Church to recall their clergy, straying into 
error, to the primitive 'pattern' (RV) of 
doctrine which is set before us in the sound 
words of the gospel. 

15-18. Urging Timothy to be faithful to 
what he had taught him, St. Paul points to 
two cases, in the first of which his converts 
had shown unfaithfulness, and in the second 
courage. The Asiatic Christians, that is, some 
— in his bitter disappointment St. Paul says 
all — of those who lived in proconsular Asia, 
represented by Phygelus (this seems to have 
been the spelling of the name) and Hermo- 
genes, of whom we know nothing more, had 
repudiated St. Paul's authority. On the other 
hand, Onesiphorus had bravely ministered to 
him in his imprisonment in Rome, and before 
that at Ephesus. In memory of his kindness 
St. Paul prays that God may bless his family 
and utters an aspiration that mercy may be 
show 11 to him at the last day. From the form 
of the expression, and the fact that both here 
and in 4 1 '-" only the household of Onesiphorus 
is mentioned, it has been inferred with con- 



1002 



% 1 



2 TIMOTHY 



;. 1 



siderable probability that Onesiphorus was 
dead. On this supposition many Protestant 
scholars find in the utterance of St. Paul an 
instance of prayer for a deceased person, but 
others regard it only as a pious hope or wish. 

CHAPTER 2 

Exhortations to Firmness, Unconten- 
tiousness, and perseverance 
1-26. The duties of God's ministers are, (1) 
to maintain the faith against assailants and 
seducers (w. 1, 2, 14-21, 26), and, (2) to be . 
brave and patient (vv. 3-13, 22-25). 

1. Therefore] will then. Be strong] show 
the strength which is yours as a Christian and 
as a minister of Christ. 2. The Apostle refers 
especially to the charge that he had given to 
Timothy at his ordination in the presence of 
the presbyters and others who assisted at it. 
This charge contained a summary of the faith, 
which in turn Timothy was to hand on to 
others. Teach others] probably, ' teach them 
to others.' They have now been stereotyped 
in the Scriptures of the NT. and in the Creeds. 
3-6. Endure hardness] RY ' suffer hardship 
with me.' A good soldier] The soldier's virtue 
is to be shown in resisting, (1) the enemies of 
the faith, (2) all evil ; and with this end in 
view he will not devote himself to other occu- 
pations, but observes the rules of his service. 
God's minister must be like him, and like the 
labourer who works hard in the field. In 
which case, St. Paul adds, he has, like the 
husbandman, a right to a living wage. 

7. If Timothy thinks it over, he will see 
that it is only reasonable that the presbyter 
should be supported by a stipend, answering 
to the labourer's wages. 8. Timothy is to be 
firm and unflinching in maintaining the doc- 
trines of the Incarnation and Resurrection of 

] Christ, which his adversaries denied. 

9, 10. As an evil doer] St. Paul was now pro- 

j bably imprisoned on the charge of setting fire 
to Rome with the other Christians. He was 
willing to endure that or anything else pro- 

j vided that so he might make known the sal- 
vation in Christ to those whom God had chosen 
to know it ; if the preacher was in chains, the 
word he preached was unfettered and had free 
course. St. Paul says this in part as an en- 
couragement to Timothy to suffer with him 

I (v. 3). 

11-13. The Apostle quotes a saying or 
hymn in use among Christians, which is applic- 
able from its reference to endurance. II, A 
faithful saying] 1 Tim 15 4 9. 13. He abideth 
faithful] We have been admitted into cove- 
nant with Him, and whatever we may do, He 
I will observe the terms of the agreement, 
whether they bring us good or evil. 

14-21. Urgent charge to Timothy to resist 
the heterodox teaching. 



15. Rightly dividing the word of truth] 
The original word means either cutting a 
straight path for it, or dealing in a straight- 
forward way with it. 16. They] the hetero- 
dox teachers. 

17, 18. Hymenaeus] lTiml20. Of Philetus 
nothing more is known. Their heresy may 
have been an allegorical explanation of the 
Resurrection as the new life of the soul which 
had been imparted to it by faith in Christ. 
The belief that ' the resurrection is past 
already ' may have been that Christ's Resur- 
rection was the only one that was to be. A 
belief like this seems to have prevailed at 
Corinth : cp. 1 Cor 1 5 12 > 16 > 20 . 19. The doctrine 
of the Resurrection is the sure foundation of 
God, which stands as a fundamental article of 
the Christian faith. When the time comes, 
the Lord will show that He knoweth them 
that are his, who will be those that during 
their life on earth have, as Christians, departed 
from iniquity. This seal] the inscription 
stamped upon the foundation stone of the faith. 

20, 21. In the visible Church there would 
be some hearts of gold incapable of being 
seduced, but there would also be some of less 
precious material liable to be led away by the 
heterodox teachers ; if the latter purged them- 
selves from their false teachers by rejecting 
their doctrine and ministry, they too would 
become vessels unto honour. 

22-25. Personal to Timothy. 

22. Flee . . youthful lusts] avoid a young 
man's desires after novelty in teaching. (There 
is apparently no reference to the desires of 
the flesh.) Avoid foolish questions or specu- 
lations which gender strife, and pursue a stead- 
fast course of piety with sincere believers, not 
entering into controversial disputations, but 
correcting opponents with gentleness and 
meekness, not for the sake of victory, but 
for their good. Also] RV 'but.' 26. St. 
Paul's thought passes from Timothy's be- 
haviour towards the heterodox to what may 
be the results of it to themselves namely, 
their recovery. 

CHAPTER 3 

Warnings and Exhortations regarding 

the last Days 

1-9. In the days immediately preceding 
the Second Coming, the Lord had taught that 
iniquity would abound. St. Paul reminds 
Timothy of this truth as a warning to him, 
for when those days would come neither he 
nor any one on earth knew ; they might be 
close at hand, and the existing wickedness 
might be the commencement of the final 
iniquity. The depravity then would be 
terrible, and already in its degree it existed, 
and must be resisted. 

1. In the last days] ' But of that day and 



1003 



3. 5 



2 TIMOTHY 



4. 9 



that hour knoweth no man' (Mkl3 32 ), not 
a St. Paul, not a St. John (Un2*8). 5. A 
form of godliness] an outside appearance of 
it. Denying the power thereof] the outward 
form of piety not having power to influence 
their lives for good. 6. Creep into houses] 
the constant habit of proselytisers to evil, 
who do not shrink from crooked and base 
means of accomplishing their purpose. Lead 
captive] having lost all freedom of will, like 
prisoners taken in war. 7. Ever learning, 
and never able to come to the knowledge of 
the truth] an exquisite description of that 
restlessness of mind, which leads to excessive 
curiosity upon religious subjects, but does not 
minister to genuine knowledge or faith. 

8. These] the teachers who are leading men 
and women on to this depravity and weakness. 

Jannes and Jambres] the names of the 
Egyptian magicians in Ex 7 n - 22 , according to 
Jewish tradition. 9. They shall proceed no 
further] they shall not be able to continue to 
resist Timothy with success, any more than 
the magicians were capable of finally resisting 
Moses (Ex 8 18 9 11 ). 

10-17. Exhortation. Timothy was well 
instructed in the OT. and in the gospel preached 
by St. Paul, and he must ' abide in the things 
that he had learnt and been assured of.' 

10. Hast fully known] BV ' didst follow.' 

11. Timothy was well acquainted with all 
that happened to St. Paul at Antioch of 
Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra in his First Mis- 
sionary Journey, when he was himself con- 
verted to Christianity (Ac 13 50 16 !). 14. Of 
whom thou hast learned them] From Eunice 
and Lois. 15. The holy scriptures] EV 'the 
sacred writings,' i.e. the OT., which, when read 
in the light of the faith of Christ Jesus and 
with trust in Him, gave sufficient instruction 
for his salvation. 

16. All scripture] RV 'every scripture.' 
The AV is right, because St. Paul is here con- 
templating the OT. not as a work made up of 
many writings, but as one book. So in Eph 
3 15 , ' the whole family in heaven ' ( AV) is 
right, not 'every family' (RV) ; Eph2 21 , 'all 
the building groweth ' (AY), not ' each several 
building' (RV) ; Ac23G, 1 Let all the house 
of Israel know' (AV and RV) ; Ac7 22 , 'all 
the wisdom of the Egyptians ' (AV and RV), 
because contemplated as one subject ; Mt2 3 , 
' all Jerusalem ' (AV and RV). All scripture] 
In this passage the 'scripture' denoted is the 
OT. only, but when the expression is afterwards 
applied to the NT. (2 Pet 3 16 ), it implies that 
the same characteristics will be found in the 
N'T. as are here enumerated in reference to 
the OT. Scripture is given by inspiration of 
God, and is profitable] RV 'scripture inspired 
of God is also profitable.' There is nothing 
whatever to show wliieli of these renderings is 



the better. The profitableness of Scripture 
consists in its teaching, convicting, correcting, 
training. It is profitable both for faith and 
piety. 

The assurance which St. Paul has of 
Timothy's piety leads up to his final appeal in 
the next chapter. 

CHAPTER 4 

St. Paul's last Messages and Counsels 

1-8. The Apostle, knowing that his days 
are fast drawing to a close, exhorts Timothy 
to increased diligence and earnestness in his 
teaching, in view of the imminence of a time 
of error and excitement. He refers to his ap- 
proaching martyrdom, expressing his readiness 
for whatever may await him, and his confidence 
in the reward of his faithfulness. 

1. I charge thee] cp. lTim5 21 . And the 
Lord Jesus Christ] RV ' and of Christ Jesus.' 

At his appearing, etc.] RV ' and by his 
appearing and his kingdom.' The Second 
Coming and the glorious kingdom of Christ 
are invoked to remind Timothy of the great- 
ness of his responsibility. 2. In season, out 
of season] This has been well rendered, ' Take 
opportunity, or make it.' With all longsuffer- 
ing and doctrine] i.e. ever patient and ready 
to teach. 

3. False views of Christian truth would gain 
credence in the future as they had done in the 
past (cp. 2 Cor 1 1 *> 12-15 Col 2 8, 18) ; and it would 
be well that the converts should be prepared 
against the day of trial. After their own lusts] 
They would prefer teaching which agreed with 
their selfish desires to the pure truth of the 
gospel condemning their evil habits and 
awakening their consciences : cp. Jer5 31 . 

5. The work of an evangelist] i.e. of 
preaching the gospel. Make full proof of thy 
ministry] i.e. neglect no aspect of the work. 

6. For I, etc.] The ' I ' is emphatic, in 
contrast to the ' Thou ' of v. 5. St. Paul's 
day is almost over, Timothy must wage his 
warfare alone. Ready to be offered] lit. ' being 
poured out as a drink off ering ' : a reference 
to the shedding of his own blood in his ap- 
proaching martyr's death : cp. Phil 2 17 , where 
the same word is used. 7. A good fight] rather, 
4 1 have contested the good contest.' The 
reference is not to a battle, but to a contest in 
the games : cp. 1 Cor 9 25 . Kept the faith] 

' The faith ' is here regarded as a precious 
treasure entrusted to him: cp. lTiml n 6 20 
2 Tim 113, 14. 8. A crown] RV 'the crown,' 
the reward for righteousness. St. Paul here 
carries on the metaphor of the contest in the 
games, which he had dropped for the moment 
in the last clause of v. 7. At that day] i.e. 
the day of judgment. 

9-15. St. Paul bids Timothy endeavour to 
come to him quickly, for some of his com- 



1004 



4. 10 



2 TIMOTHY— TITUS 



INTRO. 



panions have left him and others have been 
sent on missions to the Churches. He asks 
him to bring some things of which he is in 
want, and warns him against an enemy who 
has done the Apostle much harm. 

io. Demas] mentioned as a companion of 
St. Paul in Col 4 14 Philemon v. 24. Crescens] 
nowhere else mentioned in NT. Titus] fre- 
quently mentioned in 2 Cor and elsewhere as 
one of the Apostle's most trusted lieutenants. 
He had evidently gone to Dalmatia on the 
E. coast of the Adriatic on a mission from 
St. Paul. 

ii. Luke] k the beloved physician,' Col4 14 . 

Mark] was with the Apostle on his First 
Missionary Journey (Ac 1 2 25 ), but St. Paul lost 
confidence in him and refused to take him on 
the Second Journey (AclS 37-40 ). Mark, how- 
ever, afterwards redeemed his reputation, and 
we find him with the Apostle in Rome when the 
Epistle to the Colossians was written (Col 4 10 ). 

12. Tychicus] see Ac 22 5 Eph6 21 Col 4 7. 

13. Thecloke] Probably a long thick mantle 
which the approach of winter (v. 21) would 
render necessary to the Apostle in prison. 

The books] It is impossible to conjecture 
what these were. The parchments] may have 
been some of the books of Scripture. 



14. Alexander] may be the same as the 
Alexander mentioned (lTiml 20 )in conjunc- 
tion with Hymenagus. He had evidently been 
an opponent of St. Paul's teaching. 

16-22. The Apostle mentions the circum- 
stances of his first appearance before his judges, 
declares his abiding trust in the Lord, sends 
salutations to friends, and prays for a blessing 
on Timothy. 

16. My first answer] It would seem that St. 
Paul's case had been partly heard, but the 
evidence had been insufficient for condemna- 
tion, and the hearing had been adjourned. 

19. Prisca and Aquila] see Acl8 2 . One- 
siphorus] cp. 2Timl 16 . 

20. Erastus] perhaps ' the chamberlain of 
the city' of Corinth mentioned in R0I6 23 : see 
also Ac 1 9 22 . Trophimus] see Ac 20 4 2 1 29 . 

21. The names in this v. are those of mem- 
bers of the Church in Rome. Linus] There 
was a Linus bishop of the Church of Rome 
a little later, and this is probably the same 
person. 

22. The first blessing is for Timothy : the 
second for him and all who are with him (you 
being plural). 

The subscription has no authority, though 
possibly quite correct. 



TITUS 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Contents. The writer, professing to be 
Paul the Apostle and maintaining his right to 
be an Apostle, sends an affectionate greeting 
to his son in the faith, Titus (l 1 " 5 ). He re- 
minds Titus that he left him in Crete to perfect 
the organisation of the Church in the island, 
by ordaining presbyters ; and he now dwells 
on the moral qualifications and loyalty to the 
faith which these Church officers must have 
(1 6_9 ). He points out that the Cretans, a vola- 
tile folk, need sharp teaching to keep them 
accurate in speech and pure in life (I 10 " 16 ). 
The old should preserve a Christian dignity, 
not only for their own sake, but also as a 
sound example for the young, that they too 
may be good and true (2 1 " 6 ). Nor should 
Titus forget that his own example is para- 
mount (2 7 > 8 ). Servants must find in obedience 
to their earthly masters a way to obey God 
(2 9 > 10 ). All need to be on their guard, for all 
alike are waiting for the quick return of Christ, 
the Redeemer (2 11-15 ). Titus must further 
remind the Cretan Christians that they have a 



duty also to the un- Christian world about 
them ; they must be good citizens and good 
neighbours (3 *> 2 ) ; for as, by no merit of ours, 
G-od raised us from a heathen to a Christian 
life, so we should try by an attractive goodness 
to win others (3 3-8 ). He urges Titus not to 
argue, but if a man is a ' heretic,' to give him 
two warnings, and then shun him (3 9_n ). With 
a few personal words about his own plans, a 
final word of advice, and a reverent farewell, 
the letter closes. 

2. Value of the Epistle. It will be seen 
that the chief value of the Epistle lies in its 
common-sense and spirituality, and is not de- 
pendent upon date or authorship. Even those 
critics who believe it pseudonymous explain 
that, in an age of different literary ethics from 
ours, a pupil honoured his master by writing 
in his name what he believed his master would 
write were he still alive. As the Epistle has, 
all through Christian history, been a store-house 
of good advice for Church officers, so it must 
continue to be, whatever the outcome of modern 



1005 



INTRO. 



TITUS 



INTRO. 




scholarship about it. We catch a glimpse of 
the development of the ministry, and of a 
growing insistence on orthodoxy, which seem 
to some recent scholars beyond what we see 
in former writings of St. Paul. This con- 
tention cannot be granted without serious 
qualification ; for even those most willing to 
question the early crystallisation of Christian 
tradition are now more and more tending to 
admit that, before the last decades of the 1st 
cent., Christianity was definitely organised ; 
and the movement towards an intellectual basis 
for faith was certainly well within St. Paul's 
active career — even if ' faith ' to him was 
ordinarily ' a firm hold upon spiritual realities,' 
it often stood squarely for ' the Christian 
system,' whether doctrinal or institutional 
(e.g. Rol5 Gal 123 Phil 1 27 ; cp . a i so Ac 6 7 
138 1422 165 2424). Moreover, even in this 
Epistle, soundness in doctrine means soundness 
in morality rather than soundness in creed 
(see on 2 1 ). However, though we grant the 
most radical view of this advance of organisa- 
tion and doctrine, the questions arising from 
it are no longer of first importance ; because 
those who look to primitive authority for 
ministry and creed are increasingly assured 
that the development as well as the inception 
of Christianity is a divine act, so that for them 
the divine authority of ministry and creed is 
not weakened if a document be proved of 
somewhat later date than it was formerly 
thought to be. For all readers, therefore, 
the interest of the Epistle is not so much 
historical or controversial, as practical and 
spiritual. Once admitted to canonical Scrip- 
ture, it holds its place on its own merits. 

3. Authorship and Date. Till recent times, 
with essential unanimity, this Epistle was 
ascribed to St. Paul. It is true that the 
heretic Marcion omitted it from his list of St. 
Paul's Epistles, but his doctrinal reasons for 
this are so evident as to rob his omission of 
significance. In the last cent., when biblical 
criticism began, Titus was set down as a 
forgery of the 2nd cent. To-day critics are 
finding in it what they believe undoubted 
fragments of St. Paul, and are calling it ' sub- 
Pauline,' with a date between 90 and 120 A.D. 
The trend even among radical scholars is, 
therefore, toward the traditional view of 
authorship. 

The authorship is wisely left more or less 
open. The discovery of a few pages of early 
Christian MS might turn the question one 
way or the other. A few points are becoming 
dear ; the first of which is that if St. Paul is 
the author, he was released from his first 
Roman imprisonment, and, in the interval 
before his final imprisonment, visited some of 
his Churches. We may safely say that if the 
Epistle is his, he wrote it about 64 a.d. If 



authentic, this Epistle (with 1 and 2 Tim) 
practically proves that St. Paul was released 
after the imprisonment recorded in the 
Acts. There is much in known Roman 
procedure to commend such a theory ; the 
argument from silence is the most formidable 
obstacle. 

The difficulties attending the ascription of 
the Epistle to St. Paul are important in the 
aggregate rather than separately. A fairly 
good answer can be made to each objection. 
(1) Writing personally to an intimate friend, 
the author asserts his apostleship too strenu- 
ously ; but St. Paul was old and worn, and 
one who, younger, wrote Galatians, would, even 
to an intimate, be apt to say what we find in 
the opening words of Titus : old men much 
in' the public eye are always quite aware that 
private correspondence, not strictly confiden- 
tial, is wont to reach many persons. (2) If 
the author was St. Paul, he put an emphasis 
upon organisation and orthodoxy quite unlike 
himself in his other Epistles. But St. Paul 
was older, new experiences drive to new 
moods, the exigencies of the Church created 
new needs, therefore there would be reason 
for conservatism. Men now, with sense of 
responsibility, tend to become conservative in 
age, however radical in youth. Besides, 
organisation and orthodoxy in this Epistle are 
stressed only for moral and spiritual ends : 
they seem to have little value in themselves. 
There is only slight advance upon St. Paul's 
other Epistles here. (3) The facts of Church 
organisation implied in both Titus and 1 and 
2 Timothy seem too far beyond the facts 
revealed in St. Paul's earlier Epistles ; but the 
most ardent believer in organisation can find 
in these Epistles only a still indefinite organ- 
isation, the functions of the officers are not 
clear, and the bishop seems at most only 
emerging from among the presbyters ; cer- 
tainly he is very far from the official described 
by Ignatius. Knowing the development that 
came later, we should expect the ministry in 
the year 64 to be much like this fluid picture 
in the Pastoral Epistles. (4) The most serious 
difficulty is the change in language and style 
from St. Paul's former modes of expression. 
In 46 verses are 26 words not used in any 
other known Epistles of St. Paul. Favourite 
words and particles are quite absent, and 
other expressions and turns (common to Titus 
and 1 and 2 Timothy) take their place. Even 
the lapse of several years seems inadequate to 
explain the change of style ; but the spirit of 
St. Paul, more subtle than language, is evident ; 
so that the best explanation if we ascribe the 
Epistle to St. Paul, is to say that he left 
unusual liberty to his amanuensis. For a 
fuller discussion see ' General Intro, to the 
Pastoral Epistles.' 



1006 



1.1 



TITUS 



% 1 



CHAPTER 1 

Greeting. Directions for Organising 
the Cretan Church 

i-i6. : Paul an Apostle, to Titus his own 
son in the faith. In appointing elders in the 
towns of Crete, see to their character, and be 
sure that they keep the faith. There are 
Judaisers in the island, and the Cretans are 
liars ; so Church officers must be especially 
careful that their discourse may be sound.' 

i. Paul, a servant of God] St. Paul does 
not elsewhere use this designation in his 
superscriptions ; so an imitator would be un- 
likely to use it. According- to the faith, etc.] 
i.e. to promote the true faith. Which is after 
godliness] i.e. which leads to godliness. 

2. That cannot lie] A bad translation. The 
single Gk. word means ' absolutely truthful.' 
It is irreverent to say of the One Self-deter- 
mined Being, ' cannot ' ; ' will not ' is sufficient 
and final. Here AV and RY both add an idea 
not in the original, borrowing, doubtless, from 
Heb 6 1S : cp. Ro 3 4 and 1 Cor 1 9 . Before the 
world began] lit. (as R V) v Before times eter- 
nal.' 3. RY ' But in his own seasons manifested 
his word in the message ' (proclamation) 
1 wherewith I was entrusted,' etc. His word] 
To the Hebrew, k word ' or ' name ' stood for 
the being whose it was ; so we might safely 
translate, ' himself.' St. Augustine interpreted 
it definitely ' Christ.' 

4. Son after the common faith] i.e. his pupil 
in the faith which they shared together. Titus 
is not mentioned in Acts, but from St. Paul's 
Epistles we gather the following details : he 
was a Greek (Gal 2 3 ) ; neither at his conver- 
sion nor (probably) later was he circumcised 
(ib.); he went on missionary journeys with 
and for St. Paul (Gal 2 1 2 Cor 7 «-, 13-15 8 6, 16-18). 
We know nothing more till we find him here. 

5. Though in a personal letter, these words 
are so explicit that, should the Cretans resist 
Titus' authority, he might read to them what 
the great master himself had said. We are 
wont to say, ' If you have trouble, show this 
letter.' St. Paul, perhaps, implied this here. 

Left I thee in Crete] This cannot be identi- 
fied with the only visit of St. Paul to Crete 
elsewhere recorded (Ac27 7f -). The visit 
when he left Titus there was after the 
Roman imprisonment : see Intro. There 
were many Jews in Crete, and there were 
Cretans in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Ac2 n ), 
but we do not know how Christianity was 
planted in the island. Elders] Gk. 'pres- 
byters.' Rectors, or pastors, we should say 
to-day. 6. The husband of one wife] not 
necessarily of any wife, but of not more than 
one. Probably not an objection to polygamy, 
which was rare", but to divorce and remarriage, 
which was common. It is hardly likely that 



remarriage, after the death of a first wife, was 
to be a disqualification for office : cp. 1 Tim3 2 . 

Faithful children] i.e. brought up as Chris- 
tians. 7. A bishop] This officer seems simply 
to be one of the ' elders ' in v. 5 : though the 
difference in name and number may suggest 
the beginning of a distinction between them. 
At any rate, the Church is here more highly 
organised than when St. Paul wrote, e.g. 1 Cor, 
but not nearly so much so as when Ignatius 
wrote, e.g. to the Ephesians, circ. 115 a.d. : 
cp. ITimS 1 . 8. Lover of good men] better 
(as RY), ' lover of good,' including both men 
and things. 9. As he hath been taught] RY 
(which is lit.) ' according to the teaching ' ; 
i.e. the teaching which he has received, per- 
haps referring to a gradually forming state- 
ment of the essentials of the faith, such as 
culminated, in the 2nd cent., in the 'Roman 
symbol,' or early form of the. Apostles' Creed. 

10. Here begins the arraignment of the false 
teachings which the elders will have to meet 
(vv. 10-16). They of the circumcision] i.e Jew- 
ish converts who insisted that to be a Christian 
one must also submit to Jewish ordinances. 

12. One of themselves] i.e. one of the Cre- 
tans. The reference is to Epimenides, a poet, 
circ. 600 B.C. St. Paul calls him a prophet 
because, (1) poets and prophets were apt to 
be classed together, and (2) his ' witness ' was 
still true in St. Paul's day. One reason why 
the Cretans were called liars was because they 
said that Zeus was buried in Crete. Slow 
bellies] i.e. gross and corpulent through self- 
indulgence. 14. Jewish fables] e.g. the sort 
of rules, for maintaining which our Lord 
condemned the Pharisees (Mtl5, 23, etc.). 

15. Unto the pure all things are pure] St. 
Chrysostom said, ' God made nothing impure.' 
Used, not abused, all things are right ; abused, 
the seemingly innocent thing is sin. St. Paul 
does not mean to limit this principle to cere- 
monial distinctions (about meats, etc.), with 
which the Judaisers would be apt to vex the 
Cretans. Their mind and conscience is defiled] 
cp. Mtl5 4-8 . 16. They profess] Not mere 
pretence, but blatant self-confidence. 

CHAPTER 2 

Yarious Instructions for Christian 
Life and Doctrine 

1-15. ' In giving sound doctrine, to offset 
false teaching, put the first emphasis on the 
need of character, because Christ is our reward, 
and very soon. And do thou, Titus, set a good 
example, and maintain thine own authority.' 

1. Sound doctrine] cp. 2 2 , 'sound in faith.' 
The context shows that this is soundness not 
in intellectual opinions, but in the inculca- 
tion of uprightness of life. In Christ's day 
' faith ' was always regarded as spiritual ; in the 
apostolic age, nearly always so ; but in the 



1007 



2. 2 



TITUS 



3.10 



apostolic age the tendency unquestionably 
began to identify ' faith ' with a system. It is 
important to mark that faith and doctrine as 
used in this Epistle are not far from the earlier 
use : cp. Intro. § 2. 

2. The aged men] Not the elders in an 
official sense, but simply the old men. 3. Be- 
haviour] All outward deportment ; not simply 
dress on the one hand ; not inner thoughts on 
the other. Not given to much wine] RV f en- 
slaved to much wine.' Cretans, both men and 
women, were notorious drinkers : cp. 1 12 . 

4. Teach] RV ' train,' a much better 
word. 

5. Keepers at home] Another Gk. text 
(adopted in RV) gives ' workers at home.' 

Blasphemed] The Cretans would say, ' See 
how they treat their husbands, that is Christi- 
anity ! ' 

7. St. Paul now turns to Titus personally. 
Even if he had recently seen him, it was not 
unnatural to press a warning upon ' his child 
in the faith.' Sincerity] Rightly omitted in 
RV, since it is lacking in the best MSS. 

9. Servants] i.e. ' slaves.' Slaves made up 
a considerable proportion of early Christian 
congregations ; and, often being more intelli- 
gent than their masters, could influence them 
in spiritual things. 11. The RV is again more 
accurate than AV : ' For the grace of God 
hath appeared, bringing salvation to all men.' 

12. Teaching] better, ' disciplining,' or even 
(as Luther), ' chastising.' That] purpose, ' in 
order that.' This present world] lit. 'this 
present age ' ; i.e. before Christ's reappearing. 

13. The blessed hope is ' the appearing.' 
The apostolic age cannot be understood with- 
out constantly keeping in mind that the Chris- 
tians expected Christ's return in glory within 
their generation. Glorious appearing] This 
should be (as in RV), ' appearing of the glory.' 
The ' glory ' is the visible majesty of the divine. 
The Jews called it the ' shekinah.' The great 
God and our Saviour Jesus Christ] RV ' our 
great God and Saviour Jesus Christ.' Scholars 
have always been divided whether the Father 
and Christ both are meant, or only Christ. 
The most skilful escape from the difficulty is 
to say thai Christ will appear in both His own 
glory and His Father's. If it is to be inter- 
preted 'our God .. Christ,' the expression is 
unique in the NT., unless we take RM for 
Jnl 18 , 'God only begotten.' 14. For us] Not 
• in our Btead, 1 hut • for our sake.' However, 
the next words suggest both meanings. Re- 
deem] lit. % set free by means of a ransom.' A 
peculiar people] An OT. expression : l a chosen. 
favoured, superior people.' ' His own people ' 
is perhaps the best rendering. 15. Let no 
man despise thee] i.e. push these counsels 
home so gravely and thoroughly that men will 

heel thee \ cp." 1 Tim I 1 -'. 



CHAPTER 3 

The Substance and Manner of the 
Teaching to be given. Farewell 

1-15. 'Remind the Cretans to be loyal 
citizens, good neighbours. As, through no merit 
of ours, God won us to Himself, so we must live 
good lives. Never argue with stubborn- 
hearted people. Warn a heretic twice ; then 
drop him. Come to me at Nicopolis, when 
Artemas or Tychicus leaves me, and see that 
Zenas and Apollos get well started on their 
missionary journey. We all greet you all.' 

1. To principalities and powers] better (as 
RV), ' to rulers, to authorities.' We should 
be apt to say, ' to the government.' To obey 
magistrates] The original meaning of the Gk. 
word is ' to obey one's superiors ' : ' to obey ' 
or ' to be obedient ' (RV) is, therefore, a better 
translation. 3. We ourselves] i.e. we Chris- 
tians. Were sometimes] ' Were ' (standing 
first in the Gk. sentence is emphatic) ' at one 
time ' (RV f aforetime '). 

4. Alford translates this v., ' But when the 
goodness and love-toward-men ' (one Gk. 
word) ' of our Saviour, God, was manifested.' 

God our Saviour] the Father. Appeared] 
' was manifested ' ; i.e. in the coming, life, 
and death of Christ. 5. By the washing of 
regeneration] For ' washing,' ' laver ' (i.e. place 
where the washing took place) is better. 
Baptism is referred to here. Renewing of 
the Holy Ghost] The baptism to be efficient 
must be both by water and by the Spirit. It 
is not a mere outward act. 6. Which he shed 
on us] When ? At Pentecost, or, generally, 
to each individual ? Probably both meanings 
should be included. 7. Heirs according to 
the hope of eternal life] better (as RM), ' heirs, 
according to hope, of eternal life.' 

8. Faithful saying] i.e. a condensed reflec- 
tion, an axiom in rhythmical form, a Christian 
proverb. Scholars disagree whether the 
'faithful saying' here includes vv. 4-7 or 
only v. 7. The presence of ' faithful sayings ' 
shows that a religious movement is no longer 
in its infancy : men have reflected about it 
for some time : cp.lTiml 15 3 1 4 8 2Tim2 11 . 

Believed in God] better (as RV), ' believed 
God ' ; i.e. trusted His word. 

9. Every Christian minister learns the 
futility of arguments to persuade the preju- 
diced. Living reasonable lives, teaching posi- 
tively and reasonably, we convince men ; not 
otherwise. 

10. Heretick] A heretic, to St. Paul, was 
never one who held erroneous opinions only, 
but one whose error sprang from moral 
crookedness, issuing at last in evil life. There 
serins always a sensual element in what St. 
Paul calls heresy ; for he classes it with the 
sins of the flesh (Gal5 20 ). The heresies of 



ions 



3. 12 



TITUS— PHILEMON 



INTRO. 



the Corinthian Church were moral rather than 
intellectual ( 1 Cor 1 1 i9 ). Eph 4 is f • exactly de- 
scribes heresy, though the word itself is not 
mentioned. It is not important, but in- 
teresting to note that the word ' heretic ' 
occurs only here in the NT. ' Heresy ' is 
common. Reject] This is not excommuni- 
cation. ' Refuse,' ' avoid,' ' shun,' ' decline to 
have intercourse with,' have been suggested 
as better translations. 

12. Artemas] Nothing is known of him be- 
yond this mention. Tradition says that he was 
later bishop of Lystra. Tychicus] cp. Ac20 4 
Eph6 21 Col 4 ^ 2 Tim 4 1 2 . Nicopolis] Several 
towns had this name. This may be the one 
in Epirus. 13. Zenas . . and Apollos] Perhaps 



the bearers of the Epistle. Zenas was pro- 
bably a Jewish scribe. For Apollos see Ac 
18 24 1 Cor 112 1612. The mingling of old 
names with new is a strong critical argument 
for the Pauline authorship ; a pupil wishing 
to imitate would hardly be apt to mention 
any but well-known names. 14. Our's] 'our 
people ' (RV) ; i.e. the Christian community 
in Crete. For necessary uses] i.e. for helping 
such persons as Zenas and Apollos to give 
their time to Church extension. We should 
say, ' See that the people of the different 
congregations give good missionary offerings.' 

15. In the faith] lit. 'in faith.' 

The subscription appended to the Epistle 
in the AV is certainly spurious. 



PHILEMON 



INTRODUCTION 



The Epistle of Paul to Philemon is a per- 
sonal letter to a friend, called out by a situa- 
tion probably not infrequent in antiquity. A 
letter of Pliny on a similar occasion ('Ep.' ix. 21, 
see translation in Lightf oot, ' Comm. on Phile- 
mon,' pp. 316 f.) has been preserved. 

1. Recipients and Occasion. Philemon was a 
resident of Colossas in Phrygia (cp. Col 4 9 with 
Philemon v. 11). He owed his conversion to 
Paul (v. 19), having perhaps heard the gospel 
on some visit to Ephesus during the three years 
of Paul's stay there (Ac 1 9). A man of wealth, 
he had distinguished himself by deeds of char- 
ity (vv. 5-7), as well as by zeal in spreading 
the gospel (v. 1), and his house was the habit- 
ual meeting-place of a group of Colossian 
Christians (v. 2). He may be compared with 
Stephanas of Corinth (1 Cor 16 1 5 - 18 ). Apphia 
(v. 2), also a Christian, bearing a characteristic 
native Phrygian name, was doubtless Phile- 
mon's wife, and the subject of the letter con- 
cerned her too. Archippus may have been 
their son. He had a ' ministry ' (perhaps as 
presbyter or evangelist) at Laodicea (Col 4 15 " 17 ). 
Onesimus (a name often borne by Greek 
slaves at this period) was a slave (doubt- 
less a house-slave) of Philemon, who had run 
away, probably robbing his master at the same 
time. Reaching Rome (or, according to some, 
Caesarea), he had somehow found his master's 
friend Paul. Such a chance would not be sur- 
prising in a great and compactly populated 
city. In his desperate case, liable to arrest 
and the severest punishment, he may have 
voluntarily sought the Apostle's aid. At any 



rate he met with kindness, was brought to 
faith in Christ, and served Paul with grateful 
devotion. When Tychicus went to Asia Minor 
(Col4 7 - 9 ), Paul took the occasion to send back 
Onesimus, now ' the faithful and beloved bro- 
ther,' with general commendation to the Colos- 
sian Christians, and with this special letter of 
intercession to Philemon. 

The letter was thus written in the same cir- 
cumstances, and sent at the same time, as 
Colossians (cp. Col4 9 with vv. 12, 17) : see, 
however, Col 4 10 , and on v. 23. The place of 
writing was probably Rome, where Paul was 
imprisoned. The escaped slave may well have 
tried to lose himself in the throngs of the 
capital, and would have been at least as well 
able to secure transportation thither as to 
Csesarea. 

2. Attitude to Slavery. Paul in this letter 
is in accord with early Christianity generally 
in accepting slavery without criticism, and he 
assumes the property right of the slave-owner ; 
but he recognises the slave as a brother in 
Christ, to whom is due not merely forgiveness 
but Christian friendship. Compare what he 
says of a sphere of life in which neither bond- 
age nor freedom has any place (1 Cor 7 20-24 
1213 Gal 3 28 Col 3 11 ), and his directions to 
masters and slaves in Eph6 5 " 9 and Col 3 22-41. 
Whether or not in 1 Cor 7 21 he meant to advise 
a slave to use lawful opportunities of secur- 
ing his freedom, is a disputed question. The 
effect of Jesus Christ's principle of the essen- 
tial worth of the human soul (Mt6 2 6f. lOSOf. 
12 12 Lkl5) a principle which Paul recognised, 



64 



1009 



INTRO. 



PHILEMON 



6 



is to be seen in the attitude of the modern Chris- 
tian world toward slavery itself. On ancient 
slavery, which, especially under Roman law, gave 
the owner absolute authority over the person 
and life of the slave, and was full of cruelty, 
vice, and every horror, see Becker, ' Gallus ' ; 
Lecky, ' History of European Morals,' chs. ii. 
and iv. ; Vincent, ' Commentary on Philemon,' 
pp. 162-168. 

3. Genuineness. Philemon was included in 
Marcion's collection of Pauline Epistles, circ. 
150 A.D. Its perfect adaptation to the con- 
crete situation everywhere consistently pre- 
supposed, its freshness and charm, and the rare 
delicacy and tact which it reveals are good 
grounds for holding it genuine ; and when to 
these considerations is added its close resem- 
blance in style and expression to the other 
Epistles of Paul, the evidence supporting its 
own claim (v. 1) to Pauline authorship is 
conclusive. On this view, the interest of this 
beautiful little Epistle is immensely increased, 
as affording a glimpse into the Apostle's 
private life, and exhibiting his great tenderness 
and delicacy of feeling. 

The intimate connexion of Philemon with 
Colossians has led some scholars to deny its 
genuineness, but neither by the frigid alle- 
gories suggested (e.g. ' What man loses in this 
world he regains for ever in Christianity '), nor 
by the theory that it is an ethical tract on 
slavery, has it been possible satisfactorily to 
explain the origin of the Epistle. For an 
account of such views see art. ' Philemon, 
Epistle to,' in ' Encyclopaedia Biblica.' 

4. Contents. 

i 1. Yv. 1-3. Greeting. 

II. Yv. 4-7. Epistolary thanksgiving (for 
Philemon's faith and love) and prayer (that 
these may be crowned with understanding" of 
the significance of God's gift to men). 

in. Yv. 8-21. Request for kind treatment 
to Onesimus. 

IV. Y. 22. Paul hopes to be set free and to 
visit Colossae. 

V. Yv. 23, 24. Salutations from friends, 
vi. V. 25. Farewell benediction. 

1. A prisoner of Christ Jesus] Paul thus 
describes himself because his bonds (which 
are to be here understood literally) have 
been incurred in the service of Christ : 
cp. v. 9 (and v. 23) and Eph3i 41. The 
usual claim to be an Apostle is here unneces- 
sary ; so Phil I 1 , in that Epistle of Paul 
which stands next to Philemon in its tender 
intimacy. 

Timothy] with Paul in Ephesus (Ac 1 9 22 ), 
and doubtless known to Philemon : cp. Phil 1 ' 
2 19 Coll 1 . Our brother] ' my fellow-Christ inn': 
cp. lCor5 n , also 2Corli Colli iTIi.r'. 
So v. 2, 'sister': cp. R0I6 1 . Beloved] as in 



the English epistolary ' My dear.' Here prob- 
ably with a certain emphasis: cp. 3 Jn v. 1. 

Fellowlabourer] RY • fellow-worker ' : i.e. 
in the gospel : cp. vv. 2, 24, Rol63 2Cor8 2 3 
Phil 2 25 , etc. 2. Fellowsoldier] i.e. of Christ: 
cp. Phil 2 25 and 2 Tim 2 3. The church in thy 
house] see on Rol65 1 Cor 16™ Col4i5 (Lao- 
dicea), Acl2 12 . A constituent part of the 
body mentioned in Col 1 2 . 3. Paul's usual 
greeting : see on Rol 7 . You] the whole 
group of vv. 1, 2 : cp. vv. 22, 25. Note 
vv. 4-23, 'thee,' 'thy,' 'thou,' referring to 
Philemon only. 

4. I thank my God . . always, etc.] the 
usual thanksgiving, congratulation, and prayer: 

Cp. Rol« f - Eph 13, 15-17 Phil 13-5,9 Coll3f.,9f., 

etc. ; and see on v. 20. For illustrations of this 
conventional element of a Greek letter, see J. 
R. Harris, ' A Study in Letter- writing,' ' Expo- 
sitor,' 5th series, vol. viii. 1898, pp. 161-167. 

5. Hearing-] introduces the special reasons 
for thanksgiving, viz. Philemon's love and 
faith. Of thy love and faith] RM ' of thy 
love, and of the faith ' is a better rendering. 
The faith is toward the Lord Jesus, the love 
toward all the saints. The order of clauses is 
inverted (as in Gal44 f -): C p. Gal5 6 Ephl 15 
Col 1 4 1 Th 1 3 3 6. Faith . . toward] the same 
as ' faith in.' 

6. That] introduces mention of that for 
which Paul prays (v. 4), viz. recognition by 
Philemon of the greatness of God's gift to 
men. The communication (RY ' fellowship ' ) 
of thy faith is perhaps best taken in the 
sense, ' the generous charity which has pro- 
ceeded from thy faith.' So in Phil 1 9 love is 
to culminate in knowledge ; and in the parallel 
to our v. in Col 1 9 - n , references to conduct and 
to knowledge are interwoven : cp. Col 3 10 . The 
word for fellowship (hoinonia) is used of a 
charitable contribution : cp. Ro 1 5 26 2 Cor 
8 4 9 13 Hebl3 16 . In 'the fellowship of thy 
faith ' both the love and the faith of v. 5 are 
included. The love is emphasised again in v. 7. 
Another possible rendering is, 'thy participa- 
tion (i.e. with us and all Christians) in our 
(Gk. 'the') faith': cp. v. 17. Effectual by 
the acknowledging (RY ' in the knowledge '), 
etc.] means, ' effectual in leading to the recog- 
nition on Philemon's part of all the blessings 
which Christians have.' ' In you ' (or, better, 
RM ' in us ') includes both ' already in your 
possession ' and ' within your reach.' What 
Paul has in mind is made clear by the parallel, 
Ephli8f. : cp> Eph3i8f., also Phill 9 '- Coll 9 . 
An understanding of how exalted is the privilege 
of salvation through Christ is the crown and 
culmination of faith, and involves a knowledge 
of the deeper mysteries of God. It is, more- 
over, essential to soundness of Christian life 
and to the Christian enthusiasm on which se- 
curity against temptation depends. In (RY 



1010 



PHILEMON 



25 



' unto ') Christ] loosely added, without exact 
indication of relation to the preceding, in order 
to point out that as the object of faith is 
Christ, so only through a relation to Christ 
is love active or knowledge possible, or ' every 
good thing,' which is the object of knowledge, 
to be valued. 7. For] introduces another state- 
ment of Paul's reason for thanking God (v. 4). 

Bowels . . are refreshed] RV ' Hearts . . have 
been refreshed'; i.e. through the charitable 
acts prompted by Philemon's ' love.' The 
1 heart ' (Gk. ' bowels ') is the seat of grief and 
despondency and of joy and courage : cp. v. 20. 

The Saints] means merely ' the Christians,' 
without regard to eminent attainments in 
character. 

8. Wherefore] In view of this evidence of 
faith and love Paul adopts a tone of request, 
not of command. All (Gk. 'much') boldness 
in Christ] means, ' abundant readiness to adopt 
freedom of speech, by reason of my own and 
of thy relation to Christ and so of our rela- 
tion to each other.' 9. For love's sake] or, 
' in the name of love.' Philemon's response 
is to be a matter of love, not of mere obedi- 
ence. Paul chooses to put the matter on the 
highest possible plane. Paul the aged] Paul 
may have been over sixty years old at this 
time. At the time of his conversion, about 
thirty years earlier, he is called a ' young 
man ' (Ac 7 58 ), a term applied to persons be- 
tween the ages of twenty-four and forty. 
"With this rendering these and the following 
words have a touch of pathos befitting the 
whole tone of the passage. If the rendering 
of EM ' an ambassador ' is preferred (cp. Eph 
6 20 ), the words would seem to imply an atti- 
tude of command. Also a prisoner of Christ 
Jesus] cp. v. 1. 10. My son] RV 'my child'; 
cp. 1 Cor 4 14, is, 17 Gal 4 i». Cp. Mishna, ' San- 
hedrim,' fol. 19, 2, 'If one teaches the son of 
his neighbour the law. the Scripture reckons 
this the same as though he had begotten him.' 

11. Unprofitable .. profitable] A play on 
the name Onesimus, which means ' helpful,' 
' profitable.' To me] valuable to Paul, as to 
Philemon, because of both his personal service 
(v. 13) and his Christian friendship. 12. I 
have sent] better, ' I send,' as the same tense 
is translated in vv. 19, 21, 'I write.' 13. In 
thy stead (RV ' behalf ')] Since Onesimus was 
Philemon's slave, his service to Paul was a 
gift from Philemon. ' In thy behalf ' does 
not mean ' in thy place.' . In the bonds of 
the gospel] ' in this imprisonment incurred 
through preaching the gospel': cp. vv. 1, 9, 23. 
14. Without thy mind] a common Greek 
expression for ' without thy consent.' As . . of 
necessity] Paul shrinks from saying out- 
right that if he had kept Onesimus that 



would have been extracting from Philemon 
an obligation which he would have resented 
or grudged. 

15. For] introduces a further consideration 
in favour of sending the slave back. He there- 
fore departed] RV ' was therefore parted from 
thee ' ; in the providence of God : cp. (so 
Chrysostom) Gn 45 5 > 8 . ' Therefore ' refers to 
the divine purpose, ' that thou shouldest have 
him for ever.' For ever] an eternal possession, 
not by legal bond, but by Christian friendship. 

16. Servant] 'slave.' In the flesh] ' in human 
relations': cp. Rol 3 Eph6 5 Col3 22 . This 
seems to imply that in the past Onesimus had 
had kindly treatment and friendship. These 
old associations should now, in his repentance, 
make him even more dear to Philemon than 
he can be to Paul. This is said in order to 
make bitterness toward the former ungrateful 
runaway an impossibility. In the Lord] 
' through your common relation to Christ.' 

17. A partner] one who shares : cp. 2 Cor8 23 . 
This partnership is further described in 1 Cor 
1 9 , ' partnership in common relation to His Son 
Jesus Christ ' ; 2 Cor 13 M , ' participation in the 
Holy Spirit ' ; Phil 2 1 Un 1 3, 7. 

19. I Paul have written it with mine own 
hand] This formal language is meant to sug- 
gest the phraseology of a legally binding note. 
' I Paul ' corresponds to the usual method of 
an ancient signature: cp. lCorl6 2 i Col4i 8 
2Th3 1 7. The whole letter was probably an 
autograph : see on Gal 6 n . 20. Let me have 
joy of thee] a somewhat common Greek expres- 
sion, especially with reference to children and 
friends. Here in the Lord marks the relation 
as a Christian one. So in Christ, v. 23. Re- 
fresh my bowels (RV ' heart ')] see on verse 7. 

21. Do more than I say] RV 'even beyond 
what I say.' This need not imply the actual 
releasing of Onesimus from slavery. 

22. A lodging] cp. Phil 1 2 5 2 24 for Paul's 
plan for a journey to the East. The ' lodging ' 
might be at Philemon's house or at an inn. 

Through your prayers] cp 2 Cor in. 

23. Epaphras, my fellow-prisoner] in Col 41° 
Aristarchus was Paul's fellow-prisoner. Ap- 
parently his friends took turns in sharing his im- 
prisonment and ministering to his needs. Epa- 
phras (Col 4 T2 ) was of Colossse, and had brought 
the gospel to that city (Coll 7 ). 24. Mark, 
Aristarchus, Demas, Luke] cp. Col 4 1( \i 4 . Jesus 
Justus, perhaps as not personally known to 
Philemon and his circle, is here passed over. 
For Mark, cp. also Acl2i 2 > 2 5 13 M 3 15 37 ' 39 
2 Tim 4 11 lPet5i 3 ; Aristarchus (of Thes- 
salonica), Acl9 29 20 4 27 2 ; Demas, Luke, 
2 Tim 41°, 11. My fellowlabourers] see on v. 1. 

25. Farewell benediction. C-\ Gal 6 is Phil 
4 23 ; also 2 Tim 4 22. 



1011 



HEBREWS 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Authorship. The Epistle to the Hebrews is 
an anonymous work. It is ascribed to St. Paul 
in our English Bibles — even in the Revised 
Version unfortunately ; but this is only in the 
title, which was not a part of the original 
autograph. All St. Paul's acknowledged Epi- 
stles have his name as part of the opening 
salutation according to the usual custom with 
ancient letters ; but that is not the case with 
this Epistle, which begins without any saluta- 
tion. Therefore, if we do not ascribe it to 
the Apostle that is not to charge the author 
with ' forgery,' nor in the milder modern 
phrase with ' pseudepigraphy.' There is no 
evidence that he ever intended to have St. 
Paul's name associated with it. The title in 
the oldest MSS is simply ' To the Hebrews.' 

How, then, does the Epistle come to bear 
St. Paul's name in our English Bibles ? The 
reason is that the fuller title is found in the 
later Gk. MSS, from some of which it passed 
into the Latin Bible, the Yulgate. We can 
easily understand how this came about. There 
was a tendency in the early Church to inscribe 
great names on anonymous works in order to 
further their currency. No greater name than 
that of the Apostle to the Gentiles could be 
found for this letter to the Hebrews, which 
might well be accounted worthy of no less a 
personage. And if it was to be brought 
within the circle of the chief inspired teachings 
of the apostolic age, this narrowed the pos- 
sibilities of authorship to a comparatively small 
group. Then, like St. Paul, the writer is 
emancipated from the Jewish Law ; he exalts 
Christ specifically as the ' Son of God,' St. 
Paul's most significant name for our Lord ; he 
elaborates the thought of the Atonement by 
the death of Christ ; he glorifies faith. On 
the other hand, his style and diction are quite 
unlike St. Paul's ; instead of the Apostle's 
simple, direct, rugged speech, we have here 
rhetorical phraseology in rounded periods. Of 
more importance is the theological attitude of 
the writer, which is very different from that 
of St. Paul. The Apostle combats legalism, 
but in the interest of justification — a legal 
condition ; our author is concerned with the 
Tabernacle ritual of the Old Testament, and 
his aim is to show (lie way of approach to God 
through purification, so that while St. Paul 
treats of the gospel in opposition to the Phari- 
sees and their casuistry, the unknown author 



of Hebrews is interested in its relation to the 
priests and their sacrifices. 

The authorship of this Epistle was much 
discussed in early ages ; but Origen, the most 
learned of the early teachers, concluded his ex- 
amination of the question with the words, ' Who 
wrote the Epistle God only knows.' About 
the same time another Church father, Ter- 
tullian, referred to it as ' the Epistle of Bar- 
nabas,' taking for granted that Barnabas was 
its author. It is a significant fact that this is 
the oldest positive and definite ascription of 
any name to it that has reached us ; and there 
is much in the character and position of Bar- 
nabas to agree with it. Others have suggested 
Apollos, Clement of Rome, St. Luke. The 
latest proposal is the brilliant suggestion of 
Harnack that the author was Priscilla. If it 
were written by a woman it might have been 
thought in that unenlightened age not wise to 
give her name. Priscilla was the chief teacher 
of Apollos, an Alexandrian, and there is evi- 
dence of Alexandrian influences in the con- 
tents of the Epistle. But the question cannot 
be definitely determined. 

2. Alexandrian Influences. This point is of 
great interest for our right understanding of 
the Epistle, as well as with regard to the pro- 
blem of its authorship. There can be no 
question that the author was more or less 
imbued with the literary and theological 
methods pursued by Jewish scholars at Alex- 
andria. Those methods included a highly 
allegorical treatment of the Old Testament, 
and it is quite Alexandrian for our author to 
regard the Levitical dispensation as a shadow 
of the spiritual realities that are to be found 
in the heavenly tabernacle and its ordinances. 
The very forms of introduction in which pas- 
sages from the Old Testament are quoted are 
precisely those used by Philo, the famous 
Alexandrian Jewish philosopher, but quite 
unlike the forms employed by St. Paul or any 
other New Testament writer. Elsewhere we 
meet with such expressions as, ' it is written,' 
' the Scripture says,' ' David says,' ' Moses 
says,' ' Isaiah says.' These expressions are 
never met with in Hebrews, where, as in 
Philo, no human authors are named — although 
in a single instance we have the periphrasis ' one 
hath somewhere testified ' (2 6 ) ; but the utter- 
ances cited are attributed immediately to God 
or the Holy Spirit, in such terms as, ' He saith ' 



1012 



INTRO. 



HEBREWS 



INTRO. 



(P), 'the Holy Ghost saith'(37). Further, 
there are certain phrases and images found 
nowhere else in the Bible which Hebrews 
shares with Alexandrian writers. Thus the 
rare form rendered ' at sundry times ' (1 x ), or, 
better, as in the Revised Version, ' in divers 
portions,' is also in the book of Wisdom (7 22 ) 
— an Alexandrian work. Then the peculiar 
expression ' effulgence,' applied to God's glory 
in Hebrews (1 3 ), is referred to Wisdom in the 
book of that name (Wisd 7 2(3 ), and it is quite 
a favourite word with Philo. Again, the 
word rendered 'substance' in the same v. of 
Hebrews is also found in Wisd 16 21 , prob- 
ably in the same sense, though here the read- 
ing, and therefore the rendering, is doubtful. 
Lastly, the rare expression for death rendered 
4 the issue of their life' in Hebrews (13 7 ) 
can be traced to Wisd 2 17 . But we are not 
left to depend on such comparisons of words 
and phrases. The * whole spirit and atmo- 
sphere of Hebrews is Alexandrian rather than 
Palestinian. 

3. Recipients and probable Date. Brushing 
aside less probable conjectures — as that the 
Alexandrianism of the Epistle implies that it 
was destined for Alexandria, a curious inver- 
sion of ideas — we have two contending theories 
of its destination — one pointing to a Palestinian 
Church, the other claiming Rome as the resid- 
ence of the recipients. We should expect an 
Epistle to Hebrews to go to the district where 
Hebrew (or, rather, Aramaic) speaking Jews 
lived, and the whole argument on the Levitical 
system would seem to indicate this region. 
Jerusalem could not be the place, because the 
readers were not the first gospel converts (2 3 ), 
and perhaps, too, because Jerusalem was a 
poor Church needing help from the more pros- 
perous Churches, whereas the Church here 
addressed is praised for its bountifulness 
(10 34 ). Csesarea and Antioch have been sug- 
gested as possible places for the Epistle to 
have been directed to. But there is a strong 
inclination to locate the Church addressed at 
Rome, where there was a large Jewish com- 
munity, and where Clement (95 a.d.) was 
familiar with it. Some think the sufferings 
referred to in 10 32 ' 35 were those of Nero's per- 
secution. Rome would be interested in a 
salutation from Italians ( 1 3 24 ). A more serious 
question is as to the nationality of the reci- 
pients. It has been denied that they were 
Jews, chiefly because their apostasy is described 
as departure from ' the living God ' — not 
merely from Christ. But the author might 
well think that to abandon the faith of Christ 
was for Christians to give up everything — 
God and all. On the other hand, the minute 
discussion of the tabernacle ritual points most 
probably to Jews. The date cannot be fixed 
with certainty. But since the writer, while 



arguing for the temporary character of the 
Levitical system, makes no reference to the 
destruction of Jerusalem — the vast cataclysm 
in which that system was swept away — it is to 
be inferred that an event which would so im- 
mensely have strengthened his position if he 
had appealed to it could not have happened 
before he was writing. Perhaps we may 
assign the Epistle to about 68 a.d., when 
Jewish zealots would be urging all men of 
Hebrew blood to make common cause with 
the defenders of the ancient faith against the 
Roman enemy. 

4. Aim and Object. It must be clear to 
every careful reader that this Epistle was 
written with one definite end in view. There 
is a unity in its composition that we do not 
recognise in any other NT. book. The author 
makes straight for his goal from start to finish. 
Even the exhortations that are so characteristic 
of the work, while they break the thread of 
the argument, are not digressions from the 
main object, but rather direct means for 
attaining it. They are applications of each 
stage of the discussion to the one great aim 
that is kept steadily in view throughout. It 
is in these exhortations that we see most 
clearly what that cim is. The Christians 
addressed are evidently in danger of falling 
away from their faith and apostatising alto- 
gether. So desperate does their condition 
appear to the author, that he feels it necessary 
to expostulate in the gravest terms. It is no 
fascination of the world luring them away 
from their original consecration that occasions 
this danger. The Hebrews are discouraged to 
almost the extent of despair, because they do 
not see how the gospel can offer them any- 
thing like compensation for what they have 
lost in being cast out of the synagogue on 
account of their confession of the Nazarene. 
This is the condition that the Epistle has to 
face. The method of meeting it is to boldly 
challenge the vaunted, venerable Judaism in 
its very citadel, the Levitical Law. The author 
institutes a comparison between Christianity 
and Judaism, or rather between Christ and 
the chief personages of Judaism — for with 
him ' Christianity is Christ ' — in order to show 
that Christ is their superior in their very 
points of excellency, and that the gospel gives 
us the very things that the Law professed to 
give, but much more effectually. It has all 
that Judaism had ; and it has this in a higher 
form, in a larger measure ; nay, it alone really 
has this, for Judaism failed — Judaism could 
not do what it was relied upon to accomplish. 
The reason for this failure was that it had no 
substance. It was only the earthly shadow of 
those heavenly realities that Jesus Christ came 
to establish and bring within our reach. This 
position being proved all along the line, point 



1013 



INTRO. 



HEBREWS 



INTRO. 



by point, the conclusion is that it would be 
fatal folly to return from Christ to Judaism, 
and thus the readers are urged to be loyal to the 
New Covenant with its paramount privileges. 
5. Theology. The author assumes the 
Jewish faith in God, but advances to the 
richer Christian ideas of the divine nature. 
The holiness of God is profoundly felt as the 
reason for a more effective cleansing before 
approaching Him than Judaism provided, and 
the gravity of apostasy is emphasised by the 
thought that we dare not trifle with God's 
demands, since He is a ' consuming fire ' (12 29 ). 
On the other hand, it is also taken for granted 
that to come near to God is the one thing to 
be supremely sought after in religion (4 16 ). 
The Epistle reaches a climax in showing how 
this may be done through Christ as it could 
not be done by means of the Levitical system 
(1019-22). Then the Fatherhood of God is 
expounded with a fulness and emphasis that 
we meet with nowhere else except in the 
teachings of Jesus Christ (12 5 " 10 ). There is a 
very lofty conception of our Lord as specifically 
' the Son ' who as such is higher than all other 
beings, angels as well as men, and also ex- 
presses to us the character and the very being 
of God (1 2 > 3 ). Nevertheless the Incarnation 
was a reality, and our Epistle uses language of 
remarkable strength and clearness concerning 
the human experience of Christ (5 17 - 8 ). In 
His work He is chiefly regarded as the High 
Priest of the Heavenly Tabernacle (3 1 ). He- 
brews is the only New Testament book that gives 
us a distinct conception of the priesthood of 
Christ. This is exercised after His Resurrection 
and Ascension. His sacrifice on the Cross is 
actually presented to God in heaven. To our 
author the whole present interest in Christ is 
in that later sphere of His heavenly life — in 
what He is now as our priest and intercessor, 
though that rests on what He was on earth in 
His obedience and sacrifice. The death of 
Christ is the one sacrifice for sin (9 12 ). This 
is not discussed under the figure of acquittal 
in a court of law, after the manner of St. Paul ; 
it is treated with reference to the tabernacle 
worshipper who knows himself to be unfit to 
enter the presence of God owing to defilement 
(9 19 ). Christ's sacrifice removes this defilement 
(10 22 ). The sacrifice oonsists in His offering 
Himself to God in death by ' the Eternal 
Spirit' (9 14 ), i.e. apparently, in virtue of His 
divine spiritual nature, which being eternal 
confers eternal efficacy. The essence of the 
sacrifice consists in the attitude of Christ's will, 
namely in His delighting to obey God's will, 
even to the extent of dying when the course 
of obedience involves that extremity. It is 
not too much to say that we have the clearest 
New Testament exposition of the very heart 
and essence of the Atonement in the statement 



of this truth (10 8 -!°). Lastly, His great act of 
obedience in death was offered as the deed, not 
of a man, but of the leader and high priest of 
men, whereby He enables us to participate with 
Himself in doing the will of God, in which 
will our sanctification stands. Still, this is 
only to be enjoyed on condition of trust and 
fidelity ; and the counterpart to Christ's 
sacrifice is His people's faith, the triumphs of 
which are celebrated as a conclusion of the 
whole argument (c. 11). Thus the New Cove- 
nant predicted by Jeremiah is established by 
Christ. 

6. Analysis of the Epistle. 

I 1 - 3 . The two Methods of Eevelation 

CONTRASTED 

Judaism rested on the OT. as its authority ; 
Christianity rests on the revelation in Christ. 
The earlier revelation was fragmentary, and 
limited by the limited human nature of the 
prophets through whom it came ; the later 
revelation is a unity coming through that one 
Person in whom Sonship to God has been 
perfected, and who therefore most adequately 
represents the divine nature. 

l 4 -4 13 . The Supremacy of Christ 
The OT. itself testifies to His supremacy as 
God's Son over its chief personages — first, the 
angels, through whom the Jews believed that 
creation had been effected and the law given 
(l 4 -2 4 ); nevertheless Jesus, though thus 
really superior to the angels by nature, is 
temporarily in a lower state that He may 
learn sympathy with us, taking our nature 
upon Him in order to become our adequate 
High Priest (2 5 * 18 ). Jesus is also superior 
to Moses, the founder of the national religion, 
yet only a servant, while He is the Son (3 i" 6 ) ; 
Christ has a rest to give which we are warned 
not to miss by unfaithfulness as Israel missed 
its rest by provoking God in the wilderness 
(3 7 -4 7 ). This promised rest which Joshua, the 
Jesus of the OT., could not give remains for 
another to confer. We therefore must labour 
to enter into it, considering how penetrating is 
God's word which promises the rest but also 
threatens punishment for unfaithfulness (4 8 ' 13 ). 
Again turning to the high-priesthood of Christ, 
who is Jesus the Saviour indeed, the author 
prepares for his full discussion of it by a 
reference to the privilege it confers on us 

(414-1G). 

5_7 4-io. the High Priesthood of Christ 
The introduction of the High Priest ends 
the historical survey which had been brought 
down from the creation, through Moses and 
then Joshua. At this point the argument 
resolves itself into a discussion of Christ's 
priesthood in comparison with the Levitical 
priesthood, which is developed as the dominant 



1014 



INTRO. 



HEBREWS 



INTRO. 



theme of the Epistle. First we have Christ's 
resemblance to Aaron briefly stated, so as to 
show that He is at least as true a priest. 
Christ fulfilled the two requisite conditions 
that were seen in the case of Aaron — human 
brotherhood, essential to the representative 
character of priesthood (5 1-3 ), and divine 
appointment, essential to its authority (5 4 > 5 ). 
A quotation from Ps 1 10 referred to as proof of 
God's appointment of Christ to the priesthood 
introduces the name of Melchizedek (5 6 ). 
This starts a fruitful line of suggestions. In 
His humanity Jesus suffered grievously, but, 
by teaching Him obedience, that awful suffer- 
ing perfected Him as a priest ' after the order 
of Melchizedek,' so that He became the author 
of eternal salvation to those who obey Him 
(5 7_1 °). Realising that his discussion is becom- 
ing difficult, the author breaks off to deplore 
the dulness of his readers and their infantile 
backwardness. They can only take milk ; they 
are not yet fit for strong men's meat (5 11-14 ). 
But he feels that not to advance is to be in 
danger of going back, and therefore while 
encouraging diligent progress he points out 
the dreadful condition to which apostasy 
reduces men (6 1 ' 12 ), over against which he sets 
the encouragement of God's promise to Abra- 
ham, confirmed by oath (6 13-20 ). This brings 
us back to Melchizedek, who is now more 
minutely studied as he appears in the Genesis 
narrative. In his high titles and his uniqueness 
of kingly priesthood, independent of priestly 
descent as in the case of the Levitical priest- 
hood, he is like Christ (7 1 " 3 ). He must be 
reckoned greater than the Levitical priests 
because he took tithes — the priests' privilege 
under the Law — from no less a personage than 
their ancestor Abraham. The conclusion to 
which all this points is that since Melchizedek 
is so superior to the Levitical priests, Christ, 
who is of the order of Melchizedek, must also 
be superior in His high-priesthood (7 4 - 10 ). 

711-813. The New Covenant 

The argument now takes a further step 
forward. Since God promised a new priesthood 
(in Ps 100), this must supersede and abolish 
the old priesthood, which had failed through 
not effecting its purpose, which was to secure 
perfection ; but that implies that the con- 
ditions of the old covenant, from which the 
Levitical priesthood derived its authority, 
are also annulled, and that conditions of a 
new covenant are introduced to take its place, 
with Jesus as its surety. This covenant and 
its priesthood will never in its turn be super- 
seded by yet another ; because the eternity of 
the priest, indicated by PsllO 4 , secured the 
eternity of the covenant, rich privileges on 
which the author enthusiastically enlarges 
(7H-28). 



It is under the new covenant that Jesus 
appears as a priest, for He could claim no 
priesthood under the old law. This covenant 
is superior to and supersedes that of the 
Levitical system, because it concerns priest- 
hood in the heavenly tabernacle, which was 
the pattern for the merely earthly tabernacle 
that Moses saw on the Mount (8i- 7 ). It 
is confirmed by Jeremiah's great prophecy 
(88-13). 

9 i_io 39. The Sacrifice of Christ 

We now approach the very heart of the 
Epistle and its most profound teachings. 
Under the first covenant there was a variety of 
Temple furniture and an elaborate ceremo- 
nial, with a continual series of sacrifices. 
This reached a climax in the annual visit of 
the high priest to the inner chamber of the 
tabernacle with sacrificial blood. The very 
ceremony of reconciliation signified God's 
separation from the people. All these cere- 
monies were unable to make the worshipper 
' perfect,' i.e. like a fully initiated person fit 
to participate in the mysteries (9 1 "! ). But 
now, what those mere animal sacrifices, so 
often repeated, could never effect, Jesus ac- 
complished when He entered the heavenly 
tabernacle with His own blood, i.e. when He 
presented Himself in the presence of God 
after His crucifixion. A covenant is designated 
in the Bible by a Gk. word (diatheke) which 
in the classics means a ' will.' Now, a will 
only comes into effect through the death of 
the testator. Similarly, the new covenant is 
like Christ's will; its validity is due to His 
death. This death being by voluntary sur- 
render of His life, as a free act of His spirit, 
is of real value in the sight of God (9 n- 22 ). 
It is enough for such a sacrifice to be offered 
once for all (9 23 ' 28 ). Thus over against the 
failure of the old, proved by the necessity of 
repetition, is the success of the new. This is 
illustrated by a passage from Ps 40, which 
shows us that the essence of sacrifice is obedi- 
ence to the will of God (10 i" 18 ). On the 
ground of the cleansing thus accomplished 
by Christ follow exhortations (10 19-25 ), admoni- 
tions (10 26 - 3 i), and encouragements (10 32 " 39 ). 

C. 11. The Achievements of Faith 

These are illustrated from the annals of 
Israel, beginning with the patriarchs and 
coming down to the martyrs. 

The recital is introduced by a description of 
faith as giving assurance for hope and proving 
the reality of the unseen, and so accounting for 
the success of the ancients of Israel (vv. 1, 2). 
It enables us to see the divine source of crea- 
tion (v. 3). Abel, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Sara, 
all succeeded through faith (vv. 4-12). The 
reason was their pilgrim attitude in seeking for 



1015 



INTRO. 



HEBREWS 



1. 5 



a better country (vv. 13-16). Resuming the 
survey we see faith in Abraham offering Isaac, 
in Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and the conduct of the 
exodus ; in the fall of Jericho, and the con- 
duct of Ranab ; in the heroism of the judges, 
and the endurance of the martyrs (vv. 17-40). 



12i-end. 



Further Encouragement 
and Warnings 



The heroes of faith are witnesses of our 
race, the thought of whom should stimulate us, 
while we look to our leader, Jesus, for the 
beginning and ending of our faith (12 1 ~ s ). 

Suffering should be borne patiently, since 



it is God's fatherly discipline. If we did not 
have it this would be a sign that we were not 
true sons (12 4 " 13 ); care must be taken not to 
fall like Esau (12 14_17 ); our greater privileges 
entail greater responsibilities than those of the 
Israelites at Sinai (12 18-28). Therefore, brotherly 
love and pure living should be cultivated 
(13 i- 6 ); respect for the rulers of the Church 
is enjoined, and courage to break away from 
even the dearest ties for Christ's sake and in 
union with Him (13 7 - 17 ). Final exhorta- 
tions, benedictions, and salutations bring the 
Epistle — which did not open as such — to the 
usual conclusion of a letter. 



CHAPTERS 1-413 

The Supremacy of Christ. The OT. itself 
testifies to His supremacy as God's Son over 
its own chief personages : (a) first the angels, 
through whom the Jews believed that creation 
had been effected and the Law given (14-2 18 ). 

He is also superior (b) to Moses, the founder 
of the national religion, yet only a servant, 
whereas He is a Son (3 1 " 6 ). He is superior 
(c) to Joshua. He has rest to give, which 
Christians are warned not to miss by unfaith- 
fulness, as Israel missed the rest of Canaan, 
which was a type of the true rest of Christ's 
kingdom, and which they lost by provoking 
God in the wilderness. For there is no escape 
from God's judgments (3 7 -4 13 ). 

CHAPTER 1 

The Final Revelation in the Son 
1-4. Introduction. God of old revealed 
Himself to the fathers of the race, but the 
revelation was not complete or final. In our 
own day He has given a direct revelation in 
the person of His own Son, the Lord and 
Creator of the universe, the perfect expression 
of the divine nature, who after His temporary 
humiliation upon earth, now occupies the 
highest place in the heavenly courts. 

1. At sundry times and in divers manners] 
RV ' by divers portions and in divers manners.' 
The first clause refers to the fragmentariness 
of the previous revelation at any one time ; it 
was given bit by bit ; the second to the various 
forms in which it was conveyed, such as com- 
mandment, prophecy, ceremonial, etc. By the 
prophets] R V ' in the prophets,' a general term 
including the whole of the OT. 2. In these 
last days] RV ' At the end of these da vs.' 
The phrase that in OT. commonly indicates 
the Messianic, age, is here varied so as to 
imply that t 1m: gospel times were the transition 
to that age. By his son] lit. 'in a Son' ; i.e. 
in One who is by nature a Son: cp. 3 6 5 8 
7 28 . Heir of all things] cp. 2 8 . The lordship 
of Christ over the universe was determined 

101 



'before all worlds,' and though it is not yet 
fully realised (2 8f -), His session now at the 
right hand of God is the pledge of its ultimate 
realisation. Made the worlds] lit. ' the ages,' 
but not to be distinguished from ' all things ' : 
cp. Coll 16 . The expression, however, im- 
plies the idea of an historical manifestation of 
the creative energy. 

3. Brightness] RV effulgence.' A favourite 
word in the language of philosophical schools 
of Alexandria: cp. Wisd7 25f . It contains 
the double notion of derivation and manifesta- 
tion. 

Express image of his person] RV 'very 
image of His substance.' The word rendered 
' image ' is the Gk. word ' character,' meaning 
an impression such as a seal leaves on wax, an 
exact reproduction of the original. The word 
' substance ' implies nothing material, but is 
nearly equivalent to ' nature ' or ' essence.' 
Christ is the exact reproduction of the Divine 
Essence. He is the counterpart or facsimile 
of the Father. Being . . upholding] Both par- 
ticiples seem most properly to refer to the 
pre-incarnate life of the Son. On the right 
hand] the place of dignity and authority : cp. 
8 1 Mt28 18 . The 'sitting' indicates the com- 
pletion of the earthly course of the redemptive 
work. The solemnity of the introductory 
paragraph is heightened by the use of the 
phrase ' the Majesty on high.' 4. Being made] 
RV 'having become,' i.e. by His exaltation. 

Better] a characteristic word of the whole 
Epistle, which is designed to show the supe- 
riority in all points of the new dispensation to 
the old. Cp. a ' better hope,' 7 19 ; ' better 
covenant,' ' better ministry,' ' better promises,' 
8 " ; ' better tabernacle,' 9 n ; ' better sacrifices,' 
9 23 ; 'better possession,' 10 34 ; 'better country,' 
II 1 "; 'better resurrection,' ll 35 ; 'better 
thing,' ll*o ; ' better things,' 1224. 

5-14. Christ is superior to the angels. They 
are not addressed by God as ' sons,' but are 
expressly commanded to worship the Son. The 
angels are servants doing the will of God in 
the lower sphere of the material world, and 
6 



1. 5 



HEBREWS 



2. 10 



ministering to those who shall inherit salvation. 
And their power and dignity are not, as His, 
changeless and eternal. 

5. Unto which of the angels] Angels are 
sometimes in the OT. called ' sons of Elohim,' 
e.g. in Job 1 6 , i.e. belonging to the class ' Elo- 
him ' : cp. ' sons of the prophets,' i.e. members 
of the prophetical class. ' Elohim,' at first a 
plural, meaning spiritual beings, was used as 
a singular to signify the one God. As used of 
the angels, the term does not imply sonship in 
the unique sense in which it is used of Christ. 
The first citation is from Ps 2 7 , commonly in- 
terpreted as Messianic, and accepted as such 
by the writer and his readers. The second is 
from 2S7 14 and Ps89 26 . God's promise to 
the line of Davidic kings is here applied to 
Messiah, as Son of David. 

6. RY ' When he again bringeth in ' ; or, 
rather, ' shall have brought in.' The position 
of the adverb again indicates that it is to be 
connected with the verb, and is not a rhetorical 
particle introducing a new quotation. The 
reference is to a future event, evidently the 
Second Advent. 7. From Psl04 4 , according 
to LXX. The angels are not sons but servants, 
' doing His pleasure ' in the material world. 

8. From Ps 45 6 > 7 , here interpreted Messianic- 
ally. The dominion of Christ, unlike that of 
the angels, is eternal. The Son is addressed 
as ' God,' but there is some difficulty in regard 
to the exact reading of the first clause in the 
original. Some propose to read, ' Thy throne 
is God for ever and ever.' But this is harsh, 
and in any case the writer means to assert the 
unity of the Son with God. 

9. Anointed] i.e. set in royal dignity. Thy 
fellows] The angels are meant here. As 'sons 
of Elohim ' (see on v. 5), they consort with 
the Son. though immeasurably inferior to Him. 

10-12. From Psl02 25f . The Son is the 
Creator of the world (cp. v. 2), and is above 
all change and decay. The reference to the 
material world here is perhaps facilitated by 
the close connexion of the angels with material 
phenomena (see v. 7), and by the statement in 
v. 2 that the worlds were created by the Son. 

13, 14. The climax of the argument in vv. 
4-12, and the scriptural corroboration of the 
statement in v. 3 f . that Christ is Lord of all, 
and shares the dignity of the throne of God. 

Ministering spirits] The angels do not rule ; 
they only ' stand and wait.' They are the 
servants of God and of Christ, and that for 
the sake of all in OT. or NT. times who were 
to be heirs of salvation. The Son is the Author 
of the salvation to which Christians are des- 
tined ; the angels are His agents and ministers. 

CHAPTER 2 

Jesus Exalted in Humiliation 
1-4. The former dispensation, even though 



mediated by comparatively inferior beings such 
as the angels, was yet so sacred that all neglect 
of it was severely punished. This being so, a 
far more terrible fate must now be theirs who 
neglect the revelation brought by the Son of 
God Himself, delivered to us by eye-witnesses, 
and authenticated by miracles and gifts of the 
Holy Ghost. 

1. Let them slip] RY ' drift away from them,' 
as a ship from its moorings. This was what 
the readers were in danger of doing : see 
Intro. 'Aim and Object.' 2. Spoken by angels] 
RY ' through angels.' Angels were the media- 
tors of the Law : see Dt33 2 Ac 7 ™ Gal3 19 . 

Was stedfast] RY ' proved stedfast,' i.e. was 
authoritative while it lasted. 4. Gifts] RM 
' distributions.' The word implies variety of 
spiritual endowments: cp. 1 Corl2 4 - n Rol2 6 
Eph47. 

5-18. It is no objection to the supremacy 
of Christ to say that by assuming human nature 
He became therefore lower than the angels. 
His humiliation was temporary, and undergone 
for purposes of redemption, His sufferings and 
death constituting Him an adequate High 
Priest through His oneness with humanity. 
And it is man (not angels) who is lord of the 
world to come. The lordship of humanity is 
not yet indeed realised, but the exaltation of 
Christ is the pledge of it. 

5. RY 'not unto angels did he subject.' 
The position of the negative is emphatic. 

The world to come, whereof we speak] i.e. 
the new dispensation, which is the theme of 
our Epistle. In the world to come the rule 
of the angels is ended. 6. The quotation is 
from Ps8 4 " 6 . 7. A little lower] This is the 
meaning of the Heb., but the rendering k for 
a little lower ' (RM) seems to be required for 
the argument. Man's inferiority to the angels 
is only temporary. 8. He left nothing] no- 
thing will be left for angels to rule over. 

9. Jesus . . made a little lower than the 
angels] The words imply the doctrine of the 
Incarnation of One who was essentially and 
previously higher than the angels. For the 
suffering of death] RY ' because of.' The 
clause is to be connected with what follows. 
The exaltation seems to be regarded here as 
the consequence or reward of the humiliation. 
Cp. Phil2 6 - n , and especially v. 9, 'wherefore 
God highly exalted him' : see on 12 2 . Taste 
death] i.e. experience its full bitterness : see 
on 6 4 . 

10. It became him (sc. God)] i.e. it was in 
accordance with His gracious nature : cp. v. 0, 
'by the grace of God.' Captain of their sal- 
vation] lit. ' leader,' i.e. not only originator, 
but the sharer of their lot, leading the way to 
glory. Make . . perfect] a characteristic word 
of the Epistle. In the new dispensation 
everything is perfect. The word means, to 



1017 



% 11 



HEBREWS 



3. 16 



bring to its destined or appropriate consum- 
mation. Here the thought is, that by sharing 
the sufferings of humanity Christ was enabled 
to effect a perfect salvation for the sons of 
God, and attain that supremacy which is right- 
fully His: cp. I 3 29. ii. Of one] i.e. God. 
Christ and Christians, the Captain and the 
host whom He leads to glory, are all sons of 
the one Father — He by nature, they by grace. 
Hence he calls them brethren. 

14. Destroy] RV 'bring to nought,' i.e. 
render powerless. Death and the devil still 
exist, but their power is broken. The power 
of death] Death being the direct consequence 
of sin (Ro5 12 6 23 ), the devil may be said to 
have the power of death in so far as he tempts 
men to sin, and so keeps sharp the sting of 
death (lCorl5 56 ). 16. RV 'not of angels 
doth he take hold.' The word does not mean 
(as in AY) to assume the nature of, but 
to put out a hand in order to support or 
help. ' Christ took in hand to save not angels 
but you, my Hebrew brethren ' (Bruce). The 
seed of Abraham are the Hebrew race, the 
representative or priestly race, through which 
Jesus came to redeem mankind : cp. Ro 9 5 . 
The writer believes, at the same time, that 
Christ tasted death ' for every man ' (v. 5). 

17. In all things] i.e. in participation of 
flesh and blood and experience of death. 

That he might be] Gk. ' might become.' 
Christ became High Priest when He offered 
His sacrifice, which He did by His death on 
the Cross: cp. 9 24 > 25 . Merciful] cp. 5 2 . Re- 
conciliation] R V ' propitiation ' : cp. 5 3 . To 
' purge sins ' and to ' make propitiation for 
sins' describe the same act from different 
points of view. In the former case what is in 
view is the removal of uncleanness ; in the 
latter, of the alienation from God caused by 
sin. 

18. RM 'having been himself tempted in 
that wherein he hath suffered.' This is the 
simplest rendering of a difficult passage. 
Christ's temptations arose out of His sufferings 
(not conversely, as AV seems to suggest) ; 
hence He is able to succour the Hebrews who 
are tempted by their hardships : see 12 3f . As 
High Priest Christ, therefore, not only effects 
reconciliation between God and man, but 
brings men safe through all hardships to the 
inheritance appointed for them. Cp. for the 
same combination of propitiation and succour, 
Ps799. 

CHAPTER 3 
Jesus Christ, Lord of the Household 

of God 

(b) Christ is superior also to Moses ; for He 
is Son over the house of God, whereas Moses 
was only b servant in it. 

1. Wherefore] A new section begins here, 



in which argument and exhortation are blended. 
The connexion with the preceding is not 
quite plain. It may lie in the fact that Christ 
has been described (2 10 ) as a Leader of salva- 
tion, conducting God's children to glory, 
suggesting a similar function performed by 
Moses, the Leader of God's people to the rest 
of Canaan. Christ is the Apostle and High 
Priest of the new profession, as Moses was of 
the old. But all those who set out under the 
leadership of Moses did not enter into the 
promised rest. Hence the warning against 
unbelief and falling away from the living God 
(v. 12 : cp. 2 !- 3 ). Holy brethren] They are con- 
secrated to God, as Israel was : cp. Exl9 6 ; 
and see on 2 n . The heavenly calling] RV ' a 
heavenly calling,' as distinguished from the 
calling of Israel to an earthly Canaan. Apostle 
and High Priest] Christ is both the messenger 
(cp. 1 2 ) or representative of God to man, and 
the representative of man before God. 

2. In all his house] i.e. God's house : see 
Nul2 7 . Christ and Moses both set an exam- 
ple of faithfulness, which the Hebrews will do 
well to copy ; but Christ's sphere is higher 
than that of Moses, for while Moses was a 
servant in the house, Christ, as Son of God, 
made the house : cp. 1 2 . 5. For a testimony] 
i.e. to bear testimony to the revelation after- 
wards made in the Law : cp. 1 *. 6. If we 
hold fast] Transition to the warning in v. 
7-4 13 . The condition of remaining in the 
house of God is steadfast faith. 7. Wherefore] 
In AV the long quotation from Ps95 is treated 
as a parenthesis, and ' Wherefore ' is connected 
with ' Take heed' in v. 12. This is probably 
correct, but owing to the length of the paren- 
thesis, the connexion becomes broken and a 
new sentence begins at v. 12. The Holy 
Ghost saith] cp. 10 « Ac 1 16 2 Pet 1 21. 8. Pro- 
vocation and temptation are translations of 
the Heb. proper names, Massah and Meribah. 
For the instances of unbelief and apostasy 
connected with these places see Exl7 1-7 Nu 
20; 1 - 18 Dt338. 9. Proved me] RV ' by proving 
me,' i.e. by presumptuously putting to the 
proof. Saw my works] ' my works of judg- 
ment following on their unbelief,' or, more 
probably, ' in spite of their experience of my 
works of deliverance and mercy.' 

13. Deceitfulness of sin] The sin in view is 
unbelief culminating in apostasy, for which 
no doubt many specious reasons were forth- 
coming. 15. While it is said] This is best 
taken in connexion with the preceding v. to 
mean ' in view of the saying,' ' seeing we have 
received this warning.' 

16. RV rightly takes this v., like the two 
following, interrogatively. 'For who, when 
they heard, did provoke ? Nay, did not all 
they that came out of Egypt by Moses ? And 
with whom was he displeased forty years ? 



1018 



4. 1 



HEBREWS 



5.2 



Was it not with them that sinned . . ? And 
to whom sware he . . but to them that were 
disobedient ? ' Israel's apostasy was universal 
in spite of the fact that they had heard the 
words and seen the works of the Lord, and 
had such a leader as Moses. The inference 
is the same as in 2 1 " 3 . 

CHAPTER 4 
Jesus Christ, Giver of the Promised 

Rest, and High Priest to bring Men 

to God 

1-13. Israel through unbelief failed to 
enter into the promised rest. The rest, there- 
fore, remains open and a promise of entrance 
is made to us. Let us not make the same mis- 
take and fail to enter in because of unbelief. 
For by no possibility can the most secret un- 
belief escape the searching eye of the living 
God. 

1. Being left] God's promise of rest cannot 
fail. Israel having failed to enter into it, the 
promise remains unfulfilled, and therefore it 
is open for us to enter in, if we keep the 
faith. Should seem] either a milder form of 
expression, or, as the words may be rendered, 
' should be found to have come short,' when 
the time comes. The latter is the more 
forcible interpretation. 

2. The gospel] RV 'Good tidings,' i.e. a 
promise of the rest of God. Not being mixed 
with faith] RY adopts AVmg. ' because they 
were not united by faith with them that 
heard,' which is the rendering of a well-attested 
various reading. This makes a distinction be- 
tween 'those who heard' (i.e. believed and 
obeyed), who must be Joshua and Caleb, and 
those who believed not. But in 3 16 it is 
assumed that all believed not. The rendering 
of AY gives good sense. Faith is the means 
whereby the word that is heard is vitally 

I appropriated and realised in action. 3. The 
promise of rest applies to us who are Chris- 
tians, seeing that those to whom the promise 

i was made failed to attain to it. And their 
failure was not due to the fact that the rest 

, was not prepared, because it existed since the 

' day that God finished His work of creation. 
This is proved by the words ' and God rested ' 
in one place, and the words 'my rest' in 
another. God's rest is therefore a fact, and 
it is clearly His purpose that some shall enter 

1 into it. 

7. After so long a time] i.e. the time between 
Moses and David. In David's time the rest 
continued open, and therefore it is concluded 
that it is open still. 8. Jesus] RY, rightly, 
'Joshua.' The Gk. for both names is the 
same. If the entry into Canaan under Joshua 
bad been the fulfilment of the divine promise 
of rest, there would have been no mention 
later in the Psalm of a rest still 



i centuries 

( 



remaining ; hence, ' there remaineth a rest for 
the people of God.' 9. A rest] RY ' a sabbath 
rest.' The rest that remaineth is also of a 
different character from the rest of Canaan. 
It is God's rest, a holy and eternal satisfac- 
tion. 10. His rest] i.e. God's rest. 12. Quick, 
and powerful] RY ' living, and active.' It 
does not die when uttered, but continues vital 
and operative, and, like a sharp sword, pene- 
trates to the inmost recesses of the heart and 
life. A discerner] RY ' quick to discern,' lit. 
' critical,' i.e. able to judge. 

14-16. A summary of what has been said, 
forming a transition to the treatment of Christ's 
supremacy as High Priest, which takes up the 
main body of the Epistle. 

14. Seeing then] The connexion is with 2 17 
3 1 . Into the heavens] RY 'through the heavens.' 
In Jewish theology there were several heavens : 
cp. 2 Cor 12 2 . Jesus has passed through all the 
outer courts into the Holy of Holies : cp. 9 24 . 
He occupies the highest place in heaven (1 3 ). 

15. However highly Christ is exalted He 
sympathises with us, having experienced the 
trials and temptations of humanity. This 
combination in Him of suffering and sinless- 
ness is the ground of our confidence in Him : 
cp. 7 26 . Yet without sin] i.e. His trials and 
temptations never resulted in sin. 16. Come 
boldly] RY 'draw near.' This privilege of 
access is one of many points of superiority in 
the new dispensation as compared with the 
old: cp. 1019-22 1218-24 Eph2i3,i8. 

CHAPTER 5 
Human Brotherhood and Divine 
Appointment 
The High Priesthood of Christ. The argu- 
ment now resolves itself into a discussion of 
Christ's priesthood in comparison with the 
Levitical priesthood, which is developed as the 
dominant theme of the Epistle. Christ's quali- 
fications as our High Priest are noted. First, 
we have His resemblance to Aaron briefly 
stated so as to show that He was at least as 
true a priest. Christ fulfilled the two requisite 
conditions that were seen in the case of Aaron, 
viz. human brotherhood, essential to the repre- 
sentative character of priesthood (vv. 1-3), and 
divine appointment, essential to its authority, 
as evidenced by Ps 110 (vv. 4-6). In His 
humanity, too, Jesus suffered grievously, but 
by teaching Him obedience that awful suffer- 
ing perfected Him as a priest, so that He 
became the author of eternal salvation to 
those who obey Him (vv. 7-10). 

1-3. First qualification — human brotherhood. 

1. Gifts and sacrifices] The former are the 
vegetable, the latter the animal, sacrifices. 
Together they describe all kinds of offer- 
ings. 2. Have compassion] RY ' bear gently.' 
The word means to be moderate in the passions, 



1019 



5.3 



HEBREWS 



6.6 



to have well-balanced emotions. Ignorant . . 
out of the way] RV ' ignorant and erring.' 
For high-handed sins against the covenant no 
atonement was provided in the Law : see Lv 
5 14f - Nul5 30 , and see on 10 26 . 3. See Lv 
1G 6 ' 11 . In this respect Christ might not seem 
to resemble the Levitical priest. Yet as He 
took our sin upon Him, there is a sense in 
which He offered sacrifice for Himself with us. 

4-6. The second qualification — divine ap- 
pointment. 6. This is developed in c. 7 : see 
notes there. 

7-10. The way in which Christ was per- 
fected as a priest, the way of suffering and 
obedience. 

7. Days of his flesh] The expression denotes, 
of course, His earthly life, but with the implied 
suggestion of humiliation and weakness. 

Prayers and supplications] The reference is 
clearly to the Agony in G-ethsemane. To save 
him from death] lit. ' out of death.' If Jesus 
prayed to be saved from death, it could not be 
said that His petition was granted. He prayed 
to be saved ' out of death,' and the answer to 
His prayer consisted in His victory over death — 
His resurrection. In that he feared] RV ' for 
his godly fear,' lit. ' from His fear.' The state- 
ment that Christ ' was heard from His fear ' is 
taken by some as a pregnant construction 
equivalent to ' was heard and delivered from 
His fear (of death).' But this sense of the 
word rendered ' fear ' is unusual ; it means 
reverence or piety ; and if the interpretation 
of the prayer given above is accepted, Christ 
showed His godly fear in His submission, ex- 
pressed in the words, k Not My will, but Thine 
be done.' 8. Learned he obedience] The phrase 
does not imply any previous unwillingness to 
obey ; but His obedience grew deeper and 
deeper, till it reached perfection on the Cross : 
cp. Lk 2 40 Phil 2 s . 9. Being made perfect] see 
on 2 "'. Eternal salvation] as distinguished from 
the temporary deliverance from the results of 
sin effected by the Levitical Law : cp. 9 12 . 

11-14. The author recognises the difficulty 
of Ins Bubject, and breaks off to deplore the 
inattention and ohildish ignorance of his 
readers. Hut he feels that not to advance 
is to be in danger of going back, and there- 
fore, while encouraging diligenl progress, 
In points out the dreadful condition to which 
apostasy reduces men (6 '"' '*-'), and seta before 
them Gfod'fl promise to Abraham, confirmed 
by oath, to penraade them to constancy 
"). 

12. For the time] i.e. considering the Length 
of time they had been < !hristians : op. 1 

Oracles of God] not. as commonly, the reve- 
lation contained in the OT., but the doctrines 
of the Christian faith. The • first principles' 
are probably those enumerated in <> '•'--'. 

Strong meat] B V l solid food': cp. 1 Cor 



3 1 * 2 . 13. Unskilful in] RV 'without expe- 
rience of.' It is uncertain what precisely is 
meant by the word of righteousness. It 
may mean correct or rational discourse in 
general, or Christian truth in particular, or, 
since the same G-k. word means ' word ' and 
' reason,' something like ' the reason of the 
hope that is in ' Christians may be implied. 

CHAPTER 6 
Warning and Encouragement 
1. Leaving . . let us go on] RY ' let us 
cease to speak of . . and press on.' The words 
are either an exhortation to the readers to 
advance beyond the elementary stage of Chris- 
tian doctrine, or a resolution on the part of 
the writer to omit the discussion of rudiment- 
ary truths and to proceed to more advanced 
subjects. The latter is probably correct, in 
which case the ' us ' is that of authorship. 
But though he determines to omit the treat- 
ment of elementary doctrines, he mentions 
what they are under six headings arranged in 
three pairs. The first are l repentance from 
dead works and faith toward God,' the first 
steps to be taken in the Christian life : cp. 
Mklis Ac 20 21 1730 ; see on 9 14 . Dead 
works] i.e. sinful works, the wages of which 
is death (R06 23 ). 2. The second pair com- 
prises the ' teaching of baptisms and of laying 
on of hands,' which constitute the next step 
in the Christian life. Baptism is for the re- 
mission of sins, and laying on of hands for the 
reception of the Holy Ghost : see Ac2 38 
816,17. The plural ('baptisms') is employed 
probably because instruction with regard to 
Christian baptism would necessitate a com- 
parison with Jewish baptism and other cere- 
monial washings. The third pair is ' resur- 
rection and eternal judgment,' also fundamental 
doctrines of the Christian faith, and dealt 
with in apostolic preaching: see Ac4 2 > 33 10 42 
I731 24 2 5. 

4-8. Any attempt to lay the foundations 
of Christian doctrine afresh for those who, after 
accepting them, have rejected them and are 
in a hopeless condition, is (to the author and 
his readers at any rate) in vain : see on 12 17 . 

4. Tasted] i.e. had full experience of : 
cp. 2 9 . The heavenly gift, if it is not a 
general expression denoting the whole con- 
tents of the grace of God, will mean 
either the forgiveness of sin or the gift of 
the Holy Ghost. Of these two the former is 
the most probable, seeing the latter is expressly 
mentioned is the next clause. 5. Powers of 
the age to come] so RV. Either the miracu- 
lous gifts referred to in 2 4 , or more probably 
the fortifying influences of God's sure pro- 
mises concerning the future. 

6. Crucify . . afresh] They take the part of 
those unbelieving Jews who rejected Christ 



1020 



6. 7 



HEBREWS 



7.4 



and openly reviled Him: cp. 10 29 . 7. The 
earth] rather, ' the land ' or ' the field ' that 
makes a good use of God's gift of rain is 
blessed by Him ; but k the field ' that responds 
to His goodness with a crop of thorns and 
thistles is destroyed. The parable is a warning 
against the wilful misuse of those gifts of 
God referred to in vv. 4, 5 : cp. Ro2 4 " 9 . 

9. Beloved] only used here in this Epistle. 
The word expresses the writer's .solicitude for 
his readers in view of even the remote possibility 
in their case of such an awful fate as has been 
described. Accompany salvation] are inti- 
mately connected with it, leading to it. 

11. The same diligence] i.e. be as zealous 
in maintaining the fulness of their own hope 
as they have been in ministering to their 
brethren. 12. Inherit] i.e. enter into posses- 
sion of what is promised. The verb is in the 
participial mood, and refers equally to the 
past and present. The writer is thinking of 
the class of persons who may be described as 
' inheritors of the promises.' Patience] means 
patient waiting. 

13-20. The example of Abraham is an en- 
couragement in this respect. God's promise 
to him was confirmed by an oath, and the 
Christian hope is no less sure, because not 
only has God given promise of the heavenly 
inheritance, but Christ has entered within the 
veil as High Priest and Forerunner. 

13. See Gn22!M7. I5 . He obtained the 
promise] i.e had the promise made to. him : cp. 
Gn22 16f . What Abraham actually saw in his 
lifetime was only the beginning of the fulfil- 
ment : cp. 1139,40, J6, Ry ' an d in every 
dispute of theirs the oath is final for confirma- 
tion.' 17. Wherein] i.e. this being the case 
among men. Confirmed it by an oath] RY 
'interposed' (RM 'mediated') 'with an 
oath.' The idea is that as there was no greater 
who could be called in as a third party or 
surety for the fulfilment of the promise, God 
made Himself the surety by means of the oath 
by Himself. 18. Two immutable things] viz. 
the promise, which, because it was God's 
promise, was immutable, and the oath, which, 
though not necessary in this case, was added 
for confirmation of men's faith. Consolation] 
RY ' encouragement.' 

19. Sure and stedfast, and which entereth] 
RY inserts ' a hope ' before these adjectival 
terms, thus confining the metaphor of the 
anchor to the one clause, ' as an anchor of the 
soul,' and taking the three expressions as de- 
scriptive not of the anchor, but of the hope. 
This simplifies matters in so far as it gets rid 
of the somewhat incongruous idea of an anchor 
entering within the veil. There may be, how- 
ever, a mingling of fact and figure. The first two 
epithets are certainly suggested by the anchor, 
if they do not directly apply to it. The general 



idea is sufficiently clear. The Christian hope 
is infallible, because it is fixed on Christ, who, 
as High Priest and Forerunner, is now within 
the veil. The veil] The entry of the High 
Priest through the veil into the Holy of Holies 
was the climax of his ministry on the Day of 
Atonement: see Lvl6 2 > 12f . 

20. The discussion is brought round to the 
point where it was interrupted (f> 10 ) by the 
warning against the danger of spiritual dulness 
and apostasy. 

CHAPTER 7 

Peiesthood aftee the Oedee of Aaeon 

and of melchizedek 

The theme of Christ's superiority to the 
Levitical priesthood is here resumed. In 5 1 " 10 
it has been shown that Christ possesses all the 
characteristics of a true High Priest, and 
moreover that He is called of God ' an High 
Priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec' 
Now the priesthood of Melchizedek was per- 
petual, and in this respect he is a type of Christ. 
His greatness is shown by the fact that he 
received tithes from Abraham, and as Levi 
was descended from Abraham, it follows by 
implication that the Melchizedek priesthood is 
superior to the Levitical (7 1 - 10 ). 

1-3. Melchisedec] a type of Christ in his 
high titles, independence of priestly descent, 
and especially in respect that his priesthood is 
eternal. 

1. The main statement is, ' This Melchi- 
sedec . . abideth a priest continually.' Every 
feature in his history as recorded in Gnl4 is 
turned to account in the comparison instituted 
here between him and Christ. He is King 
of Salem, i.e. Jerusalem. But Salem means 
' peace,' and Christ is Prince of Peace (Isa 
9 6 ). His name Melchizedek means ' King of 
Righteousness,' and righteousness is a charac- 
teristic of Christ's kingdom (Ps62 12 IsaO 7 
32 1 : see on 1 8 > 9 ). Unlike the Levitical priest 
who must be able to trace his descent from 
Levi, Melchizedek is without genealogy, con- 
nected with no priestly family, and he has no 
successor. He is ' a priest for ever.' 

3, Without father, without mother, without 
descent (RY ' genealogy ')] The writer bases 
his argument on the silence of Scripture with 
regard to Melchizedek's origin. He appears 
suddenly in the narrative of Gnl4, and dis- 
appears in a similarly mysterious way. In 
respect that his priesthood does not rest on 
his pedigree, he stands in emphatic contrast 
with the Levitical priests. He is ' made like 
unto the Son of God,' i.e. is described in the 
narrative in such terms that they suggest the 
eternal Son who exists from eternity and 
lives for ever (1 2,10-12). 

4. Melchizedek was superior to Abraham, 
because he took tithes from Abraham (Gn 14 20 ), 



1021 



7.5 



HEBREWS 



8. 



and he also gave him his priestly benediction 
(Gn 14 19. 20). 

5-7. He is much more superior to the 
Levitical priests who take tithes from their 
Israelite brethren, but who, in Abraham their 
progenitor, paid tithes to Melchizedek(v v. 9,10). 

8. He is superior to them, further, in respect 
that the Levitical priests are men who die. 
What Scripture witnesses to concerning Mel- 
chizedek is just his life. Its silence as to his 
family and death points to the endless life of 
the divine inheritor of his priesthood. 

1 1-28. The argument now takes a further 
step forward. Since God promised a new 
priesthood (in Ps 110), this must supersede and 
abolish the old. But this substitution would 
not have been made were it not that the old 
priesthood had failed to accomplish its pur- 
pose, viz. to reconcile man to God. A new 
covenant is therefore introduced, with Jesus 
as the surety for its fulfilment. It is eternal 
because He is eternal ; and it secures salvation 
to the uttermost, because the Priest is One who 
ever liveth to intercede for those who draw 
near to God through Him. 

11-19. The introduction of a new priest- 
hood, and consequently of a new law, implies 
the imperfection of the old. 

11. If therefore] RV'Nowif : the beginning 
of a new argument. The priesthood is de- 
signed to reconcile men to God by removing 
the barrier between them, viz. sin. Not . . after 
the order of Aaron] but after the order of 
Melchizedek, who was independent of Levitical 
descent, being anterior to it. 13. He of whom 
these things (i.e. Ps 110 4 ) are spoken is Jesus, 
who belonged to the tribe of Judah, in which 
the old Law recognises no priests. 15. RY 
1 And what we say is yet more abundantly 
evident,' viz. the statement that a change of 
law is involved in a change of priesthood. 

16. Under the old Law priesthood was a 
matter of physical descent — it was the law 
of a carnal commandment ; but the priesthood 
of Jesus rests on the power of an indissoluble 
life (so RV). What constitutes Him priest 
is not an external commandment, but a power 
inherent in Him as the eternal Son, who, 
though as incarnate He died, nevertheless rose 
from tli<' dead and liveth for ever (vv. 24, 25). 
His qualifications were personal, not official. 

18, 19. Read, ' For there is a disannulling of 
H preliminary [or. provisional] commandment 
[Vis. that constituting the Levitical priesthood] 
OH acoounl of Its weakness and unprofitable- 
ness [i.e. its inability to effect atonement for 
men's sins] (for the law made nothing perfect), 
and there is the subsequent introduction of a 
better hope through which we draw near to 
God.' The words ' for the law made nothing 
perfect ' are a parenthesis. The particular 
commandment in question was of a piece with 



the whole Law, which made nothing perfect, 
i.e. failed in every respect to attain its object, 
viz. to bring men near to God in reconciliation. 

20. The fact that Jesus was made priest 
with an oath guarantees that the covenant He 
mediates is better than the former (in which 
there was no such oath), and also that it is 
eternal : cp. 6 16_18 . 22. Surety] The word 
is not found elsewhere in the Greek canonical 
Scriptures. It means one who gives security 
for the fulfilment of an agreement between 
two other parties, a guarantor or sponsor. 
The word usually employed is that rendered 
' mediator ' in 8 6 . 

23. The Levitical priesthood was a succes- 
sion of different priests, because those filling 
the office were mortal men. Christ's-priesthood 
does not pass to any other ; it is continuous 
and unchangeable ; hence ' He is able to save 
to the uttermost.' Were not suffered] RV 
1 are hindered/ 24. Unchangeable] lit. l that 
does not pass by succession from one to another.' 

25. To the uttermost] Either of time, ' from 
one generation to another ' ; or, more probably, 
of extent, ' perfectly.' Come unto God] RY 
' draw near unto God through Him,' i.e. avail 
themselves of His mediating agency as High 
Priest. The object of all priesthood is to bring 
men to God in spiritual communion. What 
the Levitical priesthood was unable to effect 
(v. 18), Christ, the Melchizedek-High-Priest, 
has completely secured. Make intercession] 
not offering, which has been made once for all, 
but a continual representation on the ground 
of the completed offering. 

26-28. A summary of the characteristics of 
Christ as High Priest, which make Him such 
an adequate High Priest as we need. 

26. Became us] i.e. suited our condition. 

Holy] denotes His relation to God, conse- 
crated. Harmless] denotes His personal 
character ; the word usually means ' without 
guile.' Undefiled] denotes His official quali- 
fication, having no ceremonial flaw or impedi- 
ment : cp. Lv21 21 . Separate] RV ' separated,' 
not by sinlessness (as AV seems to suggest), 
but by being withdrawn from men and exalted 
to the right hand of the Majesty on high. 
The clause is to be taken along with the 
following : cp. 4 14 . 27. First for his own sins] 
see Lvl6 5 > 6 > n > 15 , and see on 5 3 . Once] i.e. 
once for all. He offered up himself] see on 
911-14,25-28 1011-H. 28. Since the law] RV 
1 after the law,' and disannulling it : cp. vv. 
18, 19. The Son] rather, 'a Son,' i.e. one who 
is a Son, perfected for evermore : see 2i° 5 8 > 9 . 

CHAPTER 8 

The High Priest of the Heavenly 
Sanctuary and the fulfilment of 
Jeremiah's Prophecy 
Christ, as Melchizedek-High-Priest, has a 



1022 



8.1 



HEBREWS 



9.5 



higher ministry than the Levitical priesthood, 
because He ministers in the true Tabernacle 
in heaven which indeed was the pattern for 
the earthly tabernacle (vv. 1-5). Besides He 
is superior in proportion as the new covenant 
is better than the first (vv. 6-13). 
i. The sum] RV ' the chief point.' 
2. A minister] i.e. an officiating high priest. 
The sanctuary] corresponds to the inner- 
most chamber of the tabernacle, which is a 
general name for the whole place of ministry. 
It is called the ' true ' tabernacle, i.e. authentic 
or primary, that on earth being secondary, a 
copy of the heavenly (v. 5). 3. Gifts and 
sacrifices] see on 5 1 . A high priest implies 
an offering, and this Christ has : see on 7 27 
and references there. 

4. The connexion is with v. 2. Christ's 
ministry must be in the heavenly tabernacle, 
for there is already a priesthood on earth ; the 
office on earth is preoccupied. ' He would 
not be a priest at all ' (so RY), much less a 
high priest. It has been inferred from this 
v. that the Epistle was written while the 
Levitical priesthood was still in existence, i.e. 
before the destruction of Jerusalem : see 
Intro. § 3, ' Recipients and Probable Date.' 
Otherwise it must be supposed that the writer 
is speaking generally from the view-point of 
the OT. 

5. Example] RY 'copy,' implying that 
there is an original in heaven. Observe that 
the heavenly is the real ; the earthly is the 
copy and shadow. The reference is to Ex 25 40 : 
cp. Ac7 M . 6. Now] is logical, not temporal, 
and means, ' this being so.' Better promises] 
see vv. 10-12. 

8-12. The promise is taken from Jer31 31 " 34 . 

9. Regarded them not] i.e. rejected them 
after they had broken the covenant ; or, let 
them alone : cp. Mt233« RM. 

10-12. The second covenant is better than 
the first, because, (1) it is an internal principle 
instead of an external code ; (2) it is universally 
realised; every member of the covenant is in 
direct and personal communion with God ; (3) 
it secures real righteousness. This is the 
ground of the two preceding promises. 

13. Even in the time of Jeremiah mention 
was made of a new covenant, showing that the 
first was destined to be superseded. Since 
then it has actually vanished away. 

CHAPTER 9 

The New Covenant and the Sacrifice 
of Christ 
pi_ I0 39. The writer now proceeds to elabo- 
rate in greater detail the contrast between the 
old covenant and the new. The old covenant 
had its tabernacle with furniture and elaborate 
ceremonial and continual series of sacrifices, 
culminating in the annual visit of the high 



priest to the inner chamber of the tabernacle 
with sacrificial blood. But these very cere- 
monies implied the impossibility of communion 
with God, and were unable to make the wor- 
shipper ' perfect,' i.e. fit to participate in the 
mysteries (9 1 " 10 ). But now, what these mere 
animal sacrifices, the ineffectiveness of which 
was signified by the necessity of their repeti- 
tion, failed to do, Jesus accomplished when 
He entered the heavenly tabernacle with His 
own blood, i.e. when He presented Himself in 
the presence of God after His crucifixion, 
having obtained eternal redemption. As 
Mediator of a new covenant He does this by 
His death. For a covenant, or will, only 
comes into effect through the death of the 
testator. Similarly, the new covenant becomes 
valid through the death of Christ, which, being 
a voluntary surrender of His life, as a free act 
of His Spirit, is of real value in the sight of 
God (9 11_22 ). It is enough for such a sacrifice 
to be offered once for all (9 23 - 28 ). Thus over 
against the failure of the old, proved by the 
necessity of repetition, is the success of the 
new. This is illustrated by a passage from 
Ps40, which shows that the essence of sacrifice 
is obedience to the will of God (lO 1-18 ). On 
the ground of the cleansing thus accomplished 
by Christ follow exhortations (10 19 ' 25 ), ad- 
monitions (10 26-3i) } an d encouragements 
(10 32-39). 

1-10. The Tabernacle Ministry. 

1. A worldly sanctuary] RY ' its sanctuary, 
a sanctuary of this world,' and therefore in- 
ferior to the ' true ' tabernacle in the heavens 
(8 2 ), of which it was but a copy. 2. A taber- 
nacle] This term is applied to each of the two 
chambers into which the whole tent was 
divided ; the outer chamber being the Holy 
Place, the inner being the Holy of Holies : 
see Ex 26. Candlestick] or lampstand : see 
Ex 25 31-40. The table] see Ex25 23 -30. The 
shewbread] see Ex 25 30 Lv245-9. 3. The 
second veil] so called because a veil hung also 
before the Holy Place. Elsewhere the second 
veil is called simply 'the veil ' : see 10 20 , and 
cp. Ex 26 31-33. Holiest of all] i.e. according to 
a Hebrew idiom, the Most Holy Place. 

4. Censer] The word may mean ' altar of 
incense ' (Ex 30 1_1 °). This, however, stood in 
the Holy Place, though the writer did not 
mention it among the furniture in v. 2. But 
as the Most Holy Place was never entered 
without incense (Lv 16 12 ) it might be described 
as ' having the altar of incense.' Ark of the 
covenant] the chest containing the tables of 
the Law: Ex25 10 " 22 . Pot .. manna] see 
Ex 1 6 32 -34. On Aaron's rod, see Nu 1 7 i" 10 . 

5. Cherubims] RY 'cherubim,' the Heb. 
plural of ' cherub ' : see Ex25 17 " 22 37 6 ' 9 . The 
mercy-seat, or propitiatory, was the golden 
lid of the ark (Ex25 17 > 21 ) on which the blood 



1023 



9.7 



HEBREWS 



9. 23 



was sprinkled on the Day of Atonement : 
Lv 1 6 14 > 15 . Particularly] RY ' severally.' 

7, 8. The point is, that entrance into the 
presence of God was restricted to the high 
priest alone, and that only once a year, and 
that it was altogether denied to the people 
and even to the ordinary priests. The argu- 
ment of this whole section is that the Levitical 
system did not and could not provide real 
access to God. Holiest of all] RV ' the holy 
place,' meaning here, probably, the real pres- 
ence of God, the heavenly sanctuary, as in 
v. 12. q. Which (i.e. the Holy Place) was a 
figure for the time then present] meaning that 
it pointed the worshippers of that time forward 
to the dawning of a better time to come. 

Figure] RV ' parable.' In which] RV ' Ac- 
cording to which,' sc. parable. Him that did 
the service] RY ' the worshipper.' 

1 1-14. The superiority of Christ's Ministry, 
which does cleanse the conscience, being dis- 
charged in a heavenly tabernacle (v. 11) and 
mediated through the sacrifice of Himself 
(vv. 12-14). 

II. Not of this building] RY 'not of this 
creation,' i.e. of this material creation, but a 
heavenly sanctuary. 12. Once] i.e. once for 
all, unlike the high priest in the earthly taber- 
nacle who entered once a year (v. 7). Repeti- 
tion is unnecessary, seeing the redemption he 
obtained is an ' eternal redemption,' being 
effectual for ever. The word obtained implies 
the expenditure of effort. 

13. Bulls and goats] refer to the sacrifices 
offered on the Day of Atonement (Lvl6), 
heifer to the ceremonial described in Nul9 

Purifying of the flesh] i.e. the removal of 
ceremonial defilement, so as to permit the 
worshipper to take part again in the services of 
the tabernacle. It is admitted that a limited 
efficacy is possessed by the Levitical sacrifices, 
and therefore Christ's offering, being im- 
measurably nobler and being voluntary, has 
immeasurably greater efficacy. 

14. Through the eternal Spirit] So AY and 
RV, suggesting that the Third Person of the 
Trinity is referred to. In the original the 
article is wanting, which emphasises the opera- 
tion rather than the personal being of the 
Spirit. The spirit is Christ's own spirit, or 
ill. Holy Spirit in Christ, and the closest 
parallels to the expression used lien; are in 
7 '" and 1 IVt l i; (see QOte then). The word 
1 spirit ' is employed to contrast the nature and 
Sphere of 'he operation of Christ's offering 
with those of the Levitical sacrifices. The 
latter operate in tin; region of the flesh (cp. 
v. 1:5), and are temporary in their effect (see 
on v. I •_' ) ; the former belongs to the sphere 
of the spirit and will, effects an inner cleans 

ing of the conscience, and is eternal. Offered 
himself] 'Himself 1 is emphatic, being one of 



the points of contrast. What He offered was 
His own body on the Cross: see on 10 10 . Dead 
works] see on 6 1 . To cleanse from dead 
works is to cleanse from the defilement (and 
the consequences of it) caused by such works, 
and so to enable the sinner to engage in the 
service of G-od. 

15. ' By offering Himself Christ has become 
the Mediator of a new covenant, in order that 
those who have been called may receive the 
eternal inheritance that is promised, and the 
necessary condition of this was the redemption 
of the transgressions that were under the first 
covenant by means of a death.' Christ's sacri- 
fice is here represented as having a Tetrospec- 
tive efficacy, operating not merely on the past 
sins of the Hebrew Christians, but on the sins 
of the OT. saints who lived under the first 
covenant, and who could not inherit the 
promises because the first covenant could not 
remove their transgressions. 

16. Testament] The Gk. word (diatheke) 
means either covenant or testament (i.e. will), 
and in this v. the writer passes from the former 
to the latter sense. For the operation of the 
terms of a testament the death of the testator 
is undoubtedly necessary. Is it also necessary 
in the case of a covenant ? So the writer 
asserts in vv. 18-20, where he reverts to the 
former sense of diatheke as covenant. He says 
that any diatheke involves death, and cites the 
Mosaic covenant as an instance. This must be 
on the supposition that the covenanter is re- 
presented by the victim which died in the sacri- 
fice which usually accompanied any serious 
covenant. The death of the victim represented 
the inability of the covenanter to retract. It 
was the solemn ratification of the terms of the 
covenant. 

17. After men are dead] RY 'where there 
hath been a death.' The Gk. is lit. ' over dead.' 

18. Whereupon] RY ' wherefore.' Neither 
the first] RY ' even the first . . not,' imperfect 
and temporary though it was. 19, 20. See Ex 
24 3 ' 8 . 20. Testament] RY 'covenant': see 
on v. 16. 21. This is not recorded in Exodus, 
but is mentioned by Josephus. It rested prob- 
ably on some Jewish tradition. 

23. Patterns] RY 'copies,' i.e. the earthly 
things which were made according to the pat- 
tern of the heavenly : see 8 6 . In the view of 
the writer, the heavenly original needed purify- 
ing just as the earthly copies, only with better 
sacrifices. It is not necessary to supply a dif- 
ferent predicate in the second clause, such as 
' should be dedicated.' To enable men to draw 
near to God, however imperfectly, on earth, it 
was necessary that both they and the tabernacle 
be sprinkled with the blood of sacrifice ; and 
the inference is that in order to enable men 
perfectly to hold communion with God above, 
both they and the heavenly places must in like 



1024 



9. 24 



HEBREWS 



10.22 



manner be sprinkled with the blood of a better 
sacrifice, viz. that of Christ. 

24. To appear] lit. ' to be manifested before 
the face of God,' i.e. to show Himself to God : 
cp. 7 25 . The earthly i copy ' of this act is that 
of the high priest who once a year presented 
himself before God in the Holy of Holies on 
behalf of the people. In the OT. to ' appear 
before God ' means to go into the Temple to 
worship Him : cp. Ex 2317 Pas 42 2 84'. 

26. End of the world] The Second Coming 
is regarded as imminent: cp. 10 37 . Appeared] 
lit. ' been manifested,' i.e. in the flesh to men : 
cp. v. 24, where the verb, though different, is 
from the same root. 

27. In the case of men, death is a single 
event, the definite close of a stage in their 
career. So Christ's death is one final achieve- 
ment. And as in the former case death is 
followed by judgment, so Christ's death is 
followed by His reappearing for the salvation 
of His people. Moreover, as death and judg- 
ment are connected as cause and effect, so 
Christ's death and His people's salvation are 
similarly connected : cp. Ro 5 18 . 28. Apart 
from sin] So RV. His First Coming was in 
connexion with sin ; He came because of sin, 
and bearing sin to put it away (v. 26) ; but 
His Second Coming will be ' apart from sin,' 
since in dying He did put away sin, actually 
for Himself, for men by anticipation in faith. 

Them that look for him] RY ' that wait for 
him.' The reappearing of the high priest 
from out the Holy of Holies on the Day of 
Atonement would be waited for with anxious 
expectancy by the people as the sign that all 
that was needful for their reconciliation with 
God had been done, and that the offering had 
been accepted by Him : cp. Lkl 21 , and see 
Ro 8i9,23 iCorl? IThlio 2Tim48. 

CHAPTER, 10 
Sacrifice complete in the fulfilment 

of God's Will. The Open Way to 

God 
Recapitulation and close of the argument. 
The sacrifices of the Law were ineffective 
to cleanse the conscience, as shown by their 
continual repetition (vv. 1-4). In the mind 
of God they were temporary. But the offer- 
ing of Christ is a sacrifice that accomplishes 
the will of God and consecrates us as the 
people of a new covenant (vv. 5-10). That 
it is efficacious and final is also proved by the 
session of Christ at God's right hand. Unlike 
the Levitical priests, who continually stand to 
offer sacrifices, Christ having made one perfect 
sacrifice is now set down, waiting the final 
triumph over all His foes (v v. 11-14). The 
finality of His sacrifice is also confirmed by 
the prophecy which foretells that under the 
new covenant God will remember the people's 



sins no more, implying that sin has been dealt 
with finally and for ever (vv. 15-18). 

1 . The shadow is unsubstantial, lacking all 
the qualities of the original except perhaps 
outlined form ; the very image is an exact re- 
production of the original. Continually] is 
perhaps best taken with the preceding verb, 
'offered.' Comers thereunto] see on 7 25 . 

2. Conscience of sin] i.e. consciousness of 
sin, sense of guilt : cp. 9 9 . 3. The continual 
repetition of the sacrifices served only to re- 
mind the worshippers of the continuity of the 
need of cleansing. 

5. The quotation is from Ps 40 6 " 8 , according 
to the LXX, which reads, ' a body thou hast 
prepared for me,' where the Hebrew has, ' mine 
ears thou hast opened,' meaning that God has 
opened the ears of His servant to hear and 
obey His will. The LXX may be due to an 
early corruption of the text, or it may be a 
free reproduction of the sense. As used here 
the words refer to the Incarnation, and are 
taken to indicate the superiority of Christ's 
sacrifice over the animal sacrifices of the Law 
in respect that His offering was voluntary and 
moral. It was a sacrifice of obedience (v. 7), 
the voluntary and glad (cp. 1 2 2 ) surrender of His 
own life to God. 9. Hetaketh away] i.e. Christ 
supersedes the legal and ineffectual mode of 
reconciliation by His own sacrifice, in accord- 
ance with God's will. 10. Sanctified] i.e. 
cleansed from the defilement of sin and enabled 
to draw near to God. 

11-14. Further proof of the finality of 
Christ's sacrifice : see analysis at the beginning 
of this chapter. The ineffectiveness of the 
legal ordinances is brought out forcibly by the 
accumulation of the words, standeth daily . . 
oftentimes . . the same sacrifices. There is no 
cessation, no ' sitting down,' as in the case of 
Christ. 13, 14. His people are finally sanc- 
tified ; His enemies are the only class remain- 
ing to be dealt with. 

15-18. See analysis above. 

19-25. Practical exhortation to hold fast 
the superior benefits and privileges of the new 
covenant. 

19. Boldness to enter into the holiest] a privi- 
lege denied to the worshipper under the old 
covenant. 20. The way is new, i.e. lately 
opened up, and it is living, either because it is 
effective (cp. 4 12 ), or because Christ is living : 
cp. Jn 1 4 6 , where Christ says that He is the Way, 
and the Truth, and the Life. Through the veil] 
During His earthly life His flesh stood be- 
tween Him and the entrance into the heavenly 
sanctuary. By the rending of that veil, i.e. 
His death, He has entered in, opening the way 
for His people. 

22. The First Exhortation. Draw near] 
i.e. in worship and service: see on 7 25 . 

Bodies washed] There may be here a re- 



65 



1025 



10.23 



HEBREWS 



11. 4 



ference to baptism, but the two clauses toge- 
ther denote the purification of the whole man, 
within and without : see Exl9 10 29 4 , and cp. 
Eph6 5 > 6 . 23. The Second Exhortation, to 
1 hold fast the confession of our hope ' (so R V) : 
cp. 3 6 ' 14 . 24. The Third Exhortation, to 
' encourage each other to love and good works.' 

Provoke] The word is used in the good 
sense equivalent to stimulate. 

25. Assembling of ourselves] i.e. the meeting 
of Christians which gives the opportunity to 
exercise the love and good works already re- 
commended, and also to make the confession 
of the Christian faith and hope which is to be 
held fast. The day] is the Day of the Lord, 
the Day of His Second Coming : cp. on 9 26 . 

26-31. A warning against unbelief and 
apostasy, suggested by the thought that the 
Day of the Lord which is approaching will be 
a day of judgment to some, especially to those 
who, after having been enlightened, have fallen 
away : cp. the warning in 6 1_8 . 26. Sin wil- 
fully] The participial form of this condition 
expresses not a single act, but a deliberate and 
persistent state. The Levitical Law made no 
provision for the atonement of sins done with 
a high hand : see on 5 2 . No more sacrifice] 
Christ's sacrifice is final : see on vv. 13, 14. 

28-30. For the form of the argument cp. 
2 1 - 4 . 28. Under] RV ' at the word of ' : see 
Dtl72-7 

32-39. An exhortation to exhibit the same 
steadfastness under the present trials as they 
had shown in a previous time of affliction : cp. 
the similar change from a tone of warning to 
one of hope of better things in 6 9f . 

32. Were illuminated] RV ' enlightened,' 
i.e. became Christians : cp. 6 4 . Fight of 
afflictions] see Intro. § 3, ' Recipients and 
Probable Date.' 33. Companions] i.e. volun- 
tary partners and sympathisers with those who 
suffered : cp. 6 10 . 34. R V ' had compas- 
sion on them that were in bonds.' This is the 
better attested reading, though the other has 
good support. In yourselves] It is possible 
to render, ' Knowing that ye have your own 
selves for a better possession,' a similar thought 
to that in Lk9 M 21 "> RV, and in v. 39. 

35. Recompence of reward] cp. the other 
ospeei of 'just recompence ' in 2 2 . 

37. A quotation from Hab2M, with the 
addition Of the introductory clause 'yet a little 
while,' reminiscent of [sa26 ao . In Habak- 
kuk the idea is that steadfast adherence to 
(J(«l is needed by the righteous man in view 
of the perplexing anomalies visible at present 
in God's method of providence. Here the 
idea is much bhe same; the Coming of the 
Lord being regarded as the chief ground why 
Christians should not drawback, and so fail to 

enter upon the promised inheritance'. 38. The 
just] RV 'my righteous one.' The Speaker 

Hi: 



is God. 39. But we] The writer is unwilling 
to believe that his readers will abandon their 
faith: cp. 6 9 . The saving] lit. 'gaining,' or 
' winning ' : see on v. 34. 

CHAPTER 11 

Heroes of Faith 
The Achievements of Faith, illustrated from 
the annals of Israel, beginning with the patri- 
archs and coming down to the martyrs. The 
writer has already mentioned faith as a neces- 
sary condition of a righteous life, and he now 
proceeds to illustrate the fact that it was by 
faith that the fathers of the race were able to 
work righteousness and to endure their trials. 
Their heroic example ought to encourage the 
Hebrews to stand fast. The primary purpose, 
therefore, of this long passage is a practical 
one. But it has also a place in the main argu- 
ment of the Epistle. It has been shown that 
the earthly and visible things are but the types, 
copies, or shadows of heavenly realities : 
see8 5 9 22 - 23 10 1. The underlying thought 
of the preceding chapters is that, con- 
trary to the ordinary way of thinking, it is 
the heavenly that is the real. But how are 
heavenly and invisible things to be realised 
with any assurance ? It is by the operation of 
faith. Faith is that by which the invisible be- 
comes real and the future becomes present. 
' Faith gives a reality to things hoped for, and 
puts to the test things for the present unseen.' 
It is no new principle in the world, because it 
was faith that inspired the heroism and self- 
sacrifice of the saints who lived under the old 
dispensation. We, having better promises and 
a better covenant than they, ought not to fall 
behind in the exercise of the same faith by 
which they lived. 

1. RV renders, ' Now faith is the assurance 
of things hoped for, the proving of things 
not seen.' The word represented here by 
' assurance ' is rendered ' substance ' in 1 3 R V 
and ' confidence ' in 3 14 . What is meant is that 
faith is that which gives assurance or cer- 
tainty of things still in the future. They 
exist apart from faith, but it is by faith that 
they are realised. l Proving ' means testing 
resulting in conviction. 

2. The elders] i.e. the faithful men under 
the old dispensation. Obtained a good report] 
RV ' had witness borne to them,' sc. by God in 
the Scriptures. 3. Faith enables us to per- 
ceive the invisible cause of the phenomenal 
world : cp. Ro l 20 . The writer begins with 
Gn 1 before proceeding to give examples of 
the realising faith of the fathers. 4. Abel] 
The writer says that the greater excellence of 
Abel's sacrifice was due to his faith, but in 
what particular the faith was manifested he 
does not say. It may have been a 'fuller 
consciousness of the claim of God to the best.' 



11. 5 



HEBREWS 



12. 



Yet speaketh] ' Yet,' i.e. still to us. The 
reference is to Gn4 10 , where Abel's blood 
is represented as crying from the ground after 
his death. By faith he overcame death. 

5, 6. Enoch] The writer here follows the 
Greek Version of the OT. Enoch's faith is an 
inference from the statement in Genesis that 
he ' walked with God ' (Gk. ' pleased God '), 
and his ' translation ' was the reward of his 
faith. 7. Noah] His faith rested on a direct 
revelation of ' things not seen as yet,' viz. the 
destruction of the world and the means of 
salvation. Fear] is ' godly fear,' as in 5 7 . He 
condemned the world] i.e. either because he 
warned the world of the impending doom (see 
1 Pet 3 20 2 Pet 2 5 ) ; or because his example took 
away from them any ground of excuse : cp. 
Mtl2 41 . 8. Abraham] By faith he realised 
the promises, and made a great surrender in 
obedience to God's call. He was preeminently a 
man of faith, the first whose faith is definitely 
mentioned in the OT. (Gnl5 6 ); he is the 
' father of the faithful.' All his life he 
' sojourned, dwelling in tents,' i.e. not actually 
receiving the promises, but waiting patiently 
for their fulfilment, and making therefore no 
attempt to settle permanently in Canaan. He 
looked for the invisible and heavenly ' city of 
God,' as the fulfilment of the ideal which was 
to him the real. 11. Sara] BY 'Even Sarah 
herself,' i.e. in spite of her earlier and natural 
incredulity: see Gnl8 10 " 15 . 12. Of one] i.e. 
Abraham. 

13. The promises] i.e. the fulfilment of 
them. Persuaded of them, and embraced therri] 
RY ' greeted them from afar.' They looked for- 
ward by faith and saw the promises and ' saluted 
them,' or hailed them, from afar, and lived 
here as in a foreign land, conscious that their 
true fatherland was not here, but in heaven. 
And God rewarded their faith by acknow- 
ledging them as His people, and providing a 
1 city ' for them above. 

17. Abraham's faith in offering Isaac : see 
Gn22. This was the supreme trial of Abra- 
ham's faith. He was not allowed to slay 
Isaac, but he did actually offer him, i.e. sur- 
render him to God, although he was the ' only- 
begotten,' the child of promise and the only link 
in the chain of the promise. But faith in God's 
promise made him superior to all seeming im- 
possibilities in the way of realising the promises. 

20-22. Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph were all 
alike in the fact that on their death -beds they 
looked by faith beyond death, and were con- 
fident of the future. 21. Top of his staff] 
The Heb. in Gn47 31 reads, 'the head of his 
bed.' The difference is due to the same con- 
sonants being read with different vowels, 
mittah being ' bed,' and matt eh being ' staff.' 

23-28. The faith of Moses and his parents. 

23. Proper] i.e. goodly or beautiful. The 



appearance of the child is said here to have 
quickened their faith in God that He had 
destined the child for some great purpose, and 
their faith was shown in their daring disregard 
of the king's commandment : see Ex 1 16 " 22 . 

24. Moses' faith was shown in his renuncia- 
tion of all preferments at the court of Pharaoh, 
and in his espousing the cause of his afflicted 
brethren. The pleasures of sin were not vicious 
courses in themselves, but a life of worldly 
success, which would have been sin for him. 
conscious as he was of a call to a higher and 
harder life of duty. 

26. The reproach of Christ] cp. 13 13 Ro 1 5 3 . 
The same reproach as Christ suffered in 
delivering His people : cp. 2 10 . There may, 
however, here be the deeper thought not 
merely of similarity, but of identity of suffer- 
ing. Christ, who was from all eternity, may 
be conceived as actually the deliverer of 
Israel by the agency of Moses, and so as 
suffering Himself what Moses had to endure. 

The recompence of the reward] see on v. 1, 
and cp. the next v. 28. The keeping of the 
Passover was an act of faith, because it was 
the appointed means of deliverance from death, 
and the performance of it implied faith in 
God's promise of safety. 

31. Them that believed not] i.e. the people 
of Jericho who knew what Jehovah had done 
for Israel : see Josh 2 9 > 10 . 33. Obtained pro- 
mises] cp. 6 15 . 35. Raised to life again] RY 
' by a resurrection.' This literal rendering of 
the original is necessary to bring out the 
contrast expressed in the words at the end of 
the v., ' a better resurrection,' i.e. one to a 
life which would not, as in the former case, 
be again interrupted by death. 39. A good 
report] see on v. 2. 

40. There is here the answer to an implied 
objection, that the faith of these suffering 
heroes was all in vain, seeing they did not 
receive the fulfilment of the promises. But, 
the writer says, this is a wrong inference, the 
truth being that God has merely deferred their 
reward in order that they may enter along 
with us of a later age upon the realisation of 
the promised inheritance. They are waiting 
for us so that the whole number of the faith- 
ful may be perfected together. Cp. the peti- 
tion in the Burial Service, ' beseeching Thee 
. . shortly to accomplish the number of Thine 
elect, and to hasten Thy kingdom ; that we, 
with all those that are departed in the true 
faith of Thy holy Name, may have our perfect 
consummation and bliss. . .' 

CHAPTER 12 

The Contest. Endurance, Holiness, and 
Divine Communion proposed to the 
Sons of God 
Inspired by the example of those victorious 



1027 



12.1 



HEBREWS 



12.17 



heroes of faith who now encompass us, we 
ought to run our race patiently, looking to 
Jesus the supreme example of patient en- 
durance (vv. 1, 2). The present sufferings are 
the discipline of a loving Father, and are 
actually evidence of our being His children. 
Be brave, therefore, and help others to be the 
same (vv. 3-13). Beware of strife and im- 
purity, taking warning from the case of Esau, 
who irretrievably forfeited his blessing (vv. 
14-17). Our greater privileges entail greater 
responsibilities and call for greater watchful- 
ness (vv. 18-29). 

1. Witnesses] The Gk. word is martyres. 
The word means primarily ' one who bears 
witness ' to something he has seen or experi- 
enced. Here the witnesses are those who 
have borne testimony to the victorious power 
of faith. But the word passes easily over to 
the further sense of ' spectators,' which is also 
implied in this whole passage. The writer 
conceives these heroes as surrounding in a 
cloud, or dense mass, the arena in which the 
present generation of God's people are run- 
ning their race. Once they were themselves 
runners ; now they are promoted to the rank 
of spectators. Their presence and example 
ought to be a stimulus to those running now. 

Every weight] mg. ' all cumbrance.' The 
word may refer to anything that impedes free 
running, such as loose garments. But it is 
used in a special sense to denote the super- 
fluous flesh which an athlete seeks to get rid of 
by strict training : cp. 1 Cor9 2427 . 

Which doth so easily beset us] The meaning 
of this phrase, represented in the original by 
a single adjective, is doubtful, and the Revisers 
have not seen fit to change the translation in 
the text. But they give in the margin the 
two other possible renderings : (1) 'that doth 
closely cling to us,' i.e. like a clinging garment 
(cp. the common Oriental phrase, • to gird up 
the loins,' i.e. to tuck the loose ends of the 
outer flowing robe under the girdle as a pre- 
par.ition for any exertion); or (2) 'that is 
admired of many,' lit. ' well-surrounded ' by 
an admiring throng. The former, which is 
virtually identical with the accepted rendering 
of AV. is the easier, and is appropriate to the 
idea of a runner divesting himself of all 
impedimenta. It is to be observed that ' the 
sin ' spoken of is not a particular sin (as the 
common use <»f the phrase ' besetting sin' 
suggests), but sin in general, all sin, the defi- 
nite article being the 'generic 1 article. 

2. Looking unto] The Gk. word is used of 
an artist who Looks at his model. Je8US is the 

Greal Exemplar, on whom, rather than on the 
cloud <>f witnesses, the runners are to fix their 
Author and perfecter] so li V ■ cp. 2 10 , 
where the word -author' is rendered 'captain' 
in A V. Ow faith BUggestt B system Of Christian 

10 



doctrine. But there is no word representing 
' our ' in the original. Jesus is leader in the 
way of faith, and He leads to the very end, 
exhibiting the perfection and triumph of faith. 

For the joy] may mean 'instead of the joy,' 
i.e. renouncing it; but more likely 'in view of 
the joy,' i.e. the recompence of reward, as in 
1126 : C p. 111. 

3. Against himself] RV 'against them- 
selves.' A more difficult, but well-attested I 
reading. If correct, it will mean that sinners 
sin against themselves, either by wronging ' 
their own souls (see Prov8 36 ) or by contra- 
dicting their better selves. 4. The struggle 
has not yet been severe. A mild reproach 
of faint-heartedness is implied : cp. Prov 
24 10 Jerl2 5 . 5. The quotation is from Prov 
311,12. y # Ry 'it i s f or chastening ye en- 
dure,' i.e. your sufferings are designed as a 
discipline or means of education. God dealeth 
with you as with sons. 8. All are partakers] 
The clause refers to v. 6. 

11. Peaceable fruit of righteousness] i.e. 
the fruit which is righteousness. The result 
of discipline is called ' peaceable,' or 'peaceful,' 
in contrast to the ' painfullness ' of the pro- 
cess spoken of in the previous part of the v. 

13. Straight paths] better, 'even' or 
'smooth paths,' containing no stumbling-blocks 
that may injure the lame. The strong are to 
encourage the weak. Turned out of the way] 
RM ' put out of joint.' The reference to 
lameness and healing suggests that this is the 
right rendering. If they do not remove the 
stumbling-blocks from the paths, lameness 
may become dislocation. But by making the 
paths 'even,' the lameness may be healed. 

15. Fail of] RV ' fall short of .' Root of 
bitterness] cp. Dt29 18 . 16. Any fornicator] 
In the OT. apostasy from Jehovah is fre- 
quently described as adultery or fornication, 
being a breach of covenant ; but here the 
word should perhaps be understood in the 
literal sense : cp. 13 4 . Profane] The word is 
the antithesis of ' hallowed ' or k consecrated,' 
and means ' common,' ' unspiritual,' ' secular.' 
Esau's defect was a want of appreciation of 
spiritual blessings. He ' despised his birth- 
right' (see G-n25 34 ), which implied not merely 
material advantage, but the spiritual heritage 
of the covenant promises. 17. Would have 
inherited] The RV removes the ambiguity of 
these woids by rendering 'when he afterward 
desired to inherit.' He sought it] i.e. the 
blessing, not the repentance. When Esau is 
said to have 'found no place of repentance,' 
this does not mean that he found it impossible 
to repent — a thing contrary to all the doctrine 
of Scripture. In G 4 "' 3 the author does not say 
' they cannot repent,' but ' we cannot make 
them repent. 1 What is meant is that when he 
afterward wished to inherit the blessing he 
28 



12.18 



HEBREWS 



13.15 



found it irretrievably beyond his reach. He 
found no way of undoing the consequence of 
his own act : see Gn27 34 " 36 . 

18-24. Appeal for greater watchfulness 
based on a contrast between the new covenant 
and the old : cp. 2 1 " 4 lO 28 " 31 . 

18. Unto the mount] This balances the 
words ' unto mount Zion ' in v. 22. But the 
best MSS omit the word 'mount' here, and 
read ' unto a palpable (i.e. material) and 
kindled fire.' For the whole description of 
the former manifestation see Exl9 12 > 13 > 18 ' 19 
20 18 Dt 4 n . The old revelation was given 
with material and terrifying accompaniments ; 
the new is a revelation of grace and peace, 
introducing its recipients to a spiritual society 
with spiritual privileges. But so much the 
more does it call for obedience (v. 25) and 
consecration (v. 28). Ye are not come] Even 
here and now they are members of this 
heavenly community and enjoy these spiritual 
privileges, although the fulness of the in- 
heritance is reserved for the future. 

22. Mount Sion] the heavenly city, the 
[ New Jerusalem, the eternal and ideal sphere, 
the abode of God and the angels and the 
spirits of the OT. saints. 23. General as- 
sembly] a word commonly applied to the 
Greek festal assemblies, such as at the 
Olympian Games. Church of the firstborn, 
who are enrolled in heaven] so KV. See- 
ing that human beings are mentioned at the 
, close of the v., these words are best taken 
as referring to the angels, who were created 
before man and may be appropriately de- 
' scribed as 'first-born': cp. Job 38 1. In this 
1 case the word ' church ' is used in its original 
sense of ' convocation,' or ' congregation. 1 
And to God] whose manifestation is direct 
1 and immediate. There is a suggestion of 
I warning in the epithet Judge of all. Just 
1 men] i.e. the saints of the OT. dispensation, 
who are in one sense ' perfected,' though in 
another they still wait their final consum- 
| matron of bliss : see 1 1 40 . 24. To Jesus] whose 
mediating has assured all these privileges. 

Speaketh better things] Abel's blood cried 
for vengeance (see on ll 4 ); that of Jesus 
appeals to God for pardon and reconciliation. 
25. Him that speaketh] i.e. God, who spoke 
both at Sinai and now from heaven in the new 
manifestation. 26. Then] i.e. at the giving 
of the Law: see Ex 19 18 . The quotation is 
from Hag2 6 > 21 , which is here applied as a 
prediction of the Second Coming, regarded as 
imminent. 27. Yet once more] i.e. once for 
all, finally. What follows the shaking and 
removal of the created and sensible world will 
be stable and imperishable. 28. Let us have 
grace] RM ' thankfulness' ; but cp. v. 15. 

29. A consuming fire] cp. Dt4 24 . A solemn 
warning against presumption. 



CHAPTER 13 

Advice, Memories, Prayers, Greetings 

The Epistle concludes with various exhort- 
ations in regard to the social life (vv. 1-3), 
private life (vv. 4-6), the religious life (vv. 
7-17), in which connexion the readers are 
exhorted to follow steadfastly the example 
and doctrine of their former teachers (vv. 
7-16), and to respect the authority of their 
present rulers (v. 17). The writer requests 
their prayers (vv. 18, 19) ; he prays himself 
on their behalf (vv. 20, 21) ; he sends greet- 
ings, and utters his benediction (vv. 22-25). 

1-3. Duties of social life, viz. brotherly 
love, hospitality, and sympathy with those who 
suffer for Christ's sake. 

2. Strangers] Christian brethren from 
other places are meant : cp. 6 10 . Angels 
unawares] cp. Gnl8, 19 Jg6 n " 24 13 2 - 23 . 

3. Yourselves also in the body] and liable 
therefore to the same sufferings : cp. 10 32-34 . 

4-6. Duties of the private life, viz. chastity 
and contentment. 

4. Marriage is] EY ' Let marriage,' etc. : the 
words are an exhortation. 5. Conversation] 
i.e. manner of life. EV simply, ' be ye free 
from the love of money.' 

7-16. Duty of steadfastly adhering to the 
doctrine of their departed teachers. 

7. Which have the rule] EY ' that had ths 
rule . . which spake.' The words end of their 
conversation (see v. 8) indicate that they were 
no longer living. EY renders, ' issue of their 
life.' 8. AY suggests that the 'end of their 
conversation ' was Jesus Christ, but He can 
hardly be called the ' issue of their life.' This 
v. is a distinct sentence, and is introduced as 
an argument for steadfast adherence to the 
faith of the former teachers. Christ is the 
same now as when their teachers first taught 
them, so that they have no reason to go after 
divers and strange teachings (v. 9). 

9. Carried about] EY ' carried away.' The 
strange doctrines seem to have been connected 
with the ritual of ' meats,' or sacrificial meals 
(v. 10). 

10-14. We Christians have certainly an 
altar, the Cross of Christ, but as on the Day 
of Atonement the blood of the sacrifice was 
carried into the Most Holy Place, while the 
flesh of the victim was not eaten but burned 
outside the camp, so those who wish to par- 
ticipate in the benefits of the Christian sacrifice 
must not remain within the camp of Judaism, 
but utterly renounce all its 'carnal ordinances,' 
even though that entail bearing reproach for 
Christ's sake. We may be rendered homeless 
here below, but we have an abiding city above 
(llio 12 22 ). 

15, 16. Christ having offered Himself once 
for all as the great sacrifice of atonement, the 



1029 



13. 17 



HEBREWS 



13.25 



only sacrifice Christians can now offer is that 
of thanksgiving (cp. Ps 11617 1 Pet 2 Mi), the 
fruit of lips (cp. Hosl4 2 ) which make confes- 
sion of his name, and also that of mercy with 
which God is well pleased (Hos6 6 ). 

The sacrifice of praise or thanksgiving had 
been the highest form of peace-offering under 
the Levitical Law (Lv7i 2 22 2 » ; the words in 
the LXX which our author used are exactly- 
quoted by him here), and the Psalmists had 
adopted the term to describe that truly spiritual 
worship which the atoning sacrifice of Christ 
does not supersede, but deepens and assures 
(Pss 107 22 1 16 1 7 ). His sacrifice of atonement 
shall never be repeated ; but an offering to 
God is, in its highest form, sacrifice or sacred 
service, whether it be of words or charity (cp. 
Hosl4 2 6 6 ), or of the duties of ordinary life 
(Rol2i: cp. 1 Pet 2 5, ii). Such sacrifice of 
thanksgiving is now to be offered continually, 
not as of old at merely ceremonial times or 
after separate acts of imperfect atonement ; 
and through the one true High Priest, who 
has really opened the way for such worship to 
be brought to God, by the one real sacrifice of 
atonement which is effectual for ever. 

17. Duty of obedience to present rulers. 

Watch for (i.e. in behalf of) your souls] like 
sleepless shepherds who feel their responsi- 
bility to God for the flock. Do it with joy] 
i.e. watch with joy, feeling their duty to be a 
delight not a burden, for in the latter case 
the flock would suffer. 18. Pray for us] The 
plural denotes that the writer identifies him- 
self with the rulers of the Church, on whom 
some suspicion has fallen, and he therefore in 
their name protests their integrity. 19. The 
singular number indicates that the writer stood 
in some special relationship to his readers from 



whom he is for the present separated for some 
reason not given. It seems not to have been 
imprisonment (see v. 23), and the separation is 
regarded as only temporary. 

20, 21. Prayer for the readers. 

20. God of peace] i.e. the God who makes 
peace : cp. Ro 1 5 33 1 6 2 <> 2 Cor 1 3 n Phil 4 9, and 
see on v. 14. Brought . . from the dead] The 
words refer not so much to the Resurrection 
of Christ as to His entrance into the heavenly 
sanctuary l with the blood of the everlasting 
covenant,' and His exaltation as Head over the 
household of God (3 1- 6 ) : cp. Isa 63 n. 21. Cp. 
Phil2i 2 >i3. 

22. Word of exhortation] the whole Epistle. 
The apologetic tone indicates some doubt as to 
the manner of its reception (cp. v. 18), and 
also a consciousness that the subject has been 
treated more briefly than it deserves (' in few 
words '). 

23. Our brother Timothy] The reference 
does not point conclusively to St. Paul as the 
writer, but indicates that he was intimately 
connected with the Pauline circle. We have 
no other knowledge of Timothy's imprison- 
ment. If he come] Timothy is elsewhere at 
present. 

24. The salutation shows that the Epistle 
was not addressed to the rulers, but primarily 
to the whole community. They of Italy] i.e. 
those from Italy, those belonging to Italy. 
The phrase is most naturally taken to indicate 
that the Epistle was written outside Italy at 
some place where Italian Christians had settled. 
If the Epistle was sent to Rome, these Italian 
Christians would naturally wish to join in the 
salutation. See Intro. § 3, ' Recipients and 
Probable Date.' 

25. Cp. Col 4 is lTim6 2 i 2 Tim 4 22 Tit 31*. 



1030 



JAMES 



INTRODUCTION 



I. The Author. In the New Testament we 
meet with four persons named James (Jacob) : 

(1) the father, or, possibly, brother of Jude ; 

(2) the son of Alphseus ; (3) the brother of 
John ; (4) the brother of the Lord and head of 
the Church at Jerusalem (Acl^ ]2 2 - i7 15 13 " 21 
2118-25 G-all 19 2 12 ). Of these four, we know 
nothing but the names about (1) and (2) ; 

(3) was put to death by Herod Agrippa I in 
44 a.d., some time before the earliest date 
usually assigned to our Epistle. We are, 
therefore, almost driven to the conclusion that 
the author is (4), James the Lord's brother, 
whom we meet in the Acts as head of the 
Church at Jerusalem. And this conclusion, 
reasonable in itself, is confirmed by all the 
evidence at our disposal. Besides the positive 
statement of St. Jerome ('Vir. 111.' 2) that 
' James called the brother of the Lord ' wrote 
it, we have the striking correspondence in the 
thoughts and language of the Epistle to what 
we know of the character of the head of the 
Jerusalem Church. In the first place, there 
is the tone of authority which we find in the 
Epistle, natural to one in the position of St. 
James. Then there are the frequent refer- 
ences to the Old Testament, and to books like 
the Wisdom of Solomon and the Wisdom of 
Jesus son of Sirach (called in our version 
' Ecclesiasticus '), which to a devout Jew like 
St. James would be very familiar. [Observe 
the allusions to Genesis 1 (l 18 ), Abraham 
(221), R a hab (2 25 ), Deuteronomy 6 4 (cp. Jas 
219), j b (5H), Elijah (5 17 ), and compare Jas 

1 2-4, 5-8, 12-17, 23-25 w ith EccluS 1 2fi 2 i" 15 7 10 12 U 

!423 1511 Wisd7is, etc. See also Job 28 12 
(Jas 3 13), Prov334 (Jas 4 Mi), ProvlOi 2 (Jas 
5 20 ), Isa 40 7 (Jas 1 U). ] Then, again, the lan- 
guage of the Epistle is similar to that found 
in the speech of St. James, and in his circular 
letter (Ac 15). We conclude, therefore, that 
the well-nigh unanimous opinion, which 
assigns the Epistle to the brother of the Lord, 
is the only reasonable one. For the relation- 
ship implied by ' brother ' see on Mt 12 46 . 

Of the personality of this great man we can 
form a tolerably clear idea from the New 
Testament and early Church tradition. Re- 
fusing to accept Christ as Messiah during His 
earthly life, he was converted by a special 
appearance to him of the Risen Lord (1 Cor 
15 7 ). We can well believe that in the Naza- 
reth home he was carefully trained in all the 
precepts and practices of the Jewish faith, 
and to that faith he clung with deep devotion 
all through his life. We must picture him to 
ourselves, not as one of those false Jews 



whose observances were merely formal and 
external, but as one of those true and earnest 
Jews whose obedience to the Law was a joy 
and an inspiration- —whose life was lived in 
the spirit of Psll9. His sincere and spiritual 
Judaism would be a guide to lead him to 
Christ, the ' f ulfiller ' of the Law (Mt5 i7 ). 
The good Jew would make a good Christian. 
And in those early days it was possible to 
combine observance of the Law with obe- 
dience to the ' Royal Law ' of Christ. To St. 
James Christianity presents itself primarily 
as a Law (l 25 2 i2 411.12). This idea is found 
elsewhere in the New Testament (Ro8 2 Heb 
8 7_ i 3 ). The time had not yet come when (as 
in the crisis which called forth the Epistle to 
the Hebrews) it was necessary to choose be- 
tween Judaism and Christianity. And so, 
even as ' bishop ' of Jerusalem, St. James 
went on keeping the whole Law, although he 
was ready to grant the fullest liberty to those 
Gentile converts who had never been Jews by 
religion (Ac 15). He combined strong per- 
sonal convictions with the widest sympathy 
with the views of others. Hence, although 
himself a strict Jew, he could act cordially 
with St. Paul, the champion of Gentile liberty. 
At the end of each of his three missionary 
journeys the Apostle of the Gentiles went up 
to Jerusalem to report progress to St. James 
(Ac 15, 18 22 21 i8 ), and it was at his sugges- 
tion that St. Paul undertook the Nazirite vow 
in the Temple which led to the attack on him 
of the unbelieving Jews. At this point the 
narrative of the Acts leaves St. James ; but 
from the Jewish historian Josephus, and the 
converted Jew Hegesippus, we get accounts 
of his death which, though they differ in de- 
tails, agree in their main facts. From them 
we learn that he was held in great esteem by 
his fellow-countrymen, and even permitted to 
enter the Temple. A Sadducean high priest, 
Ananus, brought him before the Sanhedrin, 
and caused him to be put to death by stoning, 
spite of the remonstrances of all the better 
sort of Jews. James ' the Just ' (as he was 
called by his fellow-countrymen) died praying, 
like St. Stephen, for his murderers, a few 
years before the final overthrow of Judaism 
by the Romans. In very truth he was taken 
away from the evil to come. Some have seen 
in St. James the Restrainer of 2 Th 2 7 , after 
whose removal the Jewish apostasy would 
stand revealed, and receive its due reward in 
the overthrow of the nation and the religion 
of the Jews. 

2. The Readers. The Epistle is addressed 



1031 



INTRO- 



JAMES 



INTRO. 



' to the twelve tribes which are scattered 
abroad,' not exclusively to Christian Jews, 
nor even to the Jews of Jerusalem or Pales- 
tine only, but to all Jews scattered throughout 
the world. It is important to realise this at 
the outset, since it will help to explain what 
might otherwise be a difficulty — the absence 
from the Epistle of any distinctively Christian 
doctrine. Christianity is there indeed. St. 
James is 'the servant of the Lord Jesus 
Christ.' His faith is ' the faith of our Lord 
Jesus Christ.' But all through the Epistle 
his appeal is chiefly to that which was common 
to unconverted Jews and Christian Jews alike 
— the belief in one God, and reverence for the 
Old Testament Scriptures. No doubt there 
are special messages of consolation and en- 
couragement to the devout remnant who had 
accepted Christ as their Saviour and Messiah ; 
but he evidently hoped that his letter would 
be read by a wider circle, and that it would 
appeal to all earnest souls among his fellow- 
countrymen. The sins he denounces are those 
to which Jews were specially tempted — love 
of money, oppression of the poor, profession 
without practice, and the like. The tone and 
atmosphere of the Epistle are Jewish. Even 
the allusions to natural phenomena are drawn 
from those of Palestine. 

3. Date. This Jewish tone, and the absence 
of any allusion to the controversies which 
afterwards distracted the Church, combined 
with the simplicity of thought and the absence 
of any discussion of exclusively Christian 
topics, points to an early date, somewhere 
between 45 a.d. and 49 a.d. If that con- 
clusion be correct we shall see in the Epistle 
a ' golden bridge connecting the Old and New 
Testaments.' Some scholars, however, have 
assigned it to a later date in the life of St. 
James, i.e. about 60 a.d. or a little later, 
chiefly on the ground that in certain passages 
he appears to be correcting an exaggerated 
view of the teaching of St. Paul contained in 
Ro4 and Gal 3. Certainly there does appear 
to 1)0 a resemblance between these chs. and 
.las 2, but it must be remembered, (1) that the 
questions discussed were common subjects of 
debate among the .lews, and might therefore 
he dealt with by the two writers quite inde- 
pendently of one another ; and (2) that the 
resemblance may l>»- explained on the theory 
thai St. Paul was acquainted with our Epistle. 
Professor J. B. Mayer, indeed, considers that 
iu passages Like Bo5 a '' 7 s8 St. Paul has 
borrowed from St. .lames. On the whole, 

therefore, tin earlier date seems the more 
probable. 

4. Reception in the Church. In the fust 
ages of the Church <>m- Epistle does qoI Beexn 
1,, have been widely known. St. Clement of 
Rome (about '.'.". \.i>.) appears t<> have been 



acquainted with it, and Hermas (130-160 a.d.) 
has various allusions to it. The ancient Jew- 
Christian tract known as the ' Didache ' (? 100 
a.d.) has two or three passages which may 
refer to it. But it was not included in the 
list of books of the New Testament known as 
the Muratorian Canon (? 180 a.d.), and Euse- 
bius of Caesarea (4th cent.) says that, although 
it was generally received, there were doubts 
about its genuineness. In the East it was (as 
we should expect) well known. It is found 
in the ancient Peshitta Syriac version as well 
as in the oldest Egyptian versions. St. Jerome 
had ho doubts about it, and eventually it was 
universally accepted. Any hesitation there 
may have been about admitting it into the 
Canon of the New Testament is easily under- 
stood when we remember that it was a short 
letter addressed to Jews, and that there was 
in some quarters an idea, plausible but false, 
that there was antagonism between St. Paul 
and St. James. There is, therefore, no valid 
reason, either in the character of the Epistle 
or in its reception by the Church, for doubting 
the opinion of the vast majority of Christians 
that it is the genuine work of the brother of 
the Lord, and, probably, the earliest of the 
writings of the New Testament. Even those 
who assign to it a somewhat later date 
would agree with Dean Stanley in his remark 
that it is ' the earliest in spirit ' if not in 
time. 

5. Character and Contents. Allusion has 
already been made to the Jewish tone and 
undeveloped theology of the Epistle, as well 
as to the numerous references to the Old 
Testament and the Apocrypha which meet us 
at every turn. The question may therefore 
be asked, What is the special value to us Chris- 
tians of to-day of this brief Judaic Epistle 
with its somewhat narrow range and limited 
outlook ? If we approach the study of it 
from the right point of view, not regarding it 
as a treatise on Christian theology, but rather 
as a practical letter on Christian ethics treated 
from the standpoint of a devout Jew, we shall 
find it both interesting and deeply instructive. 
It occupies somewhat the same position in 
regard to the other Epistles as the teaching 
of St. John Baptist does in the gospel narra- 
tive : cp. Jas 1^-27 215.16 5 1 - 6 with MiS*-** 
Lk3 n . It is a call to repentance, and whole- 
heartedness and reality in religion. But it goes 
lint her than this. Everywhere we find the 
teaching of Christ reproduced, often in almost 
the very words of the Master: cp., for in- 
stance. Mtf> :! '- ;! < 6" 7 2 .16 1022 1236 18^ with 
.las;,'- 5 2 » 8 2" 312 112 31, -2 19-10. Notice 
also the resemblance between the Magnificat 
(Lkl 60 * 68 ) and Jas4 6 . No doubt the sins 
rebuked are those to which outwardly respect- 
able Jews were very prone, but they are sins 



1032 



INTRO. 



JAMES 



INTRO. 



which in this age of the Church's history also 
seem specially prevalent. The dangers of the 
possession of wealth, and the temptations 
which easily beset the rich man, the perils of 
half-heartedness and of the attempt to com- 
bine the service of God with the service of 
the world, the undue respect for mere rank 
and wealth, the anxiety to teach instead of 
to learn, sins of speech, and harsh and hasty 
judgments of others — all these things confront 
us to-day in other, but not less dangerous, forms 
than those which St. James attacked. So that 
we shall find that the Epistle is in many 
respects singularly modern in tone, and speci- 
ally helpful to us in dealing with modern 
problems, which after all are only the old 
problems in a new guise. 

6. Analysis. It is not easy to give an 
analysis of an Epistle which, at first sight, 
seems to be rather a collection of ethical pre- 
cepts than a connected whole. But, if we look 
closer, we shall find one great leading thought 
underlying the whole and binding together its 
various sections. And that thought is the 
central doctrine of the Old Testament, ' Hear, 
Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord ' (Dt 
6 4 ). That was the creed of every devout Jew, 
and that is the text of St. James's homily. If 
God is one — one in Himself as well as the 
one true God — then His children, made in His 
image (Gn 1 26 ), must strive to be like Him. In 
God there is no change (1 17 ). He is ' the same 
yesterday and to-day and for ever' (Hebl3 8 ). 
He is wholly good. He demands from His 
children complete sincerity and whole-hearted 
love and obedience ; hence the heinousness of 
sins like want of faith (1 6 ), hearing without 
doing (1 22 ), inconsistency in religious observ- 
ances (l 26 2 1 ), partial obedience (2 10 ), using 
the tongue for cursing as well as blessing (3 9 ), 
the attempt to combine the service of God 
with the service of the world (4 2 ). With this 
clue in our hands we can proceed to an analysis 
of the Epistle. 

(Probably the author of the Epistle to the 
Hebrews alludes here and elsewhere to St. 
James: cp. Hebll^i 12 u with Jas3is 2 2 *. 
Possibly Hebll starts with a definition of 
faith because of the difficulties raised by Jas 
214-26. Hebl3 7 is supposed by many to con- 
tain an allusion to the death of St. James.) 

C. 1. 1. Salutation. 2-8. Trial from with- 
out, a source of joy to the man of prayer and 
faith. 9-12. Poverty is an example of those 
trials which may become joys. The reward of 
patient endurance. 13-18. Trial from within 
(= temptation) ; not from God, but from a 
man's own sinful inclinations. God, our Maker, 
the author of good and never of evil. 19-25. 
We must be ready to listen and to receive the 
Word. But we must not be mere listeners ; 
we must be doers. 26, 27. Our religious ser- 



vice must be real and practical. We must 
carry our worship into life by showing love 
and sympathy to others. 

C. 2. 1-7. An instance of that inconsistency 
of life which is unworthy of a child of God — 
undue respect for wealth and position. 8-13. 
As God is one, so is His Law one. You can- 
not break a part without violating the whole 
Law. 14-26. Another instance of inconsist- 
ency — ' faith ' without practice, which is really 
no faith at all. 

C. 3. 1, 2. Warning against the excessive 
desire to become teachers of others. The 
teacher's work is one of great responsibility. 
3-12. All are liable to err, especially in speech. 
The tongue is a terrible power for mischief, 
and often leads to inconsistency. With the 
same tongue we bless God and curse men. 
13-18. The true wisdom contrasted with the 
false. 

C. 4. 1-4. Stern denunciation of those who 
pursue worldly pleasure. Such pursuit leads 
to crime and marks a man as the enemy of 
God. He is a jealous God. 5-10. God resists 
the proud and gives grace to the humble. 
Therefore surrender your wills to Him, and 
in His strength fight the devil. Repent of 
your sins and inconsistency of life, and then 
God will exalt you. 11, 12. Show humility 
by refraining from speaking evil of your 
brethren. By so speaking you sit in judg- 
ment upon and condemn the Law of God, and 
even the Lawgiver Himself. 13-17. Stern 
prophetic denunciation of those who form 
schemes of money-getting without any thought 
of God. 

C. 5. 1-6. Denunciation of the tyranny and 
injustice of the rich. 7-11. Exhortation to 
the Christian Jews to be patient and uncom- 
plaining. The Judge who will right all wrong 
is at hand. 12-20. Postscript. Warning 
against swearing. The right use of sorrow 
and joy. The sick man is to confess to the 
' elders of the Church,' who will intercede for 
him with God. The value of intercessory 
prayer, especially for the diseases of the soul. 
The man who saves a soul from death brings 
a blessing to himself as well as to others. 

[The changes of tone from stern denuncia- 
tion to tenderness in the last chs. are most 
likely due to the fact that St. James is some- 
times addressing non- Christian Jews and 
sometimes his ' beloved brethren ' in Christ. 
It is to be observed that the sections of greatest 
severity (4 1 - 4 ' 13 * 17 5 1-6 ) never employ the words 
' brethren,' ' my brethren,' which are character- 
istic of the rest of the Epistle. In the little 
Christian communities of the East there would 
not be many rich men. Indeed, the Church 
of Jerusalem was notoriously poor (Ac ll 29 
Rol5 26 lCorie 1 " 3 ). Probably many of the 
Jew-Christians were in the employment of 



1033 



1. 1 



JAMES 



2.1 



their rich fellow-countn T men, who would cheat 
them of their wages and oppress them (2 6 5 4 .)] 

CHAPTER 1 

The Power of Faith under Temptation 

i. Servant] better, ' slave.' The word does 
not suggest any degradation, but only absolute 
surrender to the Master. St. James's humility 
prevents the mention of the earthly relation- 
ship. Scattered abroad] RY ' of the Disper- 
sion.' Jews were found (sometimes in great 
numbers) in all the cities of the Roman empire. 
They kept up their connexion with the 
mother-country by going up to the great Jewish 
feasts. Greeting] better, ' joy be with you.' 
This form of salutation is found elsewhere 
only in Acl5 23 . 

2. Temptations] better, ' trials ' (from with- 
out). Trials, rightly borne, bring joy. The 
Christian is bidden to pray ' lead us not into 
temptation' (= trial) ; but for him, trial, when 
it comes, may be made to yield ' peaceable 
fruit' (Hebl2 n ). Out of bitter may come 
sweet. 3. Trying] RY ' proof,' or ' process 
of testing.' 4. Perfect and entire] better, 'full 
grown ' (Eph4 13 ), and ' complete ' (1 Th 5 23 ). 

6. Wavereth] RV ■ doubteth.' Wave] RV 
' surge.' St. James is thinking of the sudden 
storms on the lake of Galilee. This is the 
first of the eleven metaphors drawn from the 
natural phenomena of Palestine which recall 
our Lord's earlier parables, and show St. 
James as a keen observer of nature. 8. A 
double-minded man is unstable] better, ' he is a 
double-minded man, unstable,' etc. ' Double- 
minded ' is one of the key-words of the Epistle. 
It implies half-hearted allegiance — an attempt 
to combine the service of God with the service 
of self and the world (Mt6 24 ). 

9. Rejoice] better, ' exult.' Poverty is an 
instance of those trials which may become joys. 
The poor man is to exult in his high estate as 
a Christian : the rich man is to glory in the 
loss of those riches which are so dangerous 
and so fleeting. 11. Burning heat] better, 
' sirocco,' the hot wind of Palestine which 
parches vegetation. Ways] better, k goings ' ; 
perhaps used of the journeyings of rich mer- 
chants (4 13 ). 12. When he is tried] RV ' when 
he hath been approved.' Crown] the wreath 
that crowns the victor (2 Tim I s Etev2 10 ). 

13-15. Trials from within (= temptations). 
The Jews seem to have sometimes believed 
(from a mistaken interpretation of passages 
like -JSlM 1 ) that Qod sent temptat ions, and 
that it was therefore impossible bo resisl 

them (Bo 9 '''). This error was fatal alike to 
any true conception of (iod and to any real- 
isation of human responsibility. It made the 
one God inconsistent with Himself, (iod is 
insusceptible to evil, and never tempts to Bin, 

though He ma) permit temptation, in order 



that we may be made stronger by resisting it. 
Temptation comes from a man's own heart, 
with its evil desire, that draws him from the 
right path. Desire becomes the mother of 
sin. Sin grows up and has a child — death. 

17. God is the source of good, and of good 
only. Every good gift and every perfect boon 
(not ' gift,' as AY) comes from Him, who is 
the creator of the sun, moon, and stars. But, 
while they change and vary, and, as they re- 
volve, are sometimes in shadow. He is always 
the same. Shadow of turning] RV k shadow 
that is cast by turning.' 18. Begat] RV 
' brought forth. ' It seems at first sight natural 
to see in this v. a reference to the new birth of 
baptism, or to the regenerating power of the 
gospel (1 Pet 1 23 ). But such ideas are foreign 
to the simplicity of St. James's theological 
thought. The word of truth is the divine 
word which brought about the creation of man 
in God's image (Gn 1 26 ). Firstfruits] see Nu' 
15 21 Dtl83,4R ni6. 

19. Wherefore] RY ' ye know this.' 

20. The bitter words and angry passions of 
men will never bring about that righteous- 
ness — that entire and loving obedience to His 
divine will — which God requires from His 
children. 

21. Superfluity of naughtiness] better, 'over- 
flowing of malice.' The much-speaking of the 
Jews often ended in evil-speaking. 

Engrafted] RY ' implanted.' The Word is 
like a seed lying in the heart, which, under 
favourable conditions, would grow and bear 
fruit in life. 

22-25. Hearing without doing is useless. 
A mere hearer is like a man who glances at his 
natural face in a mirror (1 Corl3 12 ), and then 
goes away and at once forgets what he looks 
like. But the man who practises as well as 
hears stoops down and gazes into the perfect 
Law of Christ, obedience to which is perfect 
freedom. He remembers the ideal of Christian 
manhood he sees there, and strives to realise 
it in life. Thus he wins blessing. See on 2 12 . 

26. Religion] better, ' religious observance, 
the outward service of God.' In order that the 
service and worship of God may be acceptable, 
the man who offers it must (1) show practical 
love and sympathy, and (2) strive after per- 
sonal holiness (Pss406-8 51*M7 lsal^ 2 0); 
otherwise he is inconsistent. 

CHAPTER 2 

Warnings against Respect of Persons. 
Belief and Practice 
1. Another instance of inconsistency. Jesus 
Christ the Lord of glory] better, 'Jesus Christ 
the glory,' or ' the glorious one.' One of the 
rare passages in which St. James breaks 
through his habitual reserve in speaking of 
the Master, and shows us something of his 



1034 



2. 2 



JAMES 



3. 1 



devotion to Christ. Such reserve was natural 
to a Jew. 2. In the Jewish- Christian Church 
the place for worship is still the synagogue 
(HeblO 25 ). At first strangers would be 
admitted (1 Cor 1416). ^ Partial] better, 
' divided ' between Christian duty and worldly 
interests. 

Judges of evil thoughts] better, ' evil- 
thinking judges.' By showing undue prefer- 
ence to the rich man you judge, and judge 
wrongly, as to the relative merits of the rich 
and the poor man (see 4 11 ). God, the Just 
Judge, gives greater honour to the pious poor 
man. He is an heir of the kingdom (1 9 ). 

6. Josephus (' Ant.' 28. 8) speaks of the 
cruelty of the rich Sadducees to the poor in 
Jerusalem : cp. also Isa3 15 Am.4 1 , and many 
other passages from the prophets of the OT. 
denouncing the cruelty and oppression of the 
rich. 7. Worthy name] RV ' honourable name.' 
For baptism into the name of Christ see Ac 
23S. For the expression cp. Ac5 41 (RV) Phil 
2 9 . By the which ye are called] better, ' which 
was called over you,' i.e. probably at baptism. 
8. Royal law] see Lvl9 18 and Mt5 43 < 
10. It might be said that, even if a man 
transgressed the Law of Christ in the matter 
of respect of persons, he was only breaking a 
small part of that Law. Not so. The Law, 
like the Lawgiver, is one. To break any com- 
mandment is to violate the whole Law of 
love, the unity of which is marred by any dis- 
obedience. 

12. The law of liberty] better, 'a law of 
liberty.' There can be no true liberty without 
obedience. A Law of liberty is one which a 
man obeys freely, not because he must, but 
because it is a Law of love, which is gladly 
obeyed. To serve the Master, Christ, is ' per- 
fect freedom.' To St. James even the OT. Law 
— though imperfect — was something higher 
than a mere code. He saw in it the under- 
lying principle of love. Thus he was led on 
to find in the Law of Christ the fulfilment of 
the old Law. 13. The meaning of the last 
phrase probably is, The unmerciful and un- 
loving man is condemned without pity (Mt 
1821-35^ but the merciful man is triumphantly 
acquitted. The man who loves is ' justified ' 
by God. 

14. A third instance of inconsistency — great 
profession of belief without practice. In order 
to understand this passage we must bear in 
mind that St. James is here using the word 
' faith ' in a sense opposite to that of 1 3 > 6 , 
and different also from that in which St. Paul 
uses it. To St. Paul faith is always living and 
loving belief in Christ. To St. James (in this 
passage) faith is a kind of ' otiose assent,' or 
at any rate a ' barren orthodoxy, untouched by 
love.' Similarly, to St. Paul ' works ' are the 
works of the Law — the fulfilment of certain 



obligations quite apart from faith. To St. 
James ' works ' are the necessary fruits of 
Faith, without which Faith in any true sense 
cannot exist. That the two writers are in 
substantial agreement is shown by passages 
like 2Cor9 8 Eph2io 2Th2i7 1 Tim 2 10 5 10 
6 is 2 Tim 3 17 Tit 2 7, l* 3 8 . (St. James's « faith ' 
would be represented in St. Paul's language 
by ' knowledge,' and his ' works ' by ' the fruits 
of the Spirit.') The difference is ' merely a 
difference in method of stating the truth.' The 
two writers, ' like trains on different pairs of 
rails, cannot collide, though they may seem to 
be in danger of doing so.' The further ques- 
tion whether, if either was acquainted with 
the writings of the other, he would have used 
phrases liable to be misunderstood, is one not 
easy to answer with certainty ; but at least we 
may say that it cannot be regarded as proved 
that either of the two had read the work of 
the other. It is, at any rate, unlikely that 
St. James had read St. Paul. 

15-17. Faith without practical love of the 
brethren is dead. The reference may be to 
the famine of Ac ll 28 " 30 . Being - alone] RV 
'in itself.' 18. If you have 'faith' without 
active piety to be its evidence, it is impossible 
for any one to be sure that you have faith at 
all. 19. Tremble] better, 'shudder.' Even 
the evil spirits have a kind of ' faith ' ; and 
their faith bears fruit of a sort. It causes 
them profound fear : Mk 1 24 Lk8 28 . No doubt 
St. James has in his mind these incidents 
recorded in the Gospels. 

20-25. The appeal to Scripture. Abra- 
ham's readiness to sacrifice his only son was 
the crowning act of a life of faith which 
began when he left home and country. By 
that faith he was ' justified ' (i.e. acquitted at 
the bar of God's judgment), and called God's 
friend (Isa41 8 ). So also, when Rahab re- 
ceived Joshua's spies and saved their lives, 
her faith was practical (Josh 2 7 Hebll 3 ! 
1 Clem 12). Rahab, though a Gentile and an 
outsider, was sure that the God of Israel was 
the one true God, and that His people would 
be victorious. And she had the courage of 
her convictions. She showed in a practical 
way that she was on the Lord's side, and so 
was rewarded by becoming an ancestress of 
Christ Himself after the flesh (Mt 1 5). 

26. Without] better, ' apart from.' 

CHAPTER 3 

The Control of the Tongue 
1, 2. Warning against undue eagerness to 
teach: cp. Mtl2 3 7 237 Ro2i9.20 lCorl2 28 
1426-40 Eph4H. Masters] better, 'teachers.' 
The position of a teacher is one of great 
responsibility. Greater condemnation] RV 
'heavier judgement' (Lkl2 48 ). We all fre- 
quently err (RV ' stumble,' better than AV 



1035 



3. 4 



JAMES 



4.5 



offend). There is no such thing as human in- 
fallibility. That which is most likely to cause 
us to err is the tongue (vv. 3-12). 4. Governor] 
RV ' steersman.' 

5. Great power is exercised by small things 
like a horse's bridle and a rudder. So also the 
tongue, although small, is very powerful, and 
generally for evil rather than for good. How 
great a matter] better, 'how great a wood.' 
A tiny spark can set on fire a great forest. 

6. The tongue is . . a world of iniquity] better, 
' the tongue maketh itself (or, becometh) like 
the wicked world.' The idea conveyed in this 
difficult passage seems to be that, while other 
members can sin only to a limited extent, the 
tongue can inspire and cause a whole cycle of 
wickedness — a whole world of evil. ' There is 
no divine law which the tongue cannot break ' 
(R. W. Dale, 'Epistle of James,' 94). Course 
of nature] perhaps, ' the wheel of nature ' — 
the whole circle or sphere of life. 

Set on fire of hell (RY ' by hell ')] i.e. the 
source from which this evil activity of the 
tongue springs is hell, the Gehenna of Fire. 

8. Unruly] better, ' restless,' ' unstable,' 
' never still.' 

9-12. ' The tongue is not only mischievous, 
but also gives rise to inconsistency. With it 
we bless the God of love (and thereby profess 
that we are striving to be like Him), and in the 
same breath curse our fellow-men, made in His 
image. Nature should teach us to avoid such 
inconsistency. The purposes of nature are 
clear and single. Fig trees bear figs, and vines 
grapes. Salt water does not yield fresh.' The 
last clause means that, just as a fountain of 
bitter water cannot yield any that is sweet, so 
the man who speaks bitter words against his 
fellow-men cannot truly praise or love God 
(lJn4«0. 

13. Here St. James returns from the 
digression of vv. 3-12 to the subject of vv. 1, 2. 
His readers desired to become teachers. But 
the first qualification for a teacher is wisdom. 
True wisdom defined, and contrasted with its 
counterfeit. Out of a good conversation] RY 
' by his good life.' True wisdom is practical 
and gentle ; false wisdom shows itself in strife 
and party spirit. If a contentious man boasts 
of hits wisdom he is a liar. 15. Sensual] better, 
'carnal.' 'belonging to the natural man' 
(lCor2M i;-,n). 17. Easy to be intreated] 
better, 'teachable,' ready to welcome truth 
from whatever quarter it may come, not re- 
fusing the guidance of others. Without par- 
tiality] better. ' free from double-mindedness.' 
18. Of them that make peace] better, 'by 
peacemakers. 1 The wise man is a peacemaker 

who sows good Beed that in God's time will 
hear precious fruit. 

To sum up. The heavenly wisdom is. (1) 
chaste, pure (in relation to its possessor) ; (2) 



peaceable (in its relation to others), (a) actively, 
' reasonable,' (b) passively, k easy to be per- 
suaded ' ; (3) practical, ' full of pity and good 
works ' ; (4) certain of itself, ' without doubt- 
fulness,' and therefore ' without hypocrisy.' 
Wisdom, in St. James's view, is moral rather 
than an intellectual quality. 

CHAPTER 4 
Denunciation of Greed and Love 

of Pleasure 
1. Lusts] better, 'pleasures.' 2. 'You 
eagerly desire something which another has 
and you have not. This unregulated desire 
may lead to hate and even murder (cp. Ahab, 
1K21), but even so your covetous desires go 
on ; they grow by what they feed on. Still you 
have not got your desire. Then comes the 
wholesale murder of unjust war ; and yet you 
are unsatisfied, because you try to get things 
for yourselves, instead of asking God for 
them.' The chief difficulty of this passage lies 
in the words 'ye kill.' It has been argued 
that the words as they stand are out of place, 
and that the early Christians of St. James's 
time could not have been guilty of murder 
It has been suggested that the true reading is 
a word translated ' ye are envious.' But, (1) 
while a Christian in these first days might not 
have been guilty of actual murder, he might 
well have given way to those feelings of hate 
which lead to murder ('Whosoever hateth 
his brother is a murderer,' 1 Jn3 15 ) ; and, (2) 
the Epistle was not meant exclusively for 
Christian Jews, In the Jewish society of 
St. James's day murder was frequently the 
first means by which a man sought to gratify 
his desires (Mkl5? Ac 2 138 23 14 ). With a 
passionate people like the Jews there was 
always a danger of a sudden attack and 
murder. 

4. Adulterers and adulteresses] RV 'adul- 
teresses ' (without ' adulterers and '), meaning, 
of course, those who have forsaken God. The 
thought is very common in the OT. (Isa57 3 * 9 
Jer 3 20 Ezk 1 6 Hos 2). It is also found in Mt 
12 39 . The metaphor of the Church as the 
bride of Christ occurs in Eph5 22 and other 
passages of the NT. 

5. The spirit that dwelleth in us lusteth to 
envy] better, k God longeth eagerly for the 
spirit that He planted in us.' St. James is 
here alluding to several passages in the OT. 
rather than quoting accurately. The thought 
is found in Ex20 5 34i* Dt4 24 . 'God is a 
jealous God, but His jealous love is very 
different from that of man. It shows itself 
in the good gift of more grace. He longs 
that the spirit of man should be drawn more 
closely to Him, and become like Him.' The 
above is the best rendering of a disputed pas- 
sage. Others translate, k The (Holy) Spirit 



103G 



w 



4.7 



JAMES 



5. 16 



which He made to dwell in us yearns for us.' 
But there does not seem to be any specific 
reference to the work of the Holy Spirit in 
this passage. 

7-12. Duty to God — humility, sincerity, 
repentance. Duty to man — to live in love, 
and refrain from slander and fault-finding. 

8. Double minded] Notice the recurrence of 
the key-note struck in I s . 9. Heaviness] 
better, 'dejection.' 11. When a man speaks 
against his brother he is practically condemn- 
ing the Law of Love, and thus arrogating to 
himself the office of a judge. In criticising 
that Law he is virtually criticising the divine 
Lawgiver. 

13-C. 5 6 . Stern denunciation of the pre- 
sumption and tyranny of the rich. From the 
Old and NT. it may be gathered that, on the 
whole, wealth was misused by the Jews, and 
that therefore the ' mammon of unrighteous- 
ness ' was an occasion of sin and a terrible 
temptation. St. James's teaching about wealth 
is put in a'brief , uncompromising form, without 
limitations or exceptions. The possession of 
riches is regarded as a danger. But that a 
Christian might possess wealth, if only he 
recognised that he was a steward of it(Lk 16 1_12 ), 
is clear from passages like 1 Tim 6 17_19 . Zac- 
chaeus (Lkl9 1-9 ) and Joseph of Arimathsea 
(Mt27 57 ) were both rich, and both disciples. 

13. Such a city] BY ' this city.' The pre- 
sumption rebuked is that of the rich (? non- 
Christian) Jewish merchant who travelled for 
purposes of gain. 14. What is your life? It 
is even a vapour] BY ' Ye are a vapour.' 

CHAPTEB 5 
Bebuke and Encouragement 

2. Are corrupted, etc.] prophetic tense, in 
which the future is spoken of as though it 
were already come to pass. 3. For the last 
days] BY ' in the last days.' The warning 
was fulfilled during the siege of Jerusalem, 
when many rich Jews were slain by Zealots 
(Jos. ' Wars,' 5. 10). 4. Lord of Sabaoth] an 
OT. phrase = ' Lord of Hosts.' It is not 
found elsewhere in the NT., except once in a 
quotation (Bo 9 29 ). 5. As in a day of slaughter] 
omit ' as,' and cp. Jerl2 3 25 34 . 6. The just] 
BY 'righteous one,' may refer (as Ac3 14 7 52 ) 
to our Lord, but is perhaps a general state- 
ment, although in that case the plural rather 
than the singular would naturally be used. 

7— II. A message of patience and hope to 
the persecuted Christians. 

7. There will be a final Judgment, when 
justice will be done. Therefore be patient 
(better, ' longsuffering,' Bo 2 4 ). 8. The coming 
of the Lord] here clearly the reference is to 
the Lord Christ, to whom St. James applies 
the sacred Name given by the Jews to God the 
Father. To a Christian Jew the promise was 



fulfilled in the siege and destruction of Jeru- 
salem. Early and latter rain] Another illus- 
tration from Palestine (DtlH 4 Jer5 2 * Joel2 2 8 
ZechlO 1 ). 9. Do not let your irritation and 
soreness at outside oppression vent itself in 
impatience and grumbling towards one another. 

11. Patience] better, 'endurance.' This is 
the only NT. reference to Job, though the 
book is quoted 1 r or 3 19 . End of the Lord] 
In the end God turned Job's sorrow into joy, 
and showed that He is full of compassion and 
mercy. 

12. See Mt5 33-3,7 . It was a common Jewish 
sin to confirm statements by an oath or curse 
(Mt23!6 Mkl47i). The question of judicial 
oaths is not touched either here or in the 
Gospels. Above all things] i.e. in your con- 
troversies and quarrels (referring back to v. 9) 
' avoid especially the use of an oath to 
strengthen your assertions in ordinary conver- 
sation.' The use of oaths when seriously taken 
as in the presence of God was allowed both by 
the Old and the NT. (Dt6 13 Ps63 n Isa65 16 
Jer4 2 Bol 9 9! 2Corl 23 ll 3 i, etc). 13. The 
true means of sanctifying times of excitement, 
whether joyful or sorrowful. We must 
make the worship of God the outlet for our 
emotion. 

14-16. In order to understand this passage, 
round which much controversy has raged, we 
must remember that it was, and is, a Jewish 
custom for a sick man to make his confession 
to some rabbi or rabbis. Elaborate rules to 
guide those who receive such clinical confes- 
sions are found in the Talmud. St. James is 
telling his readers that this custom was to be 
continued by Christian Jews, and that the con- 
fession of the sick man was to be made to the 
clergy (' presbyters ') of the Church. They would 
then (1) pray over him for the pardon of his 
sins, and (2) anoint him with oil (the recognised 
remedy, Isal 6 Mk6 13 LklO 34 ). By these 
means he would obtain forgiveness of his sins, 
and (if it were God's will) recover from his sick- 
ness. It is scarcely necessary to point out 
that the Boman Catholic doctrine of Extreme 
Unction receives no justification from this pas- 
sage. In the Prayer-Book (' Office for the 
Yisitation of the Sick ') the lines laid down 
by St. James are closely followed. To a 
Jew sickness and sin were associated ( Jn 9 2 ). 

16. Confess your faults] BY ' Confess there- 
fore your sins,' referring back to the previous 
vv. St. James is throughout talking about the 
confession of a sick man to the elders. He 
does not touch upon the wider question of the 
lawfulness of confession generally. 

The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous 
man] better, ' the supplication of a just man 
availeth much in its working.' Once more St. 
James draws his illustration from the OT. 
Elijah, though a great and holy man, was yet 



1037 



5. 19 



JAMES— 1 PETER 



INTRO. 



a man of like nature with any other man. 
But, being holy, he was mighty in interces- 
sion. His intercessions not only removed the 
national trouble, sent as a punishment for 
national sins, but also (for the time, at least), 
brought about a national repentance and there- 
fore the divine pardon. The supplication of 
Elijah for the sick nation is analogous to the 
supplication of the presbyter for the sick 
man. 

19. The glorious privilege of the man who 
brings a human soul to repent and believe. 



He saves a soul from spiritual death, and is 
himself blessed. 

20. The concluding words (quoted from 
ProvlO 12 and found also in lPet4 8 ) are 
usually referred to the sinner. But passages 
like Ecclus3 30 Dan4 2 < Tob4io 129 sno w that 
the later Jews held that good deeds blot out 
the sins of those who do them. Probably St. 
James has these passages in his mind, and 
teaches that he who waters others shall be 
watered also himself — that, in covering the sins 
of another a man may be covering his own. 



1 PETER 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Author. The author describes himself 
as ' Peter an apostle of Jesus Christ ' through- 
out, and there is no reason to doubt the truth 
of his claim. The Christian writers who 
lived nearest to apostolic times knew the 
Epistle, and did not question its authorship, 
and, as soon as collections of apostolic books 
were formed, we find it included in them. 
Only in modern times have objections been 
raised, on the ground that such widespread 
and severe persecution as the letter implies 
was unknown during St. Peter's lifetime, and 
that the author is more indebted to St. Paul's 
Epistles than St. Peter was likely to be. 
These objections disappear when the Epistle 
itself and the relations of St. Peter to St. 
Paul are carefully studied. 

2. Occasion and Contents. That both 
writer and readers were expecting a severe 
persecution is the first and strongest impression 
which the letter leaves on us. But this 'fiery 
trial ' is only expected ; it is not even certain 
that it will come at all (3 14 " 1 ?). As yet 
there has been suffering from slander and 
isolation, but now something worse is certainly 
looked for. What had caused this expectation ? 
In 64 a.d. there had been a great fire at Rome, 
which the Emperor Nero was suspected of 
having caused. He directly afterwards put 
to death a large number of Christians in order 
to quiet the people. Trustworthy tradition 
says that both St. Paul and St. Peter were 
slain in the persecution that thus began ; it is, 
however, not improbable that St. Paul suffered 
some years before St Peter. This news would 
soon spread to the ( 'hristians in all parts of the 
empire, who would naturally begin to fear for 
themselves. The Christians to whom this 
Epistle was written dwelt in districts of Asia 



10; 18 



Minor, all of which probably, and two of which 
certainly, were connected with St. Paul. It 
was carried by Silvanus, the friend of St. 
Paul. It is then reasonable to suppose that 
St. Peter wrote to these people soon after St, 
Paul's martyrdom, being himself at the time 
in Rome, surrounded by the sorrows and 
dangers of a terrible persecution, to encourage 
them to meet the trial steadfastly, if, as they 
feared, it should reach them. Silvanus would 
tell them all there was to tell about their 
master Paul. The letter from St. Peter 
would show that they were still cared for by 
an Apostle, to whom some of them probably 
owed their conversion on the first Whit 
Sunday : cp. Ac 2 9 f « and 1 Pet 1 1. It contained 
too encouragement of a deeper kind. St. 
Peter begins by greeting them in the name of 
the Holy Trinity ; reminds them that all 
events have their source in God's foreknow- 
ledge ; that this trial is part of His eternal 
purpose, and that they are therefore sure of 
His protection ; that, if the veil were lifted, 
as one day it will be, they would see the 
divine power and glory surrounding them ; 
that Christ's work was done through suffering, 
and that suffering is the proper state of Chris- 
tians, and the condition of their happiness and 
hope, for safety from the perils of this life is 
a little matter to those who are heirs of eternal 
safety ; that the Holy Spirit, who in times 
past gave ancient Israel its Messianic hope, is 
with them still, making them the people of 
Christ, the manifested Messiah, binding to- 
gether the whole brotherhood throughout the 
world for the fulfilment of God's single 
purpose, and enabling them to live as a con- 
secrated people should. 'In quietness and 
confidence shall be your strength ' is the sum 



INTRO. 



1 PETER 



INTRO. 



of his encouragement. Those whom the 
heathen scorn as ' Christians ' must live, and, 
if need be, suffer, as men would who are like 
Christ, being holy, gentle, courteous, loyal, 
giving no occasion for real offence. Even the 
imperial authority is to be respected ; what- 
ever Nero's conduct may be, his office is of 
divine appointment. But more than that : 
Christ's sufferings were sacrificial ; through 
them He saved sinners, and through death the 
scope of His redeeming work was enlarged. 
So through their sufferings — to which they 
have been consecrated by the sprinkling of 
Christ's Blood — these Christians may be the 
means of bringing even their persecutors to 
salvation. 

3. General Remarks on the Epistle. No one 
was better fitted than St. Peter to write such an 
Epistle. The Lord had named him Peter the 
Rock ; and though his conduct in gospel days 
may sometimes have seemed to belie the name, 
yet his later life showed that Christ had judged 
his character aright, and had by His discipline 
1 stablished and strengthened ' his steadfastness. 
He stood firm in Jerusalem before persecuting 
rulers, and knew how persecution should be 
met. 

His speeches, as recorded in Acts, show that 
he was sustained in those days by the same 
kind of thoughts as he expresses in this Epistle 
— obedience is the great duty ; the sufferings 
of Christ were appointed by God, and were 
' not the chance triumph of His enemies ; they 
involved humiliation, rejection, and the curse 
of the Tree ; they led to the Resurrection which 
was due to the act of the Father, and is the 
source of Christian hope ; now He sits supreme 
at the right hand of God, and has poured forth 
upon His people the Holy Spirit of whom He 
had received the promise from the Father : 
from thence He shall come at the time of the 
restoration of all things to judge the quick and 
dead. Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah, of 
whom prophets spoke, and for whom Israel 
hoped. Forgiveness and repentance come from 
Him, and through faith in His name is safety 
and salvation. The Apostles are His witnesses, 
and so is the Holy Spirit in His people. All 
that has happened since He came is the out- 
come of past history, and there has been no 
break in the life of the people who are God's 
peculiar care ; among them the believing Gen- 
tiles are also reckoned. 

There has however been some progress in 
the Apostle's mind between the speeches and 
the Epistle. Christ's sufferings, once his stum- 
bling-block, had become reasonable to him 
after the Resurrection ; now he sees that they 
are the beginning of His glory and the great 
means of His salvation. Now he understands, 
as he scarcely did then, their sacrificial char- 
acter, and therefore lays more stress than he 



did on the Christian privilege of suffering for 
others, and aiding to advance the salvation of 
the world. It is remarkable that Ac2 31 is the 
closest parallel that can be found in NT. to 
lPet3 18f -, but that, whereas in the speech 
Christ's continued life in the spirit is alone 
mentioned, in the Epistle the subject is the 
extension of His redeeming work to those who 
seemed to have perished beyond hope. 

This development is natural in an Apostle 
who had for years been testing by experience 
the power of the gospel, but it is likely that 
St. Paul had been a special aid to him. From 
Gal2 n - 14 some have imagined that there was 
the same continued opposition between them as 
there was between St. Paul and the narrow Ju- 
daising conservatives who ' came from James.' 
But the broad lesson of NT. is that the Apo- 
stles, in spite of differences of training and 
temperament, were agreed on all important 
points, and were strong enough to overcome 
the scruples and opposition of these Judaisers. 
This Epistle seems to have been written to 
Churches which were mainly composed of 
Gentile Christians ; but the old disputes about 
the Law have long ago been settled ; there is 
no trace of them here ; the Church is no longer 
divided ; all Christians alike are simply the 
inheritors of ancient Israel. There is then 
nothing strange in finding, as we certainly do, 
that St. Peter has studied Epistles of St. Paul 
with care. "With Romans and Ephesians in 
particular, it is plain that he is thoroughly 
familiar. To quote detached verses would 
hardly be convincing. Most of the parallels 
are pointed out in the notes, and it will be 
seen that the thoughts of whole passages are 
reproduced with just that kind of difference 
which would be expected if the resemblance 
were due to memory, not copying. St. Peter 
has borrowed nothing which he has not made 
his own. He does not follow St. Paul in his 
use of • flesh ' for man's lower, corrupt nature, 
or of ' soul ' for that part of man's compound 
being which he shares with all that lives, but 
gives to these words the simple meaning which 
they bear in the Gospels. Nor does he speak 
of faith quite as St. Paul does ; faith in this 
Epistle, as in Hebrews, is akin to hope ; it is 
belief in that which shall at last be revealed. 
He twice uses the phrase ' in Christ,' but does 
not, like St. Paul, make it the very centre of 
his theology. The doctrine which it implies, 
and which was derived from our Lord Himself, 
is found indeed in St. Peter, but he lays on 
the whole more stress on following Christ as 
a leader than on the mystical union with Christ, 
which St. Paul realised vividly. In Ephesians 
the immediate coming of Christ seems to be 
no longer expected ; a long course of develop- 
ment in the Church is looked for. But St. 
Peter, with the fearful signs of the changed 



1039 



INTRO. 



1 PETER 



1. a 



time before him, writes, ' The end of all things companionship of a great character does raise 






is at hand.' He never applies the title of 
Church, so frequent in that Epistle, to the 
Christian community. 

That the Epistle of St. James had been 
studied also by St. Peter seems certain, and if 
this was written at an early date in Palestine, 
he may have done so in his Palestinian days. 
Cp. 1 Pet 17,12, 24 48 55 w ith Jasl 3 - 11 . 25 4«5 2 o. 

He presents us indeed in this Epistle with 
'Thoughts, sometimes new and rare, but chiefly 
drawn 

Out of the treasure-house of memories dear,' 

and the dearest of those memories are of his 
Lord. Christ's sufferings ; the new life of 
hope which began with the Resurrection ; the 
restoration of the fallen Apostle when Christ 
bade him ' Feed, tend, My sheep, My lambs' ; 
the Saviour washing the disciples' feet with 
the towel knotted round Him ; the Apostle's 
own confession that Jesus was the Christ, 
and the Lord's answer,' Happy art thou, Simon' 
— these are some of the gospel memories 
which he unobtrusively introduces into his 
letter, and all through it we perceive his 
longing to see his beloved Lord again. 

4. Two points remain for special notice. 
(1) If St. Peter wrote from Rome why does 
he say ' She that is in Babylon saluteth you ' 
(5 13 RV) ? In Revelation Babylon means 
Rome. It is not unlikely that St. Peter 
should have applied the name, even at an 
earlier time, to the city which was already 
being stained with the blood of the saints. 
That title for Rome would correspond with 
the Jewish titles which he gives to the 
Gentile Christians. There is no trustworthy 
evidence that he ever went to the real Babylon. 
St. Mark, from whom greeting is sent, was 
summoned to Rome by St. Paul just before 
his martyrdom (2 Tim 4 n ). The order in 
which the districts are named can only be 
explained if the letter was sent by sea. The 
two Epistles of St. Paul which have particu- 
larly influenced its thought and language were 
connected with Rome ; so was, probably, the 
Epistle to the Hebrews, which has much in 
common with 1 Pet. Everything points in the 
Bame direction — that by Babylon St. Peter 
means Rome, Mid probably Rome become fear- 
ful by Nero's persecution. See also on 5 12 « l8 . 

(2) The Epistle is written in remarkably 
good Greek, and is more like the work of a 
careful student than of a Galilean fisherman. 
We IV. •!. as we read it, the Bame surprise as 
the rulers did when they found that St. Peter 
and St. John were 'unlearned and ignorant 
men' (Ac4 13 ). But Greek was much used in 
Palestine, and even a lishennan of Galilee 
WOUld knOW how to speak it tolerably. The 
rulers in their ;iiii;i/.«n 1. 1 1 1 'took knowledge of 
them that tiny had been with JesUS,' and the 



a man's style. So does familiarity with such 
books as the OT. Scriptures and the Epistles 
of St. Paul; nor does the greatness of his 
theme itself fail to affect the writer. If 
further explanation is needed, it may perhaps 
be found in 1 Pet 5 12 , where the meaning may 
quite well be, ' I have used Silvanus as my 
secretary; he has, I am sure, given my thoughts 
faithfully, though he has written them out in 
his own language.' 

CHAPTER 1 

Greeting in the Name of the Holy 

Trinity. Encouragement to hope in 

Faith and Obedience 

1, 2. To the strangers scattered throughout 
. . elect] RY ' to the elect who are sojourners 
of the Dispersion in,' etc. The RV order shows 
that the present circumstances of his readers, 
as well as their election and his own apostle- 
ship, are all according to the foreknowledge 
of God. Elect] i.e. chosen. Christians, like 
Israel of old, are God's chosen people. The 
1 Dispersion ' was a term used to describe the 
Jews who had been scattered among the 
nations since the time of the captivity : cp. 
Isalli2 Zeph3io Jn7 35 Jasl*. Pontus, 
Galatia, etc.] These names include the whole 
of what we call Asia Minor, N. and W. of the 
Taurus range. The order is natural if we 
suppose St. Peter's messenger carried the letter 
from Rome to a port of Pontus, then made a 
circuit with it, and returned to the same port. 
St. Paul had preached in part of this country : 
cp. Ac 1 6 6 . There were men from Cappadocia, 
Pontus, and Asia at Jerusalem on the day of 
Pentecost (Ac2 9 ). 2. The foreknowledge of 
God] cp. 1 20 RV. The whole course of events 
which are gradually revealed to man is known 
to God from everlasting : cp. Ro4 17 and S 29 
Heb 1 1 40 (RM) Rev 4 " (RV). Through sancti- 
fication] RV ' in sanctification.' God's chosen 
people are surrounded by the influences of the 
Holy Spirit. By these they are brought to 
consecration and guided afterwards to more> 
and more perfect obedience. 

Sprinkling of the blood] Sacrificial sprinkling 
is meant: cp. HebG 13 . 1 ^ 2 ! 10 29 1224. The 
expression is peculiar to these two Epistles, 
and the reference in both is to the sacrifices at 
the giving of the Law at Sinai (Ex24 3 " 8 ), where 
sprinkling with the blood of slain victims was 
the means of purifying and consecrating the 
people for entering on the divine covenant, in 
which they were, on the one hand, accepted as 
Jehovah's people, on the other, obliged to 
obedience. So God's foreknowledge, working 
in the Spirit's sanctification, has chosen a 
people to be consecrated to fellowship and 
obedience in the new covenant. But the 
sprinkling with this Blood is no mere symbol ; 



1040 



l. s 



1 PETER 



1.9 



the blood is the life which has been made per- 
fect by death (cp. Lvl7 n ), and when the 
Christian is sprinkled with Christ's Blood, he 
is made to share His life, and, at the same time, 
consecrated to an obedience which may have 
to be unto death. Grace . . and peace] An 
apostolic salutation, perhaps suggested by the 
priestly blessing in NuG 22 " 27 . In the word 

1 grace ' is gathered up ' all that may be sup- 
posed to be expressed in the smile of a 
heavenly King looking down upon His people ' 
(Hort). 

In this greeting we have, as it were, the 
ends of the threads which are presently inter- 
woven to make the texture of the Epistle. 
' Elect who are sojourners ' sums up in an 
epigram the contrast between the outward 
uncertainty which was the occasion, and the 
inward assurance of peace and duty which is 
the teaching of the whole Epistle. Thus the 
doctrine of the Holy Trinity on which the greet- 
ing is based, becomes the text of the Apostle's 
exhortations. From 1 3 -2 10 the sanctification 
of the Spirit issuing in the Christian life of 
faith and obedience is the main theme. From 

2 H-4 n the sufferings of Christ are presented 
as the example and purification of those whose 
ordinary lot is to suffer. From 4 12 -5 11 the 
special and fiercer trial which is about to 
begin is shown to be part of the foreknowledge 
and counsel of God. 

! 3_ 2 io. The first division of the letter : 

A (i), 1 3 ' 9 , the faith of Christians, (ii), 1 W" 12 , 
its connexion with the faith of ancient Israel ; 
B (i), 1 13 - 21 , the life of obedience to which 
their faith devotes them is (ii), l 22 - 2 ^ a new 
life, (iii), 2 i- 10 , which is nevertheless the fulfil- 
ment of the ideal of the Jewish Church. 

A (i). i 39 . ' Blessed be God who has be- 
gotten us to a living hope through the Resur- 
rection. Laying hold of this hope by faith, 
you know that you are being kept safe, though 
trials beset you. These trials but purify your 
faith, enriching it with joyful love for Jesus 
Christ, the earnest of the perfect salvation, 
which shall be revealed when He is revealed.' 

3. Hath begotten] RY 'begat': the RY 
rendering brings the moment of begetting 
before us. The Resurrection must have been 
to all the Eleven, and to St. Peter especially, 
such a change from despair to hope as could 
only be expressed as a beginning of new life : 
cp. Ro 6 4 Eph 2 5 Phil 3 10 . 4. Inheritance] The 
land of promise (Hebll 9 ) was the inheritance 
of Israel. During all their wanderings this 
was reserved for them, but they were taught 
in many ways that it was a type of a better 
inheritance. This inheritance is reserved for 
the true Israel in heaven. It cannot be cor- 
rupted, as the earth was in the days of Noah 
(Gn 6 n ), or defiled as Canaan was by abomina- 



tions (Lvl8 27 Dt21 23 Jer2 7 ), and the Temple 
by the heathen (PS79 1 ), nor do its flowers or 
fruits fade away (Isa 32 15 60 13 , 6 1 n ) : cp. 2 Pet 
3 1 3 . 5. Kept] R V ' guarded ' : cp. Gal 3 23 Phil 
47. Salvation] RY 'a salvation.' The Gk. 
means ' safety,' ' health,' and is so used in 
Ac27 34 Hebll 7. It must have had to all 
early Christians some of the freshness of a 
metaphor (cp. The Order of the Yisitation of 
the Sick : ' in whom, mid through whom, thou 
mayest receive health and salvation '), and here, 
as in Ac4 12 , St. Peter seems to pass from the 
simple to the deeper significance. In the last 
time] The Gk. might be rendered, ' in a time of 
extremity,' i.e. when things are at the worst : 
cp. Dan 121. 

6. Ye greatly rejoice] as the Lord bade 
His disciples to do in tribulation ( Jn 1 6 33 ; 
cp. 1511 16 24 ). Joyfulness characterised the 
earliest disciples. Temptations] RM ' trials.' 

7. The trial of your faith] RY ' The proof 
of your faith. ' St. Peter means it is worth while 
to purify even perishable gold, much more 
your faith (cp. Job 23 10 Ps66io Provl7 3 
Zechl3 9 , and especially Isa48i° Ecclus25) ; 
but he expresses it a little inaccurately, as 
though the proof, not the thing proved, were 
precious : cp. Jas 1 2 . It is St. Peter's habit 
to speak somewhat scornfully of gold : cp. 1 18 
3 3 5 2 Ac3 6 . 8. A generous touch. The 
Apostle who has seen admires the love and 
joy of believers who have not seen the Lord ; 
cp. Jn20 29 . Full of glory] in which God 
dwells: cp. Ex34 29f - ITimGi 6 . Faith leads 
into the presence of God, and adds to joy 
something which is unspeakable and divine : 
cp. Phil 4 7 . 9. The end of your faith] i.e. 
the final result of it, which they are already 
in process of receiving, though it is not yet 
fully theirs. The salvation of your souls] 
There is no word for ' your ' in the Gk. St. 
Peter directs the thoughts of his readers 
beyond their own small circle : cp. 5 9 2Petl 7 
(R Y). Throughout this Epistle, except perhaps 
in the quotation 3 20 , ' soul ' means the true life, 
the very self: cp. I 22 2".25 41 9 2 Pet 28, i*. 

A (ii). ii°-i 2 . This salvation is no new 
thing. The prophets knew something of it, 
and sought to learn more. In them, as in 
kings and priests, and to some extent in the 
whole nation, there was the Messianic Spirit, 
and they understood that sufferings and glories 
were destined for the Messiah. The exact 
time when these should be fulfilled they could 
not tell, but so much at least was revealed to 
them — that they were serving God for gener- 
ations yet to come. What the Spirit in them 
dimly showed, those who have preached to 
you by the same Spirit have plainly an- 
nounced ; what is still to follow, angels are 
looking forth from heaven to see. 



66 



1041 



1. 10 



1 PETER 



1. 23 



io. Searched diligently] studying the sacred 
writings that already existed, observing the 
signs of the times, meditating on the spiritual 
significance of worship, and trying to discern 
God's true will in the inward impulses by 
which they were themselves moved : cp. Jer 
15 19 . Thus they 'tested things not seen' 
(Heb 11 ! EM), ii. What, or what manner of 
time] the second expression corrects the first. 
The prophets learnt not to expect too definite 
a message. The sufferings of Christ] RM 
' unto Christ,' i.e. that should come unto 
Christ. 12. From heaven] as in v. 4, repre- 
sented as a place. The visible heavens are 
a symbol of the spiritual heaven, which, 
without such a symbol, we can hardly think 
of at all ; but our Lord's words in Lkl7 21 
warn us not to press human language too far : 
cp. 3 19 . 22 . To look into] The Gk. word 
means ' to look as out of a window.' The 
angels from the heights of heaven, if we may 
thus carry on the symbolic language, have a 
wider view than ours, and watch the results 
of Christ's redeeming work coming one after 
another into view. 

B (i). 1 13-22. ' Such faith and hope belong to 
your life of sanctification ; but so does obedi- 
ence. Sanctification indeed means a holy life. 
Christ's redemption has allowed you to call 
the Judge of all men Father ; but you may 
not therefore fear Him less ; indeed, life be- 
comes more awful when you think of the 
price and mystery of that redemption, which 
has been designed from eternity to direct your 
faith and hope to God Himself.' 

13. Gird up the loins of your mind] in pre- 
paration for the strenuous life of obedience : 
cp. DtlOW 1K18J46. Be sober] cp. 47 5« ITh 
5 6 > 8 . Christians among heathen must be self- 
restrained, like sober men among drunkards. 

To the end] or, as AVmg. andRV, ' perfectly.' 

14. Obedient children] RV 'children of 
obedience,' a Hebrew mode of expression (cp. 
Eph2 2 5 G ), which implies that obedience was 
the ruling passion of their lives. 

15. Conversation] RV ' manner of life': 
cp. v. 18 2 12 3 lf « 3 16 - 16. Because it is 
written] It was a habit of St. Peter to clench 
his words in this way. From the sacred 
writings he recognised no appeal : cp. I 24 2 6 

35,10 48,« 50 Acl 2 ° 2 1 7.25 3 22 " 24 10 4 3; C p. 

2 Pet 3 s . The words quoted occur several 
times in Leviticus (11** 19 s 20 m ). The latter 
1) ilf of the quotation shows that the Law was 
intended to produce something much deeper 
tli;m mere ceremonial holiness. The Christian 
must live as the Jew was meant to live, a 
consecrated Life. 

17. Call on the Father] RV 'call on him 
as Father': cp. Jer:) 1 ' 1 and Bft6°, which is 
the fulfilment of the prophetic promise. 



Without respect of persons] cp. Ro2 10f - and 
St. Peter's speech at Caesarea, AclO 34 ; also 
Jas2 1 . But the expression comes from the 
OT., DtlO 17 . Judgeth] a real present. God 
is judging men according to their works every 
day : cp. Ps7 n Jnl2 31 . There is a sense in 
which men shall be judged according to their 
works at the last day : see Mtl6 27 Ro26 141 2 
2 Cor 5™ Rev 2 23 20 12 22 1 2 . Of this con- 
tinuous judgment we have present experience, 
of the last judgment Holy Scripture gives us 
a dim outline. Sometimes God is spoken of 
as the judge, sometimes Christ ; e.g. Mtl6 27 
AclO 42 1731 2Cor5 10 : cp. Jn 5 22-27. The 
phrase ' according to their works ' is probably 
derived from OT. (cp. Ps62i 2 ), but that very 
passage shows that it does not exclude God's 
mercy through Christ : cp. AclO 43 . What is 
meant is what St. Peter says here, and St. 
James insists on in his Epistle — God is no 
respecter of persons ; a mere profession of 
faith will assure no man of salvation. The 
very idea that it would, becomes impossible, 
as soon as we combine what is said in Holy 
Scripture about the continuous present judg- 
ment with the other passages in which a future 
judgment is spoken of. A man who has been 
untrue to his Christian profession knows that 
he is being judged ; he knows also, however, 
that he may again pass ' out of death into 
life,' and so not ' come into judgment,' Jn 5 24 . 
God's judgment is not a legal process. When- 
ever the heart is wrong judgment must ensue. 
It is to be noticed that, except in Mkl6 16 , it 
is never written in NT. that man shall be 
condemned by God, though it appears other- 
wise in AY. 

18. Cp. v. 15. Vain] i.e. empty, purpose- 
less : cp. 4 2f - Eph4 17 . Received by tradition] 
Heathen as well as Jews would have many 
traditions to break with when they became 
'obedient': cp. 4 4 . 19. The .. blood of 
Christ] is here regarded as a precious price 
paid for His redeemed. 20. In these last 
times] RV ' at the end of the times.' Christ 
came at the end of the old, His death and 
Resurrection began the new, era : cp. Heb 1 2 2 5 . 



B (ii). 1 22 -25. ' Having entered on the sanc- 
tified life of obedience, you have entered a 
brotherhood which is bound together by a 
more mysterious and eternal relationship than 
can come through natural generation. Such 
brothers must indeed love one another sin- 
cerely. Their life is the lovely and eternal 
Life which God promises through the prophet 
to the restored Israel.' 

22. Truth is the substance of the gospel 
(Gal 2 5, 14 Col 16 ; cp. 2 Pet 112), f or Christ is 
the Truth (Jnli 6 ), and sanctified Himself 
that His people might be ' sanctified in truth ' 
(Jnl7 19 ). 23. Being born again] RV 'having 



1042 



1. 24 



1 PETER 



2. 10 



been begotten again ' : cp. v. 3. Not of cor- 
ruptible seed, but of incorruptible] cp. Jn 1 12 f - 
lJn3 9 . By the word] We need not dis- 
cuss whether ' the word ' means Christ, or the 
word of the gospel preached or written ; or, 
again, the word that is heard in each man's 
conscience. All forms of God's speech are 
summed up in Christ, who is the Truth : cp. 
Heb 1 2 . The word of God, which liveth] RM 
'or, God who liveth' : cp. Dan6 2(5 . 24. For] 
Once more St. Peter clenches his argument by 
the authority of Scripture. The quotation is 
taken from Isa 40 6 , where the section of the 
book of Isaiah begins, in which the new life of 
the forgiven and restored nation is proclaimed. 

CHAPTER 2 
New Life according to the Ancient 
Promise, and after the Example of 
Christ 
B (iii). 2 1-10 . St. Peter considers that the 
Christian is the continuation of the Jewish 
Church. Christ's coming has been a time of 
reformation (Heb 9 10 ), but there has been no 
break with the past. After setting forth the 
doctrine of salvation (1 3 " 9 ), he went on to show 
that it was the fulfilment of the doctrine of 
the prophets (1 10 - 12 ). Now, after writing about 
the new life of Christians (1 13-22^ an d showing 
that it also had been promised in prophecy 
(l 24 ), he bids his readers in the half -playful 
language of metaphor (cp. Heb5 12-14 ) to live 
simply, like new-born babes, nourished on 
simple, spiritual food, which the Lord Himself 
gives them, as has been signified in OT. (2 1 ' 3 ). 
He then shows that the Lord named in his 
quotation has been manifested in Jesus Christ, 
who is the corner-stone, spoken of in the 
Psalm, of the spiritual Temple which is being 
built up of His people to take the place of the 
old Jewish Temple with its imperfect sacri- 
fices (2 4 " 6 ). Obedience to the faith, not privi- 
lege of race, is the means by which this union 
with Christ in the new Temple is effected (2 7f -). 
Finally, he brings title after title of the 
chosen people from OT., and applies them to 
his readers, teaching them how their new 
position makes them God's royal priests and 
prophets to the world, and closes with a quo- 
tation from Hosea, the prophet of God's loving- 
kindness, which must touch their hearts, and 
commend all that he has said (2 9f .). 

1. Malice] RY 'wickedness.' A general 
word, as, beginning a new life, they must turn 
from worldly vices and become as little chil- 
dren (Mtl8 3 ). With this and the following 
v. cp. Jasl 21 . 2. The sincere milk of the 
word] RY l The spiritual milk which is with- 
out guile.' Grow thereby] RY adds ; unto 
' salvation,' which was omitted in the MSS 
: which the AY translators followed. 3. If . . ye 
'have tasted, etc.] from Ps34 8 : cp. Heb6 5 . 



The Lord in the Psalm is Jehovah. As in 
other places in NT., words spoken of Him are 
applied to Christ, through whom God is mani- 
fested to man (Heb 1 10 ). 4. The references in 
this v., as in v. 7, are to Psll8 22 : cp. St. 
Peter's speech, Ac4 n . In v. 6 a passage from 
Isa28 16 , on the same subject, is quoted from 
the Septuagint. Precious] EM ' honourable,' 
in contrast to l disallowed.' 5. Lively stones] 
RY ' living stones,' as in v. 4. The whole 
process of salvation is a process of life : cp. 
Jnl 4 4io G 3 ^ 112 5 146 Kol2i Hebl0 2 <> and 
IPetl 23 (RM). Are built up] i.e. are being 
built up. 6. Wherefore] RY ' because.' 

7. Which be disobedient] RY ' disbelieve.' 

8. The reference is to Isa 8 14f . Whereunto 
also they were appointed] as the words of 
Isaiah show. God has indeed appointed the 
disobedient unto stumbling, but also His royal 
priesthood for their recovery. 9. A chosen 
generation] RY ' an elect race ' : cp. Isa43 20 . 

A peculiar people] RY ' a people for God's 
own possession' : cp. Exl9 5f . Praises] RY 
' excellencies' ; AYmg. 'virtues' :cp. Phil 4 8 
2 Pet 1 3 > 5 . St. Peter repeats the teaching of 
the prophet (cp. Isa43 21 ) that men are elect, 
not for their own sakes only, but to be God's 
priests and prophets to the world, so as to tell 
of Him to others, and to present, as spiritual 
sacrifices, in union with the sacrifice of Christ, 
not only themselves (Ro 1 2 l ), their praise and 
alms (Heb 1 3 15 f • ), but also the heathen (Ro 1 5 16 ; 
cp. Phil 2 17 ), whom they win for God. Into 
his marvellous light] in which God dwells. 
It is unapproachable (lTim6 16 ), yet He, with 
whom all things are possible, has called us into 
it: cp. Isa 57 15 , and see on 5 10 . 10. From 
Hosie-9 21. 23 : cp. Ro9 25f . 

211-411, with the word ' beloved,' St. Peter 
begins each of the two following divisions of 
his letter. The keynote to this division is 
given in the references to Christ as suffering 
patiently, for the sake of. others, to take away 
sin, and as having triumphed through suffer- 
ing. He is the example and protector of these 
sojourners, whose life among an estranged 
population is one of constant suffering, under 
which they ought to be patient, gentle, and 
good, holding faster to one another in love, 
not, however, forgetting that they live and 
suffer on behalf of the heathen among whom 
they dwell. 

The whole may be subdivided into four 
parts: A, 2U f -, introductory; B, 21S-3 12 , 
their duty as subjects — as, in particular, ser- 
vants, wives, husbands ; and again, in general, 
as members of a Christian community ; C, 
3 13 -4 6 , encouragement for their dangers and 
sufferings, the purpose of which is explained ; 
D, 4 7 * 11 , exhortation to a sober, spiritual, and 
loving Christian life, to the glory of God. 



1043 



% 11 



1 PETER 



3. 4 



A. 2 llf . Introduction, which sketches the 
thought of the whole section. 

ii. Strangers (RY 'sojourners') and pil- 
grims] from Gn23 3 and Ps39 12 ; cp. Heb 
ll 13 . Fleshly lusts] the desires of the body, 
which, though innocent when under restraint, 
were always a source of temptation among the 
heathen. 12. Conversation honest] RY ' be- 
haviour seemly ' : cp. 1 15 . In the day of 
visitation] (from IsalO 3 ) when God shall no 
longer overlook the heathen ignorance : cp. 
Ac 17 30 . Then the good lives of the Christians, 
even though seen in memory only, may help 
them at last to glorify God. 

B. 2 13 -3 12 . The duties of the Christians, 
as a body and in particular classes. 

B (i). 2 13 " 17 . 'You are all subjects of the 
government, and must live as such. The 
government, though it might seem to be a 
mere human institution, is really created by 
God, and you see God's will working through 
it, as through the rest of the creation. God's 
will is that you should do well, and be at last 
delivered from the misconstructions of your 
ignorant neighbours. The government, by its 
repression of evil and encouragement of well- 
doing, is acting towards both these ends. 
When you recognise that such submission is 
submission to God's will, then submission 
becomes part of that freedom to which you 
have been brought by redemption — a freedom 
which those only know who have become 
slaves of God. This freedom obliges you to 
have a wide and noble rule of courtesy. 
Honour all men : only so can you keep the 
private rule of your community to love the 
brotherhood. In the same way honour to the 
king must follow fear towards God, by whom 
kings rule : as indeed Holy Scripture teaches 
you.' 

With this paragraph cp. R0 13 1 -? Tit3i f . 

13. Ordinance] RM l Gr. creation ' : cp. 4 19 . 
The king] i.e. the Roman emperor. 

14. Governors] i.e. of provinces. 16. The 
licence of the heathen, unlike the freedom of 
the Christian, could be used as a cloke, or pre- 
text, for wickedness (see RY) ; they would do 
what they chose, considering it no one's busi- 
ness but their own. 17. Fear God. Honour 
the king] cp. Prov24 21 . 

Ii (ii). 2 18 " 25 . Another ordinance of man, 
yet also of God's creation, is the family, 
which includes servants, wives, and husbands. 
Hitherto in this section St. Peter has rather 
hinted at than spoken plainly of Buffering. 
Now he conies to ,1 (lass who are sufferers in- 
deed — the slaves of the household. He makes 
no more eoinplaint ai/ainst slavery t han against 

the emperor, bul his tender hear! '_ r, >es out to 
these ill-treated slaves, and be honours them 



above all their fellow-Christians by presenting 
to them, as their example in a special manner, 
Christ suffering innocently, patiently, trust- 
fully, offering Himself in His sufferings as a 
sacrifice for the sins of us all . Thus these slaves, 
who are, like Christ, ' despised and rejected,' 
have a glory and grace which is specially their 
own, and are a special care of Christ. 

19. Thankworthy] RY 'acceptable'; RM 
' Gr. grace.' The Gk. for ' grace ' and ' thank- 
fulness ' is the same. As joy in suffering par- 
takes of the divine glory (cp. 1 8 ), so thankful- 
ness and cheerfulness reflects the gracious 
light of God's countenance : see on 1 2 . 

22-25. This picture of Christ is taken from 
the description of the suffering servant of 
Jehovah in Isa53. 24. Bare our sins., on] 
RM ' carried up . . to.' A sacrificial term is 
here used: cp. Heb7 27 9 28 13 15 . The tree] 
i.e. the Cross : cp. Dt21 22f - Ac5 30 10 3 9 13 29 
Gal3 13 . 25. Shepherd] suggested by Isa 53 6 : 
cp. Isa 40 n and 1 Pet 5 4 . Bishop] RM ' over- 
seer ' : cp. Ac 1 20 (AY and RM). The over- 
seer or bishop is an officer of the Church in 
the Pastoral Epistles: cp. Ac20 28 Phill*. 
Here the reference may be to the officer of 
the household who is set over the servants 
(cp. Lkl2 42-46 ); he may have no interest in 
them except as chattels, but they have an 
unseen overseer who cares for their very selves. 

CHAPTER 3 

The Blessedness of Christ's People, 
though they should suffer like 
Christ 

B (hi). 3 1 " 6 . Another divinely created or- 
dinance of man is marriage. One of the pur- 
poses of Christianity was to teach chivalry 
towards women : this is part of the ' grace ' 
which men can exercise. But to this must 
correspond the modesty and graciousness of 
women. The Israelites had already been 
taught that ; and women, when they enter the 
Christian society, become daughters of Abra- 
ham, heirs both of the honour and of the 
womanliness of the women of the Jewish 
Church. A quiet and holy married life tends, 
like all other parts of Christian life, to the 
salvation of the heathen. 

With this and the next paragraph cp. Eph 
522-33 Col 3 18f . 

1. Likewise] cp. v. 7, the whole household 
is to be one family; the subjection of servants 
to masters has a like excellence with the sub- 
jection of wives to husbands. Without the 
word] ' Perhaps the Spirit of Christ pours 
itself abroad more widely than our interpreta- 
tions allow' (Erasmus). 4. The hidden man 
of the heart] cp. Ro7 22 2 Cor 416 Eph3™ 

In that which is not corruptible, even the 
ornament of a meek and quiet spirit] RY 'in 
the incorruptible apparel of a meek and quiet 



1D11 



3.5 



1 PETER 



3.18 



spirit.' 5. Trusted] RY ' hoped.' Hope, the 
Messianic spirit, was characteristic of the OT. 
saints. 6. Lord] RV ' lord' : cp. Gnl8 12 . 

Ye are] RV 'ye now are';RM 'ye are 
become.' They became Abraham's daughters 
when they became Christians, but, if they are 
to continue such, perseverance is required, 
which the coming persecution will make diffi- 
cult : cp. 2Petl 6f . Afraid with any amaze- 
ment] RY ' put in fear by any terror ' : cp. 
Prov325. 

B (iv). 3 7 . Husbands, in like manner, must 
be chivalrous and chaste. Nature itself teaches 
all men that, but Christians have a deeper 
insight into the grace and dignity of life, and 
an eternal hope in their marriage. 

7. The weaker vessel] cp. 2 Cor 4 7 1 Th 4 4 . 
It would appear from 2Esdr4 n and 7t 88 ] 
RY, that the human body is meant by ' the 
vessel.' The grace of life] is the loveliness, 
partaking of the divine, which God adds to 
His servants' life. That your prayers be not 
hindered] RY ' to the end that,' etc. Prayer 
is access to God, which is the aim of all Chris- 
tian life. All faults in married life hinder it : 
cp. 1 Cor 7 5 Col 3 19. 

B (v). 3 8 " 12 . The general behaviour of the 
whole body of Christians is summed up in the 
love which makes them consider others more 
than themselves, hold fast together in their 
brotherhood, and be patient towards those with- 
out. By peace-making they inherit the blessing 
which was promised to them in the Psalm. 

With this paragraph cp. Ro 1214-21 anc i j as 3. 

8. Having compassion one of another] RY 
' compassionate ' ; RM ' Gr. sympathetic ' : cp. 
Heb4 15 10 34 . Tenderness towards even the 
feelings of others is implied. 

10-12. Quoted from Ps34, in v. 8 of which 
blessing is promised to the man that trusts 
in God. The whole Psalm promises salvation 
in persecution, and describes just the situation 
in which St. Peter's faith sees his readers 
placed — in danger, but with the angel of the 
Lord encamping round about them, and all 
things working out a blessing for them if they 
trust in Him. 

11. Eschew] RY ' turn away from.' Ensue] 
RY 'pursue.' 12. Over . . against] RY 'upon 
. . upon.' God's aspect is the same to each, 
it is man who turns ' grace ' into ' wrath ' : cp. 
Ex 1424. 

C (i) 3 13 " 22 , deals chiefly with faith, (ii) 4 1 " 6 
with conduct. It brings out deeper and 
deeper doctrine as it proceeds about the 
purpose and meaning of suffering. ' Who 
will harm you if you are zealous for the good ? 
Even if you should suffer for the righteous 
cause you would be blessed. Take the ancient 



encouragement of Israel to yourselves. Enter 
into its fullest meaning by using the interpret- 
ation of the old words which Christ's life has 
given, and sanctify Him in your hearts, though 
in visible form you cannot see Him, as the 
Lord of whom the Psalmist spoke. Be ready 
to give answer to any one that asks you about 
this hope which is in you, and which seems 
so strange to him ; but answer meekly, and 
remember that though you need not fear him, 
you do fear God. Have therefore a good 
conscience. Your own hope will die away if 
you have not that, but with it you will find 
that the very slanders you suffer from will 
turn out to be the means of doing good to 
your enemies. Even as Christ did, for He 
suffered, the just for the unjust, that He 
might thus bring us who were among the un- 
just to God. His sufferings were the means 
of His doing so. Through suffering death in 
His flesh He entered into a wider life in His 
spirit, and went a journey that none could go 
in the flesh, and as a spirit preached to spirits. 
For us another way of salvation is appointed. 
The time when those spirits lived on earth 
prefigured the times of Christ. As then God 
prepared a place of safety from destruction, 
by directing Noah to build an ark into which 
eight persons were brought into safety through 
the dangerous waters of the flood, so now we 
have the fellowship of Christ into which we 
are brought by baptism, that is, through the 
resurrection of Christ which was the outcome 
of His painful death. Baptism, itself a pain- 
ful step for the convert in a heathen land to 
take, is indeed our sharing in Christ's death 
and resurrection ; not so, however, if we look 
upon it as a mere form, but truly so, if we 
receive it with a good conscience, which, as we 
submit to the symbolic washing, appeals to 
God to accept it through the resurrection of 
Jesus Christ, who has completed His redeem- 
ing work by ascending into heaven in the per- 
fection of His human and divine nature, and 
sits supreme, as the Psalmist prophesied, at 
the right hand of God.' 

14. If ye suffer] RY ' if ye should suffer.' 
The persecution has not yet begun : cp. v. 17. 

15. Sanctify the Lord God in your hearts] 
RY ' sanctify in your hearts Christ as Lord ' : 
cp. Isa 8 12 f . 1 7. If the will of God be so] R Y 
' if the will of God should so will ' — a rugged 
but emphatic expression. 18. Once] i.e. once 
for all': cp. Heb9 2 M8. That he might bring 
us to God] cp. Ro5 2 . Access to God was the 
end to which all the Levitical sacrifices were 
directed, but till Christ offered Himself this 
end was never attained ; as the Epistle to the 
Hebrews teaches. Quickened] i.e. made to 
live. By the Spirit] RY 'in the spirit.' This 
fuller life came to Christ through, or in the 
sphere of, His human spirit : cp. 4 6 Lk23 46 . 



1045 



3. 19 



1 PETER 



4.6 



19. By which] RV ' in which.' In prison] 
cp. Rev 20 7 , i.e. the place where such dis- 
embodied spirits were kept waiting for the end 
of the present order of things : see on 'heaven,' 
1 4. This is the hell, or Sheol, of OT. : cp Ps 
1 6 10 49 14 (RY) i sa 1 4 9. Our Lord refers to it, 
Lk23*3 ? and in Lkl6 22f -, where the blessed 
dead are described as separated from the c dis- 
obedient.' 20. Sometime] RV ' aforetime.' 

The whole passage clearly means that Christ, 
as a spirit, preached to certain spirits, who had 
been disobedient to the end of their earthly 
life. This preaching took place between His 
death and resurrection, and its purpose was 
that, by hearing the gospel, these men might 
have an opportunity of repentance. St. Peter 
does not say that a place of repentance is still 
left for men after death. That is neither 
affirmed nor denied in NT. ; but this passage 
makes rather against than for such a hope ; 
for the point is that these men did receive such 
an opportunity, because they had not heard 
the gospel in their earthly life. St. Peter 
considered that the Jews, unlike the men of 
Noah's time, had known something of Christ : 
cp. l 10f . It should, however, be noticed that 
' once,' which in AY seems to limit the refer- 
ence very strictly, is omitted in RY, and per- 
haps that time is specially mentioned because 
it affords a type of baptism. 

Wherein few . . were saved by water] RM 

I into which few . . were brought safely through 
water.' 

2i. The like figure, etc.] RY ' which also 
after a true likeness ' (RM ' in the antitype ') 
' doth now save you, even baptism, not the 
putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the 
interrogation/ (RM ' inquiry or appeal ') ' of a 
good conscience toward God, through the 
resurrection.' ' The like figure ' = Gk. ' anti- 
type.' The type is the seal, the antitype the 
impression. Here we think most of the im- 
pression as the purpose or reality of the seal, 
in Heb9 24 of the seal as the origin of the im- 
pression. The interrogation (RY) of a good 
conscience may refer to the question asked of 
the convert before baptism : cp. Ac8 37 (AY 
and RM), Hooker, Y. lxiii. 3 ; but RM makes 
better sense — the appeal of the convert to 
God might be expressed in the gospel words, 

I I believe, help thou mine unbelief : cp. 1 Jn 
320 By (RY * through') the resurrection 
should be taken with the whole v., not with 
' the appeal ' nor with ' doth save ' alone : cp. 
Ro i\ 4 f - Col 2 12 . It corresponds to ' through 
water,' v. 20 ; in each case that which seemed 
to be destruction proved the means of 
safety. 

22. On the right hand of God] from PsllO 1 . 
The words that follow show th:it St. Peter has 
Eph 1 20f - in his mind. Like St. Paul, he speaks 
in general terms of the heavenly powers, which 



the Jews of those days described with un- 
warrantable detail : cp. Eph 1 21 Col 2 18 . 

CHAPTER 4 

The security of the Faithful in the 
approaching judgment 

C (ii). 4 1 - 6 . ' This is your faith : live then 
in accordance with it. Arm yourselves against 
your troubles by resolving to be like Christ in 
suffering. Suffering gives rest from sin, and 
the results of what you have already endured 
should be a life henceforth in accordance with 
God's will. You have lived the heathen life 
long enough in the past to have learnt its 
wretchedness. The heathen are surprised now 
at your estrangement from them, and speak 
evil of you and of God. But think not that 
it is as they say, and that no one cares how a 
man lives. They shall give account to Him 
who is judging promptly and certainly as each 
man makes his choice, whether he be living or 
dead. For even the dead have had their 
chance. That was why the gospel was preached 
even to the dead, that they might be able 
through judgment to enjoy life.' 

I. Hath ceased from sin] cp. Ro6 2 > n . 
Suffering braces a man's mind, so that tempta- 
tion loses its power over him, and the opposi- 
tion of the heathen compelled Christians 
to be strangers to their mode of life : cp. 
Eccl73*. 

3. Will] RY 'desire,' contrasted with the 
will of God. 4. Speaking evil of you] ' Of 
you,' as RY shows, is not in the Gk. These 
men spoke the same kind of blasphemy as the 
mockers in 2Pet3 3f . 

6. This v. refers back to 3 19f . The dead 
are the same persons in each place. Judgment 
does not mean punishment, but separation, 
and man, by choosing His side, cooperates 
with God's judgment. This choice and separa- 
tion could not, St. Peter considers, be made 
until the gospel had been heard. Thus the 
judgment of these dead men did not take 
place till Christ preached in the spirit to them. 
Then they could choose their side, for or 
against Him. St. Peter, however, does not 
claim to penetrate the depths of the mystery 
of judgment, and leaves the subject with a 
statement containing, like that of St. Paul in 
Phil2 12f «, two parts which we cannot reconcile, 
but which he assures us will be reconciled — 
they must be judged as all men must, in the 
flesh, i.e. by what they did in their earthly 
life, and yet they may live, as God lives, in 
the spirit, i.e. by the choice they make in 
their disembodied state. 

D. 4 7 ' 11 . 'But all these present judgments 
are about to be completed by that great judg- 
ment which is the end of the whole present 
order of things. Be then sober, diligent, 



104G 



4.7 



1 PETER 



5.5 



devout, aiming in all things at God's glory- 
through Jesus Christ.' 

With this paragraph cp. Rol2 3 ' 21 . 

7. Prayer] KM ' Gr. prayers.' Neither the 
sensible conduct of affairs nor the regular 
course of the Church's devotions is to be 
changed. 8. Have fervent charity] RY ' being 
fervent in your love,' lit. ' intense ' ; perse- 
verance and vigour, not excitement, is implied. 

Shall cover the multitude of sins] ' covereth 
a multitude of sins,' from ProvlO 12 , which is 
also quoted Jas5 20 . St. Peter gives, following 
our Lord's teaching (cp. Lk7 47 ), a deeper 
meaning to the OT. words. If the Christians 
have love, they are not likely to have much 
sin among them : cp. Heb6 9f - 11. Let him 
speak as the oracles of God] RV ' speakbig as 
it were oracles of God,' i.e. God's solemn 
utterances, such as the prophets used to intro- 
duce by ' thus saith the Lord.' God's oracles 
had always been entrusted to His people to 
minister to others : cp. Ac7 38 Ro3 2 Heb5 12 . 

Amen] a Heb. word used by our Lord (and 
translated ' verily ') when He wished to assert 
anything with special emphasis : cp. Mt26 34 
Lk23 43 . Such sayings might be called His 
' oracles.' 

4 12 -5 14 . "With this second 'Beloved' the 
last section of the Epistle begins. In it the 
Apostle encourages the readers to meet with 
courage and trust the severer persecution 
which is threatening them. As good discipline 
in their community will help them to do this, 
he gives precepts for rulers and ruled, and 
then brings their thoughts back to God the 
Father, in whose keeping their lives and the 
course of the whole world are secure. He 
adds a prayer to God for His support, and 
ends with greetings and a blessing. 

The section falls into five parts : A, 4 12 " 19 , 
the fiery trial; B, 5 1 ' 5 , discipline; 0, 5 6 " 11 , 
trust and hope in God ; D, 5 12 ' 14a , greetings ; 
E, 5 14b , blessing. 

A. 4 12 " 19 . ' Beloved, the trial that is coming 
is not a strange one for Christians to endure, 
for it will prove you as God's gold must be 
proved, and will enable you to share Christ's 
sufferings and glory — that glory which is sur- 
rounding you even now, though you cannot 
see it yet. Suffering and reproach for the 
name of Christ are blessings : like Israel of old 
you thus partake in the lot and in the spirit 
of God's Anointed One. If they call you 
Christians in mockery, be worthy of that holy 
name, and give them no more real cause of 
offence. Judgment is about to begin, as it 
did at the fall of Jerusalem, from the house 
of God. You are that house, do not risk by 
disobedience the more fearful fate of those 
outside it. Those who suffer according to 



the will of God may do what their Lord did 
when He suffered, and commit their souls unto 
God, confident that He who created will also 
support : but, I insist, let it be in well-doing.' 
14. If ye be reproached] RY ' are reproached.' 
This part of their trial had already come. Cp. 
Ps89 51 . The spirit of glory and of God] RY 
' the Spirit of glory and the Spirit of God,' 
double title of the one Spirit. 16. Christian] a 
name which the heathen first gave the disciples : 
see Ac 1 1 2 6 26 2S . On this behalf] R Y ' in this 
name.' 17. Cp. Ezk9<\ 18. Cp. Provl^i. 

CHAPTER 5 

Encouragements to Shepherds and to 
Flock. Promise of God's Protection. 
Farewells 

B. 5 !- 5 . ' To behave well in this trial you 
must preserve discipline. Let old and young, 
rulers and ruled, do their duty in love and 
humility, as men who have an eternal hope 
and a supreme invisible Lord.' 

1. Elders] An official title among the Jews 
and in the early Church. From the Gk. for 
' elder ' ' priest ' is derived, and from the Gk. 
for ' overseer ' ' bishop.' In NT. however 
elders are not distinguished from bishops, as 
they soon afterwards were : cp. Ac20 17 > 28 
Titl 5 ' 7 . A witness] Gk. 'martyr,' not merely 
one who has seen, but one who bears witness 
to what he has seen : cp. Hebl.2 1 . The 
Apostles were to be witnesses : see Ac 1 8 > 22 
Jnl5 2 ?; cp. Ac22 2 26!6Rev2i3 113 176 am } 
Rev 1 5 3 14 , where Jesus Christ Himself is called 
' the faithful witness.' 2. Feed] RY ' tend ' : 
cp. Jn21ie (RY). 3. Being lords over] RY 
' lording it over ' : cp. Lk 22 25 . God's heritage] 
RY ' the charge allotted to you.' From the 
Gk. word ' clergy ' is derived. Being ensamples] 
RY ' making yourselves,' etc. 

4. The chief Shepherd] cp. 2 25 JnlO 11 . 

A crown] RY ' the crown,' i.e. the wreath 
with which victors in such a contest as these 
elders expect to endure, may hope to be 
crowned : cp. lCor9 25 2 Tim 2 5 4 8 Rev2 10 . 

5. Ye younger . . the elder] in the early 
Christian communities their actual age was a 
reason for the respect which the clergy re- 
ceived (1 Tim 4 12 5 1 Philemon v. 9). Be subject 
one to another, and be clothed with humility] 
RY ' gird yourselves with humility, to serve 
one another.' An unusual word is used here, 
which might be translated 'knot round you.' 
Does St. Peter remember the Lord washing 
His disciples' feet with the towel knotted round 
Him (Jnl3 4f -)? God resisteth, etc.] from 
Prov3 34 , quoted also in Jas4 6 . 

C. 5 6 " 11 . 'Humble yourselves, therefore, 
under the hand of God, whose might will be 
proved in the coming trial. Trust is part of 
humility. You have been taught to cast your 



1047 



5. 12 



1 PETER— % PETER and JUDE 



INTRO. 



burden of anxiety upon God (cp. Ps55 22 ): 
cast it all. Watch well. The real adversary 
you have to guard against is the great accuser, 
who with restless activity (cp. Job 1 7 2 2 ) seeks 
to terrify you into your ruin. Resist him 
bravely in the trustful faith that your 
brothers throughout this world are joined 
with you in accomplishing the one divine 
purpose of all these sufferings. The trial, 
though sharp, is short, and through it God, 
»vhose gracious face is ever turned to you, 
and whose supremacy is eternal, shall bring 
you to perfection and security.' 

D. 5 1 * 2 ' 13 . 'By Silvanus I have written 
this letter to you. I recommend him to you 
as one whom I account worthy to be called the 
faithful brother. The letter is a short one ; 
for, indeed, my affectionate exhortation, and 
my testimony as an Elder and Apostle can all 
be put thus briefly. The true grace of God 
is manifested in the faithful conduct I have 
prescribed for you : stand fast therein. The 
people of God who are in this city like the 
captives in Babylon, yet in the purpose of 
God are one with you, send greeting, so does 
Mark, my spiritual son. Salute one another 



with the kiss which is the symbol of our 
Christian love.' 

12. Silvanus] called Silas in Acts ; the 
friend of St. Paul : see Ac 15, 16, 17 and 18, 
2 Cor 1 19 1 Th 1 1 2 Th 1 1. Wherein ye stand] 
R V ' stand ye fast therein ' : cp. Gal 5 1. 13. The 
church that is at Babylon] RV ' She that is in 
Babylon ' ; RM ' That is, The church, or, The 
sister.' The community, not a person, is 
probably meant: cp. 2Jnl. The Gk. has 
simply 'the.' Marcus] RV 'Mark.' John 
Mark the evangelist is no doubt meant, who 
became, according to tradition, St. Peter's 
companion and interpreter. My son] cp. 
ITimlMS 2Timl 2 Gal4i9. 

14. A kiss of charity] RV 'a kiss of 
love'; cp. R0I6 16 lCorl6 2 ° 2 Cor 13 1 2 
lTh5 2 6. 

E. 5 14 . Final blessing in which St. Peter 
uses the old Hebrew prayer for peace. This 
was the blessing he had heard his Lord use : 
cp. Mtl0 12f - Mk5 34 Lk2i4, 2 9 Jn20 1 9> 21 > 2 <5. 

In Christ Jesus] RY 'Christ.' 'Christ 
Jesus,' so frequent in St. Paul's Epistles, is 
not used by St. Peter. For ' in Christ ' see 
Intro. Amen] RY omits. 



2 PETER AND JUDE 



INTRODUCTION 






1. Connexion of 2 Peter and Jude, and dif- 
ference between them. These Epistles are 
closely connected. Both were written to meet 
a sudden danger to the faith which had arisen 
in some unnamed Churches. Both authors 
seem to have intended to write an ordinary 
pastoral letter. St. Jude says so (v. 3 RY), 
and in 2 Pet part of the intended letter is 
given (c. 3). Both, however, have been com- 
pelled by the sudden peril to send a special 
warning. It seems plain that one had read the 
letter of the other, or even that the first letter 
had opened the eyes of the second writer to 
the danger. 

Yet the one Epistle is by no means a mere 
repetition of the other. St. Jude writes with 
b stern Bense of honour, and the joy of a theo- 
logian in the deep mysteries of the creed. 
• Contend for the faith once for all (RV) de- 
livered' is his command, which, however, he 
softens with a touch of pity here and there 
for those who are falling. The enemies of 
the faith he scorns too much to allow them 
the name of teachers. The author of 2 Pet 



has a simpler mind, though by no means a less 
thorough faith in Christ as God. ' Hope on 
and do your duty more and more ' is his mes- 
sage. The tone of almost diffident love and 
admiration with which he speaks of St. Paul 
(3 15 > 16 ) gives us a glimpse into a very gentle 
heart. 

2. Connexion between 2 Peter and 1 Peter. 
Which letter was written first ? Most say St. 
Jude's. This is partly because there would 
otherwise be little original matter in his Epistle; 
but if the need were urgent he would not have 
delayed in order to be original. There are, 
however, some things in 2 Pet which tend to 
raise suspicion that it is not only founded upon 
Jude, but is a much later piece, written not 
by, but only in the name of, St. Peter. Thus 
the prophecy about the mockers in 2 Pet 3 - f - 
looks as if it were designed as an imaginary 
explanation of the reference to such a prophecy 
in Jude v v. 1 7 f . But the passage takes another 
colour in RV : it is itself a reference to a 
prophecy. Again, the references to events in 
the life of St. Peter in 2Petl (vv. 14, 16-18) 



1048 



INTRO. 



2 PETER and JUDE 



INTRO. 



are perhaps more obvious than natural : yet St. 
Peter might have written in this way. The style 
of 2 Pet differs from that of 1 Pet : but again, 
this may be accounted for by the difference in 
subject, or perhaps by a change of secretary. 
Resemblances in language between 2 Pet and 
1 Pet must not be pressed too much in either 
direction, since an imitator might have designed 
them ; or, if St. Peter did employ secretaries 
to shape his letters for him, mere resemblance 
in language would not be important. Resem- 
blances of thought, which betray the mind of 
the author, would mean more, and there are 
such. No one can fail to notice that, while in 
Jude there are several thoughts and expres- 
sions which remind us of the deep and mysteri- 
ous mind of St. Paul ; in 2 Pet, as in 1 Pet, 
spite of many resemblances to St. Paul in 
words, there is a marked difference in the 
habit of thought. The reference to St. Paul 
at the end of 2 Pet is just what the author of 
1 Pet would agree with. 

3. Ancient Opinion about Authorship of 2 Peter 
and Jude. Objections to Apostolic Authorship, 
especially of 2 Peter. The genuineness of both 
Epistles has been questioned even in early 
times. But the wide acceptance of Jude at 
the beginning of the third century, justifies us 
in accepting with little hesitation the final 
verdict of the Church in its favour, especially 
as there is really nothing in it which might 
not have been written in the apostolic age. 
It is not quite the same with 2 Pet. Not only 
were doubts expressed in various places for a 
long time about it, but no certain traces of its 
existence can be found in Christian literature 
before the end of the second century. Yet this 
could be explained if the Epistle had but a 
small circulation in the earliest years, and in 
any case its peculiar subject and its shortness 
would prevent its being often quoted. If it 
could be proved that 2 Pet is copied in Jude, 
the whole aspect of the case would be changed, 
and the apostolic authorship would be sup- 
ported by practically contemporary evidence. 
This cannot be proved, and a comparison of 
the two Epistles leaves a different impression 
on different minds. This, however, may be 
said. "When one document is founded on 
another, the later one has generally been made 
smoother and clearer, and some rugged but 
forcible phrases have been lost in the process. 
It looks as if this might have happened in the 
composition of Jude: cp., for instance, 2 Pet 
2 17 with Jude vv. 12 f. Here Jude is certainly 
smoother and clearer, but the fine expression 
'mists driven by a storm' (RV) is wanting. 
In 2 Pet the sentence ends awkwardly but 



forcibly with ' for whom the blackness of dark- 
ness hath been reserved,' where the antecedent 
to 'whom' is not 'springs' or 'mists,' but 
' these men.' In Jude this fits easily and 
obviously into the sentence through the ad- 
dition of ' wandering stars.' 

Even granting this, however, we should still 
have a difficulty about the date. The Jude 
who wrote the Epistle does not call himself an 
Apostle, but ' brother of James.' He was, 
therefore, the Jude who was one of the brothers 
of the Lord (Mtl3 55 Mk6 3 ). He may have 
lived till about 80 a.d. But tradition says 
that St. Peter was put to death by Nero about 
the same time as St. Paul. Now if 2 Pet 3 * — 
' this is the second epistle that I write unto 
you ' — is really a reference to our First Epistle, 
and if 1 Pet was written during the Neronian 
persecution, it is strange, but not impossible, 
that a letter so different, and dealing with a 
danger almost incompatible with the danger of 
persecution which the First Epistle foretells, 
should have been written almost directly after- 
wards to the same readers. We do not know 
for certain that St. Peter did not live longer — 
even much longer, and we cannot be sure that 
the reference is not to quite another Epistle, 
written to different people, earlier in St. Peter's 
life. Then 2 Pet would be earlier than 1 Pet, 
which, however, is not an easy supposition to 
those who notice affinities between 2 Pet and 
the Pastoral Epistles. 

4. If copied from Jude, 2 Peter was probably 
written in the second century, yet in good 
faith. If it could be proved that 2 Pet was 
copied from Jude, it would be almost necessary 
to think that it is a work of the second century, 
written in the Apostle's name. No fraud need 
have been designed. The book would be a 
kind of religious fiction, intended for the in- 
struction of readers who would be interested, 
but not deceived, by the imaginary setting. It 
must be remembered that this was what many 
in the early Church did believe it to be. There 
are, however, many such works, not a few being 
in St. Peter's name, and the difference in 
earnestness and spiritual power between the 
best of them and 2 Pet is remarkable. If 
2 Pet is a fiction, it alone among such works 
carries with it the distinction of the apostolic 
age. The question cannot be decided on the 
limited evidence we have. The doubts of the 
early Church, and the probable silence of 
the first and second centuries, are not to be 
disregarded ; on the other hand, the critical 
suspicions of our own age ought not by 
themselves to be allowed an exaggerated im- 
portance. 



1049 



1.1 



2 PETER 



2 PETER 






The Epistle falls into three divisions: c. 1, 
Introduction ; c. 2, warning against the false 
teachers ; c. 3, answer to the mockery of those 
who denied the Second Coming of Christ. 

CHAPTER 1 

Greeting. Thanksgiving. Exhortation 
to Progress in Righteousness from 
One who remembers Jesus Christ 

C. 1 may be subdivided into two parts : 
(a) vv. 1-11, greeting followed by a declaration 
of the glory and virtue of the Christian life, 
which is a life of continual growth and pro- 
gress, and requires diligent effort in those who 
would lead it ; (b) vv. 12-21, declaration of 
the Apostle's care and authority to provide for 
his readers' remembrance of these truths — he, 
who saw the glory of the Transfiguration, is 
certain of the present power and future return 
of Jesus Christ, and his testimony completes 
the testimony of prophecy. 

i. Simon] RM ' Symeon,' the more dis- 
tinctly Jewish form of the name : cp. Ac 
1 5 14 . God and our Saviour Jesus Christ] R V 
' our God and Saviour Jesus Christ. ' Both titles 
are given to Christ : cp. Ro 9 5 Heb 1 8 , and 
Tit 2 13 (R Y). 3. His divine power] i.e. Christ's : 
cp. I 16 . Him that hath called us] i.e. the 
Father, as in 1 Pet 5 10 . To glory and virtue] 
RM ' through glory and virtue.' The Christian 
advances towards the eternal kingdom through 
an earthly life which is touched with the divine 
glory and virtue. 4. Whereby] i.e. by glory and 
virtue. Might be] RV k may become ' ; such 
partaking is not yet completed. 

5. And beside this, giving all diligence] RV 
' Yea, and for this very cause adding on your 
part all diligence.' God has granted all things, 
and for that very reason we must be diligent : 
cp. v. 10 and Phil2 12f . Virtue must answer 
to glory, duty to grace. All this is just in the 
spirit of 1 Pet 1. Add to your faith virtue] RV 
' in your faith supply virtue ' : cp. v. 11 (RV). 
The Christian life is not a mere adding of 
qualities together, but a growth. Virtue is In 
faith, as the flower is in the seed ; the complete 
fruit is love : cp. 1 Tim 1 ''. 6. Temperance] 
RM ' self -control.' 7. Brotherly kindness] B V 
'love of the brethren,' i.e. the Christians: cp. 
lPet3 8 . Charity] RV 'love.' which goes be- 
yond the Christian circle to God and all that 
He has made. 

9. Blind, and cannot see far off] As in 1 Pet 
1 n , the first statement is less exact than the 
second. He who cares not to progress loses 
his spiritual vision ; the cleansing he received 



in baptism, and the eternal kingdom into 
which he is entering, are out of his sight. 

11. An entrance. . ministered . . abundantly] 
RV ' the entrance . . richly supplied ' : cp. Col 
1 13 . Life is a progress into that eternal king- 
dom to which we already belong. 

12. The present truth] RV 'the truth 
which is with you.' 13. Tabernacle] or 'tent,' 
i.e. the body (cp. 2 Cor 5 l ) — a fit thought for 
those who are sojourners and pilgrims on 
earth: cp. IPetl 1 2 11 . 14. Shortly must put 
off this my tabernacle] RV ' the putting off of 
my tabernacle cometh swiftly.' His death 
was to be violent, and therefore sudden : cp. 
Jn21 18 . There will be no time then for ad- 
monitions, therefore he will be diligent now, 
and will leave his words in writing, that they 
may help the readers after his decease. This 
word, like ' tabernacle,' reminds us of the 
Transfiguration (cp. Lk9 31 ), of which the 
Apostle goes on to speak. The reference in 
v. 1 5 seems to be to more than this one letter. 
Tradition says that St. Mark gave St. Peter's 
teaching in his Gospel, and this Gospel may 
be the promised means of remembrance. 

16. Coming] i.e. Second Coming, in that 
glory of which a glimpse was given at the 
Transfiguration . 

19. We have also a more sure word of pro- 
phecy] RV ' And we have the word of prophecy 
made more sure,' i.e. OT. prophecy, which is 
confirmed by this sight and sound : cp. 3 2 . 

A light that shineth in a dark place] RM ' a 
lamp shining in a squalid place.' The word 
' squalid ' prepares the reader for the bad 
state of things described in the next c. Until 
the day dawn, etc.] cp. Song 2 17 4 6 . The 
Second Coming of Christ is meant. 

20 f. God gave prophecy of old, not to this 
or that man, but to the whole Jewish Church ; 
so now it belongs to, and must be interpreted 
by, the whole Church, under the direction of 
the Holy Spirit, not by the private, contested 
opinions of individuals. 

CHAPTER 2 

Warning against a threatened Plague 
of brutal False Teachers 
As of old there were false as well as true 
prophets, so it will be now. This leads the 
Apostle to speak about the false teachers, who 
— if they have not already begun — he expects 
will trouble his readers. Prophets were im- 
portant persons in the early Church: cp. Ac 
11-'" lCorl228f. 1429f. Eph220 3 5 4ii. These 
teachers, who had doubtless been baptised, 



1050 






2. 1 



2 PETER 



claimed, it would seem, to be prophets, and 
therefore to be outside ordinary rules and 
discipline : they put a ' private interpretation ' 
on such matters. Hence they fell into the sin 
of pride, and rebelled against official authority; 
and of lust and covetousness, despising the 
laws of morality. The Apostle shows, by the 
example of the angels that sinned, and of the 
cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, that sure pun- 
ishment is ready for them, but that God will 
preserve the faithful from their seductions. 
He writes in strong but very spiritual language, 
and is in accord with the rest of the NT. in 
teaching that the destruction of the unre- 
pentant sinner is continuance in sin : see vv. 
12 f. (RV), 191; and cp. Mk329 (RY) Rol2S 
2Th2H f - (RY) Heb6<\ 

This c. should be carefully compared with 
St. Jude's Epistle. 

i. Damnable heresies] RY 'destructive 
heresies.' The word ' heresy' is passing here 
from its older meaning of a ' school ' or ' sect ' 
(RM) to the modern meaning of ' false doc- 
trine ' : cp. Ac 24 14 1 Cor 1 1 w Gal 5 20 . Even 
denying the Lord] RY ' denying even the 
Master ' ; their evil lives were a denial of 
Christ's authority. 2. Pernicious ways] RY 
' lascivious doings.' 3. Damnation] RY ' de- 
struction': cp. v. 12, 3 7 . With the rude but 
vigorous style of this and other vv. in the c. 
cp. lPet3 17 . St. Jude is more polished, but 
less strong. 

4. The Apostle here follows Jewish tradi- 
tion (cp. Rev 20 1 " 3 ), as it is given in the book 
of Enoch, from which St. Jude expressly 
quotes. 5. Noah the eighth person] RY 'Noah 
with seven others ' : cp. lPet3 20 . 6. Neither 
here nor elsewhere in Holy Scripture is it 
said that these cities were submerged. Zeph 
2 9 is against such a belief. 7. Vexed with 
the filthy conversation] RY ' sore distressed 
by the lascivious life.' 9. Unto the day of 
judgment to be punished] RY ' under punish- 
ment unto the day of judgement.' God's 
punishment is remedial, and this v. gives just 
a gleam of hope for the false teachers. 

11. Comparison with Jude v. 9 would sug- 
gest that the Apostle is here too referring to 
an apocryphal book, but if we did not know 
that Epistle we should more naturally think 
of Job lor Zech3. 

12. Natural brute beasts, made to be taken] 
RY ' creatures without reason, born mere 
animals to be taken.' Shall utterly perish in 
their own corruption, and shall receive the 
reward of unrighteousness] RY ' shall in their 
destroying surely be destroyed, suffering 
wrong as the hire of wrongdoing.' 

13. Sporting themselves with their own 
deceivings] RY 'revelling in their love-feasts.' 
Such a love-feast or common meal of the 
Christians is described in lCorll 20f - The 



abuses for which the Corinthians were rebuked 
led to the separation of the Holy Communion 
from such feasts. But though St. Jude has 
4 love-feasts ' in the parallel passage, it is more 
than possible that ' deceivings ' of AY and 
RM is right here. The Gk. words only differ 
by two letters, and if St. Jude used this Epistle 
he might well correct a difficult to a seemingly 
easy expression. 

14. Cursed children] RY 'children of curs- 
ing,' a Hebrew mode of expression : cp. 
1 Pet 1 14 ; it means that their whole character 
is worthy of execration. 15. Bosor] RY 
' Beor,' as in Nu22 5 . Balaam, as we learn 
from Rev 2 14 , taught Balak to try and ruin the 
Israelites by tempting them to uncleanness, 
and Balak had already offered him rewards 
(Nu22U7). Thus he was like the false 
teachers in two respects. 16. Forbad] RV 
1 stayed.' 

17. Wells without water, etc.] RY 'springs 
without water, and mists driven by a storm; 
for whom the blackness of darkness hath been 
reserved.' The false teachers are as dis- 
appointing as springs without water, or as 
mists which promise moisture but are scattered 
by the wind : cp. Wisd2 4 and Eph4 14 . The 
Day of the Lord will come to them, as Joel 
saw it (Joel 2 1 f -), ' with clouds and thick dark- 
ness ' — a storm which will truly satisfy the 
thirsty land: see Intro. 

18. Through much wantonness] RY 4 by 
lasciviousness.' The repetition of this word 
points to the character of the false teachers. 
Repetition of this kind is frequent in 1 Pet. 

Those that were clean escaped] RY ' those 
who are just escaping ' ; i.e. those who have 
become Christians, but are not far advanced in 
the Christian life ; ' new-born babes,' as they 
are called in 1 Pet, who have still to ' grow 
unto salvation.' 19. Cp. Jn8 34 R06 16 . 

20. Knowledge of Christ is both the begin- 
ning and the end of Christian life : cp. 1 8 
(RY). Latter end] RY ' last state ' : cp. Mt 
1 2 4 * and Heb 6 4 "6 1 26 f . 21. Turn] R Y ' turn 
back.' 22. The second proverb is not in Holy 
Scripture ; the first comes from Prov 26 11 . 

CHAPTER 3 

Antidote against despising the Day 
of the Lord. Exhortation. Doxology 

C. 3 may be subdivided into three parts : 
(a) vv. 1-7. ' This Second Epistle is a re- 
minder of what prophets and apostles have 
said. Those who would understand it must 
first know that, though mockers will deny this, 
there will be an end of the present world by 
fire, as once it was overwhelmed by water. 
This will be a day of judgment and destruc- 
tion for the ungodly, (b) vv. 8-13. As for 
the delay, which induces some to doubt this, 
time to God is not what it is to us, and His 



1051 



3. 1 



2 PETER 



3.18 



delay is due to His longsuffering will that men 
should be saved. When the day does come, 
it will be sudden, and since it is surely ap- 
proaching, we ought to be preparing the way 
for it by holy living, (c) vv. 14-18. Be holy 
then, and consider that G-od's longsuffering 
is a means of attaining spiritual health. This 
is the teaching of St. Paul's letters, though 
some mischievously pervert their meaning. 
Do you keep free from error and grow in 
grace and knowledge of Jesus Christ, to whom 
be glory now and when that day of eternity 
shall come.' The mockers may be different 
persons, but are probably the same as the 
false teachers. Here, as in c. 2, the Apostle 
speaks of an evil which is expected in the 
future, but of which he already sees the signs : 
cp. Ac20 30 1 Tim 4 i-s 2Tim3i-9. 

i. This second epistle. . I now write] RY 
' This is now . . the second epistle that I write ' : 
see Intro. Your pure minds by way of remem- 
brance] RY k your sincere mind by putting 
you in remembrance.' 2. Us the apostles of 
the Lord and Saviour] RY ' of the Lord and 
Saviour through your apostles.' Prophets of 
old and Apostles now have alike uttered the 
commandment of Christ : cp. lPetl llf . 

3. Shall come . . scoffers] RY l mockers shall 
come with mockery,' a repetition in the style 
of 1 Pet. 4. The fathers] i.e. the men of 
Old Testament times : cp. Ro9 5 Heb 1 1. 

5. Willingly are ignorant of] RV k wilfully 
forget,' That by the word of God, etc.] RM 
4 that there were heavens from of old, and an 
earth compacted out of water and through 
water, by the word of God ' (cp. Gn 1 2 ) ; a 
thing is made both out of and through its 
material. What the mockers forgot was 
that God who made can also break up what 
He has made by His word. Note the emphatic 
position: cp. Heb ll 3 . 6. Whereby] i.e. by 
means of the water and of the word : cp. v. 7, 
• word ' and ' fire.' 

8. Be not ignorant] RY ' forget not ' : cp. 
v. ."1. Another characteristic repetition. 

That one day, etc.] from Ps90* 9. Not 
willing] RV 'not wishing' ; in spite of this 
differenl word we are reminded of lTim2 4 . 

10. As a thief in the night] cp. 1 Th 5 -'. RY 
'as a thief : cp. Mt24«. All through this 
passage the Apostle has in mind the prophecy 
of our Lord which is recorded in that c. The 



elements] the parts into which we might, 
roughly speaking, divide the world, e.g. earth, 
sea, sky. But the heavenly bodies (RM) may 
be meant. The works that are therein] i.e. the 
processes of nature. Hence the expression, 
' shall be discovered ' (RM), is quite appropri- 
ate : cp. 1 Pet 1 7 . 

11. Conversation] RY ' living.' 12. Hasting 
unto] RY ' earnestly desiring,' RM ' hasten- 
ing.' It is written in the Talmud, ' If Jews 
exercised penitence for one day, Messiah would 
straightway come.' Wherein] RY k by reason 
of which.' The Day of God is the cause. 
k There will be a judgment,' not, ' the world 
will come to an end,' is the point of this c. 

13. According to his promise] given in Isa 
65 17 . After all, the world will be renewed 
rather than destroyed : cp. Rev 21 5 . Wherein 
dwelleth righteousness] cp. Rev 22 3 . 14. Such 
things] RY ' these things,' i.e. new heavens, 
new earth, righteousness. 

That ye may be found] the same word as 
that which is translated ' discovered ' in v. 10 
(RM). There may be a reference back to it : 
whatever the earth and the works therein may 
be found to be, take care that you are found 
in peace. 

15. Hath written] RY ' wrote.' Such teach- 
ing is found in Romans and in the Pastoral 
Epistles (Ro 2 * ; cp. Ac 1 7 3 ° 1 Tim 2 ^), but the 
letters referred to in this v. may not be pre- 
served in our collection of St. Paul's Epistles. 
As the author of this Epistle has noticed, 
patience and confidence in God's patient work- 
ing out of His purpose is everywhere char- 
acteristic of St. Paul. 

16. The other Scriptures] RY ' . . scriptures.' 
The Scriptures proper of the Apostolic Church 
were the books of the OT. But the letters of 
the Apostles were read publicly in the churches 
to whom they were addressed, and in others : 
see Col4 16 . Hence they would gradually 
come to be called ' scriptures ' also. Here, as 
perhaps in 2 Tim 3 1C , we discern the beginning 
of this habit. 

18. Grow in grace, and in the knowledge of] 
RY ' grow in the grace and knowledge of.' 
Grace is the gift of, as knowledge is directed 
towards, Christ. ' Grow' sums up in one word 
the admonitions of 1 and 2 Pet. For ever] 
RM ' unto the day of eternity.' This is the 
goal of hope in both Epistles. 



1052 



1 JOHN 



INTRODUCTION 



I. Authorship. The question is bound up 
with that of the authorship of the other 
Johannine books, both as regards internal 
and external evidence : see especially Intro- 
ductions to the Gospel and to the Second and 
Third Epistles. 

(a) Internal Evidence. The witness of the 
book itself to its authorship is sufficiently 
strong. The writer speaks with authority, 
as an Apostle would. He claims to have first- 
hand knowledge of the facts which underlie 
the gospel message (l 1 " 3 ). The tone and 
teaching of the letter suit the circumstances 
to which Christian tradition assigns it ; they 
are such as we should expect from the aged 
St. John, writing to his disciples a last message 
regarding the truths enshrined in his Gospel. 

When the Epistle is compared with the Gos- 
pel of St. John, the conclusion that the two 
books are the work of one hand is well-nigh 
irresistible. The style, the language, the 
thought of the Epistle reflect the features of 
the corresponding elements of the Gospel. 
The resemblance and agreement between the 
two are so great and so consistent as to estab- 
lish, to the satisfaction of most minds, an 
identity of authorship. 

Of these resemblances, the most obvious 
are certain verbal correspondences of language, 
of which the following examples will repay 
comparison. (1) Characteristic words used in 
a peculiar sense : ' life' (1M 3 14 ; cp. Jnl 4 

633,51). 'light' (15 7 28; Cp. Jn±4,5,7-9) ; 

'darkness' (l 6 2"; cp. Jn8 12 1235); < WO rld' 
(215-1744,5; C p. Jnl 10 123il4 17 ). (2) Character- 
istic expressions: 'eternal life' (1 2 3 15 ; cp. 
j n 3 15,16 640173); ' a n e W commandment' (2 8 ; 
cp. Jnl3 34 ); 'only begotten Son'(4 9 ; cp. 
Jnl 18 3 16 ); 'know God' (23,446; cp. Jn 
173,25); 'abide in Christ ' (26 3 24 ; cp. Jn6 56 
15 4 > 5 .) (3) Identical phrases : ' that your joy 
may be full '(l 4 ; cp.Jnl6 24 ); 'walketh in dark- 
ness, and knoweth not whither he goeth ' (2 n ; 
cp. Jn 12 35) ; (are) ' passed from death unto life ' 
(3 14 ; cp. Jn 5 24 ) ; ' know him that is true ' (5 20 
(RV): cp. Jnl 7 3 ). Besides these and other 
like examples, a general similarity of style and 
thought gives evidence almost the strongest of 
its kind to show that if St. John wrote the 
Gospel which bears his name, he wrote the 
Epistle also. 

(b) External Evidence. The witness afforded 
by the book itself to its authorship is amply 



supported by the testimony of aneient writers. 
The Epistle is evidently quoted (though with- 
out mention of the fact) by Polycarp (116 a.d.), 
who was, according to Irenseus, a disciple of 
St. John. It was used, Eusebius tells us, by 
Papias (120 a.d.), an associate of Polycarp, 
also said to have been a hearer of St. John. 
It is quoted and referred to as St. John's 
Epistle by Irenaeus (180 a.d.), Polycarp's 
disciple, by Clement of Alexandria (190 a.d.), 
Tertullian (200 a.d.), Origen (230 a.d.), and 
others. 

2. Date and Destination. These questions 
are involved in more uncertainty, though fairly 
satisfactory inferences regarding them may be 
drawn both from tradition and from the book 
itself. 

(a) When was it written ? St. John is said 
to have written his Gospel at Ephesus (Iren. 
' Adv. Haer.' iii. 1, 1), probably between 80 and 
90 a.d. As to the date of the Epistle we 
have no direct evidence. It is commonly 
believed, however, that the two writings are 
closely connected in time, the prevailing 
opinion perhaps being that the Epistle was 
written subsequently to the Gospel, whether 
as a supplement or as an independent com- 
position. 

The idea of an original connection with the 
Gospel has been supposed to find support 
from the place which the Epistle occupies in 
the Muratorian Fragment on the Canon (circ. 
170), a witness for the authenticity of the 
Epistle not included in the authorities men- 
tioned above. In this document, which con- 
tains (incomplete in its extant form, as the 
name implies) an annotated list of the books 
of the New Testament, the First Epistle of St. 
John is placed directly after the Gospel, and 
not with the two minor Epistles. This, it has 
been conjectured, was the position which it 
originally occupied as a supplement or post- 
script to the Gospel, and from which it was 
subsequently removed when the books of the 
New Testament were grouped in their present 
order. However this may be, as the Epistle 
contains no reference to persecutions, such as 
took place during the reigns of Domitian and 
Trajan, it can hardly have been issued much 
later than 90 a.d. 

(/>) For what Readers was it intended? In 
this there is involved a prior question as to 
the character of the composition itself. Is it 



1053 



INTRO. 



1 JOHN 



INTRO. 



an Epistle at all ? Of all the New Testament 
Epistles, this and the Epistle to the Hebrews 
alone begin without any epistolary form of 
address. Moreover, this contains no salutations 
or messages to individuals, such as are found 
in Hebrews and in nearly all the other Epistles. 
Some, therefore, have regarded it as a treatise 
rather than a letter. 

While, however, this book is not written in 
epistolary form, it contains the substance of 
an Epistle. Its epistolary character is also 
seen in the constant use of the second person 
(l 3 and onwards), the terms 'little children,' 
' fathers,' ' young men,' ' beloved,' by which 
the readers are addressed, and the frequent 
use of the expression, ' I write unto you ' 
(212-14 32^ etc.). The opinion, therefore, is 
probably not far wrong which regards the 
work as a pastoral or circular letter, addressed 
to the Churches in the province of Asia with 
which St. John is definitely connected in' 
c. 1 of the Apocalypse, and having reference 
primarily to the peculiar circumstances of 
those Churches and the particular spiritual 
dangers to which they were exposed. 

At the same time, the absence of local colour 
makes it possible that a wider circle is addressed. 
It is most natural, however, to infer a distinctly 
Gentile community, as well from the warning 
against idolatry with which the book concludes 
as from the absence of the Hebrew element so 
manifest throughout the Gospel, and of any 
quotations from or allusions to the Old 
Testament. 

3. Contents. The theme of the Epistle is 
fellowship with God ; its object, to bring its 
readers into that fellowship and to secure 
them against losing it. 

This purpose finds expression at the opening 
of the Epistle, and again near its close. ' That 
which we have seen and heard declare we 
unto you, that ye also may have fellowship 
with us : and truly our fellowship is with the 
Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ. And 
these things write we unto you, that your joy 
may be full' (l 3 - 4 ). 'These things have I 
written unto you that believe on the name of 
the Son of God ; that ye may know that ye 
have eternal life, and that ye may believe on 
the name of the Son of God ' (5 13 ). There is 
thus a distinct difference between the object 
of the Epistle and that of the Gospel (see 
Jn20 81 ), the object of the one being to pro- 
mot e faith in Christ, that of the other to 
confirm the faith and develop the religious 
life of those who already believe. 

The writer's thought revolves about certain 
fuii'laiiH 11t.1l watchwords regarding the nature 
of God. The three great watchwords which 
occupy the pivotal places in the plan of the 
analysis below) are, 'God is light,' 
' God is righteous,' ' (rod is love.' Corre- 



1054 



sponding to these are the Christian graces of 
faith, obedience, love, and the Christian duties 
of confessing Christ, keeping the command- 
ments, and loving the brethren. Together 
with the positive inculcation of these truths 
and duties is combined a recognition of their 
opposites. Underlying all the thought of the 
Epistle is the conception of the irreconcilable 
antagonism which exists between Christ and 
the world ; hence the statement of truth or 
duty is strengthened or expanded by a denial 
of or warning against its opposite. The active 
presence of error and evil among those ad- 
dressed accounts for the polemical element in 
the Epistle, and the warnings against evil 
influences and wrong ways of thinking and 
living with which it abounds. 

The particular heresy which the writer 
combats appears to have been an incipient 
form of one of the various systems which, as 
developed in the 2nd cent., are included under 
the general name of Gnosticism, in all of which 
there was involved a denial of the reality of 
the Incarnation : cp. 4 2 2 Jn v. 7. This subject 
is more fully treated in Intro, to Second and 
Third Epistles. The polemical element is, 
however, subordinate to the main object of the 
Epistle, which is to promote the spiritual life 
of believers by bringing them into a living 
union with Christ and confirming them therein. 

The plan of the Epistle is difficult to follow, 
and has been differently understood, some 
failing to recognise any regular plan at all. 
In the following Synopsis, the minor sections 
are grouped about the three fundamental 
statements mentioned above. 

1 1A . Introduction. The fundamental scheme of 
the Epistle : God manifested in Jesus 
Christ, that man may have fellowship 
with the Father through the Son. 
l 5 -2 28 . 1. God is Light, hence fellowship 
with Him means walking in 
the light and realising a sense 
of brotherhood and the for- 
giveness of sins (v. 7). 
(i) This involves, (a) confession of 
sin (vv. 8-10), (b) keeping 
His commandments (2 3 * 6 ), 
(c) in particular, loving the 
brethren (vv. 7-11). 
(ii) (a) Reasons for writing, as 
regards the spiritual con- 
dition of the readers (vv. 
12-16). 

(b) Things and persons to avoid. 
(1) The love of the world 
(vv. 15-17). (2) Fellowship 
with false teachers (vv. 
18-26). 

(c) The believer's security and 
hope (vv. 27, 28). 



INTRO. 



1 JOHN 



2. % 



229_46. n God is Righteous, hence fellowship 
with Him involves doing 
righteousness, and this is an 
evidence of divine sonship 
(v. 29). 
(i) Sonship a motive to righteous- 
ness (3 1 " 9 ). 
(ii) Sonship the root of brotherly 

love (vv. 10-18). 
(iii) Sonship resulting in glorious 
privileges : 
(a) assurance (vv. 19-21), (b) 
answer to prayer (v. 22), (c) 
fellowship, realised through 
the gift of the Spirit (v. 24), 
id) discernment of truth and 
error (4 w ). 

4 7 -5 12 . III. God is Love, hence fellowship 
with Him involves walking in 
love (vv. 7, 8). 
(i) How God's love to us was mani- 
fested (vv. 9, 10). 
(ii) Our rightful response to it, 

brotherly love (vv. 11, 12). 
(iii) The proofs of fellowship, (a) 
the indwelling Spirit (v. 13), 
(b) confessing Jesus (vv. 14, 
15), (c) abiding in love (v. 16). 
(iv) Perfect love casts out fear 

(vv. 17, 18). 
(v) Brotherly love the test of love 

to God (vv. 19-21). 
(vi) Love finds expression in obedi- 
ence (5 1 " 4 ). 
(vii) Obedience rests on faith in and 
fellowship with Christ (vv. 
5-12). 
513-21. Conclusion. 

(i) Eeason for writing restated in 

different form (v. 13). 
(ii) The assurance which believers 
may have : (a) of the efficacy 
of prayer (vv. 14-17), (b) of 
the guardianship of God (v. 
18), (c) of divine sonship 
(v. 19), (d) of the reality of 
the divine manifestation and 
the fellowship resulting from 
it (v. 20). 
(iii) Final warning (v. 21). 

CHAPTER 1 

Fellowship with God in Light 
i. Observe the grammatical form of vv. 
1-3. In v. 1 a sentence is begun which, 
interrupted by the parenthesis in v. 2, is con- 
tinued in v. 3. The sense is, ' We declare 
unto you that which was from the beginning, 
that which we have heard, etc., concerning the 
Word of Life.' From the beginning] cp. Jn 
1 1. Heard . . handled] the evidence of eye- 
witness. The Docetists taught that Christ was 



a mere phantom : cp. Lk 24 39 . Of the Word of 
life] RV l concerning the Word of life ' : cp. 
'bread of life,' Jn6 35 . For 'the Word' 
{Logos) see on Jn 1 1 . 

2. This v. is parenthetical, reiterating the 
fact that the preexistent Eternal Word was 
manifested to men. In v. 3 this manifestation 
is said to determine man's relation to God. 

3. Declare we unto you] RV adds ' also.' 
Fellowship with us] i.e. union with us in 

Christian fellowship. And truly] RV ' yea, 
and.' Fellowship with Christian teachers 
involves fellowship with God in Christ. 

4. That your joy may be full] RV 'that 
our joy may be fulfilled.' ' Fellowship with 
Christ and with the brethren is the measure of 
the fulness of joy ' (Westcott). 

5. Light . . darkness] The one suggests truth 
and goodness, the other falsehood and evil. 
All truth and goodness emanate from God. 
To walk in the light, therefore, i.e. to possess 
and practise these, is to have fellowship with 
Him. On the other hand, to be without these 
is to be without God (v. 6). 7. One with 
another] i.e. with other Christians, the result 
of fellowship with God. The blood of Jesus 
Christ] RV omits ' Christ.' Only those who 
' walk in the light ' can appropriate the cleans- 
ing efficacy of the life laid down upon the 
Cross. Cleanseth] The present tense denotes 
a continuous process — the progressive sanctifi- 
cation of the believer's soul : cp. Jnl3 10 . 

8. Deceive ourselves] lit. ' lead ourselves 
astray.' 9. Just] RV ' righteous.' 

Forgive . . cleanse] ' Forgive ' refers to the 
remission of punishment, ' cleanse ' to the 
removal of pollution. 

CHAPTER 2 

The Advocacy of Christ and the 
Obligations of Believers 

1. My little children] The diminutive implies 
the fatherly care which the aged Apostle felt 
for his disciples. Advocate] The word thus 
translated is used by St. John alone of the 
NT. writers. Elsewhere ( Jn 1 4 16, 25 1 5 26 1 6 7) 
it is rendered ' Comforter.' Literally it means 
one who is called to the side of another for 
counsel and help. The rendering ' Advocate ' 
suits the passages in the Gospel (see RM in 
loco). The Son and the Holy Spirit both act 
as Advocate with the Father : cp. Ro8 26 > 27 > 34 . 
The Redeemer's work calls for the mercy 
which ' rejoiceth against judgment.' 

2. Propitiation] the act or offering which 
makes an injured person favourable to the 
offender. Christ is the propitiation as well 
as the propitiator : the offering itself as well 
as the sacrificing priest who makes it. The 
whole world] cp. Jnl 2 9 424 1720-23. The 
work of Christ was wrought for all, not 
for a chosen few. There are none who may 



1055 



% 5 



1 JOHN 



3.9 



not share its benefits if they will. 5. The 
love of God] i.e. man's love to God : cp. 4 12 . 
An ideal condition is here presented. Perfect 
obedience is evidence of perfect love. 

7. An old commandment] cp. 2 Jn v. 5. 
Old, because they have known it from the 
beginning of their Christian life. Which ye 
had from the beginning - ] RV ' which ye heard.' 

8. A new commandment] The command- 
ment of love, old as it now is in one sense, 
is in another new, as it ever gains fresh light 
and meaning. The darkness, etc.] RV 'the 
darkness is passing away, and the true light 
already shineth.' 10. Occasion of stumbling-] 
lit. ' stumbling-block,' that which may cause 
himself or others to fall, in this case probably 
(see next v.) himself. Without love no one 
can walk in the light of God's truth. 

12-14. In these vv. the readers are addressed, 
twice over, as (1) 'little children,' (2) 'fathers,' 
(3) ' young men.' Probably the first of these 
is the term of endearment already used (v. 1), 
including the whole community. Next, the 
old and the young are respectively addressed 
as ' fathers,' ' young men.' Corresponding to 
the two series of personal addresses is a change 
in the tense of the verb from ' I write ' to ' I 
wrote,' or ' I have written ' : see RV, noting 
change in v. 13. Perhaps ' I write ' refers to 
the Epistle, ' I wrote ' to the Gospel ; or else 
the change is made for variety, the present 
being used from the writer's standpoint, the past 
from that of the readers, when the message 
would reach them. 

15. Love not the world] The 'world' here 
is not the world of nature, nor the world of 
humanity which 'God so loved' (Jn3 16 ). It 
means all in the present order of things which 
appeals to the soul as an object of desire apart 
from and in rivalry to God. 16. All that is 
thus antagonistic to God is summed up under 
three heads, the separate avenues through 
which the world-spirit reaches the soul. While 
the classification is hardly exhaustive, as a 
category covering all kinds of evil it is very 
comprehensive, and corresponds to the three 
elements which appear in the temptation of 
Eve (Gn3 6 ) and in the temptation of our 
Lord (Lk43-i2). 

18. The last time] RV ' the last hour.' The 
Apostles undoubtedly anticipated a coming of 
Christ in the near future as a vital possibility, 
and all generations are en joined by our Lord's 
teaching to do the same. The dispensation which 
immediately precedes thai great event, the time 
of which is known only to the Father (Mk 13 32 ), 
is rightly called, whatever its length may 
prove to be. the last hour.' Antichrist shall 
come] RV ' Antichrist cometh.' The hostile 
influence described as Antichrist is further 
defined in v. 22, 1 :; 2Jnv.7, as the Spirit 
which denies the Incarnation, and is regarded 



as a sign of the last days : cp. 2 Th 2 3 -10. The 
term ' Antichrist ' suggests the ideas of oppo- 
sition and rivalry to Christ. St. John re- 
gards as embodiments of this spirit all the false 
teachers who had already (v. 19) gone out 
from the Church because they did not really 
possess the Spirit of Christ. 

20. An unction] RV ' an anointing ' : cp. 
2Corl 21 . Oil is the sacred symbol of the 
Spirit's operations. The anointing here repre- 
sents the gift of the Spirit, whereby believers 
are endowed with spiritual discernment (Jn 
14 2G 1613). The Holy one] probably Christ. 

23. ' The denial of the Son involves the loss 
of the Father, not only because the ideas of 
sonship and fatherhood are correlative, but be- 
cause the Son alone can reveal the Father.' 

28. When he shall appear] RV ' if he shall 
be manifested.' The ' if ' implies no doubt as 
to the fact, but only uncertainty as to the 
time. Confidence] RV ' boldness,' lit. ' free- 
dom or readiness of speech.' 29. Is born of 
him] lit. 'hath been begotten from him.' 
' The presence of righteous action is the sure 
sign of the reality of the divine birth ' 
(Westcott). 

CHAPTER 3 

The Righteousness of God and the 
Duties and Privileges of Sonship 

1. The sons of God] RV 'children of 
God,' adding the words, ' and such we are.' 
The word translated ' children ' here is charac- 
teristic of St. John, and implies community of 
nature, whereas the term ' sons ' as used by 
St. Paul suggests the privileged condition of 
heirship. 2. Note changes in RV. 3. This 
hope] of being hereafter like God in Christ. 

In him] RV ' set on him.' Purifieth himself] 
' He who looks forward to becoming like God 
hereafter must strive after His likeness now ' 
(Westcott). 

6. Sinneth not] That -the possibility of sin- 
lessness in present experience is not taught 
here is clear from I 8 . 9 . St. John's thought 
moves in the region of the ideal. The divine 
life and the life of sin are in idea mutually 
exclusive. Sin in the Christian is either in- 
voluntary or in acknowledged contradiction 
to the ruling principle of his life. The 
commission of it is to that extent a failure 
perfectly to abide in Christ. 8. He that com- 
mitteth sin] RV 'he that doeth sin.' The 
present tense implies that which is habitual, 
which results from a ruling principle. 9. RV 
1 Whosoever is begotten of God doeth no sin, 
because his seed abideth in him.' The same 
principles of interpretation apply here as in 
the foregoing vv. A perfect realisation of 
the filial relationship to God excludes sin. His 
seed remaineth in him] The germinal principle 
from which his new life has sprung. 



1050 



3. 12 



1 JOHN 



5. 21 



12. Cain] The typical example of hatred, 
inspired by the Evil One, and resulting in 
murder, the germ of which is hatred (v. 15). 

1 6. Hereby perceive we the love of God~\ 
RV ' hereby know we love,' i.e. what love is. 

He . . we] The pronouns are emphatic. 

17. This world's good] RV 'the world's 
goods,' lit. k the world's life,' i.e. that which 
supports life. 

19. Hereby] i.e. by loving in deed and 
truth. 20. In RV v. 19 ends with a comma, 
then follows, ' whereinsoever our heart con- 
demn us ; because God,' etc. God is greater] 
He is a more perfect judge. Are these words 
meant to inspire awe or to afford consolation ? 
Is God regarded as more exacting or more 
merciful than conscience ? Opinion is much 
divided. The contrast in v. 21 suggests the 
former alternative, but the whole context 
rather favours the latter. ' We shall then 
still our heart in whatsoever it may condemn 
us, because we are in fellowship with God, 
and that fact assures us of His sovereign 
mercy ' (Westcott). 22. See 5 15 . 

24. The spirit which he hath given us] RV 
' the Spirit which he gave us,' i.e. when we 
became Christians. The indwelling Spirit, 
from whom springs the Christian's love to 
God and man, is his assurance of fellowship 
with God. The test of having the Spirit of 
God, and not the spirit of Antichrist, is treated 
in the six following verses. 

CHAPTER 4 

Fellowship with God in Love 
1. Try the spirits] RY ' Prove the spirits.' 
The verb is used of testing metals. 2, 3. See 
on 2Jn v. 7. 3. Confesseth not that Jesus 
Christ is come in the flesh] RV ' confesseth 
not Jesus.' 4. He that is in the world] the 
Devil: cp. 3™ Jn8 44 1231. 5. They] the 
false prophets. 6. We] the Christian 
teachers. 

8. God is love] the third fundamental 
maxim (see Intro.). Love is not merely an 
attribute of God, it is His very Being. Hence 
to be without love is to be without God : cp. 
v. 16. 9. See Jn3 16 . 11. We ought also] 
RV 'we also ought.' 12. Hath seen God] 
RV 'hath beheld God.' His love] i.e. our 
love to Him. If we love one another we 
have proof both of His presence with us and 
of our love to Him. 

17. Herein is our love made perfect] RV 
' herein is love made perfect with us,' i.e. in 
the double communion spoken of in the pre- 
ceding v. As he is, so are we] We, as we 
are in this world, are like Christ, who shares 
our human nature. The sense of likeness to 
Him gives us confidence. 18. No fear in love] 
not the rightful awe which pertains to rever- 
ence, but servile or guilty fear. 19. We love 



him] RV ' we love.' Possibly the verb should 
be rendered ' let us love.' 

CHAPTER 5 

The Love, Obedience, and Assurance of 
Believers 

1. The reason for brotherly love. 2. This 
is the converse of 4 19 " 21 . Love to God and 
love to the brethren being inseparable, each is 
the test of the other. 4. Whatsoever] not 
' whosoever.' ' It is not the man, but his birth 
from God, which conquers ' (Plummer). 

6. This is he that came by water and 
blood] According to the most generally ac- 
cepted interpretation of this difficult passage, 
the reference is primarily to our Lord's bap- 
tism in Jordan and His death upon the Cross 
— the baptism of water and the baptism of 
blood, which together sum up His redemptive 
work and represent its cleansing and atoning 
power. There is, perhaps, some allusion also 
to the ' blood and water ' to which St. John 
bore witness at the Cross (Jnl9 34 ), besides a 
symbolical reference to the two sacraments. 

7, 8. All the words between that bear record 
in v. 7 and the spirit in v. 8 are omitted in 
RV. It is quite certain that these words did 
not belong to the original text. They are 
found in no Gk. MS earlier than the 14th cent., 
and are quoted by none of the Fathers before 
the middle of the 5th cent. The Fathers un- 
derstood the passage in its original form to 
symbolise the Trinity, an interpretation which 
may have been inserted at first as a marginal 
note and afterwards found its way into the 
text. 

14, 15. The prayer of faith prevails when 
it is in accordance with God's will. Thus 
offered it is surely heard, and, though it may 
not have any visible effect, receives its answer. 
He who trusts God's love knows that the 
answer he receives is the best. 

16, 17. There is a sin unto death] RM 
' There is sin unto death,' not any special sin 
which can be recognised as ' unto death.' Sin 
cannot be divided into ' mortal ' and ' venial ' 
on the authority of this passage. Sin may 
be of such a character as to lead to total sepa- 
ration from Christ, which is spiritual death. 
' " Sin unto death " is not any act of sin, how- 
ever heinous, but a state or habit of sin wil- 
fully chosen and persisted in : it is constant 
and consummate opposition to God ' (Plummer). 

18. He that is begotten of God keepeth 
himself] RV ' he that was begotten of God (i.e. 
Christ) keepeth him.' 21. Taken compre- 
hensively, this warning is directed against 
all that takes the place of God in man's 
affections. 

If, as seems likely, the Epistle is St. John's 
latest work, these are, in point of time, the 
last words of Holy Scripture. 



67 



1057 



2 AND 3 JOHN 



INTRODUCTION 



i. Authorship. The majority of the Epistles 
of the New Testament are catholic, that is, 
they are addressed not to individuals but to 
Churches of this and that locality. There are 
references to letters of this kind which are 
now lost. Thus St. Paul says, 1 1 wrote unto 
you in an epistle not to keep company with 
fornicators' (lCor5 9 ). And he directs the 
Colossian Church to exchange Epistles with the 
Church at Laodicea (Col4 16 ); this being the 
only mention we have of a Laodicean Epistle. 
But there are several private letters in the 
New Testament, each bearing the vivid stamp 
of an occasion. And these must have consti- 
tuted but a small part of the correspondence 
of the early Christian writers. St. Paul 
speaks of ' epistles of commendation ' (2 Cor 
3 x ), personal letters of introduction, as pass- 
ing frequently among the Churches. Un- 
doubtedly, then, many private letters by the 
authors of the New Testament have been 
lost. 

This adds special interest to the Second and 
Third Epistles of St. John ; for here we have 
two letters of unquestionably early date, re- 
vealing each a section of the Christian com- 
munity in the colours of life. They are 
almost universally allowed to be by the same 
hand ; by the hand, most commentators add, 
of John the Apostle. The direct external 
evidence for their authenticity is not exten- 
sive. This may be perhaps on account of 
their brevity and their private character, 
which would render them not likely to be 
mentioned frequently by the Fathers. Yet 
there are several references to them in the 
first four centuries. It is said in the Mu- 
ratorian Canon (170 a.d.) that John wrote 
at least two Epistles. Irenaeus (180 a.d.) 
twice ascribes the Second Epistle to St. 
John. The Old Italic Version (180 a.d.) 
has both Epistles. Clement of Alexandria 
(190 a.d.) refers to the First Epistle as 
1 the larger Epistle,' implying that he knows 
another which is shorter ; and again he 
speaks of a Second Epistle of John, ad- 
dressed ' to a Babylonian lady by name Electa.' 
Both Epistles, the Second and Third, are 
mentioned by Origen (230 a.d.), and by 
Dionysius of Alexandria (245 a.d.). Euse- 
bius (325 a.d.) in speaking of them places 
them among the books whose right to a 
position in the Canon is disputed. The Second 



Epistle is referred to by Cyprian (248 A.D.) ; 
and both are acknowledged by the Councils of 
Laodicea (363 a.d.), of Hippo (393 a.d.), and 
the Third Council of Carthage (397 a.d.). 

The internal evidence is stronger. Accord- 
ing to the contents, the author is a person of 
apostolic, or at least authoritative, position. 
There is no ground for doubting that such 
was the case, for there is no motive conceiv- 
able for forgery. Moreover, if the attempt 
had been made to pass off the work of an 
obscure author for that of a prominent one, a 
more definite and authority-giving title than 
that which heads both Epistles — ' the Pres- 
byter ' — would have been assigned the writer. 
Their style, form, and contents are so alike 
that their unity of authorship can hardly be 
questioned. In each case the opening address 
(cp. 2Jn v. 1, 3 Jn v. 1), the writer's joy in 
the conduct of his friends (cp. 2Jn v. 4, 
3 Jn v. 4), and the conclusion (cp. 2 Jn v. 12, 
3 Jn vv. 13, 14), is the same. Similarity in 
the words, ideas, style, character, binds them 
also to the First Epistle. ' Love ' and ' truth ' 
glow as fundamental conceptions in all three. 
(Among instances of similar treatment of the 
same themes, are the following : cp. 2 Jn vv. 
4, 6, 1 Jn67, 2Jn vv. 6, 11 ; cp. 2Jn v. 5, 
Un27 ; cp. 2Jn v. 6, Un5 3 ; cp. 2Jn 
v. 7, Un222 ; cp . 2Jn v. 7, 1 Jn 41-8 ; cp. 
2Jn v. 9, Un223 ; cp. 2 Jn v. 12, Unl*; 
cp. 3Jn v. 11, 1 Jn 310. Of the thirteen vv. 
of the Second Epistle eight are thus found in 
essentially the same form in the First.) In 
all of them the centre of Christianity is the 
recognition of Jesus as the Christ and the 
authoritative revealer of God, and walking in 
love and truth as the soul's mode of union 
with Him. The prominence given to Christ 
leads to warnings against ' antichrist,' an ex- 
pression found in the New Testament in the 
First and Second Epistles of John only (1 Jn 
218,22 43 2 Jn v. 7). The First Epistle utters 
three clear and weighty warnings against the 
dangers of the time — the danger of denying the 
true Christ, of failing in love to the brethren, 
and of not observing Christ's commandments. 
These same three warnings constitute the body 
of thought of the Second Epistle (2Jn vv. 7, 
9, 5, 6). The connexion between the First 
Epistle and the Second and Third is so close 
that the arguments for the Johannine author- 
ship of the last two are in the main the same 



1U58 



INTRO. 



2 AND 3 JOHN 



INTRO. 



as for the First, and may be found at length 
in commentaries on that Epistle. Whether 
this connexion involves unity of authorship 
with the Fourth Gospel and the Revelation, 
is a question too large to be entered upon 
here. 

It has been held that the title which the 
author of the Second and Third Epistles gives 
himself — ' the Presbyter ' or k Elder ' — excludes 
Johannine authorship. For this, it is main- 
tained, is the official designation of the minister 
of a particular Church, and therefore cannot 
have been assumed by one having the apostolic 
position of St. John. This opinion is sup- 
ported by a passage in Eusebius, in which 
Papias is quoted as mentioning a John the 
Presbyter. ' If I met with any one who had 
been a follower of the Presbyters, I made it a 
point to enquire what were the declarations of 
the Presbyters ; what was said by Andrew or 
by Peter or by Philip or by Thomas or by 
James or by John or by Matthew or any of 
the Lord's disciples ; and what Aristion and 
the Presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, 
say.' Of this statement of Papias, Eusebius 
says : ' It is proper to observe that the name 
of John occurs twice. The one John he men- 
tions with Peter and James and Matthew and 
the other Apostles. But in a separate part of 
his discourse he ranks the other John with 
the rest not included in the number of the 
Apostles, placing Aristion before him. He 
distinguishes him plainly by the name of 
Presbyter.' Eusebius therefore infers that 
there were two Johns — John the Apostle 
and John the Presbyter. Cp. Euseb. 'Hist. 
Eccles.,' VII, 25. But apart from the fact 
that it is somewhat uncertain whether Papias 
in this passage refers to a different person 
from John the Apostle, this is the only place 
in Christian history down to the time of 
Eusebius in which such a person as John the 
Presbyter is mentioned. Moreover, it is an 
assumption that ' the Presbyter ' must neces- 
sarily be the technical and official title of the 
minister of a special Church ; for in the very 
passage quoted, Papias calls seven of the 
Apostles Presbyters. It is more probable, 
therefore, that 'Presbyter,' at the beginning 
of the Second and Third Epistles of John, is 
not an official title, but a descriptive appellation, 
as it is translated in both AV and RV — ' the 
Elder.' The term therefore claims for the 
author a position of dignity and authority 
in the Christian community ; not necessarily 
implying apostleship, but not excluding it. 

2. Occasion. We have said that the back- 
ground of thought of the Second and Third 
Epistles is the same as that of the First, and 
that this contained three warnings against the 
dangers of the time. These dangers resulted 
from the great main problem which lay at the 



foundation of all Oriental religions — the rela- 
tion of finite man to the infinite God. How 
could that chasm be crossed ? how had it been 
crossed in the work of creation ? how were 
spirit and matter related ? how did evil enter 
the world, and what was evil ? Almost all 
early thinkers were driven by these questions 
into some form of Dualism. There were, they 
must believe, twc Powers in conflict. Since 
spirit was the higher, matter was evil ; it was 
the work of the inferior god. The material, 
the natural, was therefore to be fought against ; 
the spiritual man could have nothing to do 
with it. Indeed, so far as he was truly spiritual, 
he was already freed from and above it. 
Hebrew religion, in its moments of clearest 
insight, set itself against this Dualism. The 
creation, it declared, was not the work of an 
inferior deity or deities, but both worlds, those 
of spirit and matter, were called into being by 
one and the same infinite God. ' In the begin- 
ning God created the heaven and the earth.' 
The Prophet of the Exile was so daring indeed 
in his proclamation of Monism, that he did 
not hesitate to declare Jehovah to be the 
author of evil itself. ' I form the light and 
create darkness ; I make peace and create evil. 
I, the Lord, do all these things' (Isa45 7 ). 

Of course this problem laid its heaviest grasp 
upon the early Christians in relation to the 
person and work of Jesus Christ. Starting 
from the same ground — the essentially evil 
nature of matter — two opposite schools of 
thought arose. The one — that of Cerinthus — 
held that Jesus, as the true son of Joseph and 
Mary, was, like His fellow-men, tainted with 
sin, though more righteous than others. The 
divine Logos, however, was at His baptism 
joined with Him ; and these two continued 
together in the human body of Jesus, until at 
His death He cast off His flesh and became 
pure spirit. Dualism was thus seated in the 
very person of Christ. The other school, that 
of the Docetists, denied altogether the fleshly, 
i.e. evil, nature of Jesus, and maintained that 
He was human in appearance only, having no 
real human nature, but a wholly spiritual one. 
This too established a dualism in Christ, through 
the failure of the different elements in Him 
to constitute a unity. Round this problem, 
thus insoluble — to keep Jesus in touch with 
humanity, to assert His freedom from the 
taint of sin, and to proclaim at the same time 
the essential distinction between human and 
divine, and the inherent evil of the human — 
over and about this the currents of thought 
flowed for centuries hopelessly. Ideas, specula- 
tions, fancies, from sources Christian, Jewish, 
Oriental, classical, magical, all combined in the 
many and strange systems which came to be 
known as Gnosticism. Dualism stamped itself 
deep even upon Christianity, and it came to 



1059 



INTRO. 



2 and 3 JOHN 



INTRO. 



be taken for granted that there was a necessary- 
opposition between faith and reason, grace and 
nature, supernatural and natural, the priest 
and the man, the Church and the world. 

Such opinions could not remain speculative 
only. They involved a denial of that which to 
St. John was life's most precious possession — 
the conviction that Jesus was the authentic 
revelation of the infinite God ; and this denial 
again gave birth to a disbelief in any ultimate 
standard, which resulted in antinomianism and 
immorality, and to a disregard of the corporate 
nature of religion, which then became gross 
selfishness. One who can see Jesus Christ, 
and yet not welcome in Him the ideal of God 
and man, can do so, in St. John's view, only 
by denying his own moral perceptions. And 
so the Apostle bursts out into the exclamation 
which is the central thought of all his Epistles, 
' Who is a liar but he that denieth that Jesus 
is the Christ!' (lJn222). 

3. Date. If we are correct in assigning 
these Epistles to St. John, they belong to the 
last quarter of the 1st cent. The Christian 
Church had not yet attained that definiteness 
of organisation which was the work of the 
2nd cent. The Churches of different localities 
were connected by ties of friendship and 
spiritual communion rather than by the au- 
thoritative bonds of organised ecclesiasticism. 
Yet the tendency to centralisation had begun. 
A unified system not only of belief, but of con- 
duct, organisation, and discipline was growing 
up. Importance began to be laid on doctrinal 
unity. The authority of some prominent man, 
one of the Twelve (lCorl 12 3Jn v. 9), or of 
the other Apostles (lCor7 17 R0I6 7 ), would 
be recognised by a Church or group of Churches. 
He would often give letters of recommendation 
to the evangelists or messengers, or to the 
brethren travelling on private business from 
one community to another. To receive and 
entertain these was a duty for every Church. 
An interesting document of the next century, 
' The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ' (circ. 
120 A.D.), lays down rules for the prevention 
of the abuse of this hospitality. ' With regard 
to Apostles and prophets, do with them accord- 
ing to the ordinance of the gospel. Let every 
Apostle who cometh to you be received as the 
Lord. He shall not overstay one day, though, 
if need be, the next ; but if he remain three 
daySphe is a false prophet. And let not the 
Apostle, on departing, take aught save bread 
till he come to a stopping-place ; and if he ask 
money, he is a false prophet. And the prophet 
that speaketh in the spirit you shall not ques- 
tion nor judge, for every offence shall be for- 
given, but this offence shall not be forgiven. 
Not every one that speaketh in the spirit is ,1 
prophet, unless he have the ways of the Lord. 
By their ways, then, shall the false prophet 



and the prophet be known. And no prophet 
who in the spirit appointeth a feast eateth 
thereof, unless he be a false prophet ; and any 
prophet who teacheth the truth, if what he 
teacheth he do not, is a false prophet. . . And 
whoso saith in the spirit, Give me moneys or 
other things, you shall not hearken to him ; 
but if for others in straits he say, Give, let no 
one judge him.' In the Second and Third 
Epistles we see these itinerant teachers and 
brethren on their way from Church to Church 
(2 Jn vv. 7, 9-12, 3 Jn vv. 5, 6, 8-13). We find 
there are many l deceivers ' among them ; while 
there are in the Churches lordly officials inflated 
with power, refusing recognition to the 
Apostle's messengers, and, on the other hand, 
warm-hearted and influential laymen, who de- 
light to serve the Christian community by 
entertaining its representatives. We see the 
little congregation in this place and a congre- 
gation of strangers distant in that place finding 
themselves at one through loyalty to a common 
Master. We see the knitting of those ties 
which are soon to become the great fellowship 
of the Christian Church. Short as these two 
Epistles are, they furnish a glimpse, clear and 
vivid, of the life of the Christian community 
near the close of the 1st cent., and of the means 
for securing that unity of belief and organisa- 
tion which in the course of the next century 
was to develop the great Catholic Church. 

4. Contents of the Epistles. In the Second 
Epistle the author sends his greeting to ' the 
elect lady ' and her children, dwelling upon 
the ground of their mutual friendship — their 
fellowship in ' the truth.' He has met with 
some of her children (or some members of the 
Church addressed), and has been glad to find 
them living as they ought, in the way of God's 
commandment. This commandment is nothing 
new, but is as old as religion itself. It is 
simply love as the law of life. The writer 
gives some of his characteristic definitions. 
The commandment is to love, and love means 
to keep the commandments. Then comes a 
warning against false teachers. The test by 
which the true teacher may be known is his 
recognition of Jesus Christ as historic and 
authoritative, and his following of the teaching 
of Christ. ' Erroneous ideas ' on this subject 
are not to be tolerated, and kindness shown to 
any one who does not meet this test is mistaken 
charity and participation in evil. There is 
much more which the author has in mind to 
say ; but he will write no more at present, for 
he hopes to visit his readers soon, to the ful- 
filment of their mutual satisfaction. A closing 
salutation is sent to the recipient of the letter 
by the children of her elect sister. 

The Third Epistle opens with the same form 
of greeting as the Second. In this case it is 
to a certain Gaius ; who is dear to the writer 



1060 



INTRO. 



2 and 3 JOHN— 2 JOHN 



as a member of the Christian community — he 
is ' in the truth ' — and for his own large, gen- 
erous character. If his body is as vigorous as 
his soul, the writer will rejoice. For mes- 
sengers have recently come from the Church 
to which Gaius belongs, and reported that he 
is conducting himself as a worthy member of 
the fellowship of Christ — ' walking in the 
truth ' — and especially that he is most hos- 
pitable to all, both friends and strangers, who 
are serving the Cause. Such praiseworthy 
conduct is in marked contrast with that of an 
official of the same Church, Diotrephes, who 
had recently refused to receive messengers 



with a letter from ' the Elder,' and had threat- 
ened excommunication to those who wished to 
welcome them. The members of the Church 
are warned not to imitate such evil conduct ; 
which suggests, by contrast, that of a certain 
Demetrius, whom the writer warmly commends 
to them. This man has the threefold witness 
— of general approval, of membership in ' the 
truth,' and that of the Apostle himself. As 
in the preceding letter, further discourse is 
postponed to the personal meeting which he 
hopes will shortly take place. The Epistle 
closes with salutations from the Apostle and 
his friends to Gaius and his friends. 



2 JOHN 



I. The elder] cp. Intro. 

The elect lady] Gk. eklekte kuria. The 
question who is meant by this designation has 
given rise to much discussion. The various 
opinions are as follows : (1) Some regard the 
second word of the phrase as a proper name, 
and translate, ' To the lady Electa.' This is 
not likely ; because if it had been intended, 
the Greek would probably have been different ; 
because we should then be obliged to trans- 
late Electa as a proper name in v. 13 also, in 
spite of the unlikelihood that two sisters 
would have the same name ; and because St. 
Paul uses the word (Eol6 13 ) plainly not as a 
name, but as a descriptive adjective. (2) The 
third word is a proper name — ' the elect Kyria.' 
This opinion has in its favour the fact that 
Kyria was a common name among the Greeks, 
being the feminine of ' Cyrus.' The analogy 
of 3 Jn v. 1 is also in favour of an address by 
name. But this same analogy would lead us 
to expect a different order of words. Again, 
if Kyria were the lady addressed, and if she 
was known and loved by ' all that have known 
the truth ' (v. 1), it would perhaps be strange 
that we have no other mention of so prominent 
a person. This, with other considerations, 
has led to the opinion (3) that not a person 
but the Church in general is meant. This 
seems inconsistent with the Apostle's expect- 
ation (v. 12) of visiting her and seeing her 
face to face. Others hold (4) that it is not the 
Church universal, but some particular Church, 
to which the Apostle writes of his approaching 
visit. Others still find here no proper name 
and no metaphor, but translate (5), ' To the 
elect lady ' ; while some who agree in the 
main with this position point out (6) that 
there is in the Greek no definite article, and 
therefore translate, ' To an elect lady.' The 
weight of evidence seems in favour of the last 
opinion in one of its forms, (5) or (6) ; though 
the case is best summed up in the words of 



Bp. Westcott : ' No solution of the problem 
offered by eklekte kuria is satisfactory.' 

The truth in this and the following Epistle 
has come to have almost a technical meaning, 
implying not only the eternal principle, but 
also the organisation which embodies it— the 
Church. Cp. in Acts the use of ' the Way ' : 
Ac9 2 199> 2 3 22* 2422. 3 . with you] The 
better text reads ' with us.' Cp. Westcott and 
Hort, 4. I found of thy children] This shows 
that the lady must have had at least three 
children. Some have seen in it a sad, gentle 
hint that there were others of her children 
who did not walk in the truth. 

5-8. Note the distinctively Johannine cha- 
racteristics here : (1) He is giving his hearers 
a new commandment: cp. Jnl3 34 15 12 . (2) 
The commandment is to love one another: 
cp. Jnl3 35 1 Jn3 23 . (3) Love means walk- 
ing according to the commandments of God: 
cp. Jn 14 15, 21 Un25 5 3 . (4) The central 
fact of Christianity is the recognition of Jesus 
as the Christ: cp. Un2 2 2 42,3 > Note also 
a peculiarity of the Johannine (a) thought and 
(&) style: (a) the habit — logical, un-Hebraic 
— of giving definitions, e.g. 'love,' 'the com- 
mandment,' 'antichrist'; (b) the use of a 
demonstrative pronoun or adverb pointing 
forward to the definition coming in the next 
clause ; e.g. This is love, that we walk after 
His commandments. This is the commandment, 
That, as ye have heard from the beginning-, 
ye should walk in love. Cp. Jn 15 8 17 3 
Un2 3 316. 

6. In it] better to make ' it ' refer not to 
the nearest noun, ' commandment,' but to 
' love.' 7. Are entered into the world] rather, 
' are gone out into the world': cp. RY; i.e. 
they were formerly members of the Church, 
but have apostatised: cp. 1 Jn2 19 . To con- 
fess that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is 
with St. John the central fact of Christian 
belief. Not to recognise in Jesus the authentic 



1061 



2 JOHN— S JOHN 



14 



revelation of the infinite God and the highest 
ideal of humanity, can, in his opinion, imply 
only moral depravity. 

9. Whosoever, not transgresseth, but ' has 
erroneous ideas.' No claim of superior know- 
ledge can be allowed which sets aside what 
Christ taught. Doctrine in the NT. is never 
synonymous with ' dogma,' but means ' teaching.' 

1 0. ' This verse reminds us that the G-ospel 
has its intolerance as well as tolerance ' (Bp. 
Alexander). Ordinary courtesy is not for- 
bidden, but to extend the right hand of fellow- 
ship would be to condone and further false 
doctrine and to share the guilt of disloyalty. 

1 1. Biddeth him God speed] ' The three salu- 
tations are eminently characteristic of the 
general view of life and its aim entertained 



by the three races. The Roman, to whom 
health and strength seemed all in all, said 
Salve, " health." The Greek, whose existence 
aimed supremely at sweetness and light, said 
Chair e, looking upon " joy " as the highest aim. 
The Hebrew, who had a revelation, and knew 
the blessedness of reconciliation with God 
and conscience, said Shalon, "peace"' (Bp. 
Alexander). 

13. The writer may have been staying at 
this second matron's house. If the Epistle 
was written to an individual, the transmission 
of this trivial message from children to an 
aunt is an interesting note of the simplicity 
and courtesy of the writer of high station — 
Elder, Apostle, personal friend of Jesus, 
whoever he may have been. 



3 JOHN 



1. Gaius] A Gaius or Caius — the common 
Latin form of the name — is mentioned in 
four other places in the NT. (Acl9 2 9 20 4 Ro 
16 2 3 1 Cor 114). The trait of character in- 
dicated here is in line with the generous hos- 
pitality referred to in the third of these 
passages. It is hardly likely, however, that 
one who was sufficiently prominent in the 
Church of Corinth to be a general host about 
the year 50, would be still exercising the 
same function some thirty years later. The 
identification therefore of the Gaius to whom 
the Third Epistle is addressed, with St. 
Paul's host, or with any of the others men- 
tioned, is more than doubtful. In the truth] 
see on 2 Jn v. 1. 

2. I wish] better, ' I pray.' This may im- 
ply that Gaius had been ill. 3. Thou] In 
the Gk., emphatic; in contrast with others, 
like Diotrephes, of whom this could not be 
said. 4. Greater] In the Gk., a double com- 
parative, as in English ' betterer ' would be. 
This may indicate that the author was not a 
classical Greek scholar, or the usage may be 
intentional, for emphasis, like the comparative 
formed on a superlative in Eph3 8 . Cp. also, 
4 How much more elder art thou than thy 
looks ! ' (' Merchant of Venice,' IV, i). 

5. Doest . . doest] The second verb is differ- 
ent in the Gk. from the first, and implies more 
of toilful labour. And to strangers] Much 
stronger in the best text — ' and that too to 
strangers.' 'The duty of entertaining Chris- 
tiana on their travels was of peculiar import- 
ance in early times, (1) from the length of 
time which travelling required, (2) from the 
poverty of the Christians, (3) from the kind of 
society they would meet at public inns ' (Sin- 
clair). 6. Bring- forward] i.e. with practical 
assistance — money, provisions, escort, etc. 

7. Taking nothing of the Gentiles] The 



missionaries whom Gaius had entertained had 
not been willing to receive assistance from the 
non- Christians among whom they had been 
labouring. While they might properly receive 
from those who had long been Christians, it 
would be of great importance that there should 
be not the least suggestion of selling the truth. 

9. I wrote, etc.] The Gk. makes the state- 
ment more exact by inserting an object of the 
verb — ' I wrote somewhat to the Church.' Of 
this letter we have no further knowledge. 
Possibly a part of the offence of Diotrephes 
had been its suppression ; so that this may be 
a hint to Gaius that the contents of this letter 
at least should be made known to the Church. 

We know no more of Diotrephes. Y. 10 
may imply that he had the power of excom- 
munication, and therefore was the official 
head of the Church to which Gaius belonged. 
It may, however, only imply that he had suffi- 
cient social influence to exclude the brethren 
from the Christian society of the place. His 
fondness for being preeminent had, at all 
events, brought him a certain local power. 

11. Hath not seen God] a truly Johannine 
thought: cp. Un3 6 . 

12. Nothing further is known certainly of 
Demetrius. But as both he and the mob- 
leader of the same name (Ac 1 9 24 ) lived appa- 
rently in or near Ephesus, there is nothing 
impossible in the suggestion that the agitator 
had become a disciple, and that both refer- 
ences, therefore, are to the same person. He 
may have been the bearer of this Epistle. The 
thought of a threefold witness — in this case, 
general report, the truth, and the Apostle 
himself — is characteristic of St. John : cp. 
Un5<5-io. 

13. 14. The conclusion is the same as that 
of the Second Epistle. Possibly the journey 
contemplated in both is the same. 



1062 






JUDE 



See General Introduction to 2 Peter and 
Jude. 

Contents. 

I. Vv. 1, 2. Greeting. 

ii. Yv. 3-16. The ungodly men. 

(a) 3, 4. 'I was writing a pastoral letter to 
you when the news that certain ungodly men 
have crept in obliged me to address you with a 
special admonition.' 

(b) 5-7. 'I would remind you — though as 
Christians you already know all I can tell 
you — that the examples of Israel and of the 
angels prove that it is possible to fall away 
from grace, and that a punishment — of which 
the destruction of the cities of the plain is a 
visible demonstration — assuredly follows.' 

(c) 8-13. ' So it is with these men, who now 
show themselves so insolent, ignorant, and 
bestial. That which is most dreary, desolate, 
and disappointing in nature is a type of their 
hypocrisy, and, like wandering comets, they 
are destined for darkness at last, from which 
they shall never again come forth.' 

(d) 14-16. ' It is to them that Enoch's pro- 
phecy of judgment applies — to these selfish 
schemers who abuse the gift of speech.' 

in. Yv. 17-23. 'Remember the mockers 
of whom the Apostle forewarned you. Here 
they are — these unspiritual men who make 
separations among the believers. Do you 
abide in the one faith, with prayer in the Holy 
Spirit, trust in the love of God, and hope of 
Christ's mercy. And in that hope have mercy 
yourselves as far as may be on those who are 
falling victims to this plague which is among 
you.' 

iv. Yv. 24, 25. 'May the only God our 
Saviour keep you firm, to whom be glory 
through Christ.' 

Greeting which introduces a Pastoral 
Letter written to meet an Inroad 
of blasphemous false teaching. ex- 
hortation, doxology 
i. To them that are sanctified by God the 
Father, and preserved in Jesus Christ, and 
called] RY ' to them that are called, beloved 
in God the Father, and kept for Jesus Christ,' 
To them that are sanctified (RY ' called ')] 
One word in the Gk., which, like 'saints' in 
v. 3, is used as a name for Christians. This 
greeting, taken together with vv. 20 f ., shows 
that our most holy faith, which was once for 
all delivered unto the saints, is based upon the 
doctrine of the Holy Trinity. The Holy Spirit 
is not expressly named in the greeting, but His 



agency is implied. It is He \ . ho has kept and 
will keep the readers for Christ ; He makes 
them live in the Father, who is the source of 
love, as Christ is of mercy, and as the Holy 
Spirit Himself is of peace. In (RY) God] In 
Him all men live and move and have their being 
(Ac 1 7 28 ), and in Him the life of Christians is 
hid with Christ (Col3 3 ). God's love embraces 
in Himself those whom He loves. The ex- 
pression is difficult, but the thought is deep. 
Here, as in much else that he says, St. Jude 
shows a mind near akin to St. Paul's. 2. As 
St. Paul in his two Epistles to Timothy, so St. 
Jude adds mercy to the ' grace and peace ' of 
the ordinary apostolic salutation. 

3. When I gave . . it was needful] RY 
' while I was giving . . I was constrained ' : see 
Intro. Our (RY) common salvation is the re- 
sult of Christ's work, which is a fact that 
nothing can alter, on which all alike, Apostle 
and disciple, strong and weak, may base their 
life : the faith which was once for all (RY) 
delivered to the saints is the declaration of this 
fact, and must be defended, or it may be for- 
gotten or denied. 4. From this v. to v. 19 this 
Epistle must be compared with 2 Pet. The 
only Lord God, and our Lord Jesus Christ] 
RY ' our only Master and Lord, Jesus Christ.' 
These men did not refuse to believe in God, 
though they rebelled against Him, and by 
their lasciviousness abused His grace. In 
Christ, as Master and Lord, they would 
not believe. Their unbelief, rebellion, and 
lasciviousness correspond to the unbelief of 
Israel, the rebellion of the angels, and the 
lasciviousness of the cities of the plain (vv. 5-7). 

5. Though ye once knew this] R Y ' though 
ye know all things once for all,' i.e. because 
they are Christians, and have learnt the whole 
Christian creed (cp. Heb 6 2 ) ; or perhaps (a 
deeper thought) because they have as Chris- 
tians ' the Spirit in their mind ' (cp. Eph 4 17 > 23 ). 
and ' need not that any man teach them ' 
(Un22f). 

A curious reading of some MSS is noticed 
in RM — ' Jesus ' for the Lord. It recalls 
Heb 4 8, as the rest of the v. does HebS 1 ^. 

6. First estate] RY ' principality.' 7. Ven- 
geance] RY ' punishment.' The fire may be 
called eternal, because the destruction wrought 
by it remains. The Gk., however, would 
allow us to take example with of eternal 
fire — ' as an example of eternal fire, suffering 
punishment ' (RM). 

8. Likewise] RY ' Yet,' i.e. in spite of such 
a warning. Also these filthy dreamers] RY 



1063 



JUDE 



25 



' these also in their dreamings,' i.e. their per- 
verted faith and life is like a dream, senti- 
mental and unpractical. 9. With this v. cp. 
2 Pet 2 n . St. Jude, however, does not say at 
all the same thing, and refers to a certain 
apocryphal Jewish book called ' The Assump- 
tion of Moses' ; cp. vv. 11, 14, and 2 Tim 3 s . 
Though he refers to such books, he does not 
necessarily imply that the stories he read in 
them are true. Even in sermons we some- 
times hear references to stories or speeches in 
Shakespeare or Milton, which we listen to 
as illustrations, not as being true to fact. 

10. As brute beasts] RV ' like the creatures 
without reason.' 11. Cain] The Jews spoke 
of Cain as the first ' freethinker,' and these 
unbelievers would be his followers in that 
respect. Holy Scripture, however, tells us 
that Cain destroyed his brother, and these 
men were doing the same. The mention of 
Balaam brings in a new fault — their treacher- 
ous, hypocritical greed. Core] RV ' Korah ' : 
cp. Nul6. 12. Feasts of charity] RY ' love 
feasts': cp. 2 Pet 2 13 . Feeding themselves] 
RV ' shepherds that feed themselves ' : cp. 
Ezk34 8 . Trees whose fruit withereth] RV 
' autumn trees ' ; they are twice dead, for the 
dying year is a symbol of death, and being 
plucked up by the roots is a symbol of the 
second death, from which there is no return 
to life: cp. Rev 21 8 . 13. Raging waves] 
RV ' wild waves.' Wandering stars] i.e. 
comets, whose return no man sees. 

14. Enoch also . . prophesied of these] RV 
1 To these also Enoch . . prophesied,' i.e. to 
these as well as to the men to whom the 
prophecy is addressed in the apocryphal book 
of Enoch. Cometh] RV ' came.' 

Ten thousands of his saints] RM ' his holy 



myriads': cp. Dt332 ZechU^. 15. Con- 
vince] RV 'convict.' 16. Having men's 
persons in admiration because of advantage] 
RV ' shewing respect of persons for the sake 
of advantage.' 

17. Of the apostles] RV ' by the apostles ' : 
cp. 2Pet3 2f . 19. Separate themselves] RV 
' make separations,' i.e. they break up the 
Church into parties and sects : cp. 1 Corl 12f . 

Sensual] RM ' natural or animal ' : cp. v. 
10. Spirit] RV ' Spirit,' i.e. the Holy Spirit. 

22, 23. And of some, etc.] RV 'and on 
some have mercy, who are in doubt ; and 
some save, snatching them out of the fire ; 
and on some have mercy with fear ' ; but RM, 
' the Greek text in this passage (" and . . 
fire ") is somewhat uncertain.' The garment 
spotted by the flesh] cp. Zech 3 2f - and Lv 
13 47-59 . There is contagion in their error 
like that of a plague. In their efforts to save 
others they must beware of this. 

24. Falling] R V ' stumbling ' : cp. Ro ll 11 
1 Pet 2 8. Faultless] RV 'without blemish': 
cp. Ephl4 (RV) Col I 22 ( R Y) Heb9i4 (RV) 
1 Pet 1 19 . 25. The only wise God our Saviour] 
(cp. Rol627 RV). RV 'the only God our 
Saviour.' God is called Saviour elsewhere in 
NT. only in lTimP 23 410 Titl32io 3*, and 
Lkl47 (from OT.). Now and ever] RV ' be- 
fore all time, and now, and for evermore.' 

The word for ' be ' is not expressed in the 
Gk., but may rightly be supplied, though at 
first sight it does not seem to go well with 
' before all time ' (RV). ' Is,' however, would 
be less forcible, for in this blessing St. Jude 
' contends for the faith which was once for all 
delivered to the saints.' Whatever ungodly 
men may think, he says, ' Let God's proper 
glory be rendered to Him.' 



1064 



REVELATION 



INTRODUCTION 



i. The Title. The title of the book varies 
in the later MSS, though all ascribe it to John. 
One MS of the 11th cent, has ' the Revelation 
of Jesus Christ given to the theologian John.' 
The word ' divine ' in AY and RV is used in 
the sense of ' theologian,' ' one who writes on 
God and the divine nature.' The title in the 
oldest MSS is ' the Revelation (Gk. Apocalypsis) 
of John.' The writer calls the book ' Apoca- 
lypse,' or ' Revelation,' only in 1 \ Elsewhere 
he speaks of it as ' prophecy ' (cp. 1 3 22 7 > 10 > 18f -), 
and of himself as a ' prophet ' (cp. 10 n 22 6 > 9 ). 
Yet the form which the prophecy has taken is 
rightly described by the title ' Apocalypse.' 

'Apocalypse' (i.e. 'uncovering,' 'unveiling') 
is a technical term used to denote a particular 
kind of writing which sprang up among the 
Jews mainly during the two centuries before 
Christ. It had its antecedents in such escha- 
tological passages (i.e. passages foretelling the 
end of the present order of things) as Isa 24-27, 
Joel, and Zech 1 2-14. The thoughts and images 
of such passages as these were dwelt upon and 
developed in later times into apocalypses. The 
book of Daniel is an apocalypse. Other writings 
of an apocalyptic kind are, the 'Apocalypse of 
Baruch,' the Ethiopic l Book of Enoch,' the 
Slavonic ' Book of Enoch,' the ' Ascension of 
Isaiah,' the ' Book of Jubilees,' the ' Assump- 
tion of Moses,' the ' Testaments of the Twelve 
Patriarchs,' the ' Psalms of Solomon,' the 
' Sibylline Oracles.' 

Apocalypses were written at times when 
the righteous suffered oppression by a foreign 
power. The message of the apocalypse was 
that deliverance was coming, and that the 
righteous were to wait for it in patience. In 
this sense an apocalypse differed from pro- 
phecy, which, for the most part, warned 
unfaithful and wicked Israel of the coming 
of a ' Day of the Lord,' and called for repent- 
ance. Moreover, the apocalypse saw in the 
evil plight of the righteous a sign of the power 
of Satan in the world, which made it certain 
that God would soon intervene to overthrow 
the evil. Apocalypses were written when men 
were troubled because the promises of good 
made by the prophets seemed to be unfulfilled. 
Accordingly, the apocalyptic writer set out to 
justify the dealings of God. He ' sketched in 
outline the history of the world and of man- 
kind the origin of evil and its course, and the 
consummation of all things. . . The righteous 



as a nation should ye+ possess the earth, either 
in an eternal or in a temporary Messianic king- 
dom, and the destiny of the righteous individual 
should be finally determined according to his 
works. For though amid the world's disorders 
he might perish untimely, he would not fail to 
attain through the resurrection the recompense 
that was his due, in the Messianic kingdom, 
or in heaven itself ' (R. H. Charles, HDB.). 

Apocalypses were characterised by strange 
and mysterious figures, seen in visions and 
explained by angels. Sometimes these figures 
were new, and shaped to represent persons 
or events of the time. Sometimes they were 
borrowed or adapted from older apocalypses, or 
from the OT., or even from remote tradition. 
It is thought that some of these last tradi- 
tionary figures may have gradually developed 
out of creation myths. 

Apocalypses were pseudonymous, i.e. they 
were given forth under the name of some 
great person of the past, such as Enoch or 
Moses. It has been suggested that this was 
caused by the general feeling of despair with 
which the times were viewed. Prophecy had 
ceased, and perhaps no living person could hope 
for a hearing. But the pseudonym may have 
had a better justification. The figures and 
traditions which were used may have been so 
connected with those old great names, that the 
apocalyptic writer looked upon his writings 
as proceeding rather from the heroic saint he 
reverenced than from himself (see HDB. arts. 
1 Apocalyptic Literature ' and ' Revelation, 
Book of '). 

But although the book we call ' the Revela- 
tion of St. John ' is one of a class, it does 
not follow that it has no deeper value for us 
than the others of its class. The fact that 
it has been taken into the Canon of Scripture, 
while they have been rejected, shows that it 
outshines them all. In this ' the Revelation ' 
is like other books of the Bible. The 
histories, the Psalms, the Wisdom books of 
the OT., have been distinguished from others 
which are left outside the Canon. And Lk 1 1 
shows that our Gospels were not the only 
memoirs of the life of Christ which existed 
in the earliest Christian age. Again, the title 
of the book is evidence that, as regards other 
apocalypses, it claims to stand above them all. 
Other apocalypses, as has been said above, pro- 
fessed to come from some great man of the 



1065 



IXTRO. 



REVELATION 



INTRO. 



past, as Enoch, and we know that only in a 
very loose sense could such a profession be 
justified. Our Apocalypse does not go back 
to some far distant and hardly more than 
nominal author. It is not even, as in the 
title, the Apocalypse of John, for that title 
is of uncertain date. The true title is given 
in 1 l . The book is ' The Revelation of Jesus 
Christ.' The book claims to have Jesus 
Christ as the author of the revelation it 
contains. The place St. John assigns to 
himself is that of a prophet who is able to 
receive from Christ a revelation and to com- 
municate it to others. Christian believers 
may be unable to see how there can be any 
true connexion between Enoch and the book 
which bears his name. But they do not doubt 
the reality of the gift of prophecy, or the fact 
that Christ could and did reveal Himself to 
His Apostles. 

2. Purpose. The Christians in the western 
part of Asia Minor, for whom, during the 
latter part of the 1st cent., the book was 
specially written, had evidently been under- 
going great trials. The purity of their 
Churches was sullied by teaching which con- 
doned "immoral and heathen practices, and by 
growing worldliness : cp. 3 2 > 17f - They had 
experienced persecution, both from the reli- 
gious hatred of the Jews (cp. 2 9 3 9 ) and from 
the Roman government. Under the Roman 
government, religion had become largely iden- 
tified with Imperialism. Temples had been 
dedicated, in various places, to Rome and the 
emperor, and the emperor had been called 
1 Lord and God.' To a Christian, worship 
such as this was blasphemy (cp. 13 *> 12 > 14f -), and, 
rather than join in it, many had died : cp. 
213 69 13 15 17 6 18 20 . The book was written 
during a lull in the persecution, which would, 
however, be temporary: cp. 2 10 6 11 11 7f . 
Thus the times were dark and threatening for 
the Christian Church. Christians were not 
only shut out from all the splendour and glory 
of life, from the honours and ambitions, from 
the riches and festivities which they saw daily 
in surrounding heathen society, but which they 
must not taste. They were not even allowed 
to live their simple lives in their own way. 
All the power of the empire was being directed 
upon them in inflexible hostility, and if they 
would not yield it seemed as if they must be 
crushed. Christ had promised His perpetual 
Presence, but they felt no lifting of the weight 
of the Roman hand. Christ had promised to 
conic again, and they yearned for His coming 
that He mighl deliver them, but it seemed as 
if they yearned in vain. And in this strain 
and stress came the seducing advice of ' Jeze- 
bels ' (cp. 2 20 ), who bade them save their lives 
and win security by outward conformity to 
heathen requirements and heathen ways. 



So, to brace them to endurance, came the 
message of the Revelation. The things which 
were seen, rich and mighty though they 
appeared, were temporal, about to pass away ; 
but the things which were not seen were 
eternal and to abide for ever. God was on 
His throne, and the future of the world was in 
the hand of Christ. The persecuting empire 
was inspired and supported by Satan, but God 
was stronger than Satan. Satan had already 
been conquered, essentially, by the work of 
Christ, and his overthrow, and the overthrow 
of his instruments, would soon be seen openly 
on earth. Rome, the persecuting empire, the 
heathen worship and priesthood, and the 
wicked of the earth, were all to fall before the 
conquering Christ. Last of all would be the 
general judgment, and then the incomparable 
and eternal bliss of the New Jerusalem. In 
these ways Christ would come, and come 
quickly. 

Therefore let Christians bear manfully their 
perils and pains. There was nothing strange 
in the demand that was made upon them. 
Christ Himself had endured before them. It 
was by death that He had won His victory, 
and their victory was to be won in the same 
manner. Therefore death for Christ was not 
defeat but overcoming, and great glory with 
Christ would be the reward of those who so 
overcame. 

3. Interpretation. Our interpretation of 
Revelation depends upon what view we take as 
to the period of the Church's history to which 
the figures and scenes preparatory to the 
climax of the book refer. There have been 
three chief schools of interpretation. One 
school (called the ' Futurist ') regards the book 
as dealing with the end of the world, and with 
events and persons which will immediately 
precede that end. The ' Historical ' school 
sees in the book a summary of the Church's 
history from early days until the end. The 
' Preterists ' look back to the past, and interpret 
the book as having to do with the times in 
which it originated. A fourth method sees in 
the book symbolical representations of good 
and evil principles, common to every age, and 
to be understood spiritually. According to 
this last method, the New Jerusalem, e.g., 
would be explained as representing the blessed- 
ness, even in this earthly state, of true believers 
whose lives are hid with Christ in God. 

The sketch of the purpose of the book will 
have shown that the ' Preterist ' view is at the 
basis of the present Commentary. The pro- 
bability of this view is supported by the ana- 
logy of other apocalypses. And it seems 
natural to suppose that the book would be 
meant to be intelligible by those to whom it 
was addressed, and would have arisen out of 
the circumstances of their state. Moreover, 



1066 



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INTRO. 



the language and the figures of the book are 
found to fit the condition of the early days of 
Christianity, and to yield, on this system, a 
consistent and unforced interpretation. The 
advocates of the other systems have differed 
widely among themselves, e.g. explaining the 
woman (c. 17) and the beasts, now to mean 
the Roman Church and the Pope, now ^the 
Turks and Mohammed, now the French Re- 
volution and Napoleon. But while this Com- 
mentary adapts the Preterist' view, it is not 
denied that, the principles of God's govern- 
ment of the world being always the same, 
practical use may be made of visions and 
figures which refer to past circumstances by 
applying the principles which they reveal to 
the events with which we ourselves have to do. 
The question remains whether those predic- 
tions which have to do with the millennium, 
i.e. the thousand years during which Christ 
would reign on earth (cp. 20 4f -), were meant 
to be understood literally or spiritually. The 
earliest interpretation was literal. Those who 
accepted the book expected a literal reign of 
Christ on earth. It was for this reason that 
many, not believing in a literal millennium, 
would not accept the book as canonical. It 
was only the spread of spiritual interpreta- 
tion, by which the ' thousand years ' denoted 
the present period of the Church, the view 
advocated by Jerome and Augustine, that en- 
abled the Church as a whole to receive the 
book. 

4. Unity. The structure of Revelation is 
not what might have been expected. We might 
have- expected a prophecy which passed on 
in regular course, developing evenly from 
stage to stage until the end was reached. In- 
stead of this we find progression indeed, but 
of a rough and uneven nature, and a number 
of dissimilar and abrupt visions and figures, 
often not so much flowing one out of another 
as piled one upon another. During the last 
twenty years some critics have attempted to 
account for these features by supposing, either 
that the book is composed of two or three 
earlier apocalypses, worked over and fitted 
together by a Christian editor, or else that the 
author drew upon various older materials, 
fragmentary in character, which he has used 
and incorporated. 

The former of these theories seems to be im- 
probable. The book certainly follows out a 
plan, even though it be roughly. And critics 
have not agreed in the results of their attempts 
to dissect the book and to display the joints 
and lines of union. But it seems more likely 
that the writer made some use of older 
materials. It is certain that he made large 
use of the OT., especially of Ezekiel and 
Daniel, e.g. cp. I 13 4«'- 13** 18 9 '. It is not, 
on the face of it, unlikely that some of the 



figures which cannot be traced to OT. sources 
may have been derived from lost or traditional 
materials, eg. chs. 11 f. We can see, indeed, 
that Jewish, and even heathen, ideas and 
beliefs were so used by the writer, and were 
given a Christian meaning : cp. 2 17 9 x '•»!* 
133,18 165,7 17 16 202-4. However, if this 
theory be true, we should suppose that the 
writer's use of such materials would be paral- 
lel to his use of the OT. He never slavishly 
copied from the OT., but employed and 
adapted OT. language and figures as if they 
were so familiar to him that he naturally 
expressed himself by their means. Similarly 
he may have pondered upon existing apocalyptic 
materials until they had become part of the 
furniture of his mind. The striking parallels 
of Rev. with Mt24 = Mkl3 = Lk21, 1720-37 
12 35-48 ? S eem to show the dependence of the 
author of Rev. upon the discourse of Christ 
on the Mount of Olives. E.g. cp 1 \ ' which 
God gave unto Him,' with Mt24 36 ; ' shortly 
come to pass,' with Mt24 34 ; while chs. 2f. 
show that the situation foretold in Mt24 9 * 14 is 
present. Cp. also 6 1 " 8 with Mt243-H ; 6 12 -i? 
with Mt 24 29-31 . 81 with Mt243i ; 8^2 with 
Mt2429 Lk2125. 

5. The Visions. Supposing that some part 
of the theories mentioned in the last section 
be true, how can it be said that St. John 
received the contents of the book in a vision ? 
The answer is threefold. (1) It is not neces- 
sary to understand the book as claiming to 
have been wholly received, as it stands, in 
one vision at one time. The first vision was 
received in Patmos. Others may have followed 
at subsequent times. (2) It is not necessary to 
suppose that the very words of the book were 
taken down, as if from dictation, by the writer. 
The writer claims to be a prophet (cp. 10 11 
22 6 > 9 ), and in the exercise of his gift he may 
have developed afterwards the facts which 
were revealed to him by vision. (3) The 
memory of previously acquired knowledge 
cannot but have a large share in the apprehen- 
sion of truths divinely received. Such truths 
must be rendered into a language previously 
learned ; and if they are rendered into figures 
previously assimilated, that is only another 
form of the same process. And the vision 
itself may, perhaps, be divinely adapted to 
the language and figures which are already 
contained in the mind of the recipient of the 
vision. 

6. Authorship. The writer of the book 
calls himself 'John': cp. 1M,9 22 8. No 
other description or definition is given. To 
the early Christian Church, ' John ' would 
signify John the Apostle. Besides this, the 
writer was of account among the Churches of 
the Roman province of Asia, and was in exile 
in Patmos. Early Christian tradition asserts 



1067 



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REVELATION 



INTRO. 



both these things of St. John. It would seem, 
therefore, that the book was written either by 
the Apostle, or by some one who wished it to 
be thought the work of the Apostle. 

The external evidence for the apostolic au- 
thorship is very strong, coming from Fathers 
in all parts of the Church. The earliest 
witnesses are Justin Martyr (circ. 140 a.d.), 
and probably Melito, bishop of Sardis (circ. 
170), and Theophilus, bishop of Antioch (circ. 
180). Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (circ. 180), 
who had known Polycarp the disciple of St. 
John, distinctly says that it was written by 
the Apostle. The apostolic authorship is also 
witnessed to by the Muratorian Fragment 
(circ. 200), Tertullian (circ. 220), Hippolytus, 
bishop of Ostia (circ. 240), Clement of Alex- 
andria (circ. 200), Origen (circ. 233), and 
Victorinus, who wrote the earliest extant com- 
mentary on Rev., and who was martyred under 
Diocletian (303). 

On the other hand, an Asiatic sect of the 
end of the 2nd cent., known as the ' Alogi,' 
rejected all the writings of St. John, and 
among them Rev. They did not appeal to 
any knowledge or tradition as to the author- 
ship, but said that they found the book un- 
profitable, and that there was no Church at 
Thyatira. Their rejection of St. John's 
writings was probably caused by their doctrinal 
views. Caius, a presbyter of Rome (circ. 
200), ascribed the book to Cerinthus, a here- 
tical teacher, who lived at Ephesus in the 
reign of Domitian, in whose system were 
combined elements derived from Judaism, 
Christianity, and Oriental speculation, and 
whose tenets seem to be opposed in the Gospel 
and Epistles of St. John. Both the Alogi 
and Caius opposed the Montanists, who ap- 
pealed to Rev. in support of their views. 

Dionysius of Alexandria (circ. 250) denied 
the apostolic authorship, but wholly on critical 
grounds, arguing from the language of the 
book, and from its unlikeness to the Gospel 
and to the First Epistle. He thought it must 
have been written by another John, perhaps 
John Mark, and said that he had heard that 
there were two tombs at Ephesus, each called 
that of John. Eusebius of Caesarea tells us 
that Papias spoke of a k John the Presbyter,' 
distinguishing him from the Apostle, and he 
hazards a guess that possibly this Presbyter was 
the John of Revelation. 

It will be seen that the evidence of tradition 
is altogether in favour of the apostolic author- 
ship of the book. Those who rejected it did 
so on grounds of internal evidence, which we 
are as competent to judge as they were. The 
internal evidence, i.e. the matter and style of 
the book, does at first sight make it difficult to 
accept the apostolic authorship. The Greek 
of the other writings of St. John in the NT. 



is smooth and free from barbarism, while that 
of Rev. is the reverse. But this may be 
accounted for by the character of the books. 
The Gospel and Epistles were probably written 
calmly and meditatively, repeating much that 
the Apostle had been in the habit, for years, 
of saying to his flock in Greek-speaking 
Ephesus. But St. John was a Jew, although 
a Greek dress had come to surround his 
thought. In Rev. he is borne along by the 
rapture of his visions, and the Jew that he 
was by nature and by upbringing might, not 
unnaturally, have burst through the Greek 
veneer. Besides this, it is plain that the 
writer's mind, at the time of writing, was 
filled with the Jewish Scriptures, and with 
Jewish apocalypses, and it may have seemed 
to him fitting that the style of the new 
Apocalypse he was producing should be in har- 
mony with other apocalypses which both he 
and his first readers knew. The Hebraic style 
may have seemed to him to be almost as much 
a necessity for an apocalypse as the symbolic 
and figurative material. There would be 
nothing forced or unreal about this, for 
Hebrew was native to St. John, while Greek 
must have been to him always more or less 
artificial. This consideration will increase 
in force if, as is quite likely, eighteen or 
twenty years were spent by St. John in 
Greek-speaking Ephesus between the writing 
of Revelation and the writing of the Gospel 
and Epistles. 

As to the language. It is true that char- 
acteristic words and thoughts of the Gospel 
do not appear in Rev. On the other hand, it 
is only in the Gospel and First Epistle of 
St. John and in Rev. that Christ is called 
'the Word ' (cp. Jn 1 1 Rev 1913). The title 
' Lamb,' so frequently applied to Christ in 
Rev., reminds us of Jn 1 29, 36^ though the form 
of the word is slightly different ; the symbol of 
the Shepherd applied to Christ (cp. Rev 7 17 Jn 
10 *> 27f - 21 16 ),and the figure of living water, or 
water of life, are common to Gospel and Rev. ; 
and there are other striking likenesses, such as 
the words translated % true ' (Rev 3 7 , etc.), ' over- 
come,' ' keep,' ' witness,' ' testimony.' 

On the whole, the difference between the 
style of the Gospel and Rev., though great, 
can be accounted for, and does not seem to 
outweigh the very strong and early testimony 
to the apostolic authorship of Revelation. 

The doctrinal teaching of Rev. may be re- 
garded as that of the Fourth Gospel at an 
earlier stage. Westcott pointed out that ' the 
main idea of both is the same. Both present 
a view of a supreme conflict between the 
powers of good and evil. . . In the Gospel the 
opposing forces are regarded under abstract 
forms, as light and darkness, love and hatred ; 
in the Apocalypse under concrete and de- 



1068 



INTRO. 



REVELATION 



INTRO. 



finite forms ; God, Christ, and the Church 
warring with the devil, the false prophet, and 
the beast.' In both books history and vision 
lead to the victory of Christ, and His Person 
and work are the ground of triumph. Both 
books lay stress on personal ' witness.' Both 
present the abiding of God with man as the 
issue of Christ's work (Jnl423 Rev3 20 213). 

But there are important contrasts. In Rev. 
Christ's coming is outward ; -while in the 
Gospel it is spiritual, and judgment is self- 
executing. In Rev. the ' future ' is historical ; 
in the Gospel it is present and eternal. In 
Rev. the conception of God follows the lines 
of the OT. ; in the Gospel God is revealed as 
the Father, and specially in connexion with 
the work of redemption. 

The portrayal of Christ in Rev. is in har- 
mony with that in the Gospel. His humanity 
and His redemptive work are recognised (1 5 >7 
55,9 714 us 1211 143 f- 22 16), followed by His 
exaltation. Christ is wholly separated from 
creatures. He possesses divine knowledge 
(22,9,13,19,23)^ an( i divine power (11 is 1210 
I714 1916), 'He receives divine honour (5 8f - 
206), and is joined with God (32 5 13 6™*- 710 
144 21 22 22L3), so that with God He is spoken 
of as one (11 l5 20 6 223) . He shares also in 
part the divine titles (17 37 19 n).' His pre- 
existence is recognised in passages (1 17 2 8 3 i4 
1913) in which we have an earlier form of the 
truth unfolded in Jnli 4 : seeWestcott, 'Intro. 
St. John,' pp. lxxxiv f . 

7. Date. The state of the Churches at 
the time of writing (chs. 2 f ) was such that 
we should suppose that some considerable 
time had elapsed since their foundation. They 
were infected by heresy and by worldliness. 
The connexion of St. Paul with Ephesus 
seems to have been a thing of the past, and 
his martyrdom is, perhaps, referred to in 18 20. 
Persecution had been violent, Rome was 
' drunk with the blood of the saints ' (17 6 ) ; and 
fiercer persecution was expected (3 10 13 7 ,isf.). 
All this seems to point to a date after the 
persecution of Nero, 68 a.d., and before that 
of Domitian, 95 a.d. Professor Ramsay argues 
that the character of the persecution referred 
to in Rev., in which the Christians seem to 
have suffered, not under accusation of specific 
crimes, but 'for the Name' (cp. 213 6 9 12" 
17 6 ), demands that Rev. should be dated, not 
under Nero, but under Domitian. However, 
'the testimony of Jesus' does not mean 
'witness borne to Him,' but 'the revelation 
made by Him.' The use probably made of 
the popular expectation of the return of Nero 
from hell (13 3 17 8 > n ) would imply that some 
years had elapsed since Nero's death. 

If 11 lf - is to be literally understood, the 
book would have to be dated before the 
destruction of Jerusalem, 70 a.d. But the 



passage, probably, should have, in its present 
context, another interpretation : see notes. 

C. 177-12 (see notes) seems clearly to indi- 
cate that the book was written in the reign of 
Vespasian (69-79). With this most of the 
considerations referred to above agree. We 
suppose, therefore, that the book was written 
about 77 a.d. 

On the other hand, primitive tradition 
asserts that the book was written towards the 
end of the reign of Domitian, circ. 95 a.d. 
This tradition probably rests on the state- 
ment of Irenseus, circ. 180. Either Irenaeus 
was mistaken, or else in c. 17 St. John was 
making use of an earlier apocalypse, perhaps 
that which was the original of part of c. 11. 

8. Canonicity. More evidence exists for 
the early use of Rev. than for any other book 
of the NT. In the section on ' authorship ' 
early authorities have been quoted. Besides 
these, Papias, a friend of Poly carp the disciple 
of St. John, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia 
in the early part of the 2nd cent., probably 
used the book. Andreas, a bishop of the 9th 
cent., who wrote a commentary on Rev., 
states that Papias maintained ' the divine 
inspiration ' of Rev., and Eusebius says that 
Papias expected an earthly reign of Christ for 
1,000 years, ' not understanding correctly those 
matters which (the apostolic narrations) pro- 
pounded mystically in their representations ' 
(Euseb. III. 39). 

The Churches in Lyons and Yienne (177) 
regarded Rev. as Scripture. Apollonius (circ. 
210), who was perhaps a bishop of Ephesus, 
is said by Eusebius to have made use of testi- 
monies from Revelation. 

But while the Western Church always 
accepted Rev., doubts about it sprung up in 
the Eastern Church. This attitude was pro- 
bably influenced by opposition to the advocates 
of a literal millennium (or reign of Christ on 
earth for 1,000 years), and to the Montanists, 
all of whom were warm upholders of the 
book. Dionysius of Alexandria, who con- 
cluded on critical grounds that St. John was 
not the author of the book, has been referred 
to above ; Eusebius was inclined to agree with 
Dionysius. ' The first Eastern commentary 
belongs to the 5th cent., the next to the 9th. 
Each begins with a defence against doubts as 
to the canonicity of the book.' 

It was only gradually that it came to be 
received generally, and, owing to the diffi- 
culty of its interpretation, its reception in 
modern times has not been so unqualified as 
that of the rest of the NT. Luther was at 
first strongly averse from the book, though, 
later, he printed it with Hebrews, James, and 
Jude in an appendix to his NT. Zwingli 
regarded it as non-biblical, and Calvin did 
not comment upon it. 



1069 



INTRO. 



REVELATION 



INTRO. 



9. Contents. 

I 1 - 3 . Introduction, describing the contents 
of the book as an apocalypse, given by God 
to Jesus Christ, and signified by Him to John 
through an angel. 

I 4 - 8 . Salutation, in which the distressed 
Church is pointed to God. 

1 9 -20. Account of the vision of the glorified 
Christ, who bade St. John write to the Seven 
Churches the things which he saw. 

Chs. 2, 3. Letters to the Seven Churches. 
2 1 ' 7 . The Church in Ephesus is praised for 
her steadfastness against false teachers and 
heathen persecutors, but called upon to re- 
pent of the coldness of her love. 2 8 " 11 . The 
Church in Smyrna is about to suffer persecu- 
tion. Let her endure it boldly, for it cannot 
hurt her true life. 2 12 -tt. The Church in 
Pergamum has been faithful in persecution. 
But she has been tolerant of immoral teachers, 
and of this she must repent. 2 18 " 29 . The 
Church in Thyatira is increasing in faith and 
endurance, and in love to God and man. But 
a party in the Church have led unfaithful 
lives, and they will be punished unless they 
repent. Let the rest of the Church continue 
faithful. 

3 1-6 . The Church in Sardis is sternly re- 
buked for her lack of earnestness. Unless 
she repents she must endure Christ's judg- 
ment. The few in Sardis who have kept 
themselves unspotted from the world shall 
enjoy the companionship of Christ in glory. 

37-13, The Church in Philadelphia is small 
and weak. But she has been faithful in per- 
secution, and she is promised many converts, 
especially from among the Jews. Christ will 
guard this Church from the time of trial that 
is coming. 

3 14-22. The Church in Laodicea is lukewarm 
and self-satisfied. Let her see herself as she 
is, and humbly seek from Christ the supply 
of her needs. If she does so, He will richly 
bless her. 

Chs. 4, 5. The Lord and Ruler of all. 
4 1£ . Vision of the Almighty, enthroned in 
glory and mercy, receiving the worship of 
heaven. 

5 lf . The course of the future, predeter- 
mined by God in His secret counsel, is repre- 
sented by a book, covered with writing and 
close-sealed, resting on the outstretched hand 
of the Almighty. It has been committed to 
Christ to make known and to carry out God's 
will for the future, and this because of His 
death. 

C. 6. The Seals — Judgment pictured. 

6 1 " 8 . The first four seals are opened. The 

victorious spread of the gospel is shown, and 

then the coming of war, famine, and pestilence. 

6 9 ' 11 . The fifth seal. Judgment delayed, 

and the reason. The martyrs are not for- 



gotten by God. He gives them gladness and 
rest. But His judgment will fall upon the 
wicked world that slew them, when it has 
fulfilled its wickedness by slaying those who 
are yet to die for Christ. 6 12 " 17 . The sixth 
seal. Judgment at last on the point of fall- 
ing, at the day of the wrath of God and of the 
Lamb. 

C. 7. Parenthesis — the Church's safety. 

7 1 " 8 . The judgments of 6 3-8 , spoken of here 
as ' the four winds,' will not hurt God's elect, 
every one of whom is marked out by Him, and 
their full number known. 7 9 " 17 . Neither does 
the great persecution hurt God's people, for 
death brings them to glory. 

Chs. 8, 9. The Trumpets — Judgment pro- 
claimed. 

8 1 ' 2 . The seventh seal shows the trumpets 
which herald Judgment, given to seven angels. 

8 3 " 5 . The prayers of the saints do reach God, 
and the Judgment about to fall on the earth 
is His answer. 

8 6 " 13 . The first four trumpets announce con- 
vulsions of nature, which portend the approach 
of the Day of Christ. 

9 1 " 12 . The fifth trumpet, and the first woe, 
by the figure of stinging locusts from the 
abyss, proclaims that the wicked world shall 
suffer the spiritual torment which follows 
sin. 

9 i3-2i # The sixth trumpet, and second woe, 
proclaims ravages upon the idolatrous world 
by devastating armies. 

101-11 14. Parenthesis— the Church's safety. 

10 lf - After 'seven thunders,' which St. John 
is bidden to keep secret, he receives a fresh 
revelation, signified by a little book, which 
probably consists of c. 12 f. 

11 1 » 2 . The Christian Church, represented by 
the Temple, is to be preserved, although Juda- 
ism, represented by the outer part of the 
Temple buildings, is overthrown. II 3 - 14 . Yet 
it will be by death that the people of Christ, 
now represented by two witnesses, will be 
preserved. The Roman power will persecute 
and dishonour them. Yet in this they will be 
like Christ, and will share His glorified life. 

1115-19, The seventh trumpet, proclaiming 
the consummation of mercy and judgment. 

Chs. 12-14. Parenthesis — the Church's ene- 
mies. 

12 1- 6 . Under the figure of a woman opposed 
by a dragon, it is shown that the great enemy 
of the Church is Satan, and that it is his power 
which impels the Roman empire to persecute. 
He persecuted the Church of God before the 
birth of Christ, he persecuted Christ, and he 
persecuted the young Christian Church of 
Palestine. But Christ and His Church were 
preserved by God. 12 7 " 12 . By the figure of a 
war in heaven, the Church is assured that she 
need not fear Satan, for by the work of Christ 



1070 






INTRO. 



REVELATION 



INTRO. 



he has been conquered. 12 13 " 17 . The persecu- 
tion of the Gentile Church is the natural 
sequence of Satan's failure against the Church 
in Palestine. 

131-10 The second great enemy of the Church 
is the Roman power, signified by a beast. The 
power and dominion of the beast come from 
Satan, yet men worship both. For a limited 
time the beast is allowed by God to triumph 
over the Church. 13 11-18 . The third enemy of 
the Church, the government of the Province 
of Asia, both civil and religious, is figured by 
a second beast, who causes all who will not 
join in idolatrous worship to be put to 
death. 

C. 14. The enemies of the Church have been 
shown in the true evil character which under- 
lay the glory and power of the empire. Now 
the Church is bid to contrast with the false 
glory of the empire the true glory of Christ 
and His people in heaven (vv. 1—5), to hearken 
to the good news of the approaching manifesta- 
tion of God, and of the fall of wicked Rome 
(vv. 6-8), and to beware lest any fail of stead- 
fastness, and fall away to the beast, for great 
will be the misery of such, while those who 
die in Christ are blessed (vv. 9-13). Christ 
will gather in His own (vv. 14-16), but the 
wicked will perish under the wrath of God 
(vv. 17-20). 

Chs. 15, 16. The Bowls — Judgment poured 
out. 

15 1 " 5 . The wrath of God is about to be mani- 
fested. During a pause before it is launched, 
is heard the triumphant praise of those who 
have come victorious from the beast. 

15 6 - 8 . Then the seven angels file forth from 
the heavenly Temple and receive seven bowls, 
full of the wrath of God, which they are to 
pour out on the earth. 

16 x ' 9 . The first four bowls. Convulsions of 
nature afflict the ungodly, preliminary to the 
overthrow of the enemies of Christ. 

16io.il. The fifth bowl. The idolatrous 
people, instead of repenting at God's judg- 
ments, become full of blasphemous rebellion. 

1612-16. The sixth bowl. The evil influence 
of the dragon and of the two beasts stirs up 
the rulers of the world to gather to battle 
against Christ. 

1617-21. The seventh bowl. The end of 
the preparatory judgments is reached. All 
earthly powers are shaken, as the wrath of 
God is manifested to overwhelm the enemies 
of Christ, and, first among them, the city of 
Rome (Babylon). 

Chs. 17, 18. The Overthrow of Rome. 

17 lf . The city of Rome, pictured as a 
harlot, magnificently attired, enthroned upon 
the beast, and drunken with the blood of the 
martyrs, will be destroyed and burnt by the 
kings of the earth and by the beast. 



18 1 " 3 . The Fall of Rome is announced. 

18 4-8 . God's people are warned to quit her. 

139-19. The dirge over Babylon of those 
who loved her. 18 20 . The exultation of those 
she has persecuted. 18 21 " 24 . Renewed pre- 
diction of her Fall. 

Chs. 19, 20. The overthrow of the Empire 
and its Asian idolatry, and of Satan, and the 
last Judgment of the wicked. 

19 1 ' 10 . Heaven glorifies God because of the 
overthrow of wicked Rome (vv. 1-4), and 
because the marriage of the Lamb is come 
(vv. 5-10). 19 n - 16 . But before the marriage 
Christ comes forth to triumph over His re- 
maining enemies. 19 17 > 18 . The completeness 
of Christ's coming victory signified by a cry to 
the vultures to gather to the prey. 

1919-21. AH the power of the Roman empire 
is concentrated against Christ, and the Pagan 
empire and its religion are overthrown. 

20 i" 3 . The devil remains, but for a period 
of rest and happiness he will be prevented 
from inspiring a general attack upon Chris- 
tianity. 20 4 ' 6 . This time of earthly rest was 
not for the Christians of St. John's day. Yet 
for them would be triumph and happiness with 
Christ after death, while the wicked were kept 
for the Last Judgment. 20 7-10 . Once more, 
in the future, Satan's power will break forth 
in a final attack upon the Church. For the 
last time God will overthrow these enemies, 
and then the power of Satan will perish for 
ever. 20 11 " 15 . Then will come the last Judg- 
ment of the wicked, after which there will be 
no more death. 

21 1_22 5 . The Eternal Bliss of Heaven. 

21 1 ' 8 . St. John sees, as if from a distance, 
the heavenly home of the Redeemed coming 
down upon the new earth, and hears a de- 
scription of its blessedness. 21 9 " 27 . He is 
brought near, by one of the seven angels, to the 
' New Jerusalem, ' the Bride, so that he can 
view her in her security and beauty and holi- 
ness as the resting-place of God's glory and 
the home of the Church. 

22 1_5 . Finally he is shown the inner life of 
the heavenly Jerusalem. 

226-21. Closing Section. 

22 6 ' 9 . The angel affirms the truth of the 
visions. 22 10 - 15 . The prophecy now completed 
is to be used. The time is short. Blessed 
are they who shall share in the glories revealed. 

22 16 > 17 . Christ declares that the Revelation 
has been sent by Him for the use of the 
Church. The Spirit in the Church, hearing 
Christ's voice, calls for His Advent. 

22 is. 19. St. John warns those who hear the 
book read in the services of the Church that 
it is not to be falsified. 22 20 . Christ repeats 
the promise of His coming, and St. John prays 
for it. 

22 21 . Benedictory prayer. 



1071 



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REVELATION 



1.10 



CHAPTER 1 

The Vision of the Son of Man 
St. John addresses ' the seven churches 
which are in Asia,' telling them of a vision 
of Christ, who bade him write in a book what 
he saw and send it to them. 

1-3. Introduction, describing the book as an 
' apocalypse,' the Gk. word which signifies 
'unveiling' or 'revelation.' This does not 
mean here the unveiling of Christ at His 
Coming, as in 1 Cor 17 2Thl7 IPetlMS 413^ 
but the Revelation given by Christ. The 
book is, at the same time, a prophecy (cp. v. 3), 
because divinely communicated, and because 
of its exhortations which must be kept. It is, 
also, in the form of a letter: cp. I 4 22 21 . 
Notice in this section the threefold arrangement 
of ideas, so common in the book. 

1. Of] i.e. Christ is the real author. 
Shortly] the events were in the near future. 

2. Record] RV ' witness.' Word of God] 
i.e. the revelation which God gave to Jesus 
Christ (v. 1). Testimony of Jesus] i.e. the 
witness which Jesus bore, the word of God 
which Jesus communicated: cp. 6 9 12 17 19 10 . 

And of all] RV ' even of all.' 3. Readeth] 
i.e. aloud, before the congregation. Prophecy] 
The writer is a prophet, i.e. his utterances 
proceed from the illumination of the Holy 
Spirit: cp. 22^,10 Acl3i 1 Cor 1228 132 143 
Eph 4 n . An Apostle could be a prophet : 
cp. Eph3 3f . 

4-8. Salutation, which sounds the keynote 
of the book, by proclaiming to the distressed 
Church the eternal power of God, the omni- 
present and penetrating energy of the Spirit, 
and the redeeming Lordship of Christ, who 
will return to overcome His enemies. 

4. John] We know of no John, except the 
Apostle, who had authority to address seven 
Churches. Seven] the number which signifies 
completeness. These seven Churches stand 
also for the whole Church of Christ. Asia] 
i.e. the Roman province of that name, which 
was the western part of what is now called 
Asia Minor. It included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, 
part of Phrygia, and islands off the coast. 

Which is, etc.] i.e. the Eternal : cp. Ex3 14 . 

Seven Spirits] i.e. the Holy Spirit in His 
complete working : cp. 4 5 5 G . 5. Witness] 
cp. v. 2, 3 l ' Pb89« Jn 18 : *7. First begotten] 
RV 'firstborn,' i.e. the first of the dead to 
enter life : cp. Col 1 18 PsK'.»-'7. Washed] RV 
'loosed,' i.e. as the Redeemer of slaves. In 
his own] RV ' by his.' 6. Kings] RV ' to be 
a kingdom. ' i.e. a society under His kingship : 
cp. Ex UK- 1 Pel "J". Priests] to offer spiritual 
sacrifices : cp. Heb 1 3 15 '• 1 Pet 2 ■>. Unto God, 
etc.] i.e. belonging to God and engaged in His 
service. RV 'unto his God and Father'; spo- 
ken of Christ in His humanity : cp. 3 2 (RV) 12 



Mt 27 46 Jn 20 17 . For doxologies addressed to 
Christ, cp. Ro 1 6 27 2 Tim 4 is Heb 13 21 IPet 4". 

7. Behold, etc.] from Dan7 13 . Cometh] 
i.e. at the Judgment : cp. Mt24^o 26 64 . Every 
eye, etc.] from Zech42i0: cp. Jnl9 37 . Kin- 
dreds, etc.] RY ' the tribes of the earth': con- 
trasted with the ' saints,' the people of Christ. 

Wail because of] RV ' mourn over.' 

8. Alpha and Omega] RV ' the Alpha and the 
Omega'; i.e. the Eternal One: cp. 21 6 Isa44°. 
In22 13 the title is applied to Christ. Alpha 
and Omega are the first and last letters of the 
Gk. alphabet. Lord] RY ' Lord God.' The 
Almighty] i.e. He who rules over all. The 
Gk. word is the LXX rendering of ' God of 
hosts,' i.e. God of the universe : cp. Am4 13 . 

9-20. The vision John received of Christ 
in glory. Christ is described in language 
which is drawn from the OT., especially from 
Daniel, and which is to be understood figur- 
atively of the majesty and power of Christ. 
He is revealed as present, though unseen by 
men, in the midst of the Churches. His triumph 
after suffering and His present care are to 
nerve them to endure their tribulation vic- 
toriously. 

9. Companion] RY ' partaker with you.' 
Tribulation, etc.] RY ' the tribulation and 

kingdom and patience.' Patience] i.e. brave 
endurance. Of Jesus Christ] RY ' which are 
in Jesus.' Tribulation, kingdom, and patience 
are all found in union with Christ, and as such 
are to St. John the characteristic elements of 
the life of the Church. Patmos] a small, bare 
volcanic island in the yEgean Sea, about 15 m. 
from Ephesus. For the word of God, etc.] i.e. 
probably he had been banished in punishment 
for his Christian preaching. 'It was the 
common practice to send exiles to the most 
rocky and desolate islands.' 10. Spirit] RY 
' Spirit.' John was in a prophetic trance : cp. 
Ac 10 10f - 2 Cor 122. Lord's day] the earliest 
known use of the term for ' Sunday ' : cp. 
Ac20? 1 Cor 162, 

As of a trumpet] Archbp. Benson pointed 
out (' The Apocalypse ') that this voice is that 
of the herald angel who called St. John to 
his work. This has been obscured by the false 
leading i n v . 11. The angel's trumpet-voice 
is recorded again in 4 1 . The angel directs 
St. John by his voice from afar in the first 
part of Rev.(cp. 104,8 Hi 141s), but after 17 1 
accompanies him. ' As an angel of the Pre- 
sence (cp. 8 2 IS 1 ' 5 *-), he is called Christ's angel 
and God's angel (cp. I 1 22 (i ), and his voice 
has been " out of heaven." ' This angel speaks 
in L9 9 21«M, is referred to in 2115 22 \ and 
speaks again in 22°, 10 . 

Other voices to be noted are, the ' great 
voice' of the Almighty (11 12 16 1 ? 213,5f.) ; 
the voice of Christ, 'as the voice of many 
waters' (w. 15, 17 f. ,14 2 16 is 19 6 22 7, 12-15, 16, 20) ; 



1072 



1. 11 



KEVELATION 



M 



the voice of the living creatures, ; as a voice of 
thunder ' (6 1 19 6 ) ; the voice of the elders, ' as 
the voice of harpers harping with their harps ' 
(5 8 14 2 ) ; and the voice of the saints before 
God's tin-one, ' as it were the voice of a great 
multitude' (7» f - 19M). 

ii. I . . last: and] RV omits. 12. Candle- 
sticks] see on v. 20. 13. The Son] RV l a 
son' : see on 14 14 , Dan7 13 . To the foot] i.e. 
of kingly or priestly dignity. Girdle] cp. Dan 
10 5 . 14. White] denoting the purity and 
majesty of God : cp. Dan7 9 . 15. Fine] RV 
'burnished': cp. Ezkl 7 Dan 10 6 . Waters] 
cp. Ezkl 24 . 16. Stars] see on v. 20. Sword] 
A comparison with Isa 1 1 4 2 Th 2 s shows that 
this probably signifies that Christ has but to 
' speak the word ' and His enemies will be 
destroyed. He has absolute authority. 

18. lam he that, etc.] RV ; and the Living 
one ; and I was dead ' ; ' Living,' i.e. eternally, 
both before and after the Incarnation : cp. 
JnlM, and OT. phrase 'living God.' The 
persecuted need not fear death, for Christ had 
died. Hell and of death] RV ' death and of 
Hades.' l Hades ' = OT. ' Sheol,' the world 
of the dead, not the place of punishment : cp. 
Isa 1 4 ^ (EM) 38 10 (EM) Mt 1 6 18 . He has the 
' keys ' because the time and manner of the 
death of each person are under His control. 
To think of this would give heart to the 
persecuted. 

19. Hast seen] RV ' sawest,' i.e. this vision. 
Which are] i.e. the state of the Churches, 
Be] RV ' come to pass.' 20. The mystery] 

i.e. concerning the mystery; ' mystery '= a 
hidden thing now revealed. Stars] i.e. lights 
in heaven. 

Candlesticks] lights on earth. The Churches 
are represented by candlesticks (or ' lamp- 
stands '), because they are made to shed the 
light of truth and goodness derived from 
Christ, the light of the world, upon the world 
around them. The flame is supported by the 
oil of the Holy Spirit : cp. Ex 2531 Zech 42 
Mt5 14f . 

Angels] Each letter is addressed to the 
' angel,' and the ' angel ' is praised or blamed 
for the state of the Church. Many have 
thought ' angel ' here = ' bishop,' but such a 
meaning is unknown elsewhere. Its ' angel ' 
is to each ' church ' as the ' star ' is to the 
' lamp,' i.e. its heavenly counterpart. The 
angel, therefore, is a heavenly existence, corre- 
sponding to the Church on earth, but nearer 
to God. We need not suppose that each 
Church literally has such a being in connexion 
with it. St. John was writing in symbols, and 
using symbols which he found ready made. 
Translated from symbolic language into 
prose, ' angel ' here probably means ' that 
perfect ideal which the Church imperfectly 
fulfils.' 



CHAPTER 2 

The Epistles to the Seven Churches 

(21-322) 

Since ' seven ' is the perfect number, the 
c seven churches ' represent all the Churches 
of the province of Asia. At the same time, 
the special circumstances of each Church are 
faithfully pictured in each epistle. Ramsay 
points out that St. John alludes, as well, to 
the special circumstances of each city. He 
suggests that the Churches are mentioned in 
the order in which a messenger carrying letters 
would travel. The letters, however, were not 
to be sent separately to the Churches. The 
book was to be taken as a whole. St. John 
adopted the familiar form of an ' apocalypse ' 
through which to deliver his message, and 
added to that the equally familiar form of 
' letters.' 

In every epistle Christ is described under an 
aspect, mostly drawn from l 12f -, suited to the 
special needs of the Church addressed. Each 
Church is then assured that Christ knows it, 
whether for praise or blame, but always with 
love, and receives the exhortation suited to it, 
followed by a special promise with a special 
token. 

The main purpose of the epistles is to give 
courage to the Church to pass victoriously 
through its trials. For this reason it is told 
of Christ's presence and help, and bid to look 
forward to the glory that Christ will soon 
give to those who overcome. The chief trials 
of the Church consist in persecution from 
heathen and Jews, and in corrupt teaching 
within. The false teaching is of the character 
denounced in 2 Pet. and Jude. It seems to 
have desired that Christians should be per- 
mitted to take part in the clubs and organis- 
ations of the heathen society around them, and 
in their festivals, permeated though they were 
with idolatrous observances. 

1-7. To the Church in Ephesus Christ speaks 
as He who is present with the Churches (v. 1). 
The Church is praised for its work for Christ, 
its endurance of suffering, and its faithfulness 
to the truth (vv. 2, 3), yet it is blamed, not 
because of its deeds, but because the love 
which used to animate them has cooled (v. 4). 
Even for this fault repentance is necessary ; a 
Church without love must perish (v. 5). To 
those members of the Church who pass vic- 
toriously through their trials, eternal life with 
God is promised (v. 7). 

1. Ephesus] the metropolis and great com- 
mercial centre of the province of Asia, famous 
for a temple to Diana. After St. Paul's work 
in Asia was ended, Timothy was stationed 
there for a time (cp. 1 Tim 1 3 ), with general 
authority, till 2 Tim 4 9 . Soon afterwards it 
became the home of St. John. After Roman 



68 



1073 



2. 2 



REVELATION 



2. V2 



times, the harbour of Ephesus, 3 m. from the 
sea, silted up, and the place decayed. Except 
for a small Turkish village, only ruins remain. 

2. Apostles] i.e. travelling envoys represent- 
ative of Christ, in a sense not limited to the 
twelve : see on Ro 16 7 . The title was claimed 
by some to whom it was not due. Hast . . liars] 
RV ' didst find them false ' : cp. 2 Cor 11 MS*. 

4. First] i.e. at the beginning of their Chris- 
tian course. 5. First works] i.e. such as those 
inspired by their early love. I will come . . 
quickly] RV ' I come to thee.' Remove thy 
candlestick] If the flame of Christian love dies 
down, the candlestick will be put away as 
useless, i.e. the organised Church will come to 
an end : cp. Jnl5 6 . The Church in Ephesus 
flourished for centuries, so we may presume 
that it did repent. 

6. Nicolaitanes] Mentioned again in the letter 
to Pergamum, in connexion with Balaam (vv. 
14'-), and probably referred to in the letter to 
Thyatira (vv. 20 f -)- It has been supposed, 
from the mention of Balaam, that they were 
Antinomians, i.e. men who held that Christians 
were not bound by the moral law, and that sin 
was no sin for those who had faith : cp. 
lCorG 1 "- $ 9t - 1028 Gal5 13 2Pet2"-i«- Jude 
vv. 4, 11 f. It has also been suggested that they 
may have claimed the authority of the deacon 
Nicolas (cp. Ac 6 5 ) ; but perhaps St. John used 
the term ' Nicolaitan ' as a Greek word repre- 
senting the Hebrew ' Balaam.' Ramsay thinks 
that the ' Nicolaitans ' were some who attempted 
to effect a compromise with the established 
usages of Graeco-Roman society, permeated 
with luxury and tainted with idolatry though 
these were, and that they also wished to 
comply with the State's demand, and show 
their loyalty by burning incense before the 
emperor's statue. St. John saw, as St. Paul 
did in 1 Cor., that the Church must conquer 
the imperial idolatry, or be itself destroyed 
(Ramsay, ' Letters to the Seven Churches,' pp. 
299 f.). By 115 a.d. Ignatius wrote to the 
Ephesians, ' in your midst no heresy has its 
dwelling.' 

7. He that hath, etc.] cp. Christ's words, 
Mt 1 1 15 , etc. The Spirit] John was under the 
influence of the Spirit : cp. 1 10 . Overcometh] 
i.e. continuously. The Christian life is a 
continual fight against sin and tribulation, and 
this book's purpose is to give heart to overcome. 

To eat of, etc.] i.e. he shall have eternal life : 
cp. 22 2 Gn2 9 . Paradise] a Persian word for 
' garden,' used in LXX for the garden of Eden. 
The later Jews employed the word to denote 
various ideas of heavenly blessedness : cp. 
Lk23 43 2Corl2 4 . Here it is equivalent to the 
New Jerusalem of chs. 21 f. 

8-1 1. To the Church in Smyrna Christ 
speaks as the Eternal, who tasted death, and 
whose death ended in life (v. 8). There is no 



blame for this Church. It is praised for its 
endurance of tribulation and poverty, and for 
its spiritual condition (v. 9). More persecution 
is to be expected, which may be borne without 
fear. After death for Christ, nothing but life 
will follow (vv. 10f.). 

8. Smyrna] about 50 m. N. of Ephesus, was 
a wealthy port and the most splendid city in 
the province of Asia. In 26 a.d. a temple 
was founded there in honour of Tiberius. 
Polycarp, its bishop, was martyred 155 a.d., 
when he had served Christ 86 years. Smyrna 
was the last stronghold of Christianity in Asia 
Minor, and even now is called by the Turks 
1 Infidel Smyrna ' (HDB.). Is alive] RV « lived 
again.' 9. Works, and] RY omits. Rich] 
i.e. spiritually : cp. Mt6 19 Jas2 5 . Blasphemy] 
RM ' calumny,' i.e. which thou sufferest. 

Say they are Jews] i.e. they are Jews in 
name only : cp. 3 9 Ro2 29 . The Apostle uses 
the name as an honourable one, equivalent to 
' those who are not Gentiles, but are the people 
of God.' By their enmity to God's will and 
word, these men, Jews by race, had forfeited 
their position of privilege, and had become as 
bad as Gentiles. It is implied that it is the 
Christian Church in Smyrna which has succeeded 
to the privilege : cp. Ro2* 8f . Jews joined in 
the martyrdom of Polycarp. Synagogue] i.e. 
congregation : cp. Nu20 4 31 16 . Of Satan] i.e. 
they called themselves God's, but were serving 
Satan. 

10. Devil] Persecution is prompted by the 
devil : cp. 121M3 4 lPet5 8f . Prison] i.e. as 
a prelude to execution. Tried] cp. Jas 1 3 > 12 
IPetl 7 4 12 . Ten days] not lit.; the perse- 
cution would be short and sharp. Faithful] 
Ramsay suggests that here, as in each letter, 
St. John refers to the local history of the city. 
Smyrna was honoured for its faithfulness to 
Rome, Cicero calling it ' the most faithful of 
our allies.' It was also proud of its ' Crown,' 
which was * the garland of splendid buildings 
encircling the rounded hill Pagos.' A crown] 
RV ' the crown,' i.e. eternal life will crown 
your victorious death. 11. Second death] a 
Jewish phrase for the final condemnation of 
sinners : cp.20 6 . 14 21 8 MtlO 28 . 

12-17. To the Church in Pergamum Christ 
speaks as He who destroys the wicked (v. 12). 
The Church is praised for faithfulness during 
a time when Christians might be called upon 
to deny Christ and worship the emperor. 
One of the Church, at least, had confessed 
Christ at the cost of his life (v. 1 3). Yet even 
this Church was corrupted by immoral teach- 
ing (vv. 14f.), and must repent, for a corrupt 
Church will suffer Christ's judgment (v. 16). 
Those who live victoriouly are promised 
heavenly food, and knowledge of Christ in 
their secret souls (v. 17). 

12. Pergamos] RV ' Pergamum,' about 50 



1074 



% 13 



REVELATION 



% 27 



m. N. of Smyrna. Under the Roman empire 
it was resorted to by invalids, who attended 
for healing at the temple of iEsculapius. 
Until the 2nd cent. a.d. it was regarded as 
the capital of the province of Asia. Under 
Augustus a temple was built at Pergamum, 
probably 29 B.C., and dedicated to Rome and 
Augustus, and Pergamum became the centre of 
the imperial worship and ' Satan's throne.' 
' It has continued to be a place of some con- 
sequence, preserving the ancient name Ber- 
gama, down to the present day ' (HDB.). 

Sword] As the centre of the worship of the 
emperor, Pergamum must have been the seat 
of authority, and the sword was the symbol of 
the highest order of authority. The message 
is that in the city in which the Roman pro- 
consul has the power cf life and death, Christ 
has power and authority greater than his 
(Ramsay). 

13. Satan] i.e. the official authority oppos- 
ing the Church. Seat] RY ' throne,' in the 
temple at Pergamum. Name] Christians had 
to conform to the State religion or suffer 
death. Even in those, etc.] RY ' even in the 
days of Antipas my witness, my faithful one.' 

14. Cp.Nu25i f - 31^ Acl528 lCor8 9f . 10 
Judev. 11. 14, 15. Them] RY'some.' Doc- 
trine] RY 'teaching.' 15. Nicolaitanes] RY 
1 Nicolaitans in like manner,' i.e. the Nico- 
laitans held the teaching of Balaam : see on 
2 6 . Which thing I hate] RY omits. 16. Re- 
pent] RY ' Repent therefore,' i.e. by casting 
out the Nicolaitans. 

17. To eat] RY omits. Hidden manna] 
cp. Exl6 33 Heb9 4 . Jewish tradition held 
that the ark and its contents, including the 
pot of manna, were hidden by Jeremiah, and 
that they would be restored when the Messiah 
came. This tradition is used here to symbolise 
the bread of life: cp. Jn6 31f . 

White stone] Ramsay explains this as a 
' tessera,' i.e. a little cube of stone, ivory, or 
other substance, with words or symbols en- 
graved on one or more faces. Here the ' stone ' 
is simply to bear the name, and the stress 
of the passage is on the name. It is a stone, 
imperishable, because that which is to last is 
put on imperishable material ; and it is white, 
as the fortunate colour. 

New name] A new name implied entrance 
on a new life: cp. the new name given in bap- 
tism. So by this ' new name ' is meant that 
the victorious Christian will enter upon a new 
and higher stage of existence. But the name 
is also the secret name of God (cp. 3 12 ), and 
it was anciently supposed that the knowledge 
of the name of God gave power over spirits. 
So the Christian, triumphant over persecution, 
will enter into life, and have new knowledge of 
God and new power. 

18-29. To the Church in Thyatira Christ 



speaks in His majesty as Son of God (v. 18). 
The Church is praised for its increase in 
love and faith and the service of others, 
and its patience under trials (v. 19). Yet it 
harbours corrupt teaching (v. 20), and those 
who follow such teaching without repent- 
ance must suffer under Christ's chastening 
hand. Every member of the Church must 
be judged by what he himself does (vv. 
2 If.). But he who wins the victory over 
the temptations of the enemies of Christ, will 
share in Christ's glorious reign in light 
(vv. 24 f.). 

18. Thyatira] a busy commercial city in the 
northern part of Lydia, between Pergamum 
and Sardis. Fine] RY ' burnished.' 

19. Charity] RY 'love.' Service] RY 
'ministry,' i.e. towards men: cp. Mkl0 43f . 

And thy works; and, etc.] RY ' and that thy 
last works are more than the first,' i.e. the 
Church was even more faithful and earnest 
than at the time when it was founded : see 
onv. 4f. 20. Notwithstanding, etc.] RY 'But 
I have this against thee, that.' 

Jezebel] probably so called because she led 
astray Christians, as the wife of Ahab had led 
astray Israel. She seems to have been a 
prophetess, who taught that it was possible to 
be a Christian while remaining in ordinary 
pagan society and belonging to the social clubs 
which were characteristic of pagan life. 
These were idolatrous and luxurious, celebrat- 
ing in a corporate manner the pagan religion 
and joining in common banquets carried out 
with revelry. This ' Jezebel ' sanctioned. 
The minority of the Church who were against 
this teaching, yet tolerated ' Jezebel ' (' suf- 
ferest '): see on 2 6. (See HDB.) To teach, 
etc.] RY ' and she teacheth and seduceth.' 

22. Bed] i.e. the couch of the feasts, now 
changed into a couch of tribulation. Adul- 
tery] i.e. unfaithfulness to God. 23. Death] 
RM 'pestilence.' Reins, etc.] i.e. the inner 
thoughts and desires : cp. Ps7 9 Jerl7 10 . 

24. And unto the rest] RY ' to the rest.' 
Doctrine] RY ' teaching.' Depths] RY 

'deep things.' Speak] RY'say'; i.e. these 
misguided Christians called their philosophical 
arguments ' deep things of God ' (cp. 1 Cor 
2 10 ), but they were really ' deep things of 
Satan ' : cp. 2 9 . None other burden] pro- 
bably a reference to the letter from Jeru- 
salem : cp. Acl5 28 . The directions of that 
letter would guide them in the difficulties as 
to their relations with pagan society. 

25. That which ye have] i.e. the faithful- 
ness, etc.: cp. v. 19. Hold fast] because the 
Deliverer is near. 

26. Power] RY 'authority': cp. Ps28*. 
Christ's disciples will share in His kingdom: 
cp. 20 4 > 6 22 5 . 27. Rule, etc.] quotation from 
Ps 2 9 . A figurative description of the victory 



1075 



2. 28 



REVELATION 



3. 14 



of the Messiah in which His people would 
share. At this time ' Rome was the only Power 
on earth that exercised authority over the 
nations, and ruled them with a rod of iron, 
and smashed them like potsherds ' (Ramsay). 
But the Christian, victorious through death, 
will be stronger than Rome and conquer 
Rome. Received] cp. JnlO 18 . 28. Morning 
star] i.e. the glory of Christ, who brings in 
the perfect day : cp. 1 16,20 22 16 Nu 24 W 2 Pet 1 » 

CHAPTER 3 

The Epistles to the Seven Churches 
(concluded) 
1-6. To the Church in Sardis Christ 
speaks as He who gives the spirit and looks 
for spiritual life. There is no praise for this 
Church. Its life is without spiritual reality 
(v. 1). Yet, even now, awakening is within 
its power. But if it continue to sleep, Christ 
will come in sudden judgment (vv. 2f.). A 
few individuals have remained faithful. To 
them, and to all such, Christ promises gladness 
and life, and that He will acknowledge them 
as His (vv. 3f.). 

1. Sardis] about 35 m. S. of Thyatira. 
When there was a kingdom of Lydia, before 
549 B.C., Sardis was its capital. It was still 
an important city at the time of the Apocalypse, 
but is now only a ruin. Spirits] cp. 1 4 Ro 8 9 . 

Name] i.e. its Christianity was nominal. 

2. Not found thy works perfect] RV ' found 
no works of thine fulfilled,' i.e. up to the 
proper standard. 3. Received] i.e. the gospel : 
cp. 1 Th 2 13. Heard] RV k didst hear ' ; Christ 
appeals to the memory of their conversion : 
cp. Gal 3 1 f . As a thief] cp. 1 6 1 5 Mt 24 & f . 

4. Names] i.e. persons : cp. Ac 1 15 . Have 
not denied] RV ' did not defile,' i.e. at some 
crisis of persecution, when most yielded : cp. 
71 4 . Walk] i.e. spend their life. White] the 
colour of victory : cp. vv. 5, 18, 6 11 7 9 . 

5. The same shall be clothed] RV 'shall 
thus be arrayed ' ; ' thus ' = ' as I am ' : cp. 
1 i 3f . Book of life] i.e. the number of Christ's 
people: cp. 13» 178 20 12,15 Ex 32 32 Lkl020 
Phil 4 3. 

7-13. To the Church in Philadelphia Christ 
speaks as He by whom alone comes entrance 
into the Church, the spiritual house of God 
(v. 7). The Church is praised for its faith- 
fulness in persecution. Its own power is 
small, but Christ is with it, and He is giving it 
an opportunity for the conversion of some of 
those Jews who have aided the persecutors 
(vv. 8 f -)- The Church shall be brought safely 
out of the coming trial (v. 10). Christ will 
quickly come, therefore let the Church endure 
a little longer (v. 11). Those who 'over- 
come ' shall have an honourable place in the 
heavenly sanctuary and a joyful knowledge of 
Christ (v. 12). 



7. Philadelphia] 28 m. SE. from Sardis, a 
rather rich and powerful city. ' It had the 
most glorious history of all the cities of Asia 
Minor in the long struggles against the Turks ' 
(Ramsay). It is still to a large extent Christian. 

Key of David] a reference to Isa22 22 . As 
authority over the royal house was conferred 
upon Eliakim, so Christ has authority in the 
Church, above all earthly ministers, and it is 
really He who admits or excludes, who gives 
the 'open door' of vv. 8f. : cp. JnlO 9 14 6 . 

8. An open door] i.e. the Church shall win 
converts: cp. lCorlG 9 2Cor2i 2 Col4 3 , per- 
haps from the persecuting Jews (cp. v. 9), and 
perhaps also from the Phrygian land on the 
road to which Philadelphia lay. Hast not 
denied] RV ' didst not deny,' i.e. in a time of 
persecution. 9. I will make] RV ' I give.' 

Synagogue] see on 2 9 . Evidently, here, 
Jews proud of their national privileges, and 
powerful in numbers and in wealth. No 
doubt they despised the Jewish Christians as 
traitors. Loved thee] cp. Isa43 4 . 

10. The word, etc.] i.e. the message which 
sets forth 'patience,' i.e. steadfast endurance, 
as part of Christ's life and of the life of His 
people. Temptation] RV ' trial ' : a general 
persecution is foretold, but the Philadelphian 
Church will be so kept that, though they may 
suffer in outward matters, their life in Christ 
will be unharmed : cp. Lk21i gf - (RV). 12. A 
pillar] i.e. he shall have a permanent place in 
the 'temple,' i.e. the Church, here the glori- 
fied Church : cp. 1K7 21 Gal2 9 Eph220f. ip t 
2 5 . Temple] cp. 1 Cor 3 1 6 f . Named, etc.] i.e. 
he shall receive the full knowledge and bless- 
ing of belonging to God, to the kingdom of 
Glory and to Christ : cp. 2" 19 12 " 16 . 

New name] Ramsay points out that about 
17 a.d. Philadelphia had taken the name 
' Neokaisareia,' that is, city of young Caesar, 
and disused its own. No doubt at the same 
time a shrine of the young Cassar, with priest 
and ritual, was established. Thus it wrote on 
itself the name of this imperial god, and called 
itself the city of the imperial god. With this 
St. John contrasts what Christ will do for His 
own. There will be a name written on the 
victorious Christian, which will be the name 
of God and the name of the ' Church,' and the 
new name of Christ : see on 2 17 . 

14-22. To the Church in Laodicea Christ 
speaks as He through whom alone comes true 
life with its riches and blessings (v. 14). The 
Church is blamed for lukewarmness, self-satis- 
faction and worldliness (vv. 15f.). Instead of 
trusting in itself let it turn to Christ for the 
true riches (v. 18). He chastens the Church 
because He loves it. What it needs is zeal 
(v. 19). Even in this proud Church Christ 
humbly knocks at the door of each heart, and 
is ready to enter with blessing (v. 20). Those 



107G 



a 14 



REVELATION 



5. 1 



who share Christ's victory over the world shall 
share Christ's honour (v. 21). 

14. Laodicea] SE. of Philadelphia and E. 
of Ephesus. Its site is now utterly deserted. 
In 60 a.d. Laodicea was destroyed by an 
earthquake, but did not accept help from the 
emperor for the rebuilding, as many cities did. 
It was a great banking centre. It was also 
famous for the glossy black wool of its sheep, 
and did a large trade in the garments made 
from the wool : cp. vv. 17 f. An article called 
4 Phrygian powder,' used to cure weakness of 
the eyes, may be alluded to in v. 18. A bishop 
of Laodicea was martyred 166 a.d. 

14. Amen] i.e. Truth (cp. Isa 65 16 KM); 
He is the Reality behind all passing things ; 
His life is the life which is life indeed ; His 
promises are sure ; He can be trusted utterly. 

Witness] see on l 5 . The beginning, etc.] 
i.e. He who is the source of all life : cp. Col 
l 18 . 15. Cp. Mt21 31 . 16. An allusion to the 
nauseating effect of lukewarm water. 17. Cp. 
Hos 1 2 s Mt 23 12 Lk 1 52 J as 2 1 f . 18. Buy] cp. 
Isa 55 l . Raiment] RV ' garments ' : cp. vv. 4 f . 
Mt 22 n f . Anoint . . eyesalve] R V ' eyesalve 
to anoint thine eyes.' See] cp. Jn 9 40f . 19. Cp. 
Prov 3 12 Heb 126. 2 o. Knock] cp. Song 5 2 Lk 
1236. Hear] cp. Jnl0 4 > 2S . Come in] cp. Jn 
14 23 . Sup] The blessings which Christ gives, 
both here and hereafter, are often spoken of 
under the figure of a feast: cp. 19 9 Mt25 1 
Lk22 2 » f . with him . . me] cp. Jnl5 4 17 21f . 

21. Cp. Jnl6 33 17 24 . 

CHAPTER 4 
The Glory op God 

The Church has been encouraged in the 
midst of her tribulation and temptation by 
the vision of the presence and support of 
Christ. Now (chs. 4, 5) a further series of 
visions begins, in which are shown, under 
figures, the forces by which the life of the 
Church is affected, or, in other words, those 
who are for her and those who are against 
her. She is shown God and the Lamb, and 
she is shown the devil, the beast, the false 
prophet, and the apostate city. Then she is 
shown the victory of Christ, and the eternal 
defeat of the powers of evil. 

In c. 4, for the comfort of the Church, the 
greatness and majesty of God the Father is 
shown in language adapted from Isa 6 and 
Ezkl, 10. He is portrayed, on His heavenly 
throne, sitting 'above the water floods,' sur- 
rounded by beings representative of the 
angelic creation and of the Church. These 
beings ceaselessly watch Him to do His will, 
and worship Him as Creator. 

We are not to understand the imagery as 
literally descriptive of heaven, but as pic- 
torial symbols of spiritual things : see on 
55-7. 



1. First voice] i.e. the voice of l 10 . 

3. Jasper] i.e. according to some, the dia- 
mond ; but according to Flinders Petrie (HDB. 
' Stones, Precious '), the green jasper : cp. 21 n . 
The diamond would be emblematic of God's 
purity, the green jasper of His mercy. Sardine 
stone] RV ' sardius,' i.e. according to F. P., 
red jasper ; emblematic of God's judgments. 

Rainbow] the sign of mercy : cp. Ezk 1 27 . 

Emerald] F. P. chinks the word translated 
' emerald ' means rock crystal, which could 
show a rainbow of prismatic colours. 4. Seats] 
RV ' thrones.' Elders] either representative 
of the Church of both dispensations (OT. and 
NT.) ; or, as some think, angelic beings : cp. 
Isa 24 23 Coll 16 . 5. Lightnings, etc.] signify- 
ing awe-inspiring majesty and power : cp. Ex 
19 16 . Seven Spirits] see on l 4 . 

6. There was a sea of glass] RV 'as it 
were a glassy sea,' perhaps representing the 
waters that were above the firmament, Gn 1 ?. 
Over this the throne of God is looked upon 
as set : cp. Ezkl 22 . In the midst of, etc.] i.e. 
probably, supporting the throne. Beasts] RV 
' living creatures ' : cp. Ezkl 5f - ; in Ezk 10 1 ' 20 
identified with the ' cherubim.' The ' cheru- 
bim ' seem to have been emblematic of the 
forces of nature, especially of the storm- 
cloud : cp. Gn 3 24 (' sword ' perhaps = ' light- 
ning '), Ps 18 10 . ' To the Heb. poet the cherubim 
are not only the attendants of Jehovah, but 
the bearers and upholders of His throne. 
The thunderclouds are the dark wings of these 
ministers of God: cp. 2X19*5 PssSO 1 99 1 
Isa 37 16 . . . In later Jewish theology the 
cherubim take their place among the highest 
angels of heaven ' (HDB.). Full of eyes] 
symbolising their unceasing watchfulness : cp. 
Ezk 10 1 2 . 

7. Beast] RV ' creature.' The four crea- 
tures were anciently taken as emblems of the 
four evangelists. 8. Beasts] RV 'living 
creatures.' Rest not] RV ' have no rest ' ; cp. 
'watchers' as title of angels, Dan4 13 . Holy, 
etc.] see on l 4 and l 8 Isa6 3 . 9. Those 
beasts] RV ' the living creatures.' Give] RV 
' shall give,' i.e. whenever they give. n. Hast 
created] RV ' didst create.' For thy pleasure] 
RV ' because of thy will.' Are] RV ' were,' 
i.e. existed ' in His idea from all eternity ; 
and when the appointed moment came, they 

ere created ' (Milligan). 

CHAPTER 5 

The Glory of the Lamb 

The Church is shown that Christ is on her 

side. He has overcome by suffering. Now 

the future is for Him and His people, and He 

is worshipped with the Father. 

1-4. A roll of a book, covered with writing 
on both sides, signifying the full contents of 
God's purposes for the future (cp. Ezk2 9f -), 



1077 



5.5 



REVELATION 



6.1 



'close sealed' (RV) with seven seals, i.e. 
completely hidden from the knowledge of 
angels and men, rests on the outstretched 
right hand of ' Him that sitteth on the throne,' 
signifying that God offers His will to be made 
known and His purposes to be worked out 
(v. 1). But no created being (RY ' no one ') 
is fit to receive so high a mission (vv. 2f.), and 
St. John weeps, fearing lest the promise of 
41 should fail (v. 4). 

5-7. St. John is told that the victory which 
Christ has won has fitted Him to take and 
open the book. Christ in His royal power 
and strength is spoken of as ' the Lion that 
is of the tribe of Judah ' (RV), a reference 
to Gn 49 9 , which was interpreted by the Jews 
of the Messiah (cp. Heb7 14 ), and as the 
'Root of David,' i.e. the stem Or 'Branch' 
coming from the root (cp. 22 16 Isa 1 1 J > 10 Jer 
23 5 Zech 3 8 ), another accepted designation of 
the Messianic King (v. 5). St. John looks 
for the Lion and sees a Lamb (cp. Jn 1 29 > 36 ), 
' standing, as though it had been slain ' (RV), 
i.e. recently slaughtered or sacrificed. The 
reference is to Isa 53, and the meaning is that 
it was by His sacrifice that Christ had won 
His victory. By the Cross, the devil and the 
world were already essentially overcome (cp. 
Jnl2 31f - 16 n > 33 Col2 15 ) ; and God's purposes 
for man, which depended on the Atonement 
of Christ, could now be carried out. It is 
implied that the persecuted saints, for whom 
this was written, were not to fear tribulation, 
because it was for them also the appointed 
means by which they should ' overcome.' The 
Lamb has seven horns and seven eyes, signify- 
ing the complete power and searching insight 
of the Spirit by which He rules His people 
and overthrows His enemies and carries out 
the divine purpose (v. 6) : see on l 4 ; cp. 4 6 > 8 
1S2 10 Dan 7 7, 20 Zech 3 9 . Then the Lamb 
takes the book (v. 7). 

We are not to understand that Christ liter- 
ally has the form of a Lamb. The figures of 
a Lamb, and of horns and eyes, were familiar 
to all students of the OT., and the truth about 
Christ was expressed to St. John's mind in 
vision under this familiar imagery, just as it 
might have been expressed solely by words. 
If figures and words were equally expressive 
of spiritual realities, either might be em- 
ployed. 

5. Prevailed] RV ' overcome.' 6. In the 
midst] i.e. in front of the throne. Beasts] 
RV ' living creatures.' 

8-14. The Church, in her praise and prayer, 
sings the glory of the conquering Lamb. All 
angels and all creation join their chorus. 

8. Vials] RV ' bowls ' ; as used in the 
Temple for incense. Odours] RV ' incense ' : 
cp. 8 3 Psl41 2 . Saints] RV 'the saints,' i.e. 
the true people of God. 9. Sung] RV ' sing.' 



New] because belonging to the ' new ' 
state of Redemption : see on 2 17 ; cp. 14 3 . 

Hast redeemed, etc.] RV 'didst purchase 
unto God with thy blood men of every tribe, 
and tongue,' etc. : cp. Ac20 28 . 10. Kings] 
RV ' a kingdom ' : see on 1 6 . Reign] i.e. 
have power over tribulation and sin : cp. 
Eph2 6 lPet2 9 . 12. Sevenfold praise is 
rendered. 13. The chorus of praise becomes 
universal. Creature] RV ' created thing.' 

CHAPTER 6 

The Six Seals 

The afflicted Church has been reminded in 
chs. 4f. that God is over all, and that the future 
is committed to the Lamb. Now (chs. 6-8 l ) 
she is shown that future, unrolling to its ap- 
pointed end, i.e. the judgment of the enemies 
of God and the triumph of those who ' over- 
come.' The Lamb opens the seven seals. Ap- 
parently we are to understand that, as each 
seal is opened, a portion of that which is 
written in the book is revealed pictorially. C. 7 
contains an episode between seals six and 
seven. 

The first six seals. The key to this vision 
is the prophecy of Christ in Mt24 3 " 31 . In that 
prophecy, vv. 4-14 foretell the signs preced- 
ing the destruction of Jerusalem, vv. 15-28 
the destruction of Jerusalem, and vv. 29-31 
the signs which will precede the coming of 
Christ. There is the same threefold division 
in this c, but in place of the destruction of 
Jerusalem is the appeal of the martyrs to God, 
while the whole looks forward to the coming 
of Christ. 

St. John had, doubtless, thought long on 
the prophecy recorded for us in Mt 24. It was 
a natural effect of his memory that the vision 
should follow the lines of that prophecy ; and, 
at the same time, our Lord saw fit to make 
further use of the thoughts already implanted 
in the Apostle's mind. The working of the 
same prophecy appears in the visions of the 
trumpets and the bowls. 

1-8. Four riders are summoned, each by the 
word ' come ' (RV omits ' and see ') ; cp. Zech 
6 l f -, where the horses stand for the four winds, 
symbolising the divine judgments (v. 1). 

The white horse and the crown of the first 
rider are symbols of victory, and for the bow 
cp. Ps45 4f . The victorious progress of the 
gospel is perhaps represented (cp. Mt24 14 ), or, 
as many think, Christ: cp. 19 n (v. 2). 

The second and third riders represent war 
and famine respectively (vv. 3-5). A ' penny ' 
(cp. Mt 18' 2S RM) was the wages of a labourer 
for a day's work (cp. Mt20 2f ) ; the ' measure ' 
contained two pints. Judgment is tempered 
with mercy, for the wheat and the barley are 
not to be wholly destroyed, and the oil and 
the wine are to be uninjured (v. 6). 



1078 



6.9 



REVELATION 



8.6 



Then Death and Hell (RY ' Hades,' i.e. the 
' underworld ' of the dead) come to claim a 
fourth part, i.e. not the whole, of the ungodly, 
by God's four judgments of sword, famine, 
death (i.e. pestilence), and wild beasts : cp. 
Ezk 14 21 (v. 8). 

9-1 1. The opening of the fifth seal reveals 
that the death of the martyrs is not unregarded 
by God. As they sacrificed their lives, they 
are represented as having been offered on a 
heavenly altar, at the foot of which their blood 
(or 'souls,' or 'lives': cp. Lvl7 n ) has been 
poured out: cp. Ex29 12 (v. 9). Their blood 
is said to call out upon God, as Abel's did (cp. 
Gn4 10 ), and as every crime does, for punish- 
ment (v. 10). God is not unheeding, but the 
final judgment must wait till the number of 
the martyrs is fulfilled. Meanwhile these, 
having overcome (cp. 3 4f -), are given robes of 
victory (v. 11). 

10. Lord] RY' Master.' 

12-17. At the opening of the sixth seal the 
day of the wrath of God and of the Lamb is 
impending. The description is founded on the 
words of Christ : cp. Mt2429*. The prophets 
had expressed the awfulness of the ' day of the 
Lord,' by associating it with terrible catastro- 
phes, and these are heaped together in this 
passage to create a picture of fear and ruin. 
The details are not to be literally understood : 
cp. Isa2 10f - 34 4 50 3 Jer424 Am8 9 Nahl^t 
Hag 2 6 f. Lk23 30 Hebl226. 

The picture seems to be, as it were, fore- 
shortened to the Apostle, so that he is not able 
to see the length of the interval which separ- 
ates the Fall of Jerusalem from the conquest 
of the empire by Christianity, nor of the in- 
terval which separates that conquest from the 
Day of Judgment. So throughout the book, 
yet see the ' thousand years ' of c. 20. 

17. His] RY ' their.' 

CHAPTER 7 
The Redeemed 

Two visions interposed between the sixth 
and seventh seals. There are similar episodes 
between the sixth and seventh trumpets and 
bowls. 

1-3. Four angels are holding in check the 
four winds of God's judgments (v. 1), and are 
ordered not to release them until God's serv- 
ants are sealed, i.e. marked as His : cp. Ezk9 4 
Ephl 13 4 30 2 Tim 2 19 (w. 2f.). These four 
winds may be the horsemen of 6 1 f . The mean- 
ing is, that Christians need not fear the judg- 
ments of c. 6. Not a hair of their head shall 
perish (Lk 2 118). 

4-8. The complete number of God's people 
(see on 21 15f -), and that a large one (144,000 
is the square of 12 a thousandfold), is being 
gathered together for everlasting safety. The 
Church of Christ is spoken of in OT. language 



cp. Ro 2 28 ', The tribe of Dan is not mentioned, 
perhaps because of a Jewish tradition that 
Antichrist was to come from that tribe. 

9-17. St. John sees, in another vision, how 
the saints, the ' 144,000,' are preserved. They 
may not be delivered from death, but they will 
be delivered by death: cp. Lk21 16f . Robes 
and palms of victory (vv. 9f.) are for those 
who ' overcome,' and they are enabled to over- 
come by the ' blood,' i.e. by the communicated 
power of the sacrificed life of the Lamb : cp. 
12 n (v. 14). Their blessed state is pictured in 
sweet imagery drawn from the OT. (vv. 15-17). 

10. Salvation] i.e. victory : cp. Ps3 8 RM. 

11. Beasts] RY ' living creatures.' 

12. Sevenfold praise. 14. Sir] RY 'My 
lord.' Great] RY ' the great.' Washed] cp. 
22 14 RY. 15. Dwell among] RY' spread his 
tabernacle over':cp. Lvl6 2 26 11 Ezkl0 3f - 
3727. 16. Cp. Isa49 10 . 17. Feed] RY ' be 
their shepherd ' : cp. Ps 23 1 f • Ezk 34 23 . Living 
fountains of waters] RY ' fountains of waters 
of life' : cp. 216 22M? Jer2i 3 Jn4io 737. 

Wipe away] cp. Isa25 8 . 

CHAPTER 8 

The Seventh Seal. The Four Trumpets 

1. The seventh seal is opened. Heaven 
waits in hushed awe for a brief period. 

8 2-1 1 19. The Seven Trumpets. 

2. The seven angels, regarded in later Jew- 
ish belief as having a special position in God's 
presence (cp. Tobl2 15 Lkl 19 ), are given seven 
trumpets, symbols of judgment: cp. Mt24 31 
1 Cor 15 52 1 Th4 16 . It is best to understand 
the vision of the trumpets as being the contents 
of the seventh seal. This appears from the 
character of the events belonging to the first 
four trumpets, which spring from the third 
division of Christ's prophecy (Mt24 2 9*. Lk 
21 2 5f.) 5 and are parallel with the sixth seal : 
see on c. 6. Therefore the trumpets repre- 
sent the judgments on the heathen world, 
especially on the Roman empire, to come after 
the Fall of Jerusalem. It will be noticed that 
the arrangement of the trumpets is parallel to 
that of the seals, and that there is an episode 
of two visions between the sixth and seventh 
trumpets as there was between the sixth and 
seventh seals 

3-5. The incense of the prayer of heaven 
is joined to the Church's prayer that Christ 
will not tarry, cp. 6 10 Ro8 2 6 (vv. 3f.), and, in 
answer, the fire of God's judgment is cast on 
the earth, cp. Ezk 10 2 (v. 5), after which the 
sounding of the trumpets begins. 

3. Offer it with] RY ' add it unto.' 

4. Which came] RY omits. 5. Were] RY 
' followed.' 

6-13. The first four trumpets announce 
convulsions of nature, affecting earth, sea, 
rivers and the heavenly bodies. The language 



1079 



8.7 



REVELATION 



10. 



is in part borrowed from the narrative of the 
plagues of Egypt, but the whole fourfold vision 
looks like the picture of a volcanic eruption. 
Destruction comes upon one-third only, i.e. 
the mercy is greater than the judgment. The 
details are not to be pressed. The general 
idea is that the convulsions of nature are the 
shadow cast before by the approach of the 
terrible day of Christ (vv. 6-12). 

After the fourth trumpet, an eagle (not 
' angel,' as AY), whose swoop upon the prey 
is another symbol of judgment (cp. H0S8 1 
Mt24 28 ), announces three woes upon the un- 
godly (v. 13). Each of the last three trumpets 
heralds one of these woes. 

7. Hail and fire mingled, etc.] RY ' hail and 
fire, mingled,' etc. Upon the earth] RY adds, 
' and the third part of the earth was burnt up.' 

10. As it were a lamp] RY ' as a torch.' 

13. Angel] RY ' eagle.' 

CHAPTER 9 
The Fifth and Sixth Trumpets 

These herald woes upon the ungodly and 
idolatrous, inflicted both by demonic and by 
human agency. 

1-12. The fifth trumpet initiates the first 
of the three woes. A star fallen to the earth, 
i.e. an angel who has descended from heaven 
(cp. 1 20 ), not necessarily an evil angel (v. 1), 
opens the pit of the abyss. The ' abyss ' is 
the abode of evil spirits or demons, and the 
'pit' is the shaft which was supposed to 
lead to it. St. John uses this Jewish idea, 
which may have been derived from volcanoes, 
as a figure of spiritual things. At the open- 
ing of the pit smoke pours forth (v. 2), and 
from the smoke issue evil spirits with the ap- 
pearance of locusts (v. 3). They are not to 
hurt green things, for they are not really 
locusts ; but, besides being like locusts in their 
numbers and their devastating power, they 
are to be like scorpions in that they give pain 
to men, but only for a limited period — a 
visitation of locusts was usually limited to 
five months, from May to September. They 
are to afflict those who are not sealed : see on 
7 ! f - (v. 4 f .). The description of the locusts 
is partly taken from Joel 1 6 2 l f . No special 
significance need be sought in the details. 
which probably are only meant to increase the 
vivid terror of the picture (vv. 7 f ). Unlike 
the locusts of Prov 30 27 they have a king, 
Abaddon or Apollyon, i.e. 'Destroyer' (cp. 
Job26 6 RV Provl5 n RY) : names which at 
lii'sf signified the place <>!' the lost, and after- 
wards, as here, the ruler of the hosts of evil 
(v. 11). Tins vision maybe regarded as a 
picture of the mental and spiritual misery 
which follows sin. It is a contrast to the fifth 
seal ; cp. v. G, 'seek death and in no wise find 
it,' with 6 11 , 'rest': cp. Isa48 22 . 



1. Fall from heaven ] RY ' from heaven 
fallen.' 1, 2. Bottomless pit] RY ' pit of the 
abyss.' 9. RY inserts a comma after chariots. 

10. And there were stings, etc.] RY ' and 
stings ; and in their tails is their power to 
hurt men five months.' 11. RY ' They have 
over them as king the angel of the abyss,' etc. 

13-21. The sixth trumpet sounds, and a 
voice from the altar answers the prayers of 
the martyrs crying for vengeance, cp. 6 9f - 8 3 
(v. 13), by commanding the four angels, bound 
at the Euphrates, to be loosed (v. 14). Im- 
mense armies of horsemen issue forth, and 
kill the third part, i.e. a large number, but not 
the whole, of the ungodly : cp. vv. 20 f. The 
Euphrates is the river of Babylon, and Baby- 
lon in this book represents Rome. Perhaps, 
therefore, this vision speaks of devastation 
caused by Roman armies, possibly in the 
civil wars that followed the death of Nero. 

In the ' four angels bound,' St. John uses 
a familiar Jewish apocalyptic idea. Each 
country was supposed to have its angel or 
angels (cp. Danl0 13 > 20 ), 'Prince of Persia,' 
' Prince of Greece,' and see on 1 20 . The four 
angels would be the invisible representatives 
of the hosts of ' Babylon,' i.e. Rome, and 
their ' binding ' or ' loosing ' would represent 
the spiritual cause of the restraint or letting 
loose of the armies. The angels were held in 
leash until the exact moment foreordained by 
God (v. 15). As with the locusts, the details 
of the description probably have no special 
meaning. 

14. In] RY 'at.' 15. Were prepared] RY 
' had been prepared.' An hour, etc.] RY ' the 
hour and day and month and year.' 

17. Jacinth] RY ' hyacinth,' i.e. smoky blue. 

20. Works of their hands] i.e. idols : cp. 
Psll5 4 Isal78Dan53f. 

CHAPTER 10 
The Little Book 

Between the sixth and seventh trumpets, 
as between the sixth and seventh seals, is an 
episode consisting of two visions. The first 
vision is related in this c. 

Another mighty angel (cp. 5 2 ), depicted as 
clothed with God's power and mercy, which he 
is commissioned to minister, comes from heaven 
(v. 1), holding a little book open in his hand. 
The book is different from that of c. 5, and con- 
tains a special revelation for St. John to make : 
cp. v. 11 (v. 2). Seven thunders utter their 
voices, apparently signifying that there will be 
a cycle of judgments not included in the seals, 
trumpets, and bowls (v. 3), but these St. John 
is forbidden by the herald angel (cp. 1 10 ) to 
record : cp. Danl2 4 (v. 4). The angel of v. 1 
(v. o) now declares (cp.Dan 12 7 ) that the ' little 
time ' of T> n shall be brought to an end (v. 6) 
in the days of the seventh trumpet, when God's 



1080 



10. 3 



REVELATION 



12. 



eternal purpose of salvation, the revelation of 
which had gladdened the prophets of both 
dispensations (cp. Dan9 6 ' 10 Zechl 6 Eol 1 ), 
shall be fulfilled (v. 7). At the command of 
the herald-angel, St. John takes the book (v. 8), 
and eats it. It is sweet in his mouth, but 
bitter in his belly (cp. Psll^ 3 Ezk2 8 *- 3 lf -), 
signifying that it is sweet to him to receive 
God's revelation, but that its wrath and judg- 
ment fill him with sorrow (vv. 9 f -). The two 
angels bid him announce the contents of this 
new revelation, which are, probably, to be 
found in chs. 12 f - (v. 11). 

3. Seven] EY ' the seven.' 7. Shall begin] 
EV 'is about.' Mystery] cp. Eol 6 25f . As 
he hath declared] EY ' according to the good 
tidings which he declared.' 

CHAPTEE 11 

The Two Witnesses. The Seventh 
Trumpet 

1-14. Second episode. There is much dif- 
ference of opinion as to the meaning of this 
vision. Perhaps the key may be found in the 
parallelism of the book. There were two 
episodical visions after the sixth seal (see on 
c. 7), the first signifying that Christ's people 
were separated and preserved from God's 
judgments, the second that they were pre- 
served not from but through death. The same 
meaning may be found here. 

1, 2. The sanctuary and altar of Jerusalem, 
with the worshippers, are to be measured, i.e. 
with a view to preservation : cp. 2S8 2 Ezk 
40 3f < (v. 1). But the court of the Gentiles 
has been given over, with the rest of the city, to 
the nations (v. 2). This is plainly a reference 
to, or prophecy of, the siege and capture of Jeru- 
salem. 70 a.d., as foretold by Christ : cp. Lk 
21 24 . But it is to be interpreted symbolically. 
The temple, altar, and worshippers signify the 
Christian Church and its worship (cp. 1 Cor 
3 16 ), which have arisen in the midst of Juda- 
ism, and which are to be preserved, although 
Judaism is doomed. The time named, 42 
months, i.e. 3| years (v. 2), the half of seven 
the holy number, is not to be understood liter- 
ally. It was the duration of the persecution 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, and signifies a period, 
of whatever extent, in which evil had power : 
cp. v. 3, 126 l35Dan725 12*. 

3-14. But the people of Christ, although 
to be preserved, will be preserved through 
death. They are represented now under the 
figure of two ' witnesses' (cp. Acl 8 ), pro- 
phesying during the period of evil (v. 3). 
They are compared to the olive trees and 
candlesticks (Zerubbabel and Joshua) of Zech 
4, because they give forth the light of the 
truth of Christ and are fed with the oil of 
divine grace (v. 4). They are also compared, 
in language which is meant to assure them of 



God's special favour and protection, to Elijah 
and Moses (vv. 5 f -)- Yet God's favour will 
be shown in preserving them not from but 
through death. The ' beast,' i.e. the Eoman 
power (cp. 13 x note, 17 8 ) will persecute them 
to the death (v. 7). There is, perhaps, an 
allusion to the death of two godly men in 
Jerusalem, of whom James, the Lord's brother, 
may have been one. As their dead bodies 
were treated with dishonour by the Jews, so, 
too, will the heathen dishonour the martyred 
Christians. But in all this they are identified 
with Christ (vv. 8 f -), and will share His life with 
God (vv. 11 f -). In the judgment which falls 
upon the wicked world, of which Jerusalem, 
now that the Christian Church has been separ- 
ated from her (vv. l f ), has become a figure 
('Sodom,' 'Egypt,' 'great city,' v. 8; see on 1 4 8 ), 
many are converted : cp. Ac2 23 37f > (vv 13 f -). 

1. The angel stood, saying] EY 'one said.' 

2. Out] EY' without.' 3. EY' And I will 
give unto my two witnesses, and they shall 
prophesy ' — a Hebraism for ' cause them to 
prophesy.' 5I Cp. Ex7i9 lK17 lf - 2K110 
Lk425. 5. Will . . will] EY ' desireth to . . 
shall desire to.' 7. Bottomless pit] EY ' abyss ' : 
see on 9 2 . Cp. Dan 7 3 > ? f. 21. 8. Our] EY 
' their.' 9. EY 'And from among the peoples 
and tribes and tongues and nations do men 
look upon their dead bodies . . and suffer not,' 
etc. 10. They . . earth] i.e. the ungodly. 

11. The Spirit] EY 'the breath' : cp. Ezk 
37 6 > 10 . 12. A great voice] i.e. God's: cp. 
2 K 2 n . 13. Earthquake] see on 6 12 . 

15-19. The seventh trumpet sounds. This 
will bring about the consummation (cp. 10 7 ), 
and therefore the rest of the book is devel- 
oped out of it. Instead of a silence in heaven, 
such as that which followed the opening of 
the seventh seal, St. John hears a heavenly 
chorus anticipating and celebrating the victory 
of the Kingdom which the seventh trumpet is 
to bring, and which is related in chs. 12-20 
(vv. 15-18). Now is opened the temple of 
God in heaven, and in it is seen the ark of the 
covenant of mercy, and from it proceed light- 
nings and thunderings of judgment (cp. 8 5 
16 18 , 'seals' and 'bowls') (v. 15). Of this 
mercy and judgment the following chs. nar- 
rate the exercise. 

15. Kingdoms of this world] EY ' kingdom 
of the world': cp. Ps2 2 . 16. Seats] EY 
' thrones.' 17. And wast, and art to come] 
EY ' and which wast.' To thee] EY omits. 

Hast reigned] EY ' didst reign.' 

18. Angry] EY 'wroth.' Is come] EY 
'came.' 19. Testament] EY ' covenant.' 

CHAPTEE 12 

The Woman and the Man -Child. 
The Dragon 
The persecution which the Church had 



1081 



12. 1 



REVELATION 



13. 






already suffered, and which was about to 
burst forth again, is the great fact which un- 
derlies the whole ' Revelation.' The suffer- 
ings of the Church and its members have been 
referred to again and again, particularly in 
1 1 1 ' 13 . In the ' seals ' and the ' trumpets ' 
the Church has been assured, in a broad and 
general manner, that G-od's judgments will 
fall upon the world of wickedness, and that 
the ungodly will bow before the power of 
the Lamb. In the remainder of the book 
(chs. 12-22), the victory of Christ and His 
Church is foretold in more definite detail. 
The great enemies of Christ are brought for- 
ward, under the personifications of the Dragon 
(c. 12), the two Beasts (chs. 13 f -), and the 
harlot City (c. 17). Then we are shown 
Christ's battle against them, and the complete 
overthrow both of them and of all evil (chs. 
18-20), after which the book ends with the 
glorious and everlasting blessedness of the 
New Jerusalem (chs. 21 f -). 

The first great enemy of Christ's Church, 
the cause of all the hostility against her, is 
Satan. Christ suffered his enmity, but passed 
through it triumphantly (vv. 1-6). Satan is 
already conquered in principle (vv. 7-9), 
though for a short time the Christian Church 
experiences his malignity (vv. 10-17). 

i-6. The Church, of both the OT. and NT. 
covenants, is shown under the figure of a 
woman, clothed with heavenly glory (v. 1) 
from whom the Messiah is about to come : cp. 
Isa66 19 Mic4 10 . She is opposed by the devil 
(v. 9), pictured as a dragon, red with the blood 
of the saints : cp. 17 3f - (v. 3). His seven 
heads and ten horns (cp. Dan 7 7 ) represent the 
Roman emperors through whom he exercised 
his power. The seven crowned heads perhaps 
signify the seven emperors, from Augustus to 
Titus, who had really reigned. The ten horns 
may stand for the same emperors with the 
addition of Galba, Otho, and Yitellius : cp. 
13 1 17 10f - (see C. A. Scott, 'Century Bible : 
Revelation,' p. 53). The dragon waits to 
attack the Messiah (v. 4), but when He is born 
(cp. Ps2 8f -), the dragon has no power over 
Him, and He is exalted to God's throne : cp. 
Phil 2 9 (v. 5). The Church escapes from the 
dragon, as the Church of Israel escaped from 
Pharaoh into the wilderness, to be kept during 
a time of trouble : see on ll 2 (v. 6). The 
reference here may be to seasons of rest which 
the Palestinian Church experienced during the 
troubles which ended in the destruction of 
Jerusalem (cp. A< ( .» :!l ), and to the escape of 
the Christians of .Jerusalem to Pella before 
the siege : cp. Mt24 "'. 

i, 3. Wonder] RV k sign.' 3. Crowns] RV 
• diadems,' Le. kingly crowns. 4. Tail, etc.] 
i.e. lie was huge and mighty : cp. Dan8 10 . 

6. Feed] RV ' nourish.' 



7-9. The Christians for whom St. John 
wrote were beginning to experience perse- 
cution : cp. 2 3, 10 f. 13 3 4 no te, 10. Yet their 
victory is assured. This is symbolically ex- 
pressed under the figure of a war in heaven 
between good and evil angels (v. 7) in which 
Satan and his host are conquered and cast 
down from heaven (vv. 8 f -). The figure is 
derived from Jewish apocalyptic ideas, but the 
meaning for Christians is that in the Death 
and Resurrection and Ascension of Christ, 
Satan was already essentially conquered : cp. 
Jnl23if. 1633. 

7. Michael] one of the four archangels : cp. 
Danl0!3 12i Judev. 9. 9. Out] RY ' down.' 

Serpent] cp. Gn3*. Satan] i.e. ' adversary' 
(Heb.), or ' devil ' (diabolos, Gk.) : cp. Job 1 6 
Ps 109 6 Zech 3 1 f . Deceiveth] cp. Jn 8 44 . 

10-12. Satan being already potentially con- 
quered, heaven celebrates in anticipation the 
victory which the persecuted saints will win 
because Christ died for them and gives them 
strength to die. 

10. Accused] cp. lTim3 6f . 11. By] RV 
'because of (twice). Word of, etc.] i.e. the 
word of Christ to which they testify. 

13-17. The devil is not able to hurt a section 
of the Church, perhaps the Palestinian Church 
at Pella is meant, for God protects her. God's 
protection is described in terms of the deliver- 
ance of the exodus, when Israel was borne by 
God on eagles' wings, cp. Exl9 4 (v. 14), and 
escaped from Pharaoh into the wilderness, 
passing safely through the Red Sea (' water as 
a river,' vv. 15 f -)- This being so, Satan turns 
against the Church in Gentile lands (v. 17). 

In this c. St. John used figures which were 
frequently employed in Jewish apocalypses. 
These may have been derived originally from 
the ancient myth of the fight between the sun 
and darkness. Whatever was their original 
meaning, here they are symbolical of Christian 
truth : cp. note, c. 6, on St. John's use of the 
prophecy in Mt24. 

15. Flood . . flood] RV ' river . . stream.' 

16. Flood] RV 'river.' 17. Was] RV 
1 waxed.' Seed] cp. Gal 4 26. Have] R V « hold.' 

CHAPTER 13 
The Two Beasts 

Personification of the two powers inspired 
by the devil to persecute the Church. 

1-10. The dragon stands by the sea (i.e. the 
iEgean Sea), from which there rises to maet 
him a ' beast,' i.e. something inhuman : signi- 
fying the Roman empire, which came to the 
Province of Asia, in which were the Churches 
addressed in Rev., from the sea. The beast 
has ten horns and seven heads : cp. Dan 7. 
On the horns are diadems and on the heads 
1 names of blasphemy,' i.e. blasphemous titles : 
cp. 17 3. The ten horns (see on 12 3 ) are the 



1082 



IS. 1 



REVELATION 



13.8 



tea emperors from Augustus to Titus. The 
seven horns are those of the ten who had 
reigned long enough for worship to be paid to 
them, i.e. omitting Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. 
The ' names ' were, probably, k Augustus ' or 
1 Sebastos,' i.e. ' reverenced,' under which the 
emperors were worshipped : cp. vv. 12 f -, 2 13 
note (v. 1). 

1 The emperor represented the majesty, the 
wisdom, and the beneficent power of Rome : 
he was in many cases actually represented in 
different parts of the empire as an incarnation 
of the god worshipped in that district. . . 
Domitian . . delighted . . to be idolised as the 
Divine Providence in human form ; and it is 
recorded that Caligula, Domitian, and Diocle- 
tian were the three emperors who delighted 
to be styled do minus et deus ' (Ramsay, ' Church 
in Rom. Empire,' pp. 191, 275). 

The monster combines the powers of the 
four beasts in Dan 7 (v. 2). One head is 
smitten unto death, but the death stroke is 
healed. This head probably represents Nero 
(54-68 a.d.), of whom popular report said that 
he was not dead, or that if dead he would 
return to life (Tacitus, ' Hist.' ii. 8, Suetonius, 
'Nero,' 57): cp. 17 8f . The word translated 
wounded, RY ' smitten,' is that translated 
'slain,' of the Lamb, 5 6 . It is implied that 
Nero, both as the head of the world kingdom, 
and in his death and return to life, was the 
counterpart of Christ in God's kingdom. St. 
John took this Nero superstition, and used it 
to symbolise the breaking out again of Nero's 
persecuting spirit in Domitian, 81-96 a.d. 
(v. 3). As Nero is represented as the counter- 
part of Christ, so the worship of the dragon 
and the beast is the evil counterpart of the 
worship of God : cp. ' who is like,' etc., with 
Exl5 n (v. 4). The beast blasphemes God 
and His tabernacle (i.e. the Church, the dwell- 
ing-place of God) by the assumption of divine 
honour and by imputing evil practices to Chris- 
tianity : cp. 1 Pet2 12 (vv. 5 f -)- He is appointed 
(i.e. by God, who overrules the work of evil 
men to His glory) to war against the ' saints ' 
in world-wide power (v. 7), and worship is 
offered to him by the ungodly (vv. 8 f -). The 
description of the beast ends with an injunc- 
tion to the saints to submit to God's will in 
unresisting patience (v. 10). 

i. I stood] RV 'he stood.' Saw] RY 'I 
saw.' Crowns] RY ' diadems,' i.e. kingly 
crowns. The name] RY ' names.' 4. Which 
gave power] RY ' because he gave his author- 
ity.' 5. Forty and two months] see on ll 2 . 

6. And them, etc.] RY 'even them.' Chris- 
tians are themselves God's ' tabernacle,' be- 
cause He is ' in the midst of ' them : cp. 21 3 . 

Dwell] Gk. ' tabernacle.' In heaven] Chris- 
tians are here said to dwell in heaven, because 
they belong to the kingdom of heaven on 



earth and because in Christ they have begun 
to live the heavenly life : cp. Eph2 6 . 

7. All kindreds, etc.] The Roman empire 
was world-wide. 8. Book of Life] see on 3 5 . 

From the foundation, etc.] i.e. in God's 
eternal counsel: cp. lPetl 19f . 10. RY 'If 
any man is for captivity, into captivity he 
goeth ' (i.e. his captivity is by God's will) : ' if 
any man shall kill with the sword, with the 
sword must he be killed,' i.e. Christians are 
not to fight against the persecutors, but are to 
submit to God's will : cp. Mt26 52 . 

A second beast is seen. It comes out of the 
earth (contrast v. 1), because it belongs to the 
Province of Asia, the land of the writer and 
first readers of this book. This beast repre- 
sented k the Province of Asia, in its double 
aspect of civil and religious administration, 
the Proconsul and the Commune. It had two 
horns, corresponding to this double aspect, 
and was like a lamb, for Asia was a peaceful 
country where no army was needed ' (Ramsay). 
Yet it spake as a dragon, i.e. it made the same 
blasphemous assertions and demands as those 
which the first beast had learnt from the 
dragon: cp. v. 51 (v. 11). The authority of 
the Imperial Government had been delegated 
to the Provincial Government, which used its 
authority in enforcing the worship of the 
emperor. As the persecuting spirit of the 
empire was incarnate in Nero, the Imperial 
Government is identified with Nero himself, 
restored to life ; i.e. the succeeding emperors 
will act in the spirit of Nero (v. 12). The 
worship of the emperor's image is recom- 
mended to the credulous populace by the aid 
of trickery and conjuring (v. 13f.), and by 
ventriloquism. (Hence the beast is also called 
the 'false prophet,' cp. 16 13 19 2 « 20 10 .) The 
punishment for refusing to worship the image 
is death (v. 15). No one in the Province is 
allowed to buy or sell, who cannot produce a 
certificate, under Imperial seal (' the mark, 
even the name of the beast,' RY), snowing that 
he has joined in the worship of the emperor. 
Or the meaning may be that all must offer 
incense with the hand, or bow the head, to the 
image, before they are allowed to trade (v. 16 f .). 
The name of the beast, i.e. of the smitten head, 
is given as 666 (v. 18). The reference is to 
the numerical value of letters. In both Greek 
and Hebrew, letters of the alphabet were used 
as numbers. It has been found that if ' Neron 
Caesar ' be written in Hebrew letters, the sum 
of the letters is 666. This is generally ac- 
cepted at present, although, to get 666, ' Caesar ' 
has to be written defectively. If spelt ' Nero 
Caesar,' the sum of the letters is 616, which is 
the reading of some MSS. Some hold that 
616 is the original reading, and that it repre- 
sents ' Gaios Caesar,' i.e. Caligula. Irenaeus 
took the number as standing for ' Lateinos,' 



1083 



13. 13 



REVELATION 



14.20 



i.e. ' the Latin.' Another interpretation sees 
in the number simply a continuation of the 
contrast with Christ of v. 11. The number of 
the name 'Jesus' in Gk. is 888 ; and, according 
to this interpretation, the meaning is that the 
beast falls as far short of ' seven ' (i.e. per- 
fection and holiness) as Jesus goes beyond it. 

13. Wonders] RY 'signs': cp. 12 1 . Fire] 
The false prophet is a travesty of Elijah : cp. 
1 K 1 8 38 2 K 1 10 f . 14. Miracles] R V ' signs. ' 

15. Life] RY ' breath,' i.e. apparently ; 
perhaps by ventriloquism. 18. Here is wis- 
dom] i.e. wisdom is needed to interpret that 
which follows : cp. 17 9 . 

CHAPTER 14 
The Lamb and His Followers. Judg- 
ment on His Enemies 

In the last two chs. were seen the 
enemies of the Church, and their fierce power. 
Now, by way of contrast, and to encourage 
the Church to resist her enemies with com- 
plete certainty of victory, pictures are shown 
of the blessedness of those who witness a 
true confession for Christ, and of God's judg- 
ment on the ungodly. 

1-5. The Lamb (cp. 5 6 , etc.) is seen on 
Mount Zion, i.e. the true and heavenly home 
of the Church : cp. Hebl2 22 . With Him are 
the perfect number (cp. 7 4 ) of those who had 
been marked with His name and the name of 
His Father, instead of with the mark of the 
beast: see on 3 12 , and cp. 7 3 13 16f . Both 
here, and in 7 4 , '144,000' is a figurative 
expression for the whole number of the 
Redeemed (v. 1). A heavenly chorus is 
heard, in which the voice of Christ is followed 
by the voices of the living creatures and of 
the elders (v. 2). The Redeemed join in the 
strain (v. 3). They are described as undefiled 
by idolatry, which is often described in Scrip- 
ture as adultery against God, and which was 
itself commonly allied with impurity ; as 
following the Lamb through suffering to 
glory ; as a choice offering to God (v. 4) ; as 
having confessed the true God and not the 
lying idol (guile, RY ' lie ') ; and as an un- 
defiled (fault, RV • blemish ') sacrifice, perhaps 
with an allusion to the death of the martyrs : 
cp. Heb9i4 1 Pet 1 ™ (v. 5). 

1. Looked] RV 'saw.' A Lamb] RY 
1 the Lamb.' His Father's name] RV ' his 
name, and the name of his Father.' 2. A 
voice] see on 1 1(J . I heard the voice of] RV 
' the voice; which 1 heard Was as tin; voice of.' 

3. They] i.e. the 144,000. Beasts] RV 
' living creatures.' 4. Being] RV Mo be.' 

6f. An angel announces the glad tidings for 
those who fear God, that He is about to be 
manifested for the salvation of His oppressed 
people. 

6. Heaven] i.e. the sky. 8. The Fall of 



Babylon, i.e. Rome (see on 17 5 18), is spoken 
of as if it had already taken place. RV 
'Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, which 
hath made,' etc. : cp. Isa219 Dan4 3( >. The 
wrath of her fornication] i.e. the wrath of God 
incurred by her unfaithfulness to God in 
which they had shared : cp. 17 2 Jer51 7 . 

9-13. God's wrath is denounced on any 
who fall away from the Lamb to the beast 
(v. 9). Their woe is described in language 
drawn from Isa34 8f -, and from the account of 
the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (vv. 
10 f.). The wrath of God is more terrible 
than that of the beast, hence the endurance of 
the ' saints ' is justified (v. 12). Therefore, 
also, it is well with those who have died in 
persecution in the faith of Christ ; for while 
death brings no rest to those who worship the 
beast (cp. v. 11), the death of the saints brings 
rest from their labours and sorrows (v. 13). 

9. See on 13 16f . 10. Poured out without 
mixture into] RV ' prepared unmixed in,' 
i.e. it is of full strength : cp. Ps75 8 Isa51 17 . 

13. A voice] see on l 10 . 

14-20. St. John sees one 'like unto a son 
of man' (RY). The expression is derived 
from Dan7 13 , where it meant one in human 
form, as contrasted with the beasts. The title 
was interpreted of the Messiah, and the Jewish 
' Book of Enoch ' shows that under it the 
Messiah was regarded as a supernatural person. 
This was the significance of the term when 
our Lord applied it to Himself, and He joined 
to it the conception of the ' man of sorrows ' 
of Isa53. Now, after His sorrows, He is 
throned on a ' white cloud ' (representing the 
glory of God, cp. Ex 4034 1K8™ Mtl7^ Mk 
14 62 ), and crowned as king: cp. 19 12 (v. 14). 
He casts His sickle down to the earth, and the 
harvest of the saints is gathered (vv. 15f.). 

Then the angel of the fire on God's altar 
(cp. 9 14 16 5 ), the fire of God's judgments (cp. 
8 5 ), calls for the gathering of the wicked for 
the winepress of God's wrath: cp. 19 15 Isa 
63 lf - Joel3 13f . (vv. 17f.). Those who are 
judged (v. 19) are separated from the heavenly 
state of the redeemed (' without the city,' cp. 
Zech 1 4 4, 10 Heb 1 3 " f -). The awf ulness of the 
judgment is described in language similar to 
that of a description of judgment in the ' Book 
of Enoch ' ; and its universality, by the extent 
of land covered by blood. 'Four' is the 
number symbolical of the earth, and 1600 is a 
thousand times the square of 4 : cp. ' 144,000,' 
the number expressing the people of God (v. 20). 

15. Temple] cp. II 19 . Crying .. to him] 
i.e. the will of the Father is communicated to 
Christ. Thrust in] RV ' send forth ' (and v. 
18). For thee] RV omits. Ripe] RV ' over- 
ripe.' 16, 19. Thrust in] RV 'cast.' 

18. Vine] RV ' vintage.' 20. By the space 
of] RV ' as far as.' 



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15. 1 



REVELATION 



16. IS 



CHAPTER 15 
The Seven Angels of the Bowls 

The crisis of the book is drawing near. The 
enemies of Christ and His Church — Satan, 
the empire, and the Provincial Government — 
have been shown in their power and cruelty. 
In c. 14 these were left standing in their 
might, while the blessed safety of the people 
of God was pictured. In this c. is described 
the approach of the judgments which are about 
to fall on the empire and on the heathen 
world. 

1-4. Seven angels appear, they to whom are 
committed the ' plagues, 1 i.e. scourging punish- 
ments, ' which are the last ' (R V), because in 
them the temporal judgments of God are fully 
carried out (RY ' finished '). But yet once 
more there is a pause, as if the safety of God's 
people in the midst of all this sin and judgment 
could not be insisted on sufficiently, and a 
vision is granted of the blessedness of those 
who by faithfulness even unto death have con- 
quered the beast. They stand by the ' glassy 
sea ' (RY), i.e. the firmament (see on 4 6 ), 
having harps of God, i.e. harps such as are 
suited to the heavenly worship of God (v. 2). 
They sing ' the song of Moses and the song 
of the Lamb,' i.e. a song called out by the 
deliverance wrought by Christ, as the song of 
Ex 15 was called out by the deliverance from 
Egypt — a song in praise of God who from 
the time of Moses to the time of Christ has 
never forgotten His oppressed people (vv. 3f.). 

3. Cp. PSS98 1 111 2 139 14 145" JerlO?. 
Saints] RY ' the ages ' : cp. 1 Tim 1 W (RM). 

4. Cp. Ps86 9 Isa66 23 . Judgments] . RY 
'righteous acts': cp. Ps51 4 Ro5 18 . 

5-8. Again, as in 1 1 19 , is opened the sanctuary 
of the heavenly tabernacle, by which is symbol- 
ised that presence of God to which the worship 
of heaven is directed, and from which the 
actions of heaven proceed, and which was 
typified on earth by the earthly tabernacle. 
In ll 19 it was God's mercy, represented by 
the ark of the covenant, which was mani- 
fested ; now it is the declaration of His holy 
will, represented by the ' testimony,' i.e. the 
ten commandments, which is to be enforced 
(v. 5). From the Divine Presence come forth 
the angels of the plagues, as priests, but arrayed 
with flashing gems (v. 6). To them are given 
golden 'bowls' (RY), corresponding to the 
basons used by the priests for the blood in the 
sacrificial ritual (cp. Ex27 3 ) full of God's 
wrath (v. 7). The Presence of God, sanction- 
ing the service, is manifested by the smoke 
of His glory: cp. Ex40 35 lK8 10f - Isa6 4 
(v. 8). 

6. Clothed . . linen] RY ' arrayed with pre- 
cious stone, pure and bright.' 7. Beasts] RY 
' living creatures.' 



CHAPTER 16 

The Seven Bowls 

In the last c. there was a pause of suspense, 
during which the angels of the ' plagues ' were 
seen coming forth from the Presence of God 
to pour out His wrath. In this c. the suspense 
is ended, and the angels pour out God's wrath 
into the earth. 

1-9. The vision of the ' bowls ' (RY) is paral- 
lel with that of the ' trumpets ' (chs. 8 f .). In each 
vision there are four preparatory judgments, 
falling upon the earth, the sea, the rivers and 
fountains, and the sun. But, in the ' trumpets,' 
it is the ' third part ' that is affected ; while in 
the ' bowls ' it is the whole. At the fourth 
trumpet, the third part of the heavenly bodies 
are darkened ; while at the fourth bowl, the 
sun blazes out with scorching heat. These 
differences are in harmony with the figure em- 
ployed. The ' trumpets ' herald the judgments, 
and give anticipations and warnings of them 
by calamities which foreshadow others. The 
first four, trumpets and the first four bowls are 
parallel with the sixth seal (6 12f -) and with Mt 
24 29 £. They foretell judgments to fall upon 
the heathen world of the Roman empire (cp. 
v. 2) before, and leading up to, the destruction 
of Rome. As in the ' trumpets,' the descrip- 
tion is partly derived from the plagues of 
Egypt. It is to be understood, not literally, 
but as figuring a time of intense calamity and 
terror. 

I. A great voice] i.e. God's : see on l 10 . 

5. Angel of the waters] As Churches (cp. 
I 20 ), and nations and armies (cp. 9 14f ), so also 
the elements of nature (cp. 7 1 14 18 ) are in 
Rev. represented as having a spiritual counter- 
part. The exact idea occurs nowhere else in 
the Bible, though for what, possibly, may be 
approaches to it, cp. Job4 18 25 3 ' 5 Psl04 4 Isa 
24 2 "- DanlOi 3 > 2 o f - Mtl8i° Acl2is Hebl? 
(RY). In so poetical a book as Rev., it is 
difficult to decide whether these angels of 
water, fire, etc., are meant to be understood 
as real beings or merely as poetical personifica- 
tions. 7. Another out of the altar] RY ' the 
altar' : cp. 6 9 8 3 . The altar is personified : see 
previous note. 9. God, which] RY ' the God 
which.' 

10 f. The fifth bowl is poured in judgment 
upon the city of Rome, the seat of empire. 
The heathen world governed by Rome becomes 
full of the darkness of terror and rebellion 
at God's judgments. This is parallel to the 
spiritual torments threatened at the fifth 
trumpet : cp. 9 * f . It is in contrast to the 
fifth seal (cp. 6 9f -), where the martyrs, who 
have suffered, call on God, while here the sub- 
jects of the beast blaspheme God because of 
their pains. 10. Seat] RY ' throne.' 

12-16. The sixth bowl is poured out upon 



1085 



16.13 



REVELATION 



17.3 



the Euphrates, the river of Babylon, i.e. Rome : 
see on 17 5 . At the sixth trumpet (9 13f -) 
armies were to come from the ' Euphrates.' 
Here the 'Euphrates' is to be dried up, to 
make a way for the kings from the sunrising, 
i.e. that they may be able to capture Rome ; 
see on 17 16 (v. 12). The drying up of the 
Euphrates refers to the manner in which Cyrus 
took the literal Babylon by diverting the course 
of the river. The capture of Rome is pre- 
paratory to the final battle of the ' kings of 
the world,' i.e. ungodly nations, against the 
Lamb at Har-Magedon (RV): cp. 17 12f - (vv. 
14-16). Har-Magedon probably means 'the 
Mount of Megiddo,' and signifies that the future 
battle is typified by the defeat of the kings of 
Canaan ( Jg 5 19 ; cp. Zech 1 2 u). The kings of 
the earth are stirred up to fight against the 
Lamb by the influence of the Lamb's three 
great enemies: cp. 1K22 20 . Their evil influ- 
ence is shown under the figure of frogs (cp. 
Ex 8 7 ), because it was by producing frogs that 
the magicians deceived Pharaoh (vv. 13 f.). 

13. False prophet, i.e. the second beast : see 
on 13 n . 15. The voice of Christ breaks in: 
cp. 22 7,i2-i5 # Keepeth his garments] i.e. let 
not the power and attractiveness of the coming 
evil rob any Christian of the strict purity of 
his Christian life : cp. 3 18 7 14 . 16. He] RV 
' they,' i.e. the frog-like spirits. 

17-21. The seventh bowl is poured out, and 
the voice of God announces that the end of 
the preparatory judgments is reached (v. 17). 
With the lightnings and thunderings and voices 
which close each vision (cp. 8 5 ll 19 ), comes 
now a great earthquake (v. 18), which splits 
Babylon (Rome) into three, and overthrows 
other worldly powers (v. 19). Some have 
understood this as a literal prediction that 
Rome was to be destroyed by an earthquake. 
More probably the earthquake represents the 
shaking of all earthly institutions when God 
comes to judgment: cp. 6 12 8 5 ll 19 . The 
judgments of the bowls end with a picture, 
expressed in physical figures, of the upheaval 
and destruction which accompany the mani- 
festation of the wrath of God: cp. 6 1 * ll 19 
20 n (vv. 20 f.). The cup] see on 148. 

CHAPTER 17 
Babylon the great Harlot 
The judgment on Rome, which had been 
mnounced before, is now shown in detail. 
The identification of ' Babylon ' with Rome, 
iere and elsewhere in Rev., is supported 
HDB.) by the following considerations : — 
The name Babylon in 17 5 'is described as 
nystery, i.e. a name to be allegorically inter- 
na ted. . . B. is described (1) as " the harlot" ; 
he supreme antithesis of " the bride," " the 
ioly city," " the new Jerus." ; (2) as the centre 
.ml ruler of the nations, 14 8 17 lf - 15 > 18 ; (3) 



as seated on "seven mountains," 17 9 ; (4) as 
the source of idolatry and impurity, 17 2f - 18 2 
19 2 .. . (5) as a great trading centre, 18 3 . 11 * 19 ; 
(6) as enervated by luxury, 18 7, 12 f. 22 . (7) as 
the arch-persecutor of the saints and of " the 
witnesses of Jesus," 17 6 19 V Babylon, as 
the seat of world-empire, and the ancient and 
persistent enemy of the people of God, was a 
striking type of Rome. Many think Rome is 
meant in 1 Pet 5 13 . 

1 f . Rome is spoken of by the herald angel 
of the bowls as a harlot, cp. Isa23 15f< (Tyre), 
Nah3 4 (Nineveh), sitting on many waters, cp. 
Jer51 13 (Babylon), which signify the peoples 
over whom Rome ruled, cp. v. 15. 1. Vials] 
RY ' bowls.' 

3-6. St. John is taken to a wilderness to 
see the harlot city, as in Isa21 1 the vision 
of Babylon's fall was declared from a wilder- 
ness. She is sitting on a beast, i.e. the Roman 
empire : cp. 13 lf . The beast is scarlet, 
because of the blood shed by Rome. It is full 
of names of blasphemy (e.g. Sebastos ; see on 
13 1 ), for in coins and seals and statues and 
temples the empire was full of such names. 
It has seven heads and ten horns, explained in 
vv. 9, 12 (v. 3). The woman, i.e. the city, 
is clothed with luxury, and she has in her 
hand a golden cup, signifying debauchery : cp. 
14 8 Jer51 7 (v. 4). On her forehead, after the 
custom of Roman harlots, is a label with her 
name (v. 5). She is drunken with the blood 
shed in the persecution of Nero. St. John 
wonders at her iniquity (v. 6). 6. Admiration] 
RV ' wonder.' 

For some description of the condition of 
Rome, see Intro. Romans. The state of society 
at Rome, at the time of the Rev., was probably 
the worst the world had ever seen. The 
aristocracy, which alone had any voice in 
public affairs, was, with few exceptions, utterly 
given over to the most shameless wickedness. 
Vast wealth was in their hands, which was 
spent in unbridled luxury and debauchery. 
Their continual craving for new sensations 
was ministered to by foreign parasites, who 
introduced new vices and flagrant superstitions. 
With no feeling for others, their cruelty was 
appalling. With their appetite for life jaded 
by the pursuit of pleasure, suicide became 
common. The herded masses of the people 
were sunk in ignorance and pauperism. The 
public distribution of corn confirmed them in 
idleness, and the public shows helped to harden 
their hearts and to corrupt their feelings. The 
State religion was not believed in by the 
educated, while it had no moral teaching to 
provide for those who did believe in it, and 
there was no system of public education. 

The Christians were accused of having 
caused the great fire which raged in Rome for 
nine days (64 a.d.) According to Tacitus, a 



1086 



17.7 



REVELATION 



18. 12 



great multitude were convicted, not only of 
incendiarism, but of hatred of mankind. 
Some were covered with the hides of wild 
beasts and worried to death by dogs ; others 
were covered with pitch and set on fire at 
nightfall to illuminate the imperial gardens. 
For some years Christians were punished on 
the accusation of horrible crimes. Afterwards, 
certainly by the time of Domitian, the mere 
profession of Christianity became punishable. 

7-18. The angel interprets the mystery 
(v. 7). The beast, which has previously 
represented the empire, now stands for Nero, 
in whom the cruelty of the empire had been 
personified: see on 13 3 . He shall come up 
out of the 'abyss' (RV), cp. 9 1 note, 117, i. e . 
return to life, and then go to perdition : cp. 
19 20 Mt 7 13 (v. 8). The seven heads have two 
significations. They represent the seven hills 
of Rome on which the city sits (v. 9). They 
also represent seven kings, i.e. probably 
Augustus (27 b.c-14 a.d.), Tiberius (14-37), 
Caligula (37-41), Claudius (41-54), Nero 
(54-68), Vespasian (69-79), Titus (79-81). 
Five are dead ; therefore, apparently, the 
prophecy was written in the reign of Ves- 
pasian. Titus is about to come (v. 10). Then 
Domitian (81-96) will reign. Besides being 
the eighth king, he will be ' Nero,' because in 
him the persecuting spirit of Nero will have 
returned (v. 11). The ten horns are given an 
interpretation different from that in c. 13. 
Now they signify ' the kings from the sun- 
rising' of 16 12 (v. 12). These are to join 
with the beast in war against the Lamb, and 
the Lamb will overcome them : cp. 16 16 19 19f - 
(vv. 13f.). In one sense, the Lamb overcame 
them when not even death could make Christ's 
people unfaithful to Him ; in another sense, 
when the empire became converted to Christ. 
The kings of the earth, joined to the beast, 
will turn against the city, and destroy and 
burn her. In v. 16 use is made of the common 
expectations that Nero, returned to life, and 
in alliance with the Parthians, would take 
signal vengeance on Rome for her rebellion 
against him (vv. 16 f.). In v. 18 the city is 
identified with Rome. It is clear that the 
prophecy of the destruction of Rome, of 
which this c. forms part, has not been ful- 
filled. It has been suggested that the rapid 
spread of Christianity in Rome altered the 
character of the city, and that, for this reason, 
God withheld the threatened judgment : cp. 
Gnl8 26f - (Sodom), Jon 3™ (Nineveh). 

8. That was] RV ' how that he was.' Yet 
is] RV ' shall come.' 9. Here is the mind, 
etc.] i.e. a wise man will be able to under- 
stand that which follows. The expression 
challenges the reader's attention : cp. 13 8 . 

10. There] RV ' they.' 10 f. He must con- 
tinue, etc.] With a different punctuation of 



1087 



the Greek this might be rendered, ' he must 
continue a little while, and (so must) the 
beast which was and is not. And he himself 
is also an eighth,' etc. With this rendering, 
the beast is not identified with one of his 
horns. 11. Even he is the eighth] RV 'is 
himself also an eighth.' 12. One hour] i.e. a 
very short time. 14. And they . . called] RV 
' and they also shall overcome that are with 
him, called.' 16. Upon] RV 'and.' 

CHAPTER 18 
The Fall of Babylon 

In the last a, the fall of Rome, and the 
manner of its fall, were prophetically an- 
nounced. In this c, the greatness of the 
tragedy is shown by songs of thanksgiving 
and of lamentation which it calls forth. 

As was suggested on c. 17, we may believe 
that the songs of the joy of angels over sin- 
ners that repent have taken the place of these 
songs. Yet, they serve their purpose in en- 
couraging God's people to faith and endurance 
when at any time wickedness and worldliness 
seem to be triumphant. 

The language of the prophets of the OT. is 
freely used. From the human side, we may 
say that the mind of the writer was so satur- 
ated with the old Scriptures that he naturally 
employed their language. From the divine 
side, we are to learn that ' no prophecy . . is 
of any private interpretation,' 2Petl 20 , and 
that God looks on worldly wickedness at any 
time according to the same principles with 
which he regarded Babylon and Tyre of old. 

1-3. Proclamation of the Fall of Rome. 

2. Fallen] cp. 14 8 Isa219. Habitation] cp. 
Isal3 2 i34i3f. Cage] RV ' hold,' i.e. prison. 

3. RV ' For by the wine of . . all the nations 
are fallen' : cp. 14 8 17 2 . Abundance of her 
delicacies] RV ' power of her wantonness.' 

4-8. God's people are commanded to come 
out of Babylon as, before, they were warned 
to quit Jerusalem : cp. Jer51 45 Mt24 16 . So, 
spiritually, God's people are to take care that 
the pleasures of wickedness do not entice them 
to have fellowship with it. 

5. Remembered] cp. 16 19 . 6. Reward her] 
RV ' Render unto her ' : a command to the 
ministers of God's wrath. Rewarded you] RV 
'rendered': cp. Psl37 8 . Double] i.e. very 
great sin calls forth very great punishment : 
cp. Jerl6 18 . 7. Lived deliriously] RV 'waxed 
wanton.' Saith] cp. Isa47 5f . 

9-20. Dirge of those who loved the wicked 
city. The writer evidently had in his mind 
Ezek26 f - (of Tyre). The dirge is suddenly 
overmastered (v. 20) by the exultation of 
those she has oppressed. 

9. Deliriously] RV ' wantonly.' 11. Rome 
was not a trading city, but must have been a 
great buyer of luxuries. 12. Thyine wood] 



18. 13 



REVELATION 



19. 19 



a very hard, fragrant wood, specially valued 
by the Greeks and Romans as a material for 
tables (HDB.). 

13. Cinnamon] RV 'cinnamon, and spice.' 
Odours] RV ' incense.' Beasts] RV ' cattle.' 

14. Goodly] RV ' sumptuous.' 20. Ye holy 
apostles] RV 'ye saints, and ye apostles,' — 
SS. Peter and Paul were put to death at Rome. 

Avenged you] RV ' judged your judgment.' 
21-24. An angel compares the casting down 

of Babylon to the casting down of a millstone 
'into the sea, i.e. it shall be sudden, and k with 

no restoration in the future ' (Benson). 

CHAPTER 19 

Christ and His Armies conquer the 
Beast and his Prophet 

The harlot city having been destroyed, the 
marriage of the Lamb with the glorified Church 
is announced. But before this can take place, 
the other enemies of the Lamb must be over- 
come, and St. John sees in a vision the over- 
throw of the beast and of the false prophet. 

1-4. The great multitude of the saints in 
heaven (see on l 10 ) praises God (v. 1) because 
the wicked city, which corrupted the earth, 
and shed the blood of God's servants, is judged 
(vv. 2 f -). The living creatures aud the elders 
join in the worship and praise (v. 4). 

1. Alleluia] RV 'Hallelujah,' lit. 'praise ye 
the Lord.' The word, which occurs only here 
in the NT., is common in the Psalms. 

5-10. A voice calls on all God's servants to 
praise Him (v. 5). In response, a vast hymn 
of praise from Christ, the living creatures, and 
the saints (see on 1 10 ) is heard, announcing the 
marriage of the Lamb (vv. 6 f ). In this way, 
as so often, the writer brings forward a new 
thought, which is to be developed later (see 
on 21 lf ). The bride, the New Jerusalem, is 
to be arrayed in the pure linen of righteous 
acts, in contrast to the harlot's red garment of 
sin : cp. 18 5 (v. 8). The herald angel declares 
the blessedness of those who are called (RV 
' bidden ') to the marriage supper : cp. 3 20 17 14 
.Mi 22 8f - Lk U 15 (v. 9). Of course, except in 
idea, 'the bride' and those 'called,' i.e. the 
Church and its members, are identical. Filled 
with wonder and joy, St. John falls down to 
worship the angel : cp. 22 8f - But the angel 
checks him, saving that worship is for God 
alone (cp. Col2 18 ), and that the fact that the 
testimony of Jesus, i.e. probably the Revelation 
made by Jesus, is ministered both by the angel 
and by Christian prophets and saints, is a sign 
that they are Irlh'W servants (v. 10). 

5. Out of] RV ' forth from.' The voice 
.Iocs not seem to be Cod's. Perhaps it is the 
throne which speaks : see on 1G 7 . Servants, 
and ye] RV 'servants, Jt».' 8. Be arrayed] 
RV ' array herself.' Clean and white] RV 
'bright and pure.' Righteousness] RV'right- 

11 



eous acts.' These ' righteous acts ' are not the 
cause of salvation, but its consequence. 

10. For the testimony, etc.] probably a 
comment made by St. John. Spirit of pro- 
phecy] i.e. the inspiring force of all prophecy. 

11-16. Before the fulfilment of the mar- 
riage, the Lamb's enemies must be overcome. 
Christ comes forth as a warrior (cp. Ps45 3f -), 
riding the white horse of victory. His crowns 
show Him to be King of kings : cp. v. 16. 
He alone knows His name, i.e. He is greater 
than any one can say or understand : cp. 2 17 
3 12 Mt 1 1 27 . Yet, as coming forth from the 
Father, He is called the Word of God (cp. 
Jn 1, 1 Jn 1) ; and when He conquers and rules 
the nations He is called King of kings and 
Lord of lords : cp. 17 14 . His garments are 
sprinkled with blood, i.e. His enemies perish 
before Him: cp. Isa63 lf - (vv. 11-13). The 
heavenly hosts of angels (cp. 1 K 22 19 ) follow 
Him, but no blood is on their garments, for 
He alone overcomes the enemies, cp. v. 21 
(v. 14), which He does by the word of His 
mouth: cp. 1^ 212 i sa H4 j n 124S Heb4i 2 . 
He treads God's enemies in the winepress of 
God's anger (a change of figure) : cp. 14 19f - 
Isa63 3 (v. 15). 

11. Heaven] RV 'the heaven,' i.e. the sky. 
White horse] cp. 6 2 . 12. Crowns] RV 

' diadems.' 13. Dipped in] RV ; sprinkled 
with.' 14. Clean] RV ' pure.' 15. Rule] cp. 
2 27 125 p s 29. Fierceness and wrath] RV 
' fierceness of the wrath.' 

17 f. The greatness of the coming victory is 
foretold by a cry to birds of prey to eat the 
flesh of the slain : cp. Ezk39 17f . 

17. In the sun] i.e. in mid heaven ; a central 
station to call to the vultures. Fowls] RV 
' birds.' The supper, etc.] RV ' the great 
supper of God,' i.e. the supper which God has 
prepared. 

19-21. The persecuting empire gathers all 
its forces to overcome Christ, cp.l6 14 > 16 note, 
17 12f - (v. 19), but is itself overcome, together 
with the Asian Emperor- worship, figured by the 
beast and the false prophet or second beast : cp. 
13 llf - note, 1G 13 . Both empire and Emperor- 
worship are cast into the lake of fire (v. 20). 
The 'lake of fire' (cp. 2()i°,i4,i5 218) i s Ge- 
henna, cp. Mtl8»(RM)Mk9«(RM), etc., i.e. 
' the valley of Hinnom.' This is a valley out- 
side Jerusalem, and was the place of idolatrous 
sacrifices to Molech : cp. 2K1G 3 21 6 Jer7 31f - 
19 11 . It came to be regarded as a figure of 
the place of punishment of the wicked : cp. 
[sa66« 2Esdr7*>«- Mt5*» (RM) 10 2 « 
(RM) : see HDB. Evidently the casting 
of empire and idolatry into such a place 
can only be a figure for the complete destruc- 
tion of the persecuting and wicked systems. 
The ' rest ' (RV), i.e. the kings of the earth 
and their armies, were killed with the sword 
168 



19. 20 



REVELATION 



20. 11 



of Christ's mouth (v. 21). The distinction 
between their fate and that of the two beasts 
appears to have been made, partly because 
destruction by the lake of fire could not be 
the end of any human being before the Judg- 
ment, partly because the slaughter is sym- 
bolical. Christ overcomes men who are His 
enemies, in one way by strengthening His 
people to endure their assaults, in another 
way by converting them. But it is not so 
much individuals who are spoken of here, as 
the systems and principles of evil which suc- 
ceeding generations of individuals nourish and 
carry out. It is those systems and principles 
which are conquered by Christ. The weapons 
which they turn against Him and His people 
are persecution, ' the lust of the flesh, the lust 
of the eye, and the pride of life,' the spirit of 
materialism, etc. This spirit of the world is 
conquered by the preaching of the gospel of 
Christ, and by the Spirit of Christ in the 
hearts of men. This is the battle of Har- 
Magedon, 

20. Miracles] RY 'the signs,' i.e. those 
spoken of in 13 14f -, where see notes. 

CHAPTER 20 

Satan conquered. The Last 

Judgment 

In this c. the visions of the overthrow of 
Christ's enemies are continued. The devil is 
bound for 1,000 years (vv. 1-3) ; the martyrs 
reign with Christ for 1,000 years (vv. 4-6). 
It is foretold that, at the end of the 1,000 
years, Satan will be loosed, and will make a 
last assault against the saints, after which he 
is cast into the lake of fire (vv. 7-10). A 
vision of the Last Judgment follows (vv. 
11-15). 

The binding of Satan and the reign of the 
saints with Christ, both for 1,000 years, is 
known as ' the Millennium.' Many of the 
later Jews expected that the Messianic king- 
dom, of which the prophets spoke, would 
come in the present age, and they distin- 
guished it from the Final Judgment and new 
heaven of righteousness which would follow. 
By some it was said that the Messianic king- 
dom would last 1,000 years, though other 
periods were also named. 

It is plain that St. John made use of this 
Jewish expectation in his prophecy. But it 
does not follow that he meant it to be un- 
derstood literally. It is more in harmony 
with the character of the book to suppose 
that he meant this Jewish apocalyptic ex- 
pectation to be understood spiritually. The 
same conclusion seems probable from the 
general circumstances. The Christians had just 
been told that the persecuting city and 
empire would be overcome. They might ask 
whether the devil, the author of all evil, 



would not raise up fresh enemies against 
them. 

1-3. For a thousand years the devil will be 
bound and shut up in the abode of spiritual 
evil (the ' abyss,' see on 9 1 , not ' the lake of 
fire,' which is the place of final punishment, 
see on 19 20 ). The meaning is, that for f 1,000 
years ' the power of evil would not be able 
to gather itself into an organised attack 
upon Christianity. The ' 1,000 years ' are not 
to be understood numerically, but as a period 
of rest and happiness. For 1,000 is a multiple 
of 10, which was regarded as a sacred number 
because the commandments are 10 ; and it is 
the number which was considered to stand for 
the sabbath in the history of the world, 1,000 
years' rest coming after 6,000 years' toil : cp. 
Ps90*. 

4-6. The Christians for whom St. John 
wrote would ask what share they had in these 
joyful tidings. Although generations to come 
would enjoy rest and peace, it was not to be 
in their day, and many of them must suffer 
death. So they are told that good things are 
in store for them. Although they die, yet 
their souls will live and reign with Christ 
(v. 4). ' The rest of the dead,' i.e. the ungodly 
dead, the men of the earth, 'lived not,' i.e. 
did not share in the presence of Christ, but 
remained for the Judgment: cp. v. 11. The 
life of the saints with Christ is called ' the 
first resurrection ' (cp. Jn 5 25 ), because it de- 
pends upon the resurrection from the death of 
sin to the life of righteousness. As such, it 
belongs to all who are Christ's, whether on 
earth or in paradise (v. 5). Over them ' the 
second death' (cp. v. 14, 21 8 ) has no power, 
because they 'have passed from death unto 
life,' Un3i4(v. 6). 

7-10. After the time of rest, and when 
the Final Judgment is near, the power of evil 
will gather force again (v. 7). Gog and 
Magog, i.e. the world hostile to God's people, 
cp. Ezk38f. (v. 8), will assail the Church (the 
' camp of the saints and the beloved city,' i.e. 
the spiritual Jerusalem). But God will over- 
throw these last enemies (v. 9), and the 
devil will be cast into the lake of fire, 
i.e. the power of evil will be destroyed for 
ever (v. 10). 

11-15. God sits on a ' great white throne,' 
i.e. in glory and purity (v. 11), to judge the 
wicked dead. They are not written ' in the 
book of life' (cp. 3 5 13« 178 2127), and they 
are judged according to their works (vv. 12f.), 
and ' cast into the lake of fire.' Into the lake 
of fire, Death and Hades (i.e. the abode of the 
dead) are also cast, for ' the last enemy that 
shall be destroyed is death' (lCor5 26 ; cp. 
21 4 ). This is the ' second death,' for it is the 
final separation from eternal life (vv. 14f.). 
This judgment does not apply to Christ's 



69 



1089 



20. 1 



REVELATION 



21. v 






people : cp. Jn5 24 . They are in the book of 
life. They already ' live ' (cp. v. 4), and, there- 
fore, are not reckoned among the 'dead' 
of v. 11. 

It is plain that St. John's view is, as it 
were, foreshortened. He sees the overthrow 
of the anti- Christian persecution. He sees, 
farther on, the Last Judgment. But he does 
not specify the length of the time of rest and 
then of conflict for the Church which lies 
between. 

i, 3. Bottomless pit] RY ' abyss.' 3. Him 
up] RV 'it.' Set a seal upon him] RY 
' sealed it over him.' Deceive] i.e. into attack- 
ingthe Church: cp. vv. 8, 10, 19 2 0Gn2 JnS 12 . 44 . 

Fulfilled] RY 'finished.' 

4. Thrones] cp. Dan 7 9, 22 Mtl9 2 8. They] 
i.e. the martyrs. 

Witness] RY ' testimony,' i.e. the revela- 
tion made by Christ, ' the faithful witness ' : 
cp. 15,9 1217 1910. Mark] cp. 13 14f . Reigned] 
The saints share Christ's triumph over sin 
and death, and also, in ways which we know 
not, share the glories of His kingdom : cp. 
5 10 Ro8i7. 

6. Priests] cp. I 6 note, 5 10 . 8. Deceive] 
see on v. 3. 10. Shall be] RY 'they shall 
be.' 1 1 . Throne] cp. Isa 6 l Dan 7 9 . 

12. The books] RY 'books ' : cp. Dan 7!°. 
Works] cp. Mtl627 Ro26. 

13. 14. Hell] RY 'Hades.' 

14. The second death] RY 'the second 
death, even the lake of fire ' : cp. 2"- Mt25 41 . 

CHAPTER 21 
The Holy City 

The enemies of the Lamb have been con- 
quered. The Judgment is over. The old con- 
dition of things has passed away: cp. 20 n . 
Now St. John sees in a vision the blissful glory 
of heaven, in which the Lamb's redeemed 
people will dwell for ever. 

1-8. The eternal dwelling-place prepared for 
the redeemed is seen from a distance (vv. 1 f .), 
and the voice of God declares what it means 
(vv. 3-6), and for whom its glories are (vv. 7f.). 

Three points come out in the description. 
(1) The Presence of God with the Jew, sym- 
bolised by the tabernacle in the wilderness, 
will now be perfected by His dwelling ('dwell,' 
lit. ' tabernacle,' v. 3 ; cp. Jn 1 1 4 RM) with the 
redeemed of all races ('men,' v. 3). The 
' peoples,' i.e. Gentiles, have become ' His 
peoples ' (v. 3 RY), and He their Emmanuel 
(' God . . with them,' v. 3) : cp. Isa7i 4 Mtl 23. 
He will take from them, and keep from them, 
all sorrow, pain, and death (cp. 7 17 Isa 25 8 35™ 
65 16f ), because these belonged to the first dis- 
pensation, while now, (2) all things are new. 
There is a new heaven, i.e. sky, and a new 
earth (cp. Isa 65 17 66 22), from which the sea, 
emblem of unrest and of separation, has de- 



parted (v. 1) ; there is a new society, ' new 
Jerusalem ' (v. 2) ; and ' all things,' i.e. all 
ways and thoughts and circumstances of exist- 
ence, are new : cp. 2 Cor 5 17 (v. 5). The word 
translated ' new ' does not signify ' that which 
has never existed before,' but 'fresh,' 'that 
which has not been used or worn ' ; so it may 
be taken as meaning ' undimmed,' 'unspoilt.' 
The term ' new Jerusalem ' is used figuratively 
for the divine society of the redeemed in glory, 
as ' Jerusalem ' represents the society of the 
redeemed on earth: cp. 20 9 Gal 4 26. It is a 
' city ' in the sense of being an organised com- 
munity : cp. Eph 2 19 Heb 1 1 16. The New Jeru- 
salem is compared to a bride (vv. 2-9 ; contrast 
17 1 -5 ), to denote that the happiness of the re- 
deemed springs from their union with Christ : 
cp.Isa61 1 o f -62i f .Mt223 25iOLkl236Eph525*. 
(3) Those for whom these blessed things are 
in store : those who thirst for, i.e. intensely 
desire, God, righteousness, and eternal life, cp. 
Isa 551 Mt5 6 Jn7 37 Ro2 7 (v. 6), and who 
' overcome ' (v. 7). Thus the chief purpose of 
the book, in encouraging the tempted and 
persecuted to overcome by resistance unto 
death, is maintained to the end. The ' city ' 
is not for those who are too cowardly to en- 
dure, who fall from faith and join in heathen 
abominations (v. 8). 

3. A great voice] i.e. God's. Heaven] RY 
'the throne': cp. 19 5 . 

4. Former] RY ' first.' 

5. He said] i.e. the herald angel. 6. He 
said] i.e. God. It is done] RY ' They are 
come to pass ' ; ' they ' = ' these words ' (v. 5). 

7. All] RY ' these.' 

8. Abominable] i.e. those who join in heathen 
debaucheries: cp. 17 4 . 

Sorcerers] lit. 'poisoners': cp. 18 23 22 1 5 
Gal 5 20 R Y. There was much magic in heathen - 
ism, and it dealt in philtres and poisons. The 
lake] see on 19 20 . Second death] see on 20 6 . 

9-27. Further description of the city. St. 
John has seen the city descending in the dis- 
tance. Now it is shown him in full view by 
one of the angels of the bowls (vv. 9 f .), prob- 
ably the herald angel: cp. 17 1 , see on 11°. 
The visible cloud of God's glory is in the city 
(cp. vv. 3, 23 Ezk432<- Heb 9 5), and causes her 
to shine with glory as she descends (v. 11). 
Her walls represent her beauty and security, 
and, with the gates and foundations (cp. Nu 2 
Ezk48 Eph 2 20), signify also that she is the 
home of the Church of both OT. and NT. The 
twelve Apostles are mentioned as a body, so 
that we need not ask whether the twelfth was 
Matthias • Paul (vv. 12-14). The city is 
measured, but as the city is figurative, so are 
the measurements. All the dimensions are 
compounded of 12, the number of the OT. and 
the NT. (cp. 7 4f -), the number which signifies 
that God is in the midst of His people : see on 



1090 



■ 



— 



21.9 



REVELATION 



22. 6 



v. 12. The city is a cube, which, taken liter- 
ally, would be monstrous, but in its symbolical 
meaning says that the whole city is a sanctuary 
like the Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle (vv. 
15-17). The magnificence of the city is figured 
by the most beautiful and precious things (vv. 
18-21). Her spiritual perfection is such that 
no special sanctuary is needed: cp. Jn4 21 . 
There is no one in the city who is not at one 
with God. All her people are united in His 
service. Thus 'there is no temple, because 
the city is all temple ' (C. A. Scott) (v. 22). 
Earthly light and knowledge, which are im- 
perfect and partial, have vanished in the full 
light and knowledge of God : cp. Isa 60 19 Jn 
8 12 1 Corl3 9f - (v. 23). The prophecies of the 
gathering in of the Gentiles (cp. Isa 60 3 ) are 
fulfilled (v. 24), and redeemed humanity wor- 
ships God within the open gates of the city 
(cp. Isa 60 n ) in perpetual light and security 
(vv. 25 f .) ; those only being shut out who are 
unclean through their separation from God to 
the service of the devil's agents (v. 27). 

9. Vials] RV ' bowls.' Full of] RV ' Who 
were laden with.' io. Spirit] RV ' Spirit ' : 
cp. 17 3 . Mountain] cp. Ezk40 2f - Mt4 8 . 

ii. Jasper] see on 4 3 . 

12. Twelve gates] ' Four is the number 
which is the symbol of the world, three that 
of God. Twelve, therefore, is the signature 
of the covenant people among whom God 
dwells. The enclosure of the Tabernacle 
was a square space, three tribes being over 
against each of the four sides. Thus we have 
a square with the Tabernacle in the midst, 
expressive of God in the midst of His 
people ' (Currey). 

15. Cp. Ezk40 3 *. 17. The wall] i.e. the 
thickness of the wall : cp. Jer51 58 . The 
angel] RV 'an angel,' i.e. the angelic cubit 
was of the same length as a human cubit. 

19 f. The stones are, with exceptions, the 
same as those in the high priest's breastplate 
.(cp.Ex28 17f - 39 10f .), and those ascribed to the 
king of Tyre (Ezk28 13 ). Flinders Petrie 
(HDB.) says that precious stones were not so 
exactly disti dished from one another in 
ancient day as they are now. ' Jasper ' was, 
according to him, green jasper ; the ' sapphire ' 
was our lapis-lazuli ; the ' chalcedony ' was 
dioptase (silicate of copper) ; the ' emerald ' 
should be rock-crystal, cp. 4 3 note ; 'sardonyx' 
was the red and white onyx ; the ' sardius ' 
was red jasper ; the ' chrysolite ' in St. John's 
time was the present topaz ; the ' beryl ' was 
either beryl, i.e. an opaque emerald, or green 
felspar ; the ' topaz ' was peridot the ' chry- 
soprasus ' was, probably, the green chalcedony; 
the 'jacinth' was the sapphire ; the 'amethyst' 
was the modern amethyst. 

24. Of them which are saved] RV omits. 

27. That defileth] RV ' unclean,' lit. ' com- 



1091 



mon': cp. v. 8 Isa 521 Ezk44 9 . Worketh, 
etc.] RV ' maketh an abomination and a lie.' 
Book of life] cp. 3* 13» 20* 2 . 

CHAPTER 22 

The Vision ended. The Lord is at 
Hand 

The inner life of the heavenly Jerusalem 
is described. Then the ' Revelation ' closes 
with the repeated assurance that Christ is at 
hand, and with the yearnings of the Church 
and of St. John for the joy of His advent. 

1-5. In the New Jerusalem, the blessed life 
of Eden is more than restored. There is 
a river of life (cp. Gn2 10 ), i.e. the Holy 
Spirit: cp. Jn4i4 7 3 ?. Cp. also Ezk47* 
Joel 3 18 Zechl4 8 , in which prophecies the 
waters come from the Temple : here there 
is no Temple, and the waters flow from 
the throne of God, i.e. they are the result of 
God's immediate presence, and of His fully 
accepted government (v. 1). On either side 
of the river as it flows in the midst of the 
street is a grove of trees, the tree of life : 
cp. Gn2 9 Ezk47 12 . The fruit is always 
available, for there is a fresh crop every month : 
cp. the manna, Jn6 31f . The leaves healed 
the sin of the ' nations ' within the city, and 
the fruit nourishes their life. In the tree we 
see the cross on which Christ hung as precious 
fruit (v. 2). Now, too, as He became ' a curse 
for us' (Gal3 13 ), the curse of Eden (cp. Gn 
3i7,22f.)i s taken away: cp. ZechU 11 . Over 
the ' sweet societies ' of the Redeemed, God 
and the Lamb reign for ever. The Redeemed 
offer up worship face to face with God (the 
' beatific vision ') (cp. Ps 17 15 Mt5 8 , 1 Cor 13 12 
1 Jn 3 2 ) and receive His Name, i.e. are marked 
as His (see on 7 3 and 14 1 ), and transformed 
into His likeness (vv. 3f.). And as His glory 
thus shines upon and enters into them, they 
' reign,' i.e. their life can develop and expand 
to its fullest powers, there being no evil 
('curse,' v. 3) in them to be restrained, nor 
hindering circumstances without to restrain 
them (v. 5). 

1. Clear] RV 'bright.' if. And of the 
Lamb. In the midst of the street . . river] 
RV ' and of the Lamb, in the midst of the 
street thereof. And on this side of the river 
and on that.' 2. Manner] RM ' crops.' 

5. Candle] RV ' light of lamp.' 

6-9. Aflirmation of the truth of the vision 
which is now concluded, and of the near 
approach of that of which it tells (vv. 6, 7). 
St. John, knowing the angel has finished his 
task and is about to leave him, falls before 
him in worship, as in 19 10 , but is again charged 
to worship God alone (vv. 8f.). 

6. The Lord God of the holy prophets] RV 
the God of the spirits of the 



the Lord. 



REVELATION 



22. 



prophets': cp. lCorl4 32 . The meaning is 
that the words of the Christian prophets do not 
speak their own mind, but God's. 7. Christ's 
voice breaks in : cp. 16 15 . 

8. RV ' And I John am he that heard and 
saw these things.' 

10-15. The vision is not to be sealed, as 
was Daniel's (cp. Danl2 4 ), because it is for 
immediate use (v. 10). Those who ' will not 
turn and repent because of the Revelation 
which Christ has now completed, will not, 
cannot have any greater power brought to 
bear on them before He comes again : cp. Lk 
16 31 ' (Benson) (vv. 11-13). Happy are they 
who are purified, through faith, by His blood 
(cp. 7 14 ), for the life and joy of the city are for 
them (vv. 14 f.). 

10. Seal not] RV ' seal not up ' : cp. 10 4 . 

11. Cp. Ezk3 2 7 20 39 Dan 12 10. Unjust] 
RV 'unrighteous.' Be unjust] RV '-do un- 
righteousness.' Be filthy] RV ' be made 
filthy.' Be righteous] RV ' do righteousness.' 

Be holy] RV ' be made holy.' 

12-15. Spoken by Christ: cp. v. 7, 16 15 . 



14. Do his commandments] RV ' wash 
their robes.' Right] RV ' the right to come.' 

16 f. The Messiah attests the Revelation 
(v. 16). The Holy Spirit in the Church (cp. 
Ro 8 16 ), and the Church herself, hearing His 
voice, call for His advent, and, at the same 
time, invite all who will to take part with the 
Church in this joyful expectation (v. 17). 

16. The root, etc.] The reference is to the 
Messiahship of our Lord, as son of David, and 
as the ' star ' of Balaam's prophecy : cp. 2 28 
5 5 Nu24i> IsallMO Mtli 22*2. 17. Bride] 
see on 21 2 . Heareth] see on l 3 . Athirst] cp. 
216. Freely] cp. IsaSS 1 . 

18 f. A warning that the book is not to be 
falsified by addition or excision : cp. Dt 4 2 
12 32 . 19. Book of life] RV ' tree of life.' 

Audi from the things] RV omits. 

20 f . Christ sums up the book by announcing 
His speedy advent, and St. John prays for it 
(v. 20). The book, and with it the Bible, 
closes in prayer for that in which all its bless- 
ings are contained, 'the grace,' i.e. the mani- 
fested love, ' of the Lord Jesus ' (v. 21). 



THE END 



^— to— ^ ■ - I ■ - - 



- -^^ 



_ 














LtJ - 






REVELATION 



22. 



prophets': cp. lCorl4 32 . The meaning is 
that the words of the Christian prophets do not 
speak their own mind, but God's. 7. Christ's 
voice breaks in : cp. 16 15 . 

8. RV ' And I John am he that heard and 
saw these things.' 

10-15. The vision is not to be sealed, as 
was Daniel's (cp. Danl2 4 ), because it is for 
immediate use (v. 10). Those who ' will not 
turn and repent because of the Revelation 
which Christ has now completed, will not, 
cannot have any greater power brought to 
bear on them before He comes again : cp. Lk 
16 31 ' (Benson) (vv. 11-13). Happy are they 
who are purified, through faith, by His blood 
(cp. 7 14 ), for the life and joy of the city are for 
them (vv. 14 f.). 

10. Seal not] RV ' seal not up' : cp. 10 4 . 

11. Cp. Ezk3 2 ? 2039 Dan 1210. Unjust] 
RV 'unrighteous.' Be unjust] RV '-do un- 
righteousness.' Be filthy] RV ' be made 
filthy.' Be righteous] RV ' do righteousness.' 

Be holy] RV ' be made holy.' 

12-15. Spo-keu by Christ: cp. v. 7, 16 15 . 



14. Do his commandments] RV ' wash 
their robes.' Right] RV ' the right to come.' 

16 f. The Messiah attests the Revelation 
(v. 16). The Holy Spirit in the Church (cp. 
Ro 8 16 ), and the Church herself, hearing His 
voice, call for His advent, and, at the same 
time, invite all who will to take part with the 
Church in this joyful expectation (v. 17). 

16. The root, etc.] The reference is to the 
Messiahship of our Lord, as son of David, and 
as the ' star ' of Balaam's prophecy : cp. 2 28 
5 5 Nu24i7 IsallMO Mtl 1 22 42 . z y. Bride] 
see on 21 2 . Heareth] see on l 3 . Athirst] cp. 
216. Freely] cp. Isa55!. 

18 f. A warning that the book is not to be 
falsified by addition or excision : cp. Dt 4 2 
12 32 . 19. Book of life] RV ' tree of life.' 

And from the things] RV omits. 

20 f . Christ sums up the book by announcing 
His speedy advent, and St. John prays for it 
(v. 20). The book, and with it the Bible, 
closes in prayer for that in which all its bless- 
ings are contained, 'the grace,' i.e. the mani- 
fested love, ' of the Lord Jesus ' (v. 21). 



THE END 




pp 



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Scale 



10 10 20 30 40 50 Cubits 

GROUND PLAN OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 



B and J = Boaz and Jachin— the pillars. P = the porch. H = the hekdl or Holy Place. D = the debir or 
Most Holy Place. T = the table of she wbread. S = the stairway to the upper chambers. E = the entrance to 
the chambers. 1-30 = the chambers after Bzekiel's temple. 



Reproduced by permission of Messrs T. & T. Clark from Br. Hastings' " Dictionary of the Bible. 



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-- li-i .T^hii"burdh & London 



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